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CHAMBERS'S 


ENCYCLOPEDIA: 


A   DICTIONARY 


OP 


UNIVERSAL   KNOWLEDGE   FOR   THE   PEOPLE. 


ILLUSTRATED. 


AMERICAN    REVISED    EDITION 


IIN"   TE3ST    VOLTTIVEIES. 


VOL.    VII. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

J.   B.   Lippixcott    &    Co, 
188  2. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  In  the  year  1S75,  by 

J.  B.  LIPPIIsXOTT  <fc  CO., 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


UNIVERSAL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


NUMISMATICS. 


NTJMISMA'TICS  (Lat.  nummua  and  numisma, 
money ;  Gr.  nomisma,  from  nomos,  law,  a  medium 
of  exchange  established  by  law),  the  science  which 
treats  of  coins  and  medals.  A  coin  is  a  piece  of 
metal  of  a  fixed  weight  stamped  by  authority  of 
government,  and  employed  as  a  circulating  medium. 
A  medal  is  a  piece  struck  to  commemorate  an 
event.  The  study  of  numismatics  has  an  important 
bearing  on  history.  Coins  have  been  the  means 
of  ascertaining  the  names  of  forgotten  countries 
and  cities,  their  position,  their  chronology,  the 
succession  of  their  kings,  their  usages  civil,  mditary, 
and  religious,  and  the  style  of  their  art.  On 
their  respective  coins  we  can  look  on  undoubtedly 
accurate  representations  of  Mithridates,  Julius 
Caesar,  Augustus,  Nero,  Caracalla,  and  read  their 
character  and  features. 

The  metals  which  have  generally  been  used  for 
coinage  are  gold,  silver,  and  copper.  In  each  class 
is  comprised  the  alloy  occasionally  substituted  for 
it,  as  electrum  (an  alloy  of  gold  and  silver)  for  gold, 
billon  for  silver,  bronze  for  copper,  and  potin  (an 
alloy  softer  than  billon)  for  silver  and  copper.  The 
side  of  a  coin  which  bears  the  most  important  device 
or  inscription  is  called  the  obverse,  the  other  side  the 
reverse.  The  words  or  letters  on  a  coin  are  called 
its  inscription  ;  an  inscription  surrounding  the 
border  is  called  the  legend.  When  the  lower  part 
of  the  reverse  is  distinctly  separated  from  the  main 
device,  it  is  called  the  exergue  (Gr.  ex  ergou,  without 
the  work),  and  often  bears  a  secondary  inscription, 
with  the  date  or  place  of  mintage.  The  field  is  the 
space  on  the  surface  of  the  coin  unoccupied  by  the 
principal  device  or  inscription. 

The  use  of  coined  money  cannot  be  traced  further 
back  than  the  9th  c.  B.C.  Money,  however,  as  a 
medium  of  exchange,  existed  much  earlier,  and 
when  of  metal  it  passed  by  weight,  no  piece  being 
adjusted  to  any  precise  weight,  and  all  money  being 
weighed  when  exchanged.  Early  metallic  money 
was  in  the  form  of  bars,  spikes,  and  rings ;  the  ring 
313 


money  could  be  opened,  closed,  and  linked  in  a  chain 
for  convenience  of  carriage. 

The  Lydians  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  first 
people  who  used  coined  money,  about  700  or  800  years 
before  the  Christian  era;  and  their  example  waa 
soon  after  followed  by  the  different  states  of  Greece, 
the  earliest  Greek  coins  being  those  of  iEgina.  In 
its  early  stages  the  process  of  coining  consisted  in 
placing  a  lump  of  metal  of  a  fixed  weight,  and 
approaching  to  a  globular  form,  over  a  die,  on  which 
was  engraved  the  religious  or  national  symbol  to  be 
impressed.  A  wedge  or  punch  placed  at  the  back 
of  the  metal  was  held  steadily  with  one  hand,  and 
struck  by  a  hammer  with  the  other,  till  the  metal 
was  sufficiently  fixed  in  the  die  to  receive  a  good 
impression.  ■  The  impression  was  a  guarantee  of  the 
weight  of  the  piece.  From  the  nature  of  the  pro- 
cess, the  earliest  coins  had  a  lumpish  appearance, 
and  on  their  reverse  was  a  rough,  irregular,  hollow 
square,  corresponding  to  a  simdar  square  on  the 
punch,  devised  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  coin 
steady  when  struck  by  the  coining  hammer.  The 
original  coins  of  Asia  Minor  were  of  gold,  those  of 
Greece  of  silver.  The  earliest  coins  bear  emblems 
of  a  sacred  character,  often  embodying  some  legend 
regarding  the  foundation  of  the  state,  as  the  phoca 
or  seal  on  the  coins  of  the  Phocians,  which  alludes 
to  the  shoal  of  seals  said  to  have  followed  the  fleet 


Kg.L 

during  the  emigration  of  the  people.  Fig.  1.  repre- 
sents a  very  early  double  stater  of  Miletus,  in 
Ionia,  of  which  the  type  is  the  lion's  head,  derived 


NUMISMATICS. 


Fig.  2. 


from  Persia  and  Assyria,  and  associated  with  the 
worship  of  Cybele,  a  symbol  which  is  continued  in 
the  later  coinage  of  Miletus.  Types  of  this  kind 
were  succeeded  by  portraits  of  protecting  deities. 
The  earliest  coins  of  Athens  have  the  owl,  as  type  of 
the  goddess  Athene ;  at  a  later  period,  the  head  of 
the  goddess  herself  takes  its  place,  the  owl  afterwards 
re-appearing  on  the  reverse.  The  punch-mark, 
at  first  a  rudely-roughed  square,  soon  assumed  the 
more  sightly  form  of  deep,  wedge-like  indents,  which 
in  later  specimens  become  more  regular,  till  they 
form  themselves  into  a  tolerably  symmetrical  square. 
In  the  next  stage,  the  indents  become  shallower, 
and  consist  of  four  squares  forming  one  large  one. 
The  surrounding  of  the  punch- 
mark  with  a  band  bearing  a 
name,  and  the  introduction  of 
a  head  in  its  centre,  as  in  the 
annexed  figure  (fig.  2),  gradu- 
ally led  to  the  perfect  reverse. 
There  is  a  remarkable  series 
of  so-called  •  encased'  coins 
struck  in  Magna  Graecia,  of 
which  the  reverse  is  an  exact 
repetition  in  concave  of  the 
relief  of  the  obverse.  These 
coins  are  thin,  flat,  sharp  in 
relief,  and  beautifully  executed. 

The  leading  coin  of  Greece  and  the  Greek  colonies 
was  the  stater,  so  called  because  founded  on  a  stan- 
dard of  weight  generally  received  before  the  intro- 
duction of  coined  money.  There  were  double  staters, 
and  half,  third,  and  quarter  staters,  and  the  stater 
was  equivalent  in  value  to  six  of  the  silver  pieces 
called  drachmae.  The  obolus  was  one-sixth  of  the 
drachma,  at  first  struck  in  silver,  in  later  times  in 
copper. 

The  inscriptions  on  the  earliest  Greek  coins  consist 
of  a  single  letter,  the  initial  of  the  city  where 
they  were  struck.  The  remaining  letters,  or  a 
portion  of  them,  were  afterwards  added,  the  name, 
when  in  full,  being  in  the  genitive  case.  Mono- 
grams sometimes  occur  in  addition  to  the  name, 
or  part  name,  of  the  place.  The  first  coin  bearing 
the  name  of  a  king  is  the  tetradrachm  (or  piece  of 
four  drachmae)  of  Alexander  I.  of  Macedon. 

Among  the  early  coins  of  Asia,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  is  the  stater  Daricus  or  Daric,  named 
from  Darius  Hystaspes.  It  had  for  symbol  an 
archer  kneeling  on  one  knee,  and  seems  to  have 
been  coined  for  the  Greek  colonies  of  Asia  by 
their  Persian  conquerors.  In  the  reign  of  Philip  of 
Macedon,  the  coinage  of  Greece  had  attained  its  full 
development,  having  a  perfect  reverse.  One  of  the 
earliest  specimens  of  the  complete  coin  is  a  beau- 
tiful medal  struck  at  Syracuse,  with  the  head  of 


on  the  reverse  of  the  staters  of  Philip  of  Macedon, 
known  as  Philips,  and  largely  imitated  by  other 
states.  Coins  of  Alexander  the  Great  are  abundant, 
many  having  been  struck  after  his  conquests  in  the 
Greek  towns  of  Asia.  A  rose  distinguishes  those 
struck  at  Rhodes,  a  bee  those  struck  at  Ephesus, 
&c. ;  these  are  all  types  generally  accompanying 
the  figure  of  Zeus  on  the  reverse ;  on  the  obverse 
is  the  head  of  Hercules,  which  has  sometimes  been 
supposed  to  be  that  of  Alexander  himself.  It 
would  rather  seem,  however,  that  the  conqueror's 
immediate  successors  were  the  first  who  placed 
their  portrait  on  the  coins,  and  that  under  a  shallow 
pretence  of  deification,  Lysimachus  as  a  descendant 
of  Bacchus,  and  Seleucus  of  Apollo,  clothed  in  the 
attributes  of  these  deities.  Two  most  beautiful  and 
important  series  of  Greek  coins  are  those  of  the 
Seleucidse,  in  Asia,  of  silver,  and  of  the  Lagidae  or 
Ptolemies,  in  Egypt,  of  gold. 

In  Palestine  there  is  an  interesting  series  of  coins 
founded  on  the  religious  history  of  the  Jewish 
nation,  and  assigned  to  Simon  Maccabaeus.  They 
are  shekels  and  half-shekels,  equivalent  to  two  Attic 
drachma?  and  one  drachma  respectively.  The  shekels 
bear  on  the  obverse  the  pot  of  manna,  with  the 
inscription  'Schekel  Israel'  (the  Shekel  of  Israel) ;  on 
the  reverse  is  Aaron's  rod  with  three  flowers,  and 
the  legend  '  Ierouschalim  kedoschah'  (Jerusalem 
the  Holy).  The  inscriptions  are  in  the  Samaritan 
character.  The  successors  of  Simon  assumed  the 
title  of  king,  and  placed  their  portraits  on  the  coins, 
with  inscriptions  in  Greek  as  well  as  in  Hebrew. 

Roman  coins  belong  to  three  different  series, 
known  as  the  Republican,  the  Family,  and  the 
Imperial. 

The  so-called  Republican,  the  earliest  coinage, 
began  at  an  early  period  of  Ptoman  history,  and 
subsisted  till  about  80  B.  c.  Its  standard  metal 
was   copper,  or  rather  ces  or  bronze,  an  alloy  of 


Fig.  3. 

Proserpine  accompanied  by  dolphins,  and  for  reverse 
si  victor  in  the  Olympic  games  in  a  chariot  receiving 
a,  wreath  from  Victory— a  type  which  is  also  found 
2 


Fig.  4. 

copper.     The  standard  unit  was  the  poundweighfc 
divided  into  twelve  ounces.    The  ces,  or  as,  or  pound 
of  bronze,  is  said  to  have  received  a  state  impress  as 
early  as  the  reign  of  Servius  Tullius,  578 
B.  c.     This  gigantic  piece  was  oblong  like 
a  brick,  and  stamped  with  the  representa- 
tion of  an  ox  or  sheep,  whence  the  word 
pecunia,  from  pecus,  cattle.    The  full  pound 
of  the  as  was  gradually  reduced,  always 
retaining    the    twelve    (nominally)    uncial 
subdivisions,   till  its   actual   weight  came 
to  be  no  more  than  a  qxiarter  of  an  ounce. 
About  the  time  when  the  as  had  dimin- 
ished to  nine  ounces,  the  square  fcrm  was 
exchanged  for    the   circular.      This    large 
copper  coin,  called  the  'as  grave,'  was  not 
6truck  with  the  punch,  but  cast,  and  exhi- 
bited on  the  obverse  the  Janus  bifrons ; 
and  on  the  reverse,  the  prow  of  a  ship,  with 
the  numeral   I.     Of   the  fractions  of  the 
as,  the  sextans,  or  sixth  part,'  generally  bears  the 
head  of  Mercury,  and  the   uncia,  or  ounce  piece 
(fig.  4),  that  of  Minerva ;  these  pieces  being  further 


NUMISMATICS. 


distinguished  by  dots  or  knobs,  one  for  eacli  ounce.  |  Judaea.  The  Colosseum  appears  on  a  sestertius  of 
There  were  circular  pieces  as  high  as  the  decussis,    Vespasian.     The  coins  of  Ti  ited  for  their 

or  piece  of  twelve  asses,  presenting  a  bead  of  Roma    architectural  types.     HadrianS  coins  commemorate 

(or  Minerva),  but  none  are  known  to  have  been  liis  journeys.  Tin-  coins  and  medals  of  Antonine 
coined  till  the  weight  of  the  as  had  diminished  to  !  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  the  two  Faustina  are  well 
four  ounces.  The  Roman  uncial  coinage  extended  (  executed;  as  are  also  those  of  Commodus,  of  whom. 
to  the  other  states  of  Italy,  where  a  variety  of  types  a  remarkable  medallion  relates  to  the  conquest  of 
were  introduced,  including  mythological  heads  and  '  Britain.  There  is  a  rapid  falling  off  in  design  after 
animals.  In  the  reign  of  Augustus,  the  as  was  I  the  time  of  Commodus,  and  base  silver  comesexten- 
virtually  superseded  by  the  sestertius,  called  by  '  sively  into  use  in  the  reign  of  CaracaUa.  Gallienua 
numismatists  the  first  bronze,  about  the  size  of  our  introduced  the  practice  of  coining  money  of  copper 
penny,  which  was  at  first  of  the  value  of  2£,  after-    washed  with  silver. 

wards  of  4  asses.  The  sestertius  derived  its  value  I  The  colonial  and  provincial  money  of  this  period 
from  the  silver  denarius,  of  which  it  was  the  fourth.  I  was  very  inferior  to  that  coined  in  borne.  In  the 
The  half  of  the  sestertius  was  the  dupondius  (known    coins  of  the  provinces  which  had  been  formed  out 

of  the  Greek  empire,  the  obverse  bears  the  emperor's 
head,  and  the  reverse  generally  the  chief  ten 
the  gods  in  the  city  of  coinage  ;  the  inscriptions  are 
in    Greek.      In  the  ior>erial   coins  of   Alexandria 
appear  such  characteristic  devices  as  the  heads  of 


as  the  second  bronze),  and  the  half  of  the  dupondius 
was  called  the  assarium,  an  old  name  of  the  as. 
The  assarium  is  known  to  numismatists  as  the 
third  bronze. 

Silver  was  first  coined  at  Rome  about  281  B.  c, 
the  standard  being  founded  on  the  Greek  drachma,  '  Jupiter  Amnion,  Isis,  and  Canopus,  the  sphinx,  the 
then  equivalent  in  value  to  ten  asses ;  the  new  coin  serpent,  the  lotus,  and  the  wheat-ear.  Colonial 
was  therefore  called  a  denarius,  or  piece  of  ten  asses,  coins  were  at  first  distinguished  by  a  team  of  oxen 
The  earliest  silver  coined  at  Rome  has  on  the  afterwards  by  banners,  the  number  of  which  indi- 
obverse  the  head  of  Roma  (differing  from  Minerva  cated  the  number  of  legions  from  which  the  colony 
by  having  wings  attached  to  the  helmet) ;  on  the  j  had  been  drawn. 

reverse  is  a  quadriga  or  biga,  or  the  Dioscuri.  After  the  time  of  Gallienus,  the  colonial  money 
Among  various  other  types  which  occur  in  the  and  the  Greek  imperial  money,  except  that  of 
silver  of  the  Italian  towns  subject  to  Rome  are  the  |  Alexandria,  ceased,  and  much  of  the  Roman  coinage 
horse's  head,  and  galloping  horse,  both  very  beauti-  was  executed  in  the  provinces,  the  name  of  the 
ful.  During  the  social  war,  the  revolted  states  town  of  issue  appearing  on  the  exergue.  Diocletian 
coined  money  independently  of  Rome,  and  used  introduced  a  new  piece  of  money,  called  the  follis, 
various  devices  to  distinguish  it  as  Italian  and  not  which  became  the  chief  coin  of  the  lower  empire. 
Roman  money.  j  The   first  bronze  has  disappeared   after  Gallienus, 

The  earliest  gold  coins  seem  to  have  been  issued  '  and  the  second  disappears  after  Diocletian,  the  third 
about  90  E.  c,  and  consisted  of  the  scrupulum,  bronze  diminishing  to  -^tli  0f  an  ounce.  With  the 
equivalent  to  20  sestertii,  and  the  double  and  treble  establishment  of  Christianity  under  Constantine,  a 
scrupulum.  These  pieces  bear  the  head  of  Mars  on  I  few  Christian  types  are  introduced.  The  third  bronze 
the  obverse,  and  on  the  reverse  an  eagle  standing  of  that  emperor  has  the  Labarum  (q.  v.),  with  the 
on  a  thunderbolt,  with  the  inscription  'Roma'  on  monogram. IHS.  Large  medallions,  called  contomiati, 
the  exergue.  The  large  early  republican  coins  were  encircled  with  a  deep  groove,  belong  to  this  period, 
cast,  not  struck.  ]  and  seem  to  have  been  prizes  for  distribution  at 

The  Family  Coins  begin  about  170  B.  c,  and  the  public  games.  Pagan  types  recur  on  the  coins 
about  80  B.  c.  they  entirely  supersede  the  coins  first  of  Julian  ;  and  after  his  time  the  third  bronze 
described.     Those   families  who    successively  held,   disappears. 

offices  connected  with  the  public  mint  acquired  the  '  The  money  of  the  Byzantine  empire  forms  a  link 
right  first  to  inscribe  their  names  on  the  money,  between  the  subject  of  ancient  and  that  of  modern 
afterwards  to  introduce  symbols  of  events  in  their  coins.  The  portrait  of  the  emperor  on  the  obverse 
own  family  history.  These  types  gradually  super-  is  after  the  10th  c.  supported  by  some  protecting 
seded  the  natural  ones ;  the  portrait  of  an  ancestor  saint.  The  reverse  has  at  first  such  types  as 
followed ;  and  then  the  portrait  of  a  living  citizen,  '  Victory  with  a  cross,  afterwards  a  representation  of 
Julius  Csesar.  the  Saviour  or  the  Virgin ;  in  some  instances,  the 

Under  the  empire,  the  copper  sestertius,  which  '  Virgin  supporting  the  walls  of  Constantinople. 
had  displaced  the  as,  continued  the  monetary  Latin  is  gradually  superseded  by  Greek  in  the 
standard!  A  magnificent  series  exists  of  the  first  !  inscriptions,  and  wholly  disappears  by  the  time  of 
bronzes  of  the  emperors  from  Augustus  to  Gallienus.  ;  Alexius  I.  The  chief  gold  piece  was  the  solidus  or 
While  it  was  the  privilege  of  the  emperors  to  coin  |  nomisma,  which  was  long  famed  in  commerce  for  its 


gold  and  silver,  copper  could  only  be  coined  ex 
tsenatusconsulto,  which  from  the  time  of  Augustus 
was  expressed  on  the  coins  by  the  letters  S.C.,  or 
EX  S.C.  The  obverse  of  the  imperial  coins  bears 
the  portraits  of  the  successive  emperors,  sometimes 


purity,  and  circulated  largely  in  the  west  as  well  as 
the  east  of  Europe. 

Of  the  coins  of  the  middle  ages,  the  most  import- 
ant is  the  silver  denier  or  penny,  derived  from  the 
Latin   denarius.     Its  half  was   the   obole,  first   of 


of  the  empress  or  other  members  of  the  imperial  silver,  afterwards  of  bdlon.  Coins  of  this  descrip- 
family ;  and  the  reverse  represents  some  event,  !  tion  were  issued  in  the  German  empire,  France, 
military  or  social,  of  the  emperor's  reign,  sometimes  England,  and  the  Scandinavian  states,  and  in  many 
allegorised.  The  emperor's  name  and  title  are  cases  by  ecclesiastical  princes  and  feudal  lords  as 
inscribed  on  the  obverse,  and  sometimes  partly  well  as  sovereigns.  The  obverse  of  the  regal  corn 
continued  on  the  reverse ;  the  inscription  on  the  I  of  the  early  middle  ages  is  generally  the  bust  of  the 
reverse  generally  relates  to  the  subject  delineated ;  ]  sovereign,  and  the  reverse  a  Greek  cross,  accom- 
and  towards  the  close  of  the  3d  c.,  the  exergue  of  j  panied  by  the  royal  name  or  title,  and  the  place  of 
the  reverse  is  occupied  by  the  name  of  the  town  mintage  or  the  money er  (see  Mint).  The  arms  of 
where  the  coin  is  struck.  The  coins  of  Augustus  the  country  were  introduced  in  the  12th  c,  in  con- 
and  those  of  Livia,  Antonia,  and  Agrippina  the  '  junction  with  the  cross,  and  afterwards  superseded 
EVler  have  much  artistic  merit.  The  workmanship  '  it.  In  the  13th  and  14th  centuries,  coins  began  to 
of  Nerc's  sestertii  is  very  beautiful.  The  coins  of  J  be  issued  by  free  imperial  cities  or  corporations  of 
Vespasian  and  Titus  commemorate  the  conquest  of  I  towns  ;  and  there  prevailed  extensively  throughout 

3 


NUMISMATICS. 


Germany  and  other  parts  of  Europe  a  thin  piece 
called  a  bracteate,  in  relief  on  one  side,  and  hollow 
on  the  other,  often  not  bearing  a  single  letter,  and 
rarely  a  full  inscription.  Down  to  the  14th  c,  the 
relief  of  the  medieval  coins  is  very  inconsiderable, 
the  pieces  thin,  and  the  art  poor. 

Biitain  received  the  Roman  money  on  its  subju- 
gation. Constantine  seems  to  have  had  a  mint  in 
London,  and  the  Roman  currency  continued  to 
circulate  for  a  time  after  the  departure  of  the 
conquerors.  The  first  independent  coinage,  however, 
shews  hardly  a  trace  of  the  influence  of  Ronie ;  it 
consists  of  two  small  coins,  called  the  skeatta  and 
styca,  the  former  of  silver,  the  latter  of  copper. 
Both  seem  to  belong  solely  to  the  Saxon  kingdom  of 
2s  orthumbria ;  they  are  without  inscriptions ;  a 
bird,  a  rude  profile,  and  several  unintelligible  sym- 
bols appear  on  them,  and  their  art  is  of  the  most 
debased  kind.  In  the  other  kingdoms  of  the  hep- 
tarchy silver  pennies  were  coined,  first  intended  to 
be  aTuth  of  a  pound  weight ;  on  the  disappearance 
of  skeattse  and  stycse,  they  form,  with  the  occa- 
sional addition  of  halfpennies,  the  sole  currency  of 
England  down  to  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  The 
pennies  of  the  heptarchy  bear  the  name  of  the  king 
or  of  the  moneyer  ;  a  cros3  sometimes  appears  after 
the  introduction  of  Christianity,  and  in  later  times  a 
rude  head  of  the  king  or  queen.  The  pennies  of  the 
Saxon  and  Danish  sole  monarchs  of  England,  have 
a  somewhat  similar  character.  Alfred's  earlier  coins 
have  a  grotesque-looking  portrait,  and  on  the  reverse 


Kg.  5. 

a  monogram  of  London  ;  in  his  later  coins  the  head 
disappears,  and  a  cross  and  circle  take  its  place. 
A  cross,  variously  ornamented  with  three  pellets  in 
each  angle,  continues  to  be  the  usual  reverse  of  the 
Saxon,  Norman,  and  Plantagenet  coins.  The  coins 
of  Edward  III.  are  a  great  artistic  advance  on  those 
that  preceded  them.  The  silver  coinage  of  that  king 
consisted  not  only  of  pennies,  halfpennies,  and 
farthings,  but  also  of  groats  and  half -groats.  The 
obverse  of  the  groat  bears  a  conventional  crowned 
head  within  a  flowered  circle  of  nine  arches,  the 
words  '  Dei  Gratia '  and  the  title  '  Rex  Francise ' 
appearing  for  the  first  time  in  the  legend.  The 
reverse  has  the  motto  '  Posui  Deum  adjutorem 
meum,'  which  continued  on  the  coinage  till  the 
time  of  Edward  V.  But  the  great  numismatic 
feature  of  Edward  III.'s  reign  i3  the  issue  of  gold 
nobles,  worth  six  shillings  and  eightpence.  The 
obverse  of  those  beautif  ul  coins  represent  the  king 
in  a  ship,  a  sword  in  his  right  hand,  in  his  left  a 
shield  with  the  quartered  arni3  of  France  and 
England.  The  reverse  is  a  rich  cross  flory  within 
a  circle  of  eight  arches,  and  a  lion  under  a  crown 
in  each  angle  of  the  cross,  the  legend  being  '  Ihesus 
autem  transiens  per  medium  illorum  ibat.'  Half 
and  quarter  nobles  were  also  coined.  The  noble 
having  increased  in  value,  a  coin  called  an  angel, 
of  the  former  value  of  a  noble,  was  issued  by  Henry 
VI.  and  Edward  IV.  The  obverse  represented  St 
Michael  transfixing  a  dragon ;  the  reverse  a  ship, 
with  a  cross  for  the.  mast. 

As  we  approach  the  period  of  the  Reformation, 
the  coinage  gradually  becomes  more  ornate.  The 
nobles    coined   by  Edward    IV.,   after    the  value 


of  that  coin  had  been  fixed  at  ten  shillings,  were 
called  rials  (a  name  derived  from  a  French  coin), 
and  the  double  rial  or  sovereign  was  first  coined 
by  Henry  VII.  The  obverse  has  thu  king  on 
his  throne  with  sceptre  and  orb,  and  on  the  reverse, 
in  the  centre  of  a  heraldic  full-blown  rose,  is 
a  shield  with  the  arms  of  France  and  England. 
The  testoon,  or  shilling,  valued  at  twelve  pence, 
also  first  appeared  in  this  reign,  with  the  royal 
profile  crowned  on  the  obverse,  and  the  royal  arms 
quartered  by  the  cross  on  the  reverse.  A  great 
debasement  of  the  coinage  took  place  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.  The  reverse  of  the  farthings  of  that 
monarch  bears  a  portcullis,  that  of  the  shillings  a 
rose  surmounted  by  a  crown,  and  of  the  sovereigns, 
the  royal  arms  supported  by  a  lion  and  dragon.  A 
noble  was  coined  with  St  George  and  the  dragon  on 
the  obverse,  and  on  the  reverse  a  ship  with  three 
crosses  for  masts,  and  a  rose  on  the  centre  mast. 
On  the  coins  of  Henry  VIII.  the  title  'Hiberniao 
Rex '  first  appeared,  former  kings  having  only  styled 
themselves  '  Dominus  Hibernia?,'  Ireland  not  being 
accounted  a  kingdom.  Under  Edward  VI.,  the 
silver  coins  called  crowns  and  half-crowns  appear, 
having  for  device  the  king  crowned  on  horseback  in 
the  armour  of  the  period.  They  derived  their  name 
from  coins  circulating  on  the  continent,  which  had 
for  device  a  crown.  The  royal  arms  in  an  oval 
shield  without  the  cross  are  introduced  as  the 
reverse  of  the  shilling.  From  this  period  there  is  a 
very  obvious  decline  in  the  artistic  feeling  of  the 
English  coins.  On  some  of  the  shillings  of  Mary,  her 
bust  and  that  of  Philip  face  each  other,  the  insignia 
of  Spain  and  England  impaled  occupying  the  reverse ; 
afterwards  the  king's  head  occupies  one  side  of  the 
coin,  and  the  queen's  the  other.  Half-sovereigns, 
or  rials,  and  angels  were  coined  of  the  old  type  of 
Edward  IV.  The  great  event  in  the  coinage  of 
Elizabeth's  reign  was  the  temporary  introduction 
of  the  mill  and  screw,  instead  of  the  hammer  and 
punch,  producing  coins  of  a  more  regular  and  work- 
manlike appearance.  The  profile  bust  of  James  I., 
crowned  and  in  armour,  appears  on  his  shillings  and 
smaller  pieces  ;  on  his  crowns  and  half-crowns  he  is 
represented  on  horseback ;  on  the  reverse  are  the 
quartered  arms  of  the  three  kingdoms  (the  harp  of 
Ireland  appearing  for  the  first  time  on  the  coinage), 
with  the  motto  '  Que  Deus  conjunxit  nemo  separet.' 
Copper  farthings,  with  crown,  sceptre,  and  sword 
on  the  obverse,  and  a  harp  on  the  reverse,  were 
coined  for  England  as  well  as  Ireland,  the  first 
copper  money  issued  in  England  since  the  styca. 
Private  tokens  of  copper,  issued  by  tradesmen  and 
others,  had,  however,  been  in  circulation  before,  and 
came  again  into  use  to  a  large  extent  at  a  later 
period.  Charles  I.  coined  ten  and  twenty  shilling 
pieces  of  silver,  the  former  a  very  noble  coin,  with 
a  representation  of  the  king  on  horseback.  A  crown, 
struck  at  Oxford,  bears  on  the  obverse  the  king  on 
horseback,  with  a  representation  of  the  town,  and 
on  the  reverse  the  heads  of  the  Oxford  declaration. 
The  guinea,  first  coined  in  this  reign,  was  so  called 
from  the  metal  being  procured  from  the  coast  of 
Guinea ;  its  original  value  was  but  twenty  shillings. 
The  coins  of  the  Commonwealth  exhibit  a  shield 
with  the  cross  of  St  George  surrounded  by  a  palm 
and  olive  branch,  and  have  for  legend  '  The  Com- 
monwealth of  England.'  On  the  reverse  are  two 
shields  accollee,  with  the  cross  of  St  George  and  the 
harp  of  Ireland,  and  the  motto  '  God  with  us.' 
Coins  far  superior  in  character  were  executed  by 
Cromwell,  with  his  laureated  bust  and  title  as 
Protector,  and  on  the  reverse  a  crowned  shield 
quartering  the  cross  of  St  George,  of  St  Andrew 
and  the  harp,  with  the  Protector's  paternal  arms  in 
surtcut ;  but  few  of  these  were  issued.    In  the  early 


NUMISMATICS. 


eoins  of  Charles  II.,  that  monarch  is  crowned,  and 
in  the  dress  of  the  time  ;  in  his  later  money  he  is  in 
conventionalised  Roman  drapery,  with  the  head 
turned  to  the  left,  and  from  that  time  it  has  been 
the  practice  to  turn  every  king's  head  the  reverse 
way  from  that  of  his  predecessor.  The  four  shields 
on  the  reverse  arc  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  cross 
(an  arrangement  which  continued  till  the  reign  of 
George  1 1.),  and  on  the  edge  of  the  crowns  and  half- 
crowns  is  the  legend '  Decus  et  tutamen.'  Charles  II. 
issued  a  copper  coinage  of  halfpennies  and  farthings ; 
on  the  former  appears  the  device  of  Britannia,  taken 
from  the  Roman  coins  relating  to  Britain.  Pennies 
were  not  coined  till  George  III.'s  reign.  The  coins 
of  William  and  Mary  have  the  profiles  of  the  king 
and  queen  one  over  the  other,  and  the  shields  of 
the  three  kingdoms  in  the  form  of  a  cross  on  the 
reverse,  with  Nassau  in  the  centre.  The  coinage  of 
William  alone,  after  the  death  of  Mary,  is  of  some- 
what improved  design,  Sir  Isaac  Newton  heing  then 
Master  of  the  Mint.  Little  change  in  the  general 
design  of  the  coin  occurs  in  the  reigns  of  Anne  and 
George  I.  On  the  accession  of  the  House  of  Hano- 
ver, the  Hanoverian  arms  are  placed  in  the  fourth 
shield,  and  George  IV.  substituted  a  quartered  shield 
with  Nassau  en  surtout  for  the  four  shields  on  the 
reverse  of  his  gold  coins.  During  the  greater  part 
of  George  III.'s  reign  the  coinage  was  utterly 
neglected,  and  the  silver  pieces  in  circulation  were 
worn  perfectly  smooth.  When  coins  were  at  last 
issued,  the  Roman  conventionalism  of  the  previous 
reigns  gave  way  to  a  now  fashionable  Greek  con- 
ventionalism. The  quartered  shield  supplanted  the 
four  shields,  and  on  the  reverse  of  the  crown 
appeared  a  Grecianised  St  George  and  the  dragon. 
George  IV.'s  bust  is  taken  from  Ohantrey's  statue; 
the  rose,  thistle,  and  shamrock,  united  under  a 
crown,  appear  on  the  reverse  of  his  shilling.  Silver 
groats  were  issued  in  the  reign  of  William  IV.  The 
ensigns  of  Hanover  disappeared  at  the  beginning  of 
the  present  reign  ;  the  reverse  of  the  shilling  is 
even  poorer  than  that  of  George  IV.,  the  words 
'  One  shilling '  occupy  the  field,  surrounded  by  an 
oak  branch  and  a  laurel  branch ;  silver  pieces  of  three- 
pence have  been  introduced.  But  the  principal 
monetary  event  is  the  issue  of  the  silver  florin,  in 
value  equivalent  to  two  shillings,  looked  on  as  a 
step  towards  the  institution  of  a  decimal  coinage. 
It  represents  the  head  of  the  Queen  crowned,  with 
the  legend  in  old  English  character,  and  for  reverse 
the  four  shields  are  once  more  placed  in  the  form  of 
a  cross. 

No  native  Scottish  coinage  existed  earlier  than 
the  11th  century.  Coins  are  extant  of  Somerled, 
prince  of  the  Isles  of  that  century,  and  of  Alexander 
I.  of  the  century  following.  The  silver  pennies  of 
William  the  Lion,  and  Alexander  II.  and  III.,  are 
like  contemporary  English  money,  but  ruder,  and 
bear  the  names  of  the  moneyers  and  place  of  mintage, 
generally  Edinburgh,  Perth,  or  Berwick.  The 
profiles  on  the  coins  of  John  Baliol,  Robert  Bruce, 
and  David  II.  are  attempts  at  portraiture.  A 
remarkable  gold  piece,  first  coined  by  Robert  II.,  is 
the  St  Andrew,  with  the  arms  of  Scotland  on  the 
obverse,  and  St  Andrew  on  his  cross  on  the  reverse. 
In  the  four  succeeding  reigns  the  weight  of  the 
silver  coins  rapidly  decreased,  and  coins  of  billon,  or 
base  metal,  were  issued,  nominally  pennies,  but 
three  and  a  half  of  which  eventually  passed  for  a 
silver  penny.  The  evil  increased,  and  baser  and 
baser  alloy  was  used.  Groats  of  billon,  known 
as  placks  and  half-placks,  were  coined  by  James 
HI.  James  IV.'s  coins  have  a  characteristic 
portrait,  and  a  good  deal  of  artistic  feeling. 
James  HI.  and  IV.  issued  well-executed  gold 
pieces,    called    unicorn3    and    riders,    the    type    of 


the  one  being  the  unicorn,  of  (he  other  the  king  <>n 
horseback.  A  Mill  more  beantifnl  coin  was  the 
gold  bonnet  piece  of  James  V.,  bo  called  from  the 

cap  in  the  king's  portrait.  Of  Mary,  there  are  a 
great  variety  of  interesting  pieres.  The  portrait  is 
sometimes  crowned,  sometimes  uncrowned,  and  on 
the  coin  issued  soon  after  Francis's  death,  has  a 
widow's  cap  and  high-frilled  dress.  The  types  in 
James  VI.'s  reign  are  also  very  various.  On  his 
accession  to  the  English  throne,  the  relative 
value  of  English  and  .Scottish  coins  was  declared 
to  be  as  12  to  1.  The  coins  afterwards  issued 
from  the  Scottish  mint  differed  from  the  English, 
chiefly  in  having  Scotland  in  the  first  quarter 
in  the  royal  shield.  The  last  Scottish  gold  coinage 
consisted  of  pistoles  and  half-pistoles  of  Darien 
gold,  about  the  size  of  a  guinea  and  half-guinea, 
struck  by  William  III.  ;  the  pistole  distinguished 
by  a  rising  snn  under  the  bust  of  the  king. 

The  coinage  of  Ireland  is  scanty  and  uninteresting 
compared  with  that  of  Scotland.  The  coins  of 
English  monarchs  struck  in  Dublin  resemble  much 
those  current  in  England.  Henry  VIII.  first  placed 
a  harp  on  the  Irish  coins. 

In  France,  the  earliest  coins  are  those  of  the 
Merovingian  kings,  rude  imitations  of  the  late 
Roman  and  early  Byzantine  money,  and  mostly  of 
gold.  Under  the  Carlovingian  dynasty,  deniers  and 
oboles  are  the  prevailing  coinage,  remarkably  rude  in 
fabric,  without  portrait,  and  bearing  the  name  of  the 
king  and  place  of  mintage.  Some  coins  of  Charle- 
magne, struck  at  Rome,  are  of  better  workmanship. 
They  contain  one  letter  of '  Roma'  at  each  extremity 
of  the  cross,  with  the  legend  '  Carolus  IP.'  The 
coinage  improved  under  the  Capetian  kings ;  the  fleur- 
de-lis  appears  in  addition  to  the  cross.  In  the  13th  c. 
gold  pieces  were  issued,  and  in  the  time  of  Philip 
Vl.  both  the  design  and  the  execution  of  the  coins 
are  beautiful.  The  coins  of  Louis  XII.  are  the  first 
that  bear  the  royal  portrait.  The  modern  coinage 
may  be  said  to  begin  under  Henry  II.,  whose 
portrait  is  good.  The  seignorial  coins  of  France  in 
the  middle  ages  are  of  considerable  importance,  and 
the  medals  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Napoleon  I.  are  much 
more  interesting  than  the  modern  coins. 

The  medieval  coinage  of  Italy  is  of  great  interest. 
The  money  of  the  Lombard  kings  of  Italy  and 
Dukes  of  Benevento,  is  little  inferior  to  that  of  the 
Greek  emperors.  There  is  a  beautiful  series  of 
gold  and  silver  pieces  belonging  to  Venice,  bearing 
the  names  of  the  doges,  and  having  generally  for 
type  the  doge  receiving  the  gonfalon,  or  standard 
of  St  Mark.  The  gold  florins  of  Florence,  with  the 
lily  for  device,  are  no  less  celebrated,  and  were 
imitated  by  other  states.  Florence  had  also  a 
remarkable  series  of  medals,  with  admirable 
portraits  of  persons  of  note.  The  coins  of  the  popes, 
from  Hadrian  I.  down  to  the  14th  c.,  bear  the  name 
of  the  pope  and  emperor  of  the  west ;  those  of  later 
date  are  beautiful  in  execution,  and  have  seated 
portraits  of  the  pontiffs,  with  the  cross-keys  and 
mitre  for  reverse.  A  remarkable  series  of  medals 
commemorates  the  chief  events  of  each  reign,  one 
of  which,  struck  after  the  massacre  of  St  Bartholo- 
mew, has  for  type  an  angel  slaying  the  Huguenots, 
and  the  inscription  '  Ugonottorum  strages.'  The 
coins  of  the  Norman  princes  of  Naples  struck  in 
Sicily,  have  the  legends  partly  or  wholly  in  Arabic. 
Malta  has  a  series,  with  the  arms  and  effigies  of 
the  grand-masters.  t 

The  medieval  money  of  Germany  comprises  coins 
of  the  emperors,  the  electors,  the  smaller  princes, 
the  religious  houses,  and  the  towns.  The  imperial 
series  is  extensive  and  very  interesting,  though,  till 
near  the  close  of  the  middle  ages,  it  is  rather  back* 
ward  in  its  art.     About  the  Reformation  period, 


NUMISMATICS— NUN. 


ftowever,  there  are  vigorous  portraits  both  on  its 
current  coins  and  on  the  medals,  and  those  double 
dollars  which  are  virtually  medals.  The  coins  of 
th?  Dukes  of  Saxony,  with  their  portraits,  are 
equally  remarkable.  The  coins  of  the  archbishops 
of  Cologne,  Mainz,  and  Treves  form  a  very  inter- 
esting series,  the  first  more  especially,  with  a 
representation  of  the  cathedral. 

The  coins  of  the  Low  Countries  resemble  those 
of  France  and  Germany.  The  Dutch  medals  are 
of  interest,  more  especially  those  struck  in  com- 
memoration of  events  in  the  war  with  Spain. 

The  coins  of  the  Swiss  cantons  and  towns  during 
the  early  period  of  Swiss  independence  bore  the 
heraldic  shield  of  each,  drawn  with  vigorous 
grotesqueness.  There  are  also  pieces  struck  by 
ecclesiastical  lords,  and  by  different  families  who 
had  a  right  of  coinage. 

The  coins  of  Spain  begin  with  those  of  the  Gothic 
princes,  which  are  chiefly  of  gold,  and  on  the  model 
of  the  trientes  and  semisses  of  the  lower  empire. 
Some  of  the  early  pieces  have  a  rude  head  of  the 
monarch  on  one  side,  and  of  the  emperor  on  the 
other.  Afterwards,  the  obverse  bears  the  profile  of 
the  monarch,  and  the  reverse  a  cross  of  some 
description,  with  the  name  of  the  place  of  mintage, 
and  the  word  'Pius'  for  legend.  In  later  times, 
there  are  two  interesting  series  of  coins  belonging  to 
the  kingdom  of  Aragon  and  to  the  kingdom  of 
Castile  and  Leon, 

The  coinages  of  Norway  and  Sweden  at  first 
resembled  the  British,  and  afterwards  the  German 
type.  From  the  10th  to  the  14th  c.,  bracteates 
were  issued  by  the  ecclesiastics.  The  coinage  of 
Hungary  begins  in  the  11th  c,  and  has  the  por- 
traits of  the  monorchs.  The  Russian  coinage  is 
Byzantine  in  character,  and  rude  in  its  art.  The 
earliest  pieces  are  the  silver  darga  of  the  14th  c, 
of  an  oblong  shape,  with  representations  of  the 
prince  on  horseback,  and  various  legendary  sub- 
jects. Peter  the  Great  introduced  the  usual 
European  type.  There  is  an  important  series  of 
bronze  coins  of  the  Crusaders,  beginning  with 
Tancred,  and  coming  down  to  the  end  of  the  15th 
c,  including  money  of  the  kings  of  Cyprus  and 
Jerusalem,  and  other  princes  established  in  the 
east. 

In  India,  the  succession  of  the  kings  of  Bactria, 
the  remotest  of  the  dynasties  founded  on  the 
ruins  of  Alexander's  empire,  has  only  become 
known  through  their  recently-discovered  coins. 
There  are  early  rude  Hindu  coins  of  the  Gupta 
line,  with  figures  of  the  Brahminical  divinities  of 
a  type  still  in  use. 

Of  the  coins  of  the  Mohammedan  princes,  the 
oldest  gold  pieces  are  the  bilingual  coins  of  cities  of 
Syria  and  Palestine,  of  the  middle  of  the  7th  c. 
(a.  h.  78),  barbarous  imitations  of  the  latest  Byzan- 
tine money  of  Alexandria.  Most  of  the  Mohamme- 
dan coins  are  covered  exclusively  by  inscriptions 
expressive  of  the  elementary  principles  of  the 
Mohammedan  faith.  For  some  centuries,  no  sove- 
reign except  the  calif  was  allowed  to  inscribe  his 
name  on  the  coin.  Large  gold  coins  of  great  purity 
were  issued  by  the  Moslem  kings  of  Granada  in 
Spain. 

The  high  prices  given  for  ancient  coins  have  led 
to  numerous  forgeries  from  the  15th  c.  downwards. 
Against  such  imitations,  collectors  recniire  to  be  on 
their  guard. 

Among  the  Best  works  on  numismatics  are 
Eckhel,  Doctr'ma  Numorum  Veterum  (Vienna,  1792 
—1798) ;  Hennin,  Manuel  de  Numvsmatique  An- 
ciennr.  (Paris,  1830);  Grasset,  Hanclbuch  dcr  alten 
Nicmismatik  (Leipsic,  1852 — 1853);  Leake,  Numis- 
mata  Hellenica  (London,  1854);  Ruding's  Amials  of 


the  Coinage  of  Great  Britain  (London,  1840) ; 
Lindsay's  View  of  the  Coinage  of  Scotland  (Cork, 
1S45)  ;  Leblanc,  Trade  Historique  des  Monnoies  de 
France  (Paris,  1690)  ;  Cappe,  Die  M'unzen  der 
Deutschen  Kaiser  vnd  Kbnige  des  Mittelaltera 
(Dresden,  1848  —  1850)  ;  Marsden,  Numismuta 
Orientalia  IUustrata  (London,  1823 — 1825). 

NU'MMULITE  LIMESTONE,  an  important 
member  of  the  Middle  Eocene  period,  consisting  of 
a  limestone  composed  of  nummulites  held  together 
by  a  matrix  formed  of  the  comminuted  particles  of 
their  shells,  and  of  smaller  foraminifera.  It  forma 
immense  masses  of  the  strata  which  are  raised  up 
on  the  sides  of  the  Alps  and  Himalayas,  and  may 
be  traced  as  a  broad  band  often  1S00  miles  in 
breadth,  and  frequently  of  enormous  thickness, 
from  the  Atlantic  shores  of  Europe  and  Africa, 
through  Western  Asia,  to  Northern  India  and 
China.  It  is  known  also  to  cover  vast  areas  in 
North  America. 

NUMMULITES,  or  NUMMULINA  (Gr. 
money-fossil),  a  genus  of  fossd  foraminifera,  the 
shells  of  which  form  immense  masses  of  rock  of 
Eocene  age.  See  Nummt/lite  Limestoxe.  Up- 
wards of  50  species  have  been  described.  They  are 
circular  bodies  of  a  lenticular  shape,  varying  in 
magnitude  from  the  merest  point  to  the  size  of  a 
crown-piece.  The  shell  is  composed  of  a  series  of 
small  chambers  arranged  in  a  concentric  manner. 
The  growth  of  the  shell  does  not  take  place  only 
around  the  circumference,  but  each  whorl  invests 
all  the  preceding  whorls,  so  as  to  form  a  new  layer 
over  the  entire  surface  of  the  disk,  thus  adding  to 
the  thickness  as  well  as  the  breadth,  and  giving  the 
fossil  its  lenticular  form.  A  thin  intervening  space 
separates  each  layer  from  the  one  which  it  covers, 
and  this  space  at  the  margin  swells  out  to  form  the 
chamber.  All  the  internal  cavities,  however,  seem 
to  have  been  occupied  with  the  living  sarcode,  and 
an  intimate  connection  was  maintained  between 
them  by  means  of  innumerable  parallel  tubuli, 
which  everywhere  pass  from  one  surface  to  another, 
and  which  permitted  the  passage  of  the  sarcode  as 
freely  as  do  the  minute  pores  or  foramina  of  the 
living  foraminifera. 

The  name  is  given  to  them  from  their  resem- 
blance to  coins.  In  Egypt,  where  the  whole  of  the 
Mokkadam  Mountains,  from  the  stone  of  which 
the  pyramids  were  built,  is  formed  of  them,  they 
are  called  by  the  natives  '  Pharaoh's  Pence.' 

NUN,  a  member  of  a  religious  order  of  women. 
The  etymology  of  this  name  is  a  subject  of  some 
controversy,  but  there  seems  every  reason  to  believe 
that  it  is  from  a  Coptic  or  Egyptian  root,  which 
signifies  'virgin.'  It  is  found  in  use  as  a  Latin 
word  as  early  as  the  time  of  St  Jerome  (Ep.  to 
Eustachius,  p.  22,  c.  6).  The  general  characteristics 
of  the  religious  orders  will  be  found  under  the  head 
Monachism  (q.  v.),  and  under  those  of  the  several 
orders.  It  is  only  necessary  here  to  specify  a  few 
particulars  peculiar  to  the  religious  orders  of  females. 
Of  these  the  most  striking  perhaps  is  the  strictness 
in  the  regularly  authorised  orders  of  nuns  of  the 
'  cloister,'  or  enclosure,  which  no  extern  is  ever  per- 
mitted to  enter,  and  beyond  which  the  nuns  are 
never  permitted  to  pass,  without  express  leave  of 
the  bishop.  The  superiors  of  convents  of  nuns  are 
called  by  the  names  Abbess,  Prioress,  and,  in  general, 
Mother  Superior.  They  are,  ordinarily  speaking, 
elected  by  chapters  of  their  own  body,  with  the 
approval  of  the  bishop,  unless  the  convent  be  one  of 
the  class  called  exempt  houses,  which  are  imme- 
diately subject  to  the  authority  of  the  Holy  See. 
The  ceremony  of  the  solemn  blessing  or  inaugura- 
tion   of    the  abbess  is  reserved  to  the  bishop,   ox 


NUNC  DIMITTIS  -NURNBERG. 


to  n  priest  delegated  by  the  bishop.  The  authority 
of  the  abbess  over  her  nuns  is  ray  comprehensive, 
but  a  precise  line  is  drawn  between  her  powers  and 
those  of  the  priestly  office,  from  which  she  is 
strictly  debarred.  The  name  of  nun  is  given  in 
general  to  the  rasters  of  all  religious  congregations 
of  females  who  live  in  retirement  and  arc  hound  by 
rule;  but  it  is  primitively  and  properly  applicable 
only    to    sisters    of    the    religious   orders"  strictly    so 

called.    See.  Mo»  w  mi  ism. 

NUNC  DIMl'TTIS,  the  name  given  to  the 
canticle  of  Simeon  (Luke  ii.  29 — 32),  which  forms  part 
of  the  compline  otiico  of  the  Roman  Breviary,  and 

is  retained  in  the  evening  service  of  the  Anglican 
Church  when  it  follows  the  second  lesson.  On  the 
great  festivals  in  Lent,  the  music  of  this  canticle  is 
especially  grand  and  imposing. 

NU'NCIO  (Ital.  nuiizio,  Lat.  nvneius,  a  messen- 
ger), the  name  given  to  the  superior  grade  of  the 
ambassadors  sent  by  the  pope  to  foreign  courts, 
who  are  all  called  by  the  general  name  of  Legate 
(q.  v.).  A  nuncio  is  an  ambassador  to  the  court  of 
an  emperor  or  king.  The  ambassador  to  a  republic, 
or  to  the  court  of  a  minor  sovereign,  is  called  Inter- 
Nuncio. 

NUNCUPATIVE  WILL  is  a  will  made  by 
word  of  mouth.  As  a  general  rule,  no  will  is  valid 
unless  it  is  iu  writing  and  signed  by  the  testator ; 
but  in  cases  of  soldiers  and  sailors,  a  verbal  or 
nuncupative  will  is  held  to  be  good,  on  the  ground 
that  there  is  often  no  time  to  draw  up  a  formal 
will  in  writing. 

NUNEATON,  a  small  market-town  of  England, 
in  the  county  of  Warwick,  and  18  miles  north-east 
cf  the  town  of  that  name.  It  contains  a  small 
parish  church  in  Gothic,  and  its  Free  Grammar 
School,  founded  by  Edward  VI.  in  1553,  has  an 
annual  income  from  endowment  of  about  £300. 
Manufactures  of  ribbons  and  cotton 
carried  on.     Pop.  about  7000. 

NU'NQUAM  INDEBITATUS,  in  English 
Law,  means  a  plea  or  defence  to  an  action  for  a 
debt  that  the  defendant  never  was  indebted;  in 
other  words,  that  no  debt  is  due. 

NURAGHE,  the  name  of  certain  structures,  of 
conical  shape,  in  the  island  of  Sardinia,  rising  30  or 
40  feet  above  the  ground,  with  two  or  three  stories 
of  domed  chambers  connected  by  a  spiral  staircase. 


View  of  the  Nuraghe  of  Goni,  in  Sardinia. 

Some  are  raised  on  basements  of  masonry,  or  plat- 
forms of  earth.  They  are  made  of  granite  limestone, 
basalt,  porphyry,  sandstone,  and  schist.  Their 
entrances  are  small  and  low,  and  when  they  have 


ohambers  of  two  stories,  the  upper  chamber  is 
reached  by  the  spiral  staircase  winch  has  loopholes 
bo  admit  the  light.     The  tops  are  supposed  bo  have 

had  a  terrace.  Although  8000  of  them  exist,  none 
are  perfect.  Their  masonry  is  irregular,  but  not 
polygonal,  and  resembles  the  style  of  work  called 


Plan  and  Elevation  of  the  Nuraghe  of  Goni,  in  Sardinia. 

Asiatic.  Like  the  round  towers  of  Ireland,  and 
other  uninscribed  monuments,  their  object  and 
antiquity  are  enveloped  in  much  doubt.  They  have 
been  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  the  Pelasgi,  the 
Phoenicians,  or  Carthaginians,  and  to  have  been 
ancient  sepulchres,  Tholi  or  Daedalia,  constructed  in 
heroic  times.  Skeletons,  and  other  funeral  para- 
phernalia, have  been  found  in  them.  They  have 
many  points  of  resemblance  to  the  'Burghs'  or 
'  Duns '  on  the  northern  shores  of  Scotland,  of 
which  the  Burgh  of  Mousa,  in  Shetland,  is  perhaps 
the  best  example. — De  la  Marmora,  Voyage  en 
Sardaigw,  torn.  ii.  ;  Petit  Radel,  Nurarjhea  (Paris, 
1S26— 1828);  Micali,  Ant.  Pop.  Ital.  ii.  p.  43; 
Dennis,  Cities  and  Cem.  of  Etruria,  ii.  p.  161. 

NU'RNBERG  (Norimberga,  Norica),  a  fortified 
city  of  the  Bavarian  province  of  Middle  Franconia, 
situated  in  49°  28'  N.  lat.,  and  11°  5'  E.  long. 
Population,  at  the  close  of  1871,  83,214.  N.  is  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  and  interesting  cities 
of  Germany,  on  account  of  the  numerous  remains 
of  medieval  architecture  which  it  presents  in  its 
picturesque  streets,  with  their  gabled  houses,  stone 
balconies,  and  quaint  carvings.  No  city  retains  a 
stronger  impress  of  the  characteristics  which  distin- 
guished the  wealthy  burgher-classes  in  the  middle 
ages,  while  its  double  lines  of  fortified  walls,  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  public  walks  and  gardens, 
and  guarded  by  70  towers,  together  with  the  numer- 
ous bridges  which  span  the  Pegnitz,  on  whose  banks 
the  city  is  built,  give  it  distinctive  features  of  its 
own.  Among  the  most  remarkable  of  its  numerous 
public  buildings  are  the  old  palace  or  castle,  com- 
manding, from  its  high  position,  a  glorious  view  of 
the  surrounding  country,  and  interesting  for  its 
antiquity,  and  for  its  gallery  of  paintings,  rich  in 
gems  of  early  German  art ;  the  town-hall,  which 
ranks  amongst  the  noblest  of  its  kind  in  Germany, 
and  is  adorned  with  works  of  Albert  Dlirer,  and 
Gabriel  Weyher ;  the  noble  Gothic  fountain  opposite 
the  cathedral  by  Schonhofer,  with  its  numerous 
groups  of  figures,  beautifully  restored  in  modern 
times ;  and  many  other  fountains  deserving  notice. 
Of  the  numerous  churches  of  N.,  the  following  are 
the  most  remarkable :  St  Lawrence,  built  between 
1270 — 1478,  with  its  beautiful  painted-glass 
windows,  its  noble  towers  and  doorway,  and  the 
celebrated  stone  pyx,  completed  in  1500,  by  Adam 
Kraft,  after  five  years'  assiduous  labour;  and  the 


NURSE-NUT. 


exquisite  wood-carvings  of  Veit  Stoss  ;  St  Sebald's, 
with  its  numerous  fine  glass-paintings  and  frescoes 
by  Peter  Visscher  and  other  German  masters  ;  the 
cathedral,  or  Our  Lady's,  built  in  1631,  similarly 
enriched.  N.  is  well  provided  with  educational 
establishments,  and  besides  a  good  gymnasium  and 
polytechnic  institution,  has  good  schools  of  art, 
normal  and  other  training  colleges,  a  public  library 
of  50,000  vols.,  galleries  of  art  collections,  museums, 
&c. ;  while  the  numerous  institutions  of  benevo- 
lence are  liberally  endowed  and  well  maintained. 
Although  the  glory  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  N. 
may  be  said  to  have  been  long  extinct,  its  home 
trade,  which  is  still  of  considerable  importance, 
includes  the  specialities  of  metal,  wood  and  bone 
carvings,  and  children's  toys  and  dolls,  which  find 
a  ready  sale  hi  every  part  of  Europe,  and  are  largely 
exported  to  America  and  the  East.  In  addition  to  j 
its  own  industrial  commerce,  it  is  the  seat  ot  a  large  i 
transfer  and  exchange  business,  which  owes  much  i 
of  its  importance  to  the  facilities  of  iutercommuni-  ! 
cation  afforded  by  the  net-work  of  railway  hues 
with  which  the  city  is  connected. 

N.  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  free  imperial  city 
by  the  Emperor  Henry  V.,  in  1219,  previous  to  j 
which  time,  Henry  IV.  had  ennobled  38  of  the 
principal  burgher  families,  who  forthwith  arrogated 
to  themselves  supreme  power  over  the  N.  territory. 
In  the  13th  c,  we  find  it  under  the  title  of  a  burg-  j 
graviate  in  the  hands  of  the  Hohenzollern  family,  ! 
who,  in  1417,  ceded  for  a  sum  of  money  all  their 
territorial  and  manorial  rights  to  the  magistracy  of 
the  city.  This  measure  put  a  stop  to  the  feuds 
which  had  hitherto  raged  between  the  burggrafs 
and  the  municipality,  and  for  a  time  N.  continued 
to  grow  rich  with  the  fruits  of  the  great  internal  I 
trade,  which  it  had  long  maintained  between  the  j 
traders  of  the  East  and  the  other  European  marts 
of  commerce.  The  discovery  of  the  passage  by  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  by  opening  new  channels  of 
communication  between  Asia  and  Europe,  deprived  ; 
N.  of  its  ancient  monopoly.  The  Thirty  Years'  j 
War  completed  the  decay  of  the  city,  which  suffered 
8everely  from  both  parties  in  turn.  The  ancient 
reputation  of  N.  as  a  wealthy  and  loyal  city  of  Ger- 
many secured  to  it,  however,  special  consideration ; 
and  in  1806,  when  the  imperial  commissioners  re- 
organised some  of  the  dismembered  parts  of  the  old 
empire,  it  was  allowed  to  retain  its  independence, 
with  a  territory  of  483  square  miles,  containing 
40,000  inhabitants,  and  drawing  a  revenue  of  S00,000 
guldens ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  disputes  in 
which  the  free  city  became  involved  with  the  king 
of  Prussia,  who  had  some  hereditary  claim  on  the 
ancient  burggraviate,  N.,  alarmed  at  the  prospect 
of  still  greater  embarrassments,  entered  into  the 
Rhenish  Confederation,  and  as  the  result  of  this 
alliance,  was  transferred,  in  1806,  with  the  surrender 
of  its  entire  domain  and  all  rights  of  sovereignty, 
to  the  king  of  Bavaria. 

NURSE,  Military.  In  continental  armies,  the 
*  sisters  of  charity'  usually  carry  their  mission  of 
mercy  into  the  military  hospitals.  Protestant  Eng- 
land having  no  such  organisation  to  fall  back  upon, 
the  soldiers  have  been  dependent  on  the  regular 
male  hospital  attendants  for  their  care  during  sick- 
ness, or  when  suffering  from  wounds.  The  Crimean 
campaign,  however,  disclosed  so  melancholy  a  pic- 
ture of  the  want  of  women's  co-operation,  that  a 
band  of  self-sacrificing  ladies,  headed  by  Miss 
Nightingale  (q.  v.),  proceeded  to  Turkey,  and  were 
,  soon  acknowledged  as  messengers  of  health  and 
life  by  the  unfortunate  wounded.  This  experience 
has  been  turned  to  account,  and  a  staff  of  female 
nurses  has  been  organised,  under  the  control  of  a 
lady  styled  the  Superintendent  General  of  Array 


Nurses,  who  take  care  of  the  sick  in  their  wards  in 
Military  Hospitals. 

NCRSERY,  a  garden  or  portion  of  a  garden 
devoted  to  the  raising  of  young  plants,  to  be  after- 
wards planted  elsewhere.  The  ripening  of  garden- 
seeds  for  sale  is  generally  also  an  important  part  of 
the  trade  of  the  public  nurseryman.  Many  culinary 
vegetables  are  very  commonly  raised  from  seed  in 
public  nurseries,  and  sold  as  young  plants ;  the 
trouble  of  raising  them  in  small  gardens  being  found 
too  great,  although,  when  there  is  no  public  nursery 
at  hand,  even  the  cottage-gardener  may  be  compelled 
to  undertake  this  trouble  for  himself,  in  order  to 
procure  a  supply  of  young  tomato  plants,  lettuce, 
cabbage,  &c,  in  fresh  and  healthful  condition.  Many 
flowering  plants,  as  verbenas,  fuchsias,  lantana3, 
&c,  are  also  raised  and  sold  by  nurserymen. 
Another  great  use  of  the  nursery  is  the  rearing 
of  fruit-trees.  In  the  nursery,  the  stocks  are 
raised  from  seed,  the  grafting  is  performed,  and  the 
training  of  the  young  tree,  whether  for  standard, 
espalier,  or  wall  tree,  is  begun.  As,  with  regard  to 
fruit-trees,  the  selection  of  grafts  is  of  the  utmost 
importance,  the  reputation  of  the  nurseryman  is 
particularly  to  be  considered  by  the  purchaser ;  nor 
is  there  any  trade  in  which  this  is  more  generally 
necessary,  months,  or  sometimes  years  elapsing 
before  the  quality  of  the  goods  purchased  can  be 
experimentally  ascertained.  The  principal,  and 
many  of  the  smaller  towns  of  Britain  are  well  sup- 
plied with  public  nurseries,  which  is  the  case  also  in 
many  countries  of  continental  Europe  and  in  North 
America.  Some  of  these  nurseries  are  on  a  very 
great  scale,  as  those  of  Messrs  Loddige  of  London, 
Elwanger  &  Barry,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  and  Parsons, 
Flushing,  Long  Island.  The  largest  nurseries,  how- 
ever, are  very  much  devoted  to  the  rearing  of 
ornamental  shrubs  and  trees,  and  fruit.  In  G.  Britain 
plantations  of  forest-trees,  even  when  very  exten- 
sive, are  now  generally  made  with  plants  obtained 
from  public  nurseries.  The  exertions  made  by 
nurserymen  to  obtain  new  plants  from  foreign 
countries,  have  contributed  much,  not  only  to  the 
advancement  of  gardening  in  its  various  depart- 
ments, and  of  arboriculture,  but  also  of  botany. — 
Much  benefit  also  results  from  the  exchange  of  the 
produce  of  the  nurseries  of  different  countries. 
Thus,  bulbous  roots  are  brought  to  America  from 
Holland,  from  what  may  be  described  as  nurseries 
specially  devoted  to  them;  roses  and  pear-trees 
are  imported  from  the  nurseries  of  France,  &c.  It 
often  happens  that  seeds  imported  from  climates 
more  thoroughly  adapted  to  the  plants,  produce 
better  crops  than  those  raised  in  a  colder  climate  or 
under  a  cloudier  sky. 

NUT,  in  popidar  language,  is  the  name  given  to 
all  those  fruits  which  have  the  seed  enclosed  in  a 
bony,  woody,  or  leathery  pericarp,  not  opening 
when  ripe.  Amongst  the  best  known  and  most 
valuable  nuts  are  the  Hazel-nut,  Brazil  nut,  Walnut, 
Chestnut,  and  Cocoa-nut,  all  of  which  are  edible. 
Other  nuts  are  used  in  medicine,  and  for  purposes 
connected  with  the  arts.  Some  of  the  edible  nuts 
abound  in  a  bland  oil,  which  is  used  for  various 
purposes. — In  Botany,  the  term  nut  (nux)  is  used  to 
designate  a  one-celled  fruit,  with  a  hardened  peri- 
carp, containing,  when  mature,  only  one  seed.  The 
Achenium  (q.  v.)  was  by  the  older  botanists  gene- 
rally included  in  this  term.  Some  of  the  fruits  to 
which  it  is  popularly  applied  scarcely  receive  it  as 
their  popular  designation.  The  hazel-nut  is  an 
excellent  example  of  the  true  nut  of  botanists.  —  The 
name  nut,  without  distinctive  prefix,  is  popularly 
given  in  Britain  to  the  hazel-nut,  but  in  many  parts 
of  Europe  to  the  walnut 


NUTATION— NUT-HATCH. 


Many  imts  have  a  considerable  commercial  value, 
from  their  being  favourite  articles  of  food;  these 
nre  the  Hazel-nut  and  its  varieties,  the  Mack 
Spanish,  the  Barcelona,  the  Smyrna,  tlie  Jerusalem 
filbert,  and  the  common  Albert;  the  Walnut,  Chest- 
nut, Hickory,  and  Pecan;  the  Sonari,  the  Cocoa,  and 
the  Brazil  or  Para  nut. 

The  Barcelona  and  Black  Spanish,  as  their  names 
imply,  arc  from  Spain;  the  former  is  the  commonest 
nut  of  English  shops.  About  120,000  hags,  averaging 
l£  bushel  each,  or  150,000  bushels,  are  annually  im- 
ported into  Great  Britain.  The  import  value  is  ahout 
15s.  per  bushel.  They  are  always  kiln-dried  when 
received.  In  1867,  279,991  bushels  of  hazel-nuts, 
valued  at  £196,998,  were  imported  into  Great  Britain. 
The  duty,  which  was  reduced  in  1853  to  Is.  per 
ton,  was  abolished  in  1862.  From  the  Black  Sea 
Britain  receives  annually  ahout  68,000  bushels  of 
hazel-nuts,  worth  10s.  per  bushel,  with  from  500 
to  1000  bags  of  the  so-called  Jerusalem  and  Mount 
Atlas  filberts.  Of  chestnuts  from  Leghorn,  Naples, 
Spain,  France,  and  Portugal,  Britain  receives  an- 
nually about  20,000  bushels.  The  trade  in  walnuts 
is  very  uncertain,  and  probably  never  exceeds  5000 
bushels.  Of  the  curious  three-cornered  or  Brazil 
nut  from  Para  and  Maranham,  the  importation  is 
also  very  irregular,  varying  from  300  to  1 000  tons,  or 
1200  to  4000  bushels  per  annum.  About  two  mil- 
lions of  cocoa-nuts  are  also  imported.  The  other 
kinds  of  nuts  are  too  irregular  in  their  importations 
to  supply  any  reliable  statistics.  The  annual  value 
of  all  the  nuts  imported  into  Great  Britain  is  com- 
muted at  £153,000. 

NUTA'TION  is  a  slight  oscillatory  movement 
of  the  earth's  axis,  which  disturbs  the  otherwise 
circular  path  described  by  the  pole  of  the  earth  round 
that  of  the  ecliptic,  known  as  the  '  precession  of  the 
equinoxes.'  It  is  produced  by  the  same  causes,  viz. 
the  attraction  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets  (the 
attraction  of  the  last  mentioned  being  so  small  as 
to  be  quite  imperceptible)  tipon  the  bulging  zone 
about  the  earth's  equator,  though  in  this  case  it  is  the 
moon  alone  that  is  the  effective  agent.  It  also,  for 
reasons  which  need  not  be  given  here,  depends,  for 
the  most  part,  not  upon  the  position  of  the  moon  in 
her  orbit,  but  of  the  moon's  node.  If  there  was  no 
precession  of  the  equinoxes,  nutation  would  appear 
as  a  small  elliptical  motion  of  the  earth's  axis,  per- 
formed in  the  same  time  as  the  moon's  nodes  take 
to  complete  a  revolution,  the  axes  of  the  ellipse  being 
respectively  18"-5  and  13"7,  the  longer  axis  being 


*  polemic 


utrected  towards  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic.  But  this 
motion,  when  combined  with  the  more  rapid  one  of 
precession,  causes  the  pole  of  the  earth's  axis  to  de- 
scribe a  wavy  line  round  P,  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic. 

The  effect  of  nutation,  when  referred  to  the 
equator  and  ecliptic,  is  to  produce  a  periodical 
change  in  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and  in  the 
velocity  of  retrograda'ion  of  the  equinoctial  points. 
It  this  gives  rise   to   the  distinction  of  'apparent' 


from  'mean'  right  ascension  and  declination,  the 
former  involving,  and  the  latter  being  freed  from 
the  fluctuations  arising  from  nutation.  This  motion 
is  common  to  all  the  planets. 

NUT-CRACKER  (Nudfraga\  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  family  Corvidee,  with  a  Btraight  conical  bill,  both 
mandibles  terminating  in  an  obtose  point,  and  tail 
nearly  square  at  the  end.  The  form  and  characters 
are  nearly  similar  to  those  of  crows,  but  the  habits 
are  rather  those  of  jays.  X.  eolumbiana  (Wils.),  the 
only  American  species,  inhabits  the  region  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.     It  is  ashy,  with  black  wings,  and 


Clark's  Nut-cracker  [Nucifraga  Clarkii). 

is  a  foot  in  length.  It  inhabits  high  forests,  eats 
seeds,  and  is  active  and  noisy.  One  species  (X. 
caryocatactes  or  C.  nucifraga)  is  occasionally  seen 
in  Britain,  and  is  not  uncommon  in  many  parts  of 
Europe  and  of  Asia,  particularly  in  mountainous 
regions  covered  with  pines.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a 
jackdaw,  but  has  a  longer  tail.  The  N.  frequents  the 
tops  of  high  pines,  and  is  a  shy  bird. 

NUT-HATCH  [Sitta),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Certhiadce.  having  a  straight  conical  or  pris- 


European  Nut-hatch  {Sitta  Europcea). 

matic  bill,  short  legs,  the  hind-toe  very  strong.  They 
run  up  and  down  trees  with  great  agility,  moving 
with  equal  ease  in  either  direction,  and  without 
hopping,  so  that  the  motion  is  rather  like  that  of 
a  mouse  than  of  a  bird.  They  feed  on  insects,  in 
pursuit  of  which  they  examine  the  crevices,  and 
remove  the  scales  of  the  bark ;  also  on  seeds,  as 
those  of  pines,  and  the  kernels  of  nuts,  to  obtain 
which  they  fasten  the  nut  firmly  in  some  crevice 


NUTMEG— NUTRITION. 


of  bark,  or  other  such  situation,  and  peck  at  it 
until  the  shell  is  broken,  so  placing  themselves 
that  thev  sway  not  merely  the  head,  but  the  whole 
body,  to  give  force  to  the  stroke.  The  English 
name  is  said  to  have  been  originally  Nut-hack.  One" 
species,  the  European  N.  (S.  Europaa),  is  common 
in  most  parts  of  Europe,  and  is  found  in  most  of 
the  wooded  districts  of  England.  Its  whole  length 
is  about  six  inches.  If  taken  young,  it  is  easily 
tamed,  and  becomes  very  familiar  and  amusing; 
but  an  old  bird  caught  and  put  into  a  cage,  is  apt 
to  kill  itself  by  violently  pecking  to  force  a  way 
out.  It  soon  destroys  the  wood  of  a  cage. — Other 
Bpecies  are  found  in  the  East  and  in  North  America, 
where  the  genus  is  particularly  abuudant.  Birds 
nearly  allied  are  found  in  Australia. 

NUTMEG.  This  well-known  and  favourite 
spice  is  the  kernel — mostly  consisting  of  the  albu- 
men— of  the  fruit  of  several  species  of  Myristica. 
This  genus  belongs  to  a  natural  order  of  exogens 
called  Myristicacece,  which  contains  about  forty 
species,  all  tropical  trees  or  shrubs,  natives  of  Asia, 
Madagascar,  and  America.  They  generally  have 
red  juice,  or  a  juice  which  becomes  red  on  exposure 
to  air.  The  order  is  allied  to  Lauracecs.  The  leaves 
are  alternate  and  without  stipules.  The  flowers  are 
unisexual,  the  perianth  generally  trifid,  the  filaments 
united  into  a  column.  The  fruit  is  succulent,  yet 
opens  like  a  capsule  by  two  valves.  The  seed  is 
nut-like,  covered  with  a  laciniated  fleshy  aril,  and 
has  an  albumen  penetrated  by  its  membranous 
covering.  The  species  of  this  order  are  generally 
more  or  less  aromatic  in  all  their  parts  ;  their  juice 
is  styptic  and  somewhat  acrid ;  the  albumen  and 
aril  contain  both  a  fixed  and  an  essential  oil,  and 
those  of  some  species  are  used  as  spices.  The  genus 
Myristica  has  the  anthers  united  in  a  cylindrical 


Nutmeg  {Myristica  moschata) : 

A  branch  shewing  fruit,  and  section  of  fruit,  with  nutmeg 

enclosed. 

column,  and  the  cotyledons  folded.  The  species 
which  furnishes  the  greater  part  of  the  nutmegs 
of  commerce  is  M.  fret  gram  or  moschata;  but  the 
long  N.  (M.  fatua),  from  the  Banda  Isles,  is  now 
not  uncommon  in  our  markets.  The  common 
N.-tree  is  about  25  feet  in  height,  with  oblong 
leaves,  and  axillary  few -flowered  racemes  ;  the  fruit 
is  of  the  size  and  appearance  of  a  roundish  pear, 
golden  yellow  in  colour  when  ripe.  The  fleshy 
part  of  the  fruit  is  rather  hard,  and  is  of  a  peculiar 
consistence,  resembling  candied  fruit:  it  is  often 
10 


preserved  and  eaten  as  a  sweetmeat.  Within  is  the 
nut,  enveloped  in  the  curious  yellowish-red  aril,  the 
Mace  (q.  v.),  under  which  is  a  thin  shining  brown 
shell,  slightly  grooved  by  the  pressure  of  the  mace, 
and  within  is  the  kernel  or  nutmeg.  Up  to  1796,  the 
Dutch  being  the  possessors  of  the  Banda  Isles, 
jealously  prevented  the  N.  from  being  carried  in 
a  living  state  to  any  other  place ;  but  during  the 
conquest  and  retention  of  the  islands  by  the  British, 
care  was  taken  to  spread  the  culture  of  this  valuable 
spice,  and  plants  were  sent  to  Penang,  India,  and 
other  places,  where  they  are  now  successfully  culti- 
vated ;  indeed,  they  have  now  become  established 
in  the  West  India  Islands,  and  both  Jamaica  and 
Trinidad  produce  excellent  nutmegs.  Brazil  is  also 
found  favourable  to  their  culture.  The  N.  is  very 
liable  to  the  attack  of  a  beetle,  which  is  very 
destructive,  and  it  is  a  common  practice  to  give 
them  a  coating  of  lime  before  shipping  them  to 
Europe,  in  order  to  protect  them  from  its  ravages. 
The  Dutch  or  Batavian  nutmegs  are  nearly  always 
limed,  but  those  from  Penang  are  not,  and  are 
consequently  of  a  greater  value.  The  N.  yields, 
by  expression,  a  peculiar  yellow  fat,  called  oil  of 
mace,  because,  from  its  colour  and  flavour,  it  was 
generally  supposed  to  be  derived  from  mace ;  and 
by  distillation  is  obtained  an  almost  colourless 
essential  oil,  which  has  very  fully  the  flavour  of 
the  nutmeg.  Her  own  settlements  now  furnish 
Great  Britain  with  the  greater  portion  of  this  spice, 
but  some  lots  of  Batavian  also  come  into  her  market. 
The  quantity  imported,  in  1864,  was  nearly  300,000 
pounds'  weight,  worth,  in  round  numbers,  £70,000. 

Nutmegs  are  chiefly  used  as  a  spice ;  but  medi- 
cinally they  are  stiimilant  and  carminative.  They 
possess  narcotic  properties,  and  in  large  doses  pro- 
duce stupefaction  and  delirium,  so  that  they  ought 
not  to  be  used  where  affections  of  the  brain  exist  or 
are  apprehended. 

Other  species  of  Myristica,  besides  those  already 
named,  yield  nutmegs  sometimes  used,  but  of  very 
inferior  quality. — The  fruits  of  several  species  of 
Lauracece  also  resemble  nutmegs  in  their  aromatic 
and  other  properties ;  as  the  cotyledons  of  Nectandra 
Puchury,  the  Pichui-im  Beans  of  Commerce,  and  the 
fruit  of  Ad'odiclidium  camara,  a  tree  of  Guiana,  the 
Camara  or  Ackawai  nutmeg.  The  clove  nutmegs 
of  Madagascar  are  the  fruit  of  Agathophyllum  arc- 
maticum,  and  the  Brazilian  nutmegs  of  Cryptocarya 
moschata.  All  these  belong  to  the  order  Lauraceai. 
The  Calabash  N.  is  the  fruit  of  Monodora  myristica, 
of  the  natural  order  Anonaceai. 

NUTRIA.     See  Coypu  and  Racoonda. 

NUTRITION.  The  blood  which  is  carried  by 
the  capillaries  to  the  several  tissues  of  the  body  is 
the  sour.ee  from  whence  all  the  organs  derive  the 
materials  of  their  growth  and  development;  and  it 
is  found  that  there  is  direct  proportion  between  the 
vascularity  of  any  part  and  the  activity  of  the 
nutrient  operations  which  take  place  in  it.  Thus, 
in  nervous  tissue  and  muscle,  in  mucous  membrane 
and  in  skin,  a  rapid  decay  and  renovation  of  tissue 
are  constantly  going  on,  and  these  are  parts  in  which 
the  capillaries  are  the  most  abundant ;  while  in 
cartilage  and  bone,  tendon  and  ligament,  the  dis- 
integration of  tissue  is  comparatively  slow,  and  the 
capillaries  are  much  less  abundant.  Each  elementary 
cell  or  particle  of  a  tissue  seems  to  have  a  sort  of 
gland-like  power  not  only  of  attracting  materials 
from  the  blood,  but  of  causing  them  to  assume  its 
structure,  and  participate  in  its  properties.  Thus, 
from  the  same  common  source,  nerves  form  nervous 
tissue,  muscles  muscular  substance,  and  even  morbid 
growths,  such  as  cancer,  have  an  assimilating 
power. 


NUTRITION-. 


Before  entering  further  into  the  subject  of 
nutrition,  it  is  necessary  to  understand  how  it 
differs  from  the  allied  processes  of  development  and 
growth.  All  these  processes  are  the  results  of  the 
plastic  or  assimilative  force  by  which  living  bodies 
are  able  to  form  themselves  from  dissimilar  mate- 
rials (as  when  an  animal  subsists  on  vegetables, 
or  when  a  plant  grows  by  appropriating  the  elements 
of  water,  carbonic  acid,  and  ammonia) ;  but  they 
are  t!>e  results  of  this  force  acting  under  different 
conditions. 

Development  is  the  process  by  which  each  tissue 
or  organ  of  a  living  body  is  lirst  formed,  or  by 
which  one,  being  already  incompletely  formed,  is 
■o  changed  in  shape  and  composition,  as  to  be  fitted 
for  a  function  of  a  higher  kind,  or  finally  is  advanced 
to  the  state  in  which  it  exists  in  the  most  perfect 
condition  of  the  species. 

Growth,  which  commonly  concurs  with  develop- 
ment, and  continues  after  it,  is  properly  mere 
increase  of  a  part  by  the  insertion  or  superaddition 
of  materials  similar  to  those  of  which  it  already 
consists.  In  growth,  properly  so  called,  no  change 
of  form  or  composition  occurs ;  parts  only  increase 
in  weight,  and  usually  in  size ;  and  if  they  acquire 
more  power,  it  is  only  more  power  of  the  same 
kind  as  that  which  they  before  enjoyed. 

Nutrition,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  process  by 
which  the  various  parts  are  maintained  in  the  same 
general  conditions  of  form,  size,  and  composition, 
which    they    have    already    by  development    and 
growth  attained.      It  is  by  this  process  that  an 
adult  person  in  health  maintains  for  a  considerable 
number    of    years    the    same    general    outline    of 
features,   and  nearly  the   same    size   and  weight, 
although  during  all  this  time  the  several  tissues  of 
his    body    are    undergoing    perpetual    decay    and 
renovation.      In    many    parts,    this    removal    and 
renewal  of  the  particles  is  evident.     In  the  glands 
— the  Kidneys  (q.  v.),  for  example — the  cells  of  which 
they   are   mainly   composed   are    being   constantly 
cast  off;   yet  each  gland  maintains  its  form  and 
proper  composition,  because  for  every  cell  that  is  J 
thrown    off,    a    new    one    is    produced.      In    the  j 
epidermis  of  the  skin,   a  similar  process   is   per- 
petually   going     on    before     our    eyes.       In    the  ! 
muscles,  a  similar  change  may  be  readily  traced,  1 
for,  within  certain  limits,  an  increased  amount  of  : 
exercise  is  directly  followed  by  an  increased  excre- 
tion of  the  ordinary  products  of  the  decomposition 
of  the  nitrogenous  tissues — viz.  urea,  carbonic  acid,  | 
and  water.      Again,  after  prolonged  mental  exer-  . 
tion,  there  is  often  a  very  marked  increase  in  the 
amount  of  alkaline  phosphates  in  the  urine,  which  J 
seems   to   shew   that  in   these   cases   there    is    an 
excessive  oxidation  of  the  phosphorus  of  the  brain ;  i 
and  yet,   in   consequence  of    the   activity   of    the 
reparative    process,   neither  the  muscles  nor    the  [ 
brain  diminish  in  size. 

It  may  be   regarded  as   an   established  fact   in  ' 
physiology,  that  every  particle  of  the  body  is  formed 
for  a  certain  period  of  existence  in  the   ordinary 
conditions  of  active  life,  at  the  end  of  which  period, 
if  not  previously  destroyed  by  excessive  exercise, 
it  is  absorbed  or  dies,  and  is  cast  off.     (The  hair  ! 
and  deciduous  or  milk  teeth  afford  good  illustra-  j 
tions  of  this  law.)     The  less  a  part  is  exercised,  the 
longer  its  component  particles  appear  to  live.    Thus, 
Mr  Paget  found  that,  if  the  general  development  of 
the  tadpole  be  retarded  by  keeping  it  in   a  cold, 
dark  place,  and  if  hereby  the  functions  of  the  blood 
corpuscles    be    slowly   and    imperfectly    discharged,  I 
the    animal    will    retain    its    embryonic    state    for  \ 
Beveral  weeks  longer  than   usual,  and   the   develop- 
ment of   the   second  set  of   corpuscles  will  be  pro- 
tx>rticnately  postponed,  while  the  individual  life  of 


the  corpuscles  of  the  first  set  will  be,  by  the  same 
time,  pro!,. 1 1 

For  the  due  performance  of  the  function  of 
nutrition,  certain  conditions  are  necessary,  of  which 
the  most  important  are— 1,  a  right  state  and  com- 
position of  the  blood,  from  which  the  materials  of 
nutrition  are  derived;  2,  a  regular  and  not  Ear 
distant  supply  of  such  blood  ;  3,'a  certain  influence 
of  the  nervous  system  ;  and  -1,  a  natural  state  of 
the  part  to  be  nourished. 

1.  There  must  be  a  certain  adaptation  peculiar 
to  each  individual  between  the  blood  and  the  tissues. 
i  Such  an  adaptation  is  determined  in  its  lirst  forma* 
tion,  and  is  maintained  in  the  concurrent  develop, 
ment  and  increase  of  both  blood  and  tissues.  This 
maintenance  of  the  sameness  of  th*  blood  is  well 
illustrated  by  the  action  of  vaccine  matter.  By  the 
insertion  of  the  most  minute  portion  of  the  virus 
into  the  system,  the  blood  undergoes  an  alteration 
which,  although  it  must  be  inconceivably  slight,  is 
maintained  for  several  years ;  for  even  very  long  after 
a  successful  vaccination,  a  second  insertion  of  the 
virus  may  have  no  effect,  because  the  new  blood  funned 
after  the  vaccination  continues  to  be  made  similar 
to  the  blood  as  altered  by  the  vaccine  matter.  So,  in 
all  probability,  are  maintained  the  morbid  states  of 
the  blood  which  exist  in  syphilis  and  many  other 
chronic  diseases ;  the  blood  once  inoculated,  retaining 
for  years  the  taint  which  it  once  received.  The 
power  of  assimilation  which  the  blood  exercises  in 
these  cases  is  exactly  comparable  with  that  of  main- 
tenance by  nutrition  in  the  tissues ;  and  evidence 
of  the  adaptation  between  the  blood  and  the  tissues, 
and  of  the  delicacy  of  the  adjustment  by  which  it  is 
maintained,  is  afforded  by  the  phenomena  of  sym- 
metrical diseases  (especially  of  the  skin  and  bones), 
in  which,  in  consequence  of  some  morbid  condition 
of  the  blood,  a  change  of  structure  affects  in  an 
exactly  similar  way  the  precisely  corresponding 
parts  on  the  two  sides  of  the  body,  and  no  other 
parts  of  even  the  same  tissue.  These  phenomena 
(of  which  numerous  examples  are  given  in  two 
papers  by  Dr  W.  Budd  and  Mr  Paget  in  the  25th 
volume  of  the  Medico-chirurgical  Transactions)  can 
only  be  explained  on  the  assumption — 1st,  of  the 
complete  and  peculiar  identity  in  composition  in 
corresponding  parts  of  opposite  sides  of  the  body ; 
and  2dly,  of  so  precise  and  complete  an  adaptation 
between  the  blood  and  the  several  parts  of  each 
tissue,  that  a  morbid  material  being  present  in  the 
blood,  may  destroy  its  fitness  for  the  nutrition  of 
one  or  two  portions  of  a  tissue,  without  affecting  its 
fitness  for  the  maintenance  of  the  other  portions  of 
the  same  tissue.  If,  then,  the  blood  can  be  fit  for  the 
maintenance  of  one  part,  and  unfit  for  the  mainten- 
ance of  another  part  of  the  same  tissue  (as  the  skiu 
or  bone),  how  precise  must  be  that  adaptation  of 
the  blood  to  the  whole  body,  by  which  in  health  it 
is  always  capable  of  maintaining  all  the  different 
parts  of  the  numerous  organs  and  tissues  in  a  state 
of  integrity. 

2.  The  necessity  of  an  adequate  supply  of  app:t>* 
priate  blood  in  or  near  the  part  to  be  nourished,  is 
shewn  in  the  frequent  examples  of  atrophy  of  parts 
to  which  too  little  blood  is  sent,  of  mortification 
when  the  supply  of  blood  is  entirely  cut  off,  and  of 
defective  nutrition  when  the  blood  is  stagnant  in  a 
part.  The  blood-vessels  themselves  take  no  share 
in  the  process,  except  as  the  carriers  of  the  nutritive 
matter ;  and  provided  they  come  so  near  that  the 
latter  may  pass  by  imbibition,  it  is  comparatively 
unimportant  whether  they  ramify  within  the  sub 
stance  of  the  tissue,  or  (as  in  the  case  of  the  non« 
vascular  tissues,  such  as  the  epidermis,  cornea,  &c.J 
are  distributed  only  over  its  surface  or  border. 

3.  Numerous  cases  of  various  kinds  might  be 

11 


NUTRITION— NUX  VOMICA. 


readily  adduced  to  prove  that  a  certain  influence  of 
the  nervous  system  is  essential  to  healthy  nutrition. 
Injuries  of  the  spinal  cord  are  not  unfrequently  fol- 
lowed by  mortification  of  portions  of  the  paralysed 
parts ;  and  both  experiments  and  clinical  cases 
shew  that  the  repair  of  injuries  takes  place  less 
completely  in  parts  paralysed  by  lesion  of  the  spinal 
cord  than  in  ordinary  cases.  Division  of  the  trunk 
of  the  trifacial  nerve  has  been  followed  by  incom- 
plete nutrition  of  the  corresponding  side  of  the  face, 
and  ulceration  of  the  cornea  is  a  frequent  conse- 
quence of  the  operation. 

4.  The  fourth  condition  is  so  obvious  as  to  require 
no  special  illustration. 

For  further  information  on  this  most  important 
department  of  physiology,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Mr  Paget's  Surgical  Pathology,  or  to  his  original 
lectures  on  Nutrition,  Hypertrophy,  and  Atrophy 
(published  in  volume  39  of  The  Medical  Gazette),  or  to 
the  chapter  on  'Nutrition  and  Growth,'  in  Kirkes's 
Handbook  of  Physiology,  which  contains  an  excellent 
abstract  of  Mr  Paget's  views,  and  to  which  we  are 
indebted  for  the  greater  part  of  this  article. 

NUX  VO'MICA  is  the  pharmacopceial  name  of 
the  seed  of  Strychnos  Nux  Vomica,  or  Poison  Nut. 
The  following  are  the  characters  of  these  seeds, 
which  are  imported  from  the  East  Indies  :  '  Nearly 
circular  and  flat,  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  umbili- 
cated  and  slightly  convex  on  one  side,  externally  of 
an  ash-gray  colour,  thickly  covered  with  short  satiny 
hairs,  internally  translucent,  tough  and  horny,  taste 
intensely  bitter,  inodorous.' — The  British  Pharma- 
copeia., p.  99. 

For  the  genuine  characters,  see  the  article 
Strychnos.— The  N.  V.  tree  is  a  native  of  Coro- 
mandel,  Ceylon,  and  other  parts  of  the  East  Indies. 
It  is  a  tree  of  moderate  size,  with  roundish- oblong, 
Stalked,  smooth  leaves,  and  terminal  corymbs.  The 
fruit  is  a  globular  berry,  about  as  large  as  a  small 


Nux  Vomica: 
Branchlet,  Leaves,  and  Flowers. 

orange,  one-celled,  with  a  brittle  shell,  and  several 
seeds  lodged  in  a  white  gelatinous  pulp.— The  bark 
is  known  as  False  Angostura  Bark,  having  been 
confounded  with  Angostura  Bark,  in  consequence  of 
a  commercial  fraud,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
present  c.  ;  but  its  properties  are  very  different,  as 
it  is  very  poisonous. 

The  seeds  contain  (in  addition  to  inert  matters, 
Buch  as  gum,  starch,  woody  fibre,  &c.)  three  alkaloids 
closely  related  to  each  other,  which  act  as  powerful 
1*2 


poisons  on  the  animal  frame,  and  speedily  occasion 
violent  tetanic  convulsions  and  death.  These  alka- 
loids or  bases  are  nameu  3trychnine,  Brncine,  and 
Igasurine,  and  exist  in  the  seeds  in  combination 
with  lactic  and .  strychnic  (or  igasuric)  acid  For  a 
good  method  of  obtaining  pure  strychnine,  which  is 
by  far  the  most  important  of  the  three  bases,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  Pharmacopoeia  of  the  United 
States,  pp.  295,  296. 

Strychnine  (C21H22N2O2)  occurs  'in  right  square 
octahedrons  or  prisms,  colourless  and  inodorous, 
scarcely  soluble  in  Avater,  but  easily  soluble  in  boil- 
ing rectified  spirit,  in  ether,  and  in  chloroform. 
Pnre  sulphuric  acid  forms  with  it  a  colourless  solu- 
tion, which,  on  the  addition  of  bichromate  of  potash, 
acquires  an  intensely  violet  hue,  speedily  passing 
through  red  to  yellow.' — Op.  cit.  In  nitric  acid,  it 
ought,  if  pure,  to  form  a  colourless  solution ;  if  the 
solution  is  reddish,  it  is  a  sign  that  brucine  is  also 
present.  Strychnine  combines  with  numerous  acids, 
and  forms  well-marked  salts,  which  are  amenable  to 
the  same  tests  as  the  base  itself. 

Brucine  (C23H26N2O4  +  4H2O)  is  insoluble  in  ether, 
but  more  soluble  in  water  and  in  strong  alcohol 
than  strychnine;  and  is  the  most  abundant  of  the 
three  alkaloids  in  nux  vomica.  It  acts  on  the 
animal  economy  similarly  to,  but  much  less  actively 
than,  strychnine,  from  which  it  may  be  distinguished 
not  only  by  its  different  solubility,  but  by  the  red 
colour  which  is  imparted  to  it  by  nitric  acid,  and 
which  changes  to  a  fine  violet  on  the  addition  of 
protochloride  of  tin.  Like  strychnine,  it  forms 
numerous  salts. 

Igasurine  seems  closely  to  resemble  brucine  in  most 
respects.     Little  is  known  regarding  Igasuric  Acid. 

Strychnine,  brucine,  and  igasurine  occur  not  only 
in  nux  vomica,  but  in  the  seeds  of  Strychnos  ignatU 
(St  Ignatius's  beans),  and  in  the  seeds  and  other 
parts  of  several  plants  of  the  genus  Strychnos.  The 
amount  of  strychnine  present  in  these  substances 
varies  from  0*5  to  15  per  cent. 

Nux  vomica,  according  to  the  experiments  of 
Marcet,  acts  on  vegetables  as  a  poison.  His  experi- 
ments were,  however,  confined  to  the  haricot  bean 
and  the  lilac.  It  is  poisonous  in  a  greater  or  lesser 
degree  to  most  animals,  though  larger  quantities 
are  required  to  kill  herbivorous  than  carnivorous 
animals.  Thus,  a  few  grains  will  kill  a  dog,  but 
some  ounces  are  required  to  destroy  a  horse.  It  is 
believed,  however,  that  the  bird  called  Buceroa 
Rhinoceros  eats  the  nuts  with  impunity;  and  a 
peculiar  kind  of  Acarus  lives  and  thrives  in  the 
extract  of  the  nuts.  Dr  Pereira  describes  three 
degrees  of  the  operation  of  this  substance  on  man. 
1.  In 'very  small  doses,  its  effects  are  tonic  and 
diuretic,  and  often  slightly  aperient.  2.  In  larger 
doses,  there  is  a  disordered  state  of  the  muscular 
system  ;  the  limbs  tremble ;  a  slight  rigidity  or 
stiffness  is  felt  when  an  attempt  is  made  to  put  the 
muscles  in  action  ;  and  the  patient  experiences  a 
difficulty  in  keeping  the  erect  posture.  If  the  use 
of  the  medicine  be  continued,  these  effects  increase 
in  intensity,  and  the  voluntary  muscles  are  thrown 
into  a  convulsed  state  by  very  slight  causes,  as,  for 
example,  by  inspiring  more  deeply  than  usual,  or 
even  by  turning  in  bed.  It  is  remarkable  that 
in  paralysis  the  effects  are  most  marked  in  the 
paralysed  parts.  3.  In  poisonous  doses,  the  symptoms 
are  tetanus  and  asphyxia,  followed  by  death. 
After  swallowing  a  large  dose  of  strychnine  (on 
which  the  poisonous  effects  of  nux  vomica  essentially 
depend),  the  following  phenomena  occurred  in  a 
case  recorded  by  Taylor  in  his  Medical  Jurispru- 
dence: 'A  young  man,  aged  seventeen,  swallowed 
forty  grains  of  strychnine.  The  symptoms  came  on 
in    about    a    quarter    of    an    hour-     lock-jaw    and 


N'YANZA— NYAYA. 


spasmodic  contraction  of  all  the  muscles  speedily 
set  in,  the  whole  body  becoming  as  stiff  aa  a  board  ; 
the  lower  extremities  were  extended  and  stiif,  and 
the  soles  of  the  feet  concave.  The  skin  became 
livid,  the  eyeballs  prominent,  and  the  pupils  dilated 
and  insensible  ;  the  patient  lay  for  a  few  minutes 
without  consciousness,  and  in  a  state  of  universal 
tetanus.  A  remission  occurred,  but  the  symptoms 
became  aggravated,  and  the  patient  died  asphyxiated 
from  the  spasm  of  the  chest  in  about  an  hour  and  a 
half  after  taking  the  poison.'  It  is  difficult  to  say 
what  is  the  smallest  dose  that  would  prove  fatal  to 
an  adult.  Thirty  grains  of  the  powdered  nuts,  given 
by  mistake  to  a  patient,  destroyed  life.  Three 
grains  of  the  extract  have  proved  fatal ;  and  in  a 
case  quoted  by  Taylor  (op.  cit.),  half  a  grain  of 
sulphate  of  strychnine  caused  death  in  14  minutes. 

The  preparations  of  mix  vomica  are  the  powdered 
nuts,  the  extracts,  the  tincture,  and  strychnine;  the 
alkaloid  being  usually  preferable,  in  consequence  of 
its  more  constant  strength.  In  various  forms  of 
paralysis,  especially  where  there  is  no  apparent 
lesion  of  structure,  nux  vomica  is  a  most  successful 
remedy ;  although  there  are  cases  in  which  it  is 
positively  injurious.  It  is  also  of  service  in  various 
affections  of  the  stomach,  such  as  dyspepsia,  gastro- 
dynia,  and  pyrosis.  The  average  dose  of  the  powder 
is  two  or  three  grains,  gradually  increased ;  that  of 
the  tincture,  10  or  15  minims;  and  that  of  the  ex- 
tract half  a  grain,  gradually  increased  to  two  or  three 
grains.  The  dose  of  strychnine,  when  given  in  cases 
of  paralysis,  is  at  the  commencement  one-twentieth 
of  a  grain  three  times  a  day,  the  dose  being  gradu- 
ally increased,  till  slight  muscular  twitchings  are  ob- 
served. For  gastric  disorders,  a  still  smaller  dose  is 
usually  sufficient,  as,  for  example,  one-fortieth  of  a 
grain. 

N'YA'NZA,  Victoria,  a  great  fresh-water  lake  in 
Central  Africa,  discovered  by  Captain  Speke  in  1858, 
and  explored  by  Speke  and  Grant  in  1862  and  by 
Stanley  in  1875.  The  native  name  N'yanza  signifies 
'  the  water ;'  but  Speke  named  it  the  Victoria  N'yanza 
in  honor  of  the  Queen  of  England.  The  southern 
point  of  the  lake  is  in  lat.  2°  44'  S.,  long.  33°  E.  Its 
northern  shore  runs  nearly  parallel  to  the  equator,  and 
is  about  20  miles  to  the  north  of  it.  The  lake  is  esti- 
mated to  be  about  220  miles  in  length,  by  about  180 
miles  in  breadth.  It  is  of  no  great  depth ;  the  sur- 
face is  about  3800  feet  above  sea-level.  There  are  a 
number  of  islands  near  its  shores,  the  chief  of  which 
are  Ukerewe  in  the  south-east  and  Sasse  in  the  north- 
west. At  its  north-east  extremity,  Lake  Baringo, 
described  by  the  natives  as  a  long  narrow  basin,  seems 
to  be  connected  with  the  V.  N.  by  a  narrow  channel. 
The  countries  on  the  west  shores  of  the  lake  enjoy  a 
mild  and  genial  climate,  and  the  rain-fall  is  below 
that  of  many  parts  of  Britain,  being  only  49  inches. 
The  natives  of  Karagwe"  and  Uganda,  on  the  western 
shores,  are  superior  races,  with  a  considerable  de- 
gree of  civilization,  the  king  of  the  latter  being  the 
most  powerful  monarch  on  the  lake,  his  sway  ex- 
tending over  a  large  portion  of  the  northern  and 
western  coasts.  The  banana,  coffee,  and  date-palm 
abound,  and  hundreds  of  white  hornless  cattle  browse 
in  the  rich  pasture-lands.  The  principal  tributary 
of  the  V.  N.  is  the  Shimiyu,  which  flows  into 
its  southern  extremity,  and  from  its  northern  side 
issues  the  Somerset  or  Nile,  which  flows  through 
Napoleon  Channel,  over  the  Kipon  Falls,  and  enters 
the  Albert  N'yanza  (which  is  situated  about  80  miles 
to  the  west  of  the  Victoria  N'yanza)  near  Magungo. 
From  the  Albert  N'yanza  issues  the  White  Nile.  See 
article  Nile  ;  also  see  Albert  N'yanza  in  Sup- 
plement, vol.  x. 

NYA'SSA,   or  NYANJA    (apparently  identical 


with  name  N'yanza),  another  lake  in  the  interior  of 
Africa,  which  Dr  Livingstone  discovered  in  1861  by 

ascending  the  river  Shire  (q.  v.).  The  southern  end 
of  the  Nyassa,  or  Star  Lake,  is  in  'at.  14°  16  ,S  ,  and 
it  is  supposed  to  extend  northwards  beyond  the  par- 
allel of  10°  S.  It  is  350  miles  inland  from  the  coast 
of  Mozambique,  and  its  surface  is  1200  feet  above 
the  sea.  Dr  Livingstone  explored  200  miles  of  the 
western  shores.  'The  lake  has  something  of  the 
boot-shape  of  Italy,'  and  appears  to  vary  from  20  to 
50  or  00  miles  in  width.  Most  of  the  land  near  the 
lake  is  low  and  marshy ;  on  the  east,  at  a  distance 
of  eight  or  ten  miles  there  are  ranges  of  high  and 
well-wooded  granite  hills.  Except  near  the  shore, 
the  lake  is  deep ;  the  temperature  of  the  water, 
which  is  sweet,  was  72°.  The  lake  abounds  in  fish  ; 
and  the  southern  shores  are  closely  beset  with 
villages,  whose  inhabitants  are  hardy  fishermen  and 
industrious  cultivators  of  the  soil.  Something  had 
previously  been  known  about  this  lake  under  the 
nam  <  of  the  Maravi ;  but  the  accounts  were  so 
vagus*,  that  latterly  it  was  omitted  from  the  maps 
of  Afvica. 

NYAYA  (from  the  Sanscrit  ni,  into,  and  dyai 
going,  a  derivative  from  i,  to  go ;  hence  literally 
'  entering,'  and  figuratively,  '  investigating  analyti- 
cally'), is  the  name  of  the  second  of  the  three 
great  systems  of  ancient  Hindu  philosophy  ;  and  it 
is  apparently  so  called  because  it  treats  analytically, 
as  it  were,  of  the  objects  of  human  knowledge,  both 
material  and  spiritual,  distributed  by  it  under 
different  heads  or  topics ;  unlike,  therefore,  the 
Veddnta  (q.  v.)  and  Sdnhhya  (q.  v.),  which  follow  a 
synthetic  method  of  reasoning,  the  former  of  these 
systems  being  chiefly  concerned  in  spiritual  and 
divine  matters,  and  the  latter  in  subjects  relating  to 
the  material  world  and  man.  The  Nyaya  consists, 
like  the  two  other  great  systems  of  Hindu  philo- 
sophy (see  MImansa  and  Sankhya),  of  two  divisions. 
The  former  is  called  Nyaya  (proper),  and  will  be 
exclusively  considered  in  this  article ;  the  other  is 
known  under  the  name  of  Vais'eshtka  (q.  v.). 
With  the  other  systems  of  philosophy,  it  concurs 
in  promising  beatitude,  that  is,  final  deliverance  of 
the  soul  from  re- birth  or  transmigration,  to  those 
who  acquire  truth,  which,  in  the  case  of  the  Nyaya, 
means  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  principles  taught 
by  this  particular  system. 

The  topics  treated  of  by  the  Nyaya  are  briefly  the 
following  :  1.  The  prarndn'a,  or  instruments  of  right 
notion.  They  are  :  a.  Knowledge  which  has  arisen 
from  the  contact  of  a  sense  with  its  object;  b. 
Inference  of  three  sorts  (d  priori,  d  posteriori,  and 
from  analogy) ;  c.  Comparison ;  and  d.  Knowledge, 
verbally  communicated,  which  may  be  knowledge 
of  '  that  whereof  the  matter  is  seen,'  and  knowledge 
of  '  that  whereof  the  matter  is  unseen '  (revelation). 
2.  The  objects  or  matters  about  which  the  inquiry  is 
concerned  (prameya).  They  are :  a.  The  Soul  (dtmari). 
It  is  the  site  of  knowledge  or  sentiment,  different 
for  each  individual  coexistent  person,  infinite,  eternal, 
&c.  Souls  are  therefore  numerous,  but  the  supreme 
soul  is  one  ;  it  is  demonstrated  as  the  creator  of  all 
things,  b.  Body  (s'arira).  It  is  the  site  of  action, 
of  the  organs  of  sensation,  and  of  the  sentiments  of 
pain  or  pleasure.  It  is  composed  of  parts,  a  framed 
substance,  not  inchoative,  and  not  consisting  of  the 
three  elements,  earth,  water,  and  fire,  as  some  say, 
nor  of  four  or  all  the  five  elements  (viz.  air  and  ether 
in  addition  to  the  former),  as  others  maintain,  but 
merely  earthy,  c.  Organs  of  sensation  (indriya) ; 
from  the  elements,  earth,  water,  light,  air,  and 
ether,  they  are  smell,  taste,  sight,  touch,  and 
hearing,  d.  Their  objects  (artha).  They  are  the 
qualities  of  earth,  &c. — viz.  odour,  savour,  colour, 
tangibility,  and  sound,    c  Understanding  (buddhi), 

12 


NYAYA. 


or  apprehension  (upalabdhi),  or  conception  (jndna), 
terms  which  are  used  synonymously.  It  is  not 
eternal,  as  the  Sankhya  maintains,  but  transitory. 
/.  The  organ  of  imagination  and  volition  (manas). 
Its  property  is  the  not  giving  rise  simultaneously 
to  more  notious  than  one.  g.  Activity  (pravr'itti), 
or  that  which  originates  the  utterances  of  the  voice, 
the  cognitions  of  the  understanding,  and  the  gestures 
of  the  body.  It  is  therefore  oral,  mental,  or  cor- 
poreal, and  the  reason  of  all  worldly  proceedings. 
h.  Faults  or  failings  (dosha),  which  cause  activity 
— viz.  affection,  aversion,  and  bewilderment,  i. 
Transmigration  (pretyabhdva,  literally,  the  becom- 
ing born  after  having  died),  or  the  regeneration 
of  the  soul,  which  commences  with  one's  first 
birth,  and  ends  only  with  final  emancipation.  It 
does  not  belong  to  the  body,  because  the  latter 
is  different  in  successive  births,  but  to  the  soid, 
because  it  is  eternal.  k.  Fruit  or  retribution 
(phala),  or  that  which  accrues  from  activity  and 
failings.  It  is  the  consciousness  of  pleasure  or 
of  pain.  I.  Pain  (duh'kha),  or  that  which  has  the 
characteristic  mark  of  causing  vexation.  It  is 
defined  as  'the  occurrence  of  birth,'  or  the 
originating  of  '  body,'  since  body  is  associated 
with  various  kinds  of  distress.  Pleasure  is  not 
denied  to  exist,  but,  according  to  the  Nyaya,  it 
deserves  little  consideration,  since  it  is  ever  closely 
connected  with  pain.  m.  Absolute  deliverance  or 
emancipation  (apavarga).  It  is  annihilation  of 
pain,  or  absolute  cessation  of  one's  troubles  once 
for  all. 

After  (1)  'instruments  of  right  notion,'  and  (2) 
'  the  objects  of  inquiry,'  the  Nyaya  proceeds  to  the 
investigation  of  the  following  topics. 

3.  Doubt  (sam's'aya).  It  arises  from  unsteadiness 
in  the  recognition  or  non-recognition  of  some  mark, 
which,  if  we  were  sure  of  its  presence  or  absence, 
would  determine  the  subject  to  be  so  or  so,  or 
not  to  be  so  or  so ;  but  it  may  also  arise  from  con- 
flicting testimony.  4.  Motive  (prayojana),  or  that 
by  which  a  person  is  moved  to  action.  5.  A  fami- 
liar case  [dr'ish'tdnta),  or  that  in  regard  to  which  a 
man  of  an  ordinary  and  a  man  of  a  superior  intel- 
lect entertain  the  same  opinion.  6.  Tenet  or  dogma 
(siddhdnta).  It  is  either  'a  tenet  of  all  schools,' 
i.  e.  universally  acknowledged,  or  '  a  tenet  peculiar 
to  some  school,'  i.  e.  partially  acknowledged ;  or  '  a 
hypothetical  dogma,'  i.  e.  one  which  rests  on  the 
supposed  truth  of  another  dogma ;  or  '  an  implied 
dogma,'  i.  e.  one  the  correctness  of  which  is  not 
expressly  proved,  but  tacitly  admitted  by  the 
Nyaya.  7.  The  different  members  (avayava)  of  a 
regular  argument  or  syllogism  (nydya).  8.  Confu- 
tation or  reduction  to  absurdity  (tarka).  It  consists 
in  directing  a  person  who  does  not  apprehend  the 
force  of  the  argument  as  first  presented  to  him,  to 
look  at  it  from  an  opposite  point  of  view.  9.  Ascer- 
tainment (nim'aya).  It  is  the  determination  of  a 
question  by  hearing  both  what  is  to  be  said  for  and 
against  it,  after  having  been  in  doubt.  The  three 
next  topics  relate  to  the  topic  of  controversy,  viz. 
10.  Discussion  (vada),  which  is  defined  as  consisting 
in  the  defending  by  proofs  on  the  part  of  the  one 
disputant,  and  the  controverting  it  by  objections 
on  the  part  of  the  other,  without  discordance  in 
respect  of  the  principles  on  which  the  conclusion 
is  to  depend ;  it  is,  in  short,  an  honest  sort  of 
discussion,  such,  for  instance,  as  takes  place  between 
a  preceptor  and  his  pupil,  and  where  the  debate  is 
conducted  without  ambition  of  victory.  11.  Wrang- 
ling (jalpa),  consisting  in  the  defence  or  attack  of 
a  proposition  by  means  of  tricks,  futilities,  and  such 
like  means ;  it  is  therefore  a  kind  of  discussion 
where  the  disputants  are  merely  desirous  of  victory, 
instead  of  being  desirous  of  truth.     12,  Cavilling 


(vitan'd'd),  when  a  man  does  not  attempt  to  estab- 
lish the  opposite  side  of  the  question,  but  confine3 
himself  to  carping  disingenuously  at  the  arguments 
of  the  other  party.  13.  Fallacies,  or  semblances  of 
reasons  (hetvdbhdsa),  five  sorts  of  which  are  distin- 
guished, viz.  the  erratic,  the  contradictory,  the 
equally  available  on  both  sides,  that  which,  standing 
itself  in  the  need  of  proof,  does  not  differ  from  that 
which  is  to  be  proved,  and  that  which  is  adduced 
when  the  time  is  not  that  when  it  might  have 
availed.  14.  Tricks,  or  unfairness  in  disputation 
(chhala),  or  the  opposing  of  a  proposition  by  meana 
of  assuming  a  different  sense  from  that  which  the 
objector  well  knows  the  propounder  intended  to 
convey  by  his  terms.  It  is  distinguished  as  verbal 
misconstruing  of  what  is  ambiguous,  as  perverting, 
in  a  literal  sense,  what  is  said  in  a  metaphorical  one, 
and  as  generalising  what  is  particular.  15.  Futile 
objections  (jdti),  of  which  twenty-four  sorts  are 
enumerated ;  and,  16.  Failure  in  argument  or  reason 
of  defeat  (nigraha-sthdna),  of  which  twenty-two 
distinctions  are  specified. 

The  great  prominence  given  by  the  Nyaya  to  the 
method,  by  means  of  which  truth  might  be  ascer- 
tained, has  sometimes  misled  European  writers 
into  the  belief,  that  it  is  merely  a  system  of  formal 
logic,  not  engaged  in  metaphysical  investigations. 
But  though  ^ie  foregoing  enumeration  of  the  topics 
treated  by  it  could  only  touch  upon  the  main  points 
which  form  the  subject-matter  of  the  Nyaya,  it 
will  sufficiently  shew  that  the  Nyaya  intended  to 
be  a  complete  system  of  philosophical  investigation ; 
and  some  questions,  such  as  the  nature  of  intellect, 
articulated  sound,  &c,  or  those  of  genus,  variety, 
and  individual,  it  has  dealt  with  in  a  masterly 
manner,  well  deserving  the  notice  of  western  specu- 
lation. That  the  atomistic  theory  has  been  devolved 
from  it,  will  be  seen  under  the  article  Vais'eshika. 
On  account  of  the  prominent  position,  however, 
which  the  method  of  discussion  holds  in  this  system, 
and  the  frequent  allusion  made  by  European  writers 
to  a  Hindu  syllos^sm,  it  will  be  expedient  to  explain 
how  the  Nyaya  defines  the  '  different  members  of  a 
syllogism '  under  its  seventh  topic.  A  regular  argu- 
ment consists,  according  to  it,  of  five  members — 
viz.  a.  the  proposition  (pratijnd),  or  the  declaration 
of  what  is  to  be  established ;  b.  the  reason  (hetu),  or 
'  the  means  for  the  establishing  of  what  is  to  be 
established;'  c.  the  example  (uddharan'a),  i.  e.  some 
familiar  case  illustrating  the  fact  to  be  established, 
or  inversely,  some  familiar  case  illustrating  the 
impossibility  of  the  contrary  fact ;  d.  the  appli- 
cation (upanaya),  or  '  re-statement  of  that  in  respect 
of  which  something  is  to  be  established ; '  and  e.  the 
conclusion  (nigamana),  or  '  the  re-stating  of  the 
proposition  because  of  the  mention  of  the  reason.' 
An  instance  of  such  a  syllogism  would  run  accord- 
ingly thus  :  a.  This  hill  is  fiery,  b.  for  it  smokes,  c 
as  a  culinary  hearth,  or  (inversely)  not  as  a  lake, 
from  which  vapour  is  seen  arising,  vapour  not 
being  smoke,  because  a  lake  is  invariably  devoid  of 
fire;  d.  accordingly,  the  hill  is  smoking;  e.  there- 
fore, it  is  fiery. 

The  founder  of  the  Nyaya  system  is  reputed 
under  the  name  of  Gotama,  or,  as  it  also  occurs, 
Gautama  (which  would  mean  a  descendant  of 
Gotama).  There  is,  however,  nothing  as  yet  known 
as  to  the  history  of  this  personage  or  the  time  when 
he  lived,  though  it  is  probable  that  the  work  attri- 
buted to  him  is,  in  its  present  shape,  later  than  the 
work  of  the  great  grammarian  Pan'mi.  It  consists 
of  five  books  or  Adhydyas,  each  divided  into  two 
'  days,'  or  diurnal  lessons,  which  are  again  sub- 
divided into  sections  or  topics,  each  of  which 
contains  several  aphorisms,  or  SUtras.  See  Sutra. 
Like  the  text-books  of  other  sciences  among  the 


NYCTAGINACILE— NYL-GHAU. 


Hindus,  it  has  boon  explained  or  annotated  l«y  a 
triple  sot  of  commentaries,  which,  in  their  turn,  have 
become  the  source  of  more  popular  or  elementary 
treatises. — The  Sanscrit  text  of  the  Sutras  of  Gotama, 
with  a  commentary  by  Vitftoan&tha,  baa  been  edited 
at  Calcutta  (1828)  ;  and  the  first  four  books,  and 
part  of  the  fifth,  of  the  text,  with  an  English  version, 
an  English  commentary,  and  extracts  from  the 
Sanscrit  commentary  of  Vis'wan.ttha,  by  the  late 
Dr  J.  II.  Ballantyne  (Allahabad,  1860—1864).  This 
excellent  English  version  and  commentary,  and  the 
celebrated  Essay  on  the  Nyaya,  byH.  T.  Colebrooke 
(Transactions  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  vol.  L 
London,  1827  ;  and  reprinted  in  the  Miscellaneous 
Essays,  vol.  i.  London,  18.37),  are  the  best  guide  for 
the  European  student  who,  without  a  knowledge 
of  Sanscrit,  "w<  mid  wish  to  familiarise  himself  with 
the  Nyaya  system. 

NYCTAGIXA'CE.E,  a  natural  order  of  exoge- 
nous plants,  consisting  partly  of  herbaceous  plants, 
both  annual  and  perennial,  and  partly  of  shrubs  and 
trees.  Lindley  ranks  thorn  in  his  Chenapodal  Alli- 
ance. The  flowers  are  either  clustered  or  solitary, 
and  either  the  cluster  or  the  flower  often  has  an 
involucre,  which  is  often  gaily  coloured.  The  peri- 
anth is  tubular,  plaited  in  bud,  coloured ;  the  limb 
entire  or  toothed,  deciduous.  The  stamens  are  equal 
in  number  to  the  lobes  of  the  perianth.  The  ovary 
is  superior,  with  one  ovule,  and  one  style.  The 
fruit  is  a  thin  caryopsis,  enclosed  within  the  enlarged 
and  indurated  base  of  the  perianth. — There  are 
about  100  known  species,  natives  of  warm  countries. 
Some  have  flowers  of  considerable  beauty,  as  those 
of  the  genus  Mirabilis,  known  in  our  gardens  as 
Marvel  of  Peru,  one  of  which,  M.  Jalapa,  was  at  one 
time  erroneously  supposed  to  produce  jalap.  The 
roots  of  many  are  fleshy,  purgative,  and  emetic. 
Those  of  Boerhaavia  panicutata  are  used  instead  of 
ipecacuanha  both  in  Guiana  and  in  Java. 

NYCTERFBIA,  an  extremely  curious  genus  of 
insects,  ranked  in  the  order  Dlptera,  although 
very  different  from  most  of  that  order,  and  having 
neither  wings  nor  balancers.  Its  nearest  alliance  is 
with  Hippoboscidai  (see  Forest  Fly  and  Sheep 
Tick),  which  it  resembles  particularly  in  parasitic 
habits,  and  in  the  retention  of  the  eggs  within  the 
abdomen  of  the  female,  until  they  have  not  only 
been  hatched,  but  have  passed  from  the  larva  into 
the  pupa  state.  The  form,  however,  is  so  spider, 
like,  that  these  insects  were  at  first  ranked  among 
the  A  racial  ida.  The  few  species  known  are  ail 
parasitic  on  bats,  on  which  they  run  about  with 
great  activity.  The  head  is  very  small,  curiously 
affixed  to  the  back  of  the  thorax,  and  when  the 
creature  sucks  the  bluod  of  the  bat,  upon  which  it 
lives,  it  places  itself  in  a  reversed  position. 

NY'KERK,  or  NIEUWKERK,  on  the  Veluwe, 
is  a  very  flourishing  and  well-built  town,  near  the 
Zuider  Zee,  in  the  province  of  Gelderland,  Nether- 
lands, 25  miles  north-west  of  Arnheim.  Pop.  8000. 
It  has  a  good  harbour,  which  is  connected  with  the 
sea  by  a  wide  canal  of  1|  miles  in  length.  In  the 
neighbourhood  are  fine  rich  meadow-pastures  and 
lands  suited  for  all  kinds  of  grain,  tobacco,  potatoes, 
&c.  Tobacco  is  extensively  grown ;  many  cattle  are 
raised  ;  and  a  brisk  trade  carried  on  both  with  the 
surrounding  country  and  Amsterdam,  the  market 
to  which  the  cattle,  tobacco,  dairy,  and  other  agri- 
cultural produce,  together  with  much  firewood,  are 
sent.  N.  has  a  handsome  Reformed  church,  a 
Roman  Catholic  chapel,  a  synagogue,  orphan-house, 
and  good  schools.  There  are  several  manufactures 
carried  on,  which  also  give  employment  to  the 
people  In  Netherlands  church  history,  N.  is 
famed  as  the  place  where  a  great  religious  move- 


ment began  at  the  middle  of  last  century.  The 
history  of  the  movement,  which  spread  through- 
out the  land,  contains  all  the  marks  of  the  later 
revivals  in  America,  Scotland,  and  Ireland 
Ypey  and  Dermout's  Gcschiedenis  der  Nederd.  Her. 
Kerk,  vol.  iv. 

NY'KOPING,  a  seaport  of  Sweden,  pleasantly 
situated  on  the  Baltic,  in  hit.  ~>s"  46  -Y,  long.  17°  E., 
about  GO  miles  south-west  of  Stockholm.  It  com- 
prises among  its  manufacturing  products  cotton 
goods,  stockings,  tobacco,  &c,  and  lias  good  ship- 
yards, mills,  and  manufactories  for  machinery,  while 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  town  are  extensive  paper-milk. 
The  ruined  old  castle  of  N.,  nearly  destroyed  by  tire 
in  16G5,  and  which  ranked  in  point  of  strength 
next  to  those  of  Stockholm  and  Calmar,  has  expe- 
rienced many  eventful  vicissitudes  of  fortune.  King 
Valdemar  of  Sweden,  after  his  dethronement  in 
1288,  was  imprisoned  here  till  his  death  in  1302; 
but  the  most  tragic  incident  connected  with  N. 
Castle  was  the  horrible  death  within  its  walls 
of  the  Dukes  Eric  and  Valdemar,  who,  after  being 
entrapped  by  their  pusillanimous  brother,  King 
Birger,  in  1317,  were  left  to  perish  of  hunger  in 
a  dungeon,  the  keys  of  which  the  king  threw  into 
the  sea  before  he  left  the  castle.  The  horror  of 
this  deed  roused  the  indignation  of  the  people, 
who  seized  upon  the  castle,  sacked  it,  and  demol- 
ished its  keep  and  donjons.  In  1719,  the  town 
wras  taken  and  dismantled  by  the  Russians ;  and 
since  then  it  has  ceased  to  be  the  scene  of  any 
events  of  historical  interest.  It  i3  noted  for  the 
pure  Swedish  spoken  by  its  inhabitants.  Pop. 
4282. 

NYL-GHAU  (Antilope  picta,  or  Portax  trago- 
camelus),  a  species  of  antelope,  with  somewhat 
ox-like  head  and  body,  but  with  long  slender 
limbs,  and  of  great  activity  and  fleetness.  It  is 
one  of  the  largest  of  antelopes,  and  is  more  than 
four  feet  high  at  the  shoulder.  The  horns  of  the 
male  are  about  as  long  as  the  ears,  smooth,  black, 
pointed,  slightly  curved  forwards.     The  female  has 


Nyl-Ghau  (Antilope  picta). 

no  horns.  The  neck  is  deep  and  compressed,  not 
rounded  as  in  most  of  the  antelopes.  A  .slight  mane 
runs  along  the  neck  and  part  of  the  back,  and  the 
breast  is  adorned  with  a  long  hanging  tuft  of  hair. 
The  back  is  almost  elevated  into  a  hump  between 
the  shoulders.  The  N.  inhabits  the  dense  forests  of 
India  and  Persia,  where  it  has  long  been  regarded 
as  one  of  the  noblest  kinds  of  game.  It  is  often 
taken,  like  other  large  animals,  by  the  enclosing  of 

M 


NYMPH^EACE^— NYSTADT. 


a  large  space  with  nets,  and  by  great  numbers  of 
people.  It  is  a  spirited  animal,  and  dangerous  to 
a  rash  assailant.  It  is  capable  of  domestication, 
but  is  said  to  manifest  an  irritable  and  capricious 
temper. 

NYMPHiEA'CEJS,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  growing  in  lakes,  ponds,  ditches,  and  slow 
rivers,  where  their  fleshy  rootstocks  are  prostrate 
in  the  mud  at  the  bottom ;  and  their  large,  long- 
Btalked,  heart-shaped,  or  peltate  leaves  float  on  the 
surface  of  the  water.  Their  flowers  also  either 
float,  or  are  raised  on  their  stalks  a  little  above  the 
water.  The  flowers  are  large,  and  often  very 
beautiful  and  fragrant.  There  are  usually  four 
sepals,  and  numerous  petals  and  stamens,  often 
passing  gradually  into  one  another.  The  ovary  is 
many-celled,  with  radiating  stigmas,  and  very 
numerous  ovules,  and  is  more  or  less  surrounded 
by  a  large  fleshy  disc.  The  seeds  have  a  farinaceous 
albumen.  More  than  fifty  species  are  known,  mostly 
natives  of  warm  and  temperate  regions.  The  root- 
stocks  of  some  of  them  are  used  as  food,  and  the 
seeds  of  many.— See  Water-lily,  Lotus,  Victoria, 
and  Eur yale. — Very  nearly  allied  to  N.  are 
Nelumbiaceos.    See  Nelumbo. 

NYMPHS,  in  Classic  Mythology,  female  divini- 
ties of  inferior  rank,  inhabiting  the  sea,  streams, 
groves,  meadows  and  pastures,  grottoes,  fountains, 
Eills,  glens,  trees,  &c.  Among  the  N.,  different  classes 
were  distinguished,  particularly  the  Oceanides, 
10 


daughters  of  Oceanus  (N.  of  the  great  ocean 
which  flows  around  the  earth),  the  Nereids, 
daughters  of  Nereus  (N.  of  the  inner  depths  of  the 
sea,  or  of  the  Inner  Sea — the  Mediterranean), 
Potameides  (River  N.),  Naiads  (N.  of  fountains, 
lakes,  brooks,  wells),  Oreades  (Mountain  N.),  Dryads 
or  Hamadryads  (Forest  N.,  who  were  believed  to 
die  with  the  trees  in  which  they  dwelt).  They 
were  the  goddesses  of  fertilising  moisture,  and  were 
represented  as  taking  an  interest  in  the  nourish- 
ment and  growth  of  infants,  and  as  being  addicted 
to  the  chase  (companions  of  the  divine  huntress 
Diana),  to  female  occupations,  and  to  dancing. 
They  are  among  the  most  beautiful  conceptions 
of  the  plastic  and  reverent  (if  credulous)  fancy  of 
the  ancient  Greeks,  who,  in  the  various  phenomena 
of  nature — the  rush  of  sea-waves,  the  bubble  of 
brooks,  the  play  of  sunbeams,  the  rustle  of 
leaves,  and  the  silence  of  caves — felt,  with  a  poetio 
vividness  that  our  modern  science  will  hardly 
permit  us  to  realise,  the  presence  of  unseen  joyous 
powers. 

NY'SSA.    See  Tupelo  Tree. 

NY'STADT,  a  town  of  Finland,  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  50  miles  south  of 
Biorneborg.  Here,  in  1721,  a  treaty  was  agreed  to, 
between  Russia  and  Sweden,  by  virtue  of  which 
all  the  conquests  of  Peter  the  Great  along  the 
coasts  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland  were  annexed  tr  ttussia. 
Pop.  3258. 


0 


(     THE  fifteenth  letter  in  the  English 

Y5*   US   BaHl     am*  *n  mos*  western  alphabets,  is 

4  l^i  fl-Pft    °ne  °^  *^ie  ^ve  smiP'e  vowel-signs 

■"■t    of  the  English  language.     As  the 

language  is  at  present  pronounced, 

it  stands   for  at   least   four   distinct 

sounds,  heard  in  the  words  note,  nor, 

(n5t),  move,  son.      The  primary  and 

simple  sound  of  0  is  that  heard  long  in 

nor,  and   short   in   n5t,  ISp.      The  sound 

given  to  it  in  such  words  as  note,  go,  is 

really  a  diphthong — a  long  o  terminating 

in  a  slight  u  or  oo  sound  (o^)-  The  corresponding 
letter  in  the  Hebrew  and  Phoenician  Alphabet  (q.  v.) 
was  called  Ayn,  i.  e.,  '  eye  ; '  and  accordingly  the 
primitive  form  of  the  Phoenician  letter  was  a  rough 
picture  of  an  eye,  which  naturally  became  a  circle 
with  a  dot  in  the  centre — still  to  be  seen  in  some 
ancient  inscriptions — and  then  a  simple  circle. 

O',  a  prefix  in  many  Irish  family  names,  serves  to 
form  a  patronymic,  like  Mac  in  Gaelic  names ;  as 
O'Brien,  a  descendant  of  Brien.  By  some,  it  is 
considered  to  be  derived  from  of;  but  it  is  more 
likely  from  Ir.  ua,  Gael,  ogha,  a  grandson.  In  the 
Lowland  Scottish,  the  word  oe  is  used  for  grandson, 
and  in  some  localities  for  nephew. 

OA'HU,  one  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  (q.  v.). 

OAJA'CO,  OAXACA,  or  GUAXACA,  a  city  of 
Mexico,  capital  of  a  state  of  the  same  name,  stands 
on  the  river  Bio  Verde,  210  miles  south-south-east 
of  Mexico.  It  covers  an  area  2  miles  in  length  by 
1^  in  breadth,  is  well  built,  with  o;>en  streets,  inter- 
spersed -with,  plantations,  on  which  the  cochineal 
insect  feeds,  and  has  about  25,000  inhabitants.  Silk, 
cotton,  sugar,  and  chocolate  are  manufactured. 

OAK  (Quercus),  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  of 
the  natural  order  Cupuli/erce,  having  a  three-celled 
ovary,  and  a  round  (not  angular)  nut — which  is 
called  an  acorn— placed  in  a  scaly  truncated  cup, 
the  lower  part  of  it  invested  by  the  cup.  The  species 
are  very  numerous,  natives  of  temperate  aud  tropical 
countries.  A  few  species  are  found  in  Europe. 
North  America  produces  many  ;  and  many  are 
natives  of  mountainous  regions  in  the  torrid  zone  ; 
Borne  are  found  at  low  elevations  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Himalaya,  some  even  at  the  level  of  the  sea 
in  the  Malay  peninsula  and  Indian  islands.  But 
in  the  peninsula  of  India  and  in  Ceylon,  none  are 
found  ;  and  none  in  tropical  Africa,  in  Australia,  or 
in  South  America.  The  oaks  have  alternate  simple 
leaves ;  which  are  entire  in  some,  but  in  the  greater 
number  variously  lobed  and  sinuated  or  cut ;  ever- 
green in  some,  but  more  generally  deciduous.  Many 
of  them  are  trees  of  great  size,  famous  for  the 
strength  and  durability  of  their  timber,  as  well  as 
for  the  majesty  of  their  appearance,  and  their  great 
longevity. — Throughout  all  parts  of  Europe,  except 
the  extreme  north,  two  species  are  found,  or  varieties 
of  one  species,  the  Common  Oak  (Q.  robur) ;  one 
(Q.  pedunculata)  having  the  acorns  on  longish  stalks, 
311 


the  other  [Q.  sessiliftora)  having  them  almost  without 
stalks.      Other  differences  have  been  pointed  out; 
but  they  are  regarded  by  some  of  the  most  eminent 
and  careful  botanists  as  merely  accidental,  and  not 
coincident   with    these ;    while,    as    to    the    length 
of  the   fruit-stalks,    every   intermediate    gradation 
occurs.      Both  varieties  occur  in  Britain,  the  first 
being  the  most  prevalent,  as  it  is  generally  in  the 
north  of  Europe ;  the  second  being  more  abundant 
in  more  southern  countries.     The  short-stalked  oak 
is  sometimes  called  Durmast  Oak  in  England.     It 
has   been    much  disputed  which   is   entitled  to  be 
considered  the  true  British  oak ;  and  much  alarm 
has  occasionally  been  expressed  lest  new  plantations 
should  be  made  of  the  wrong  kind ;  whilst  the  most 
contradictory  statements  have  been  made  as  to  the 
comparative   value  and  characters  of   the   timber. 
The  oak  succeeds  best  in  loamy  soils,  and  especially 
in  those  that  are  somewhat  calcareous.     It  cannot 
endure  stagnant  water.     It  succeeds  well  on  soils 
too  poor  for  ash  or  elm ;  but  depends  much  on  the 
depth  of  the  soil,  its  roots  penetrating  more  deeply 
than  those  of  most  other  trees.     Noble  specimens 
of  oak  trees,  and  some  of  them  historically  cele- 
brated, exist  in  almost  all  parts  of  Britain  ;  but  are 
much  more  frequent  in  England  than  in  Scotland 
The  former  existence  of  great  oak  forests  is  attested 
by  the  huge  trunks  often  found  in  bogs.     The  oak 
attains  a  height  of  from  50  to  100  or  even  150  or 
180  feet ;  the  trunk  being  four,  six,  or  even  eight 
feet    in   diameter.      It   sometimes   grows  tall    and 
stately,  but  often  rather  exhibits  great  thickness  of 
bole  and  magnitude  of  branches.      It   reaches   its 
greatest  magnitude  in  periods  varying  from  120  to 
400  years,  but  lives  to  the  age  of  600,  or  eveu  1000. 
The  timber  is  very  solid,  durable,  peculiarly  unsus- 
ceptible of  the  influence  of  moisture,  and  therefore 
eminently  adapted  for   ship-building.      It    is    also 
employed  in  carpentry,  mill-work,  &c. — The  bark 
abounds  in  tannin  ;  it  also  contains  a  peculiar  bitter 
principle  called  Quercine,  and  is  used  in  medicine, 
chiefly  in  gargles,  &c,  on  account  of  its  astringency, 
sometimes  also   as  a  tonic ;  it  is  used  along  with 
gall-nuts  in  the  manufacture  of  ink ;  but  most  of 
all  for  tanning  (see  Bark),  and  on  this  account  the 
oak  is  often  planted  as  copse-wood  (see  Copse)  in 
situations  where  it  cannot  be  expected  to  attain  to 
great  size  as  a  tree.     The  timber  of  copse  oak  is 
excellent  firewood.      The  oak  is  particularly  fitted 
for   copse-wood,   by   the    readiness   with  which   it 
springs  again  from  the  stools  after  it  has  been  cut. 
— Acorns  are  very  nourishing  food  for  swine,  and  in 
times  of  scarcity  have  been  often  uned  for  human 
food,  as,  indeed,  they  commonly  are  in  some  very 
poor  countries,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  meaL 
The  bitterness  which  makes  them  disagreeable  is 
said  to  be  in  part  removed  by  burying  them  for  a 
time  in  the  earth.     The  acorns  of  some  trees  are 
also  much  less  bitter  than  others,  and  oaks  of  the 
common    species    occur   which    produce   acorns   as 
sweet  as  chestnuts.     Other  varieties  of  the  common 
oak  are  assiduously  propagated  by  nurserymen  as 

17 


OAK— OAKUM. 


curious  and  ornamental,  particularly  one  with 
pendulous  branchlets  (the  Weeping  Oak),  and  one 
with  branches  growing  up  close  to  the  stem,  as 
in  some  kinds  of  poplar.  Among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  the  oak  was  sacred  to  Zeus  or  Jupiter ;  and 
it  has  been  connected  with  the  religious  observances 
of  many  nations,  as  of  the  ancient  Celts  and  Germans. 
— The  Turkey  Oak  or  Adriatic  Oak  (Q.  cerris), 
now  very  frequently  planted  in  Britain,  is  a  large 
and  valuable  tree,  very  common  in  the  south-east 
of  Europe,  and  in  some  parts  of  Asia.  _  The  timber 
is  imported  in  considerable  quantity  into  Britain 
for  ship-building  and  other  purposes.  The  leaves 
differ  from  those  of  the  common  oak  in  their  acute 
lobes,  and  the  cups  of  the  acorns  are  mossy,  i.  e., 
have  long,  loose,  acute  scales.  Similar  to  this,  in 
both  these  respects,  are  the  Austrian  Oak  (Q. 
Austriaca),  abundant  near  Vienna,  and  the  Spanish 
Oak  {Q.  Hispanica). — The  Cork  Oak  or  Cork-Tree 
(Q.  saber)  is  noticed  in  the  article  Cork  ;  the  Holm 
Oak  or  Evergreen  Oak  (Q.  ilex),  another  of  the 
species  found  in  the  south  of  Europe,  in  the  article 
Ilex. — Of  the  North  American  oaks,  some  are  very 
valuable  as  timber  trees.  Perhaps  the  most  important 
is  the  White  Oak  (Q.  alba),  an  invaluable  large 
tree,  the  leaves  of  which  have  a  few  rounded  lobes. 
It  is  found  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  Canada ;  and. 
in  some  places  forms  the  chief  part  of  the  forest.  The 
timber  is  less  compact  than  that  of  the  British  oak ; 
that  of  young  trees  is  very  elastic. — The  Overcup 
Oak,  or  Bur  Oak  (Q.  macrocarpa),  a  middle-sized 
tree,  haAring  its  acorns  almost  covered  by  their  globu- 
lar cup,  grows  chiefly  in  dry  woods,  along  rivers,  &c, 
in  W.  New  England  to  Wisconsin  and  southwards. — 
The  Chestnut  Oak  (Q.  pi-inus)  is  also  a  much-es- 
teemed timber  tree,  common  from  Penna.  southwards. 
—The  Swamp  White  Oak  (Q.  discolor),  a  closely 
allied  species,  is  probably  merely  a  variety. — The 
Live  Oak  (Q.  virens),  an  evergreen  species,  with 
entire  leathery  leaves,  is  regarded  as  a  tree  of  the 
first  importance  in  the  United  States,  from  the  excel- 
lence of  its  timber  and  its  value  for  ship-building,  so 
that  ffforts  have  been  made  by  the  government  to 
protect  it  and  to  promote  the  planting  of  its  acorns. 
Yet  it  is  not  a  very  large  tree,  being  seldom  more 
than  forty-five  feet  in  height,  with  a  trunk  of  two 
feet  in  diameter.  It  grows  on  the  coasts  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  as  far  north  as  Virginia.  It 
once  abounded  on  the  Sea  Islands,  now  so  cele- 
brated for  their  cotton. — The  Bed  Oak  (Q.  rubra), 
a  large  tree,  with  sinuated  and  lobed  leaves,  the 
lobes  toothed,  and  bristle-pointed,  yields  great  part 
of  the  lied  Oak  Staves  exported  from  Canada  and 
the  north  of  the  United  States  to  the  West  Indies  ; 
but  Red  Oak  Staves  are  also  produced  in  the  Middle 
and  Southern  States  by  the  Scarlet  Oak  (Q. 
coccinea),  a  very  similar  species,  by  the  Black  Oak 
or  Quercitron  Oak  (Q.  tincloria),  another  species 
with  the  lobes  of  the  leaves  somewhat  toothed,  better 
known  for  the  dye-stuff  which  its  bark  yields  (see 
Quercitron),  and  by  the  Willow  Oak  (Q.  phellos), 
a  large  tree  with  lanceolate  leaves  and  a  willow-like 
aspect.  The  timber  of  all  these  species  is  of  very 
'nferior  quality.  These  are  the  American  oaks  of 
greatest  economical  and  commercial  importance, 
but  there  are  numerous  other  species,  some  of  them 
trees,  some  mere  shrubs,  of  which  some  grow  on 
poor  soils,  and  cover  them  in  compact  masses ; 
resembling  in  this  a  single  European  species  (Q. 
viminalis),  a  native  of  the  Vosges,  6 — 8  feet  high, 
with  slender  tough  branches,  which  makes  excellent 
hedges. — The  Black  Jack  (Q.  nigra)  is  an  American 
oak,  chiefly  notable  for  the  abundance  in  which  it 
grows  on  some  of  the  poorest  soils.  It  is  a  small 
tree,  and  its  timber  of  little  value.  The  bark  is 
black. — Some  of  the  Nepaulese  oaks  are  large  and 
18 


valuable  trees,  as  are  some  of  those  of  China  and 
Japan,  of  Java,  of  Mexico,  &c.  The  oaks  of  Java 
and  the  other  Indian  islands  have  generally  the 
leaves  quite  entire. — The  bark  of  most  of  the  species 
of  oak  is  capable  of  being  used  for  tanning,  and  ia 
used  in  different  countries.  The  cups  and  acorns  of 
the  Valonia  Oak  (Q.  Mgilops)  are  exported  from 
the  Morea  and  other  parts  of  the  Levant,  in  great 
quantities,  for  this  purpose,  under  the  name  of 
Valonia.  See  Leather.  The  tree  resembles  the 
Turkey  Oak,  and  has  very  large  hemispherical 
mossy  cups.  The  cups  are  said  to  contain  more 
tannin  than  any  other  vegetable  substance. — Galla 
(q.  v.)  or  Gall-nuts  are  in  great  part  obtained  from 
the  oak  therefore  called  the  Gall-oak  {Q.  infec- 
toria),  a  scrubby  bush,  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  with 
bluntly  serrated,  ovate-oblong  leaves. — The  Kermes 
Oak  (Q.  cocci/era),  on  the  leaves  of  which  the 
Kermes  (q.  v.)  insect  is  found,  is  a  low  bush,  with 
evergreen  spinous  leaves,  much  resembling  a  holly, 
a  native  of  the  south-east  of  Europe. — Of  oaks  with 
sweet  and  edible  acorns,  may  be  mentioned  the 
Ballote  Oak  (Q.  Ballota  or  Gram.untia),  an  ever- 
green with  round  spiny-toothed  leaves,  a  native 
of  the  north  of  Africa,  the  acorns  of  which  are  regu- 
larly brought  to  market  in  Algeria  and  in  Spain, 
and  are  long  and  cylindrical ;  the  Italian  Oak  (Q. 
sEsculus) ,  closely  allied  to  the  common  oak ;  and  the 
Dwarf  Chestnut  Oak  (Q.  chinquapin  or  prinoides) 
of  North  America,  a  small  shrubby  species,  which 
has  been  specially  recommended  to  cultivation  on 
this  account.  Other  North  American  species,  and 
some  of  the  Himalayan  species,  also  produce  edible 
acorns.  From  the  acorns  of  some  species,  oil  is 
made  in  considerable  quantity  in  different  parts  of 
the  world,  and  is  used  in  cookery. — The  leaves  of 
the  Manna  Oak  (Q.  mannifera) — a  native  of  the 
mountains  of  Kurdistan,  having  oblong,  blunt-lobed 
leaves — secrete  in  hot  weather  a  kind  of  manna,  a 
sweet  mucilaginous  substance,  which  is  made  into 
sweetmeats,  and  very  highly  esteemed. 

The  name  Oak  is  sometimes  popularly  applied  to 
timber  trees  of  very  different  genera.  Thus,  African 
Oak  is  another  name  of  African  Teak.  See  Teak. 
Some  of  the  species  of  Casuarina  (q.  v.)  are  called 
Oak  in  Australia.  The  Stone  Oak  (Lithocarpus 
Javenensis)  of  Java,  so  named  from  the  extreme 
hardness  of  its  timber,  is  a  tree  of  the  same  family 
with  the  true  oaks. 

OAK  BEAUTY  {Biston  prodromaria),  a  moth 
of  the  family  Geometridai,  a  native  of  England, 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  or  two  inches  in  expanse 
of  wings  ;  the  upper  wings  with  two  brown  curved 
bands,  and  margined  with  black,  the  lower  wings 
with  one  brown  band.  The  caterpillar  feeds  on  the 
oak. 

OA'KHAM,  the  county-town  of  Rutlandshire, 
England,  in  the  vale  of  Catmos,  25  miles  west- 
north-west  of  Peterborough.  It  is  a  station  on 
the  Syston  and  Peterborough  branch  of  the  Mid- 
land Railway.  In  former  times,  there  was  a  castle 
here  ;  it  is  now  in  ruins,  with  the  exception  of  the 
portion  used  as  the  county-hall.  The  church,  the 
interior  of  which  was  beautifully  restored  in  1858, 
is  an  edifice  of  the  perpendicular  style,  and  has  a 
fine  tower  and  spire.  The  Free  Grammar-school, 
with  an  annual  endowment  of  about  £700  a  year, 
was  founded  in  1581.     Pop.  2948. 

OA'KUM,  a  tangled  mass  of  tarred  hempen 
fibres,  is  made  from  old  rope  by  untwisting  the 
strands  and  rubbing  the  fibres  free  from  each  other. 
Its  principal  use  is  in  Caulking  (q.  v.)  the  seams 
between  planks,  the  space  round  rivets,  bolts,  &c, 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  water  from  penetrat- 
ing. 


OANNES— OASES. 


Oannes. 


OANNES,  the  name  of  a  Babylonian  cod,  who, 
in  the  b'rst  year  of  the  foundation  of  Babylon,  is 
■aid  to  have  come  out  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  or  the 
old  Erythraean  Sea,  adjoining  Babylon.  He  i8 
■  id  as  having  the  head  and  body  of  a  fish,  to 
which  were  added  a  human  head  and  feet  under  the 
fislfs  head  and  at  the  tail.  He  lived  amongst  men 
during  the  daytime,  without,  however,  taking  any 
food,  and  retired  at 
sunset  to  the  sea,  from 
which  he  had  emer  ;ed. 
0.  had  a  human  voice, 
and  instructed  men  in 
the  use  of  letters, 
and  in  all  the  prin- 
cipal arts  and  sciences 
of  civilisation,  which 
he  communicated  to 
them.  Such  is  the 
account  of  him  pre- 
served by  Berosus  and 
Apollodorus.  Five 

such  monsters  are  said 
to  have  come  out  of 
the  Persian  Gulf ;  one,  called  Anedotos  or  Idotion,  in 
the  reign  of  Amenon,  the  fourth  king  of  Babylon ; 
another  in  that  of  the  fifth  king ;  and  the  last, 
called  Odacon  (or  Ho  Dagon),  apparently  the  Phoe- 
nician Dagon,  under  the  sixth.  Many  figures  of  0., 
resembling  that  of  a  Triton,  having  the  upper  part 
of  a  man.  and  the  lower  of  a  fish,  or  as  a  man 
covered  with  a  fish's  body,  have  been  found  in  the 
sculptures  of  Kouyunjik  and  Khorsabad,  as  well  as 
on  many  cylinders  and  gems.  0.  is  supposed  to  have 
symbolised  the  conquest  of  Babylonia  by  a  more 
civilised  nation  coming  in  ships  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Euphrates ;  but  he  is  apparently  a  water-god,  resem- 
bling in  type  and  character  the  Phoenician  Dagon, 
and  the  Greek  Proteus  and  Triton. 

Helladius,   Apud  Phot.  Cod.   279,  pp.    535,  34; 
Richter,  DeBeroso;  Cory,  Anc.  Fragm.  p.  30  ;  1  Sam. 
v.  4  ;  Bunsen,  Egypt's  Place,  vol.  i.  p.  706 ; 
Layard,  Nineveh,  p.  343. 

OAR,  a  wooden  instrument  by  which 
a  person  sitting  in  a  boat  propels  it 
through  the  water.  The  form  found  in 
practice  to  combine  greatest  power  with 
lightness,  is  that  shewn  in  the  figure. 
From  a  to  b  is  the  blade  of  the  oar,  thin 
and  nearly  flat,  though  occasionally  some- 
what curved,  so  as  to  present  a  concave 
surface  to  the  water ;  from  b  to  d  is  round 
or  square,  gradually  thickening  towards 
d,  that  the  part  ce  may  nearly  balance 
the  part  ac.  At  dc  is  the  handle,  which 
is  grasped  by  one  or  both  hands,  The 
oar  rests  at  c  on  the  roio-loc!:,  aud  in  many 
cases  some  device  is  resorted  to,  to  retain 
the  oar  from  slipping  outwards.  In  the 
Thames,  a  leathern  stop,  called  a  button, 
is  used ;  sometimes  a  pin  in  the  gunwale 
.  i  of  the  boat  passes  through  the  oar  (but 
•*  this  weakens  the  oar,  and  precludes  feather- 
ing) ;  at  other  times,  the  oar  is  fastened 
to  the  pin  by  a  leathern  thong.  The 
action  of  an  oar  in  moving  a  boat  is  that 
of  a  lever,  the  rower's  hand  being  the 
power,  the  water  the  fulcrum,  against 
wThich  the  oar  presses,  and  the  row-lock 
the  point  at  which  the  opposition  caused 
,  by  the  weight  of  the  boat  and  its  cargo 
'  is  felt.  Feathering  an  oar  consists  in 
turning  it,  immediately  on  leaving  the 
water,  so  that  the  fiat  blade  of  the  oar 
is  horizontal,  and  in  preserving  this  position  untd 
just   before    the    fresh    dip,  when    of    course  the 


— C 


Oar. 


vertical  position  must  be  resumed.  Feathering 
diminishes  the  resistance  offered  by  air,  wind, 
and  small  wave-; ;  it  also  adds  greatly  to  tin!  beauty 
and  grace  of  rowing. 

The  best  oars  are  of  Norway  fir,  though  some  are 
made  of  ash  and  beech. 

CASES,  certain  cultivated  spots  in  the  Libyan 
desert  (called  also  Auams,  Owuit,  or  H oasis) 
which  produce  vegetation,  owing  to  the  presence 
of  springs  issuing  from  the  ground.  The  princi- 
pal oases  are  those  lying  to  the  west  of  I 
a  few  days'  journey  from  the  Nile,  and  known  to 
the  ancients  by  the  name  of  the  Greater  and  I.  set 
Oases,  and  that  of  Ammon.  It  is  Bupposed  that 
they  were  known  to  the  Egyptians  during  the  12th 
dynasty  under  the  name  of  Suten-Khenn,  but  no 
evidence  of  their  occupation  by  the  Egyptian! 
earlier  than  Darius  has  been  found  in  >>itu.  Ey 
some  of  the  ancients  they  were  called  the  Islands  of 
the  Blessed,  or  compared  to  the  spots  on  a  panther's 
skin.  Their  name  is  supposed  to  be  the  Coptic 
Quah':  (Inhabited  Place).  They  are  first  mentioned 
by  Herodotus  in  his  account  of  the  destruction  of 
the  army  of  Cambyses  by  the  storm  of  sand,  or 
simoom.  Equally  celebrated  is  the  visit  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  to  the  oasis,  which  he  successfully 
accomplished  after  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  and 
passed  through  the  desert  a  nine  days'  journey 
before  he  reached  the  Temple  of  Ammon,  the  priests 
of  which  declared  him  the  son  of  that  god,  and  the 
future  conqueror  of  the  entire  world.  Herodotus 
describes  that  of  El  Wah,  or  the  Oasis  Magna  of 
the  Romans,  which  contained  the  oracle  of  A  mmon, 
and  which  lies  seven  clays'  journey  west  of  Thebes. 
It  appears  to  have  been  anciently  frequented  by 
caravans  going  to  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  Strabo 
mentions  three  oases  :  the  first  seven  days'  journey 
west  of  Abydos ;  the  second,  west  of  the  Lake  Mceris ; 
the  third,  near  the  oracle  of  Ammon.  Pliny  men- 
tions two  oases ;  so  does  Ptolemy,  who  calls  them 
the  Lesser  and  Greater.  Under  the  Roman  empire, 
they  were  used  for  temporary  banishment  of  crimi- 
nals of  state,  and  the  poet  Juvenal  was  sent  there. 
Olympiodorus,  a  native  of  the  Thebaid,  gives  a 
glowing  description  of  them  in  the  days  of  Theo- 
dosius  the  Younger.    Under  the  Byzantine  emperors, 


Temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon — Oasis  of  Siwah. 
(From  Hoskin's  Visit  to  the  Great  Oasis  ) 

the  emperors  banished  there  the  heads  of  the 
Catholic  party,  at  the  instigation  of  the  Arians,  in 
the    4th  c,   and   Athanasius  himself  is    supposed 

19 


OASES— OAT. 


to  have  taken  refuge  in  them.  In  the  5th  c, 
Nestorius,  the  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  was 
banished  there.  He  was  rescued  by  an  excursion 
of  the  Blemyes,  but  expired  soon  after  his  arrival 
at  the  Nile.  The  oases  were  then  a  place  of 
desolation  and  horror,  occasionally  plundered  by 
Beduins.  They  fell,  913  A.D.,  into  the  power 
of  the  Arabs,  after  having  been  held  by  the 
Egyptian  monarchs  and  their  successors  till  that 
period  ;  and  they  are  described  by  Edrisi  (1150 
A.D.)  as  uninhabited;  by  Abulfeda  (1240  A.D.)  and 
by  Leo  Africanus  (1513  a.d.),  as  inhabited  and 
cultivated,  and  quite  independent,  having  three 
fortresses.  The  first  modern  traveller  who  visited 
them  is  supposed  to  have  been  Poncet  (1698  ad.). 
Subsequently,  in  1792,  Browne  discovered  the  oasis 
of  Ammon  at  El  Siwah  ;  and  it  was  visited  in  179S 
by  Hornemaun,  and  in  1819  by  Cailliaud.  It  lies  in 
29°  12'  20"  N.  lat.,  and  2G°  C  9"  E.  long.  Drovetti 
and  Minutoli  also  visited  the  same  spot. 

These  oases  are  now  held  by  Muggrebi  Arabs,  a 
powerful  race  in  the  Desert,  capable  of  raising 
30,000  men,  who  supply  camels  and  guides  to  travel- 
lers. The  oases  are  four  in  number  :  1.  El  Khargeh, 
or  the  Oasis  Magna,  the  Greater  Oasis  of  Ptolemy ; 

2.  El    Kasr,   or    Oasis   Parva,    the   Lesser   Oasis ; 

3.  Siwah,  or  the  Oasis  of  Ammon,  the  most 
northerly ;  4.  The  Western  Oasis,  or  Dakkel, 
mentioned  by  Olympiodorus,  and  visited  by  Sir 
Archibald  Edmonstone  in  1819.  Of  El  Khargeh, 
full  particulars  have  been  given  by  M.  Hoskins,  who 
discovered  it  lying  about  125  miles  west  of  the  Nile. 
having  a  stream  of  water  rising  near  the  village  of 
Genah,  on  the  north-west  of  the  oasis,  and  lost  in 
the  sand.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Hagel-bel- 
Badah.  North  of  El  Gem  lies  the  metropolis, 
El  Khargeh,  which  consists  of  a  series  of  covered 
streets  and  open  bazaars.  The  temple  lies  two 
hours'  journey  from  it,  in  a  fine  situation ;  the 
sekos  has  a  vestibule  of  500  feet,  with  pylons,  or 
gateways,  the  first  of  which  has  a  decree  in 
Greek,  dated  in  the  reign  of  Galba  (68  a.d.), 
against  forcing  persons  to  farm  the  revenue,  prevent- 
ing imprisonment  for  debt,  preserving  the  dowries 
of  women,  and  limiting  the  office  of  strategos  for 
three  years.  The  temple  has  other  decrees  prevent- 
ing the  officers  of  government  from  smuggling.  It 
has  an  avenue  of  sphinxes  and  three  pylons ;  on 
the  third,  Darius  is  represented  offering  to  Amen 
Ba,  Osiris,  and  Isis ;  while  Nekht-her-hebi  (Nectabes) 
continued  the  ornaments  of  the  temple  about  414 — 
340  B.  c.  The  sekos  is  140  feet  long,  and  represents 
Darius  offering  to  Amen  Ba,  or  Khnuniis,  the  ram- 
headed  god,  and  Osiris  ;  while  in  the  accompanying 
scenes  are  seen  Anta,  or  Anaitis,  Baspu,  or  Beseph. 
In  the  vicinity  is  a  magnificent  necropolis  of  150 
sepulchres,  of  a  late  period,  with  Doric  and  Corinth- 
ian capitals.  There  are  several  temples  at  other 
spots  of  the  oases.  2.  El  Kasr,  the  Oasis  Parva, 
lies  four  or  five  days'  journey  south-east  of  Siwah, 
called  the  Wah-el-Bahnasa,  or  Wah-el-Menesheh, 
contains  no  monumeuts  older  than  the  B,oman, 
consisting  of  a  triumphal  arch,  subterraneous 
and  other  aqueducts,  several  hot  springs,  a  necro- 
polis, and  Christian  church.  This  oasis  was  first 
conquered  by  the  Arabs ;  and  in  its  vicinity  is 
another  oasis  called  Wady  Zerzoora,  with  others 
adjoining,  of  inferior  iuterest.  3.  Siwah,  or  the 
Oasis  of  Ammon — one  of  the  first  discovered,  and 
repeatedly  visited,  has,  unfortunately,  not  been  seen 
by  any  one  acquainted  with  hieroglyphics — lies 
west  of  the  Natron  Lakes.  It  would  appear  from 
Minutoli  that  the  temple  was  built  by  Nekht-her- 
hebi,  or  Nectabes  I.,  in  honour  of  the  god  Khnum, 
Ammon  Khnumis  or  Chnebis,  who,  as  the  deity  of 
water,  presided  over  the  water  from  which  the  oasis 

20 


originated.  The  oasis  is  nine  miles  broad  and  two 
long,  contains  ElGarah  Ghanny,  and  Menchyeh,has 
a  population  of  about  8000  inhabitants,  possesses  date 
and  other  trees,  grows  cereals,  and  has  sulphur- 
ous springs,  a  salt  lake  at  Arachieh,  and  many 
ruined  temples,  a  necropolis,  and  other  remains. 
The  oracle  of  Ammon  is  supposed  to  have  been  at  a 
place  called  Om-Beydah,  or  the  temple  of  Nekht-her- 
hebi.  From  this,  it  would  seem  that  the  oasis  did 
not  fall  into  the  power  of  Egypt  till  about  the  5th 
c.  B.C.  The  celebrated  Fountain  of  the  Sun  is  at 
Siwah  Shargieh.  It  is  30  paces  long,  20  broad,  six 
fathoms  deep,  with  bubbles  constantly  rising  to  the 
surface,  steaming  in  the  morning,  and  warmer  at 
night.  Close  to  it  are  the  remains  of  the  sanctuary 
of  Ammon.  4.  El  Dakkel,  or  the  Western  Oasis,  lies 
about  78  miles  south-west  of  Siout.  The  principal 
ruin  at  Dar-el-Hadjar  consists  of  a  small  temple, 
dedicated  to  Khnumis  by  the  Boman  emperors, 
Nero  and  Titus.  At  Ain  Amoor,  between  this  oasis 
and  the  Oasis  Masma,  is  a  temple  built  under  the 
Boman  empire. — Herodotus,  iii.  26  ;  Strabo,  ii.  p. 
130,  xvii.  pp.  790,  791,  813;  Ptolemy,  iv.  5,  37; 
Minutoli,  JReise  zum  Tempel  des  Jupiter  Ammon 
(Berlin,  1S24)  ;  Hoskins,  Visit  to  the  Great  Oasis 
(8vo,  Loncl  1837)  ;  Champollion,  L'Egypte,  p.  2S2. 

OAT,  or  OATS  (Avena),  a  genus  of  grasses, 
containing  many  species,  among  which  are  some 
valuable  for  the  grain  which  they  produce,  and 
some  useful  for  hay.  The  Linnrean  genus  Avena,  less 
natural  than  most  of  the  Linnraan  genera,  has  been 
much  broken  up.  The  genus,  as  now  restricted, 
has  the  spikelets  in  loose  panicles,  the  glumes  as 
long  as  the  fiorets,  and  containing  two  or  more 
florets ;  the  palea?  firm,  and  almost  cartilaginous, 
the  outer  palea  of  each  floret,  or  of  one  or  more  of 
the  florets,  bearing  on  the  back  a  knee- jointed  awn, 
which  is  twisted  at  the  base.  The  awn,  however, 
tends  to  disappear,  and  often  wholly  disappears  in 
cultivation.  Those  species  which  are  cultivated  as 
corn-plants  have  comparatively  large  spikelets  and 
seeds,  the  spikelets — at  least  after  flowering — pen- 
dulous. The  native  country  of  the  cultivated  oats 
is  unknown,  although  most  probably  it  is  Central 
Asia.  There  is  no  reference,  however,  to  the  oat  in 
the  Old  Testament ;  and  although  it  was  known  to 
the  Greeks,  who  called  it  Bromos,  and  to  the  Bomans, 
it  is  probable  that  they  derived  their  knowledge  of 
it  from  the  Celts,  Germans,  and  other  northern 
nations.  It  is  a  grain  better  suited  to  moist  than  to 
dry,  and  to  cold  than  to  warm  climates,  although  it 
does  not  extend  so  far  north  as  the  coarse  kinds  of 
barley.  The  grain  is  either  used  in  the  form  of 
Groats  (q.  v.)  or  made  into  meal.  Oatmeal  cakea 
and  porridge  form  great  part  of  the  food  of  the 
peasantry  of  Scotland  and  of  some  other  countries. 
No  grain  is  so  much  esteemed  for  feediug  horses. 
Besides  a  large  quantity  of  starch— about  65  per 
cent. — and  some  sugar,  gum,  and  oil,  the  grain 
of  oats  contains  almost  20  per  cent,  of  nitro- 
genous principles,  or  Prote'ine  (q.  v.)  compounds, 
of  which  about  16  or  17  parts  are  Avenine,  a  sub- 
stance very  similar  to  Caseiiie  (q.  v.),  and  two 
or  three  parts  gluten,  the  remainder  albumen. 
The  husk  of  oats  is  also  nutritious,  and  is  mixed 
with  other  food  for  horses,  oxen,  and  sheep. 
From  the  starchy  particles  adhering  to  the  husk 
or  seeds  after  the  separation  of  the  grain,  a 
light  dish,  called  sowans,  is  made  in  Scotland  by 
means  of  boiling  water,  was  once  very  popular,  and 
is  very  suitable  for  weak  stomachs.  The  grain  is 
sometimes  mixed  with  barley  for  distillation.  The 
Bussian  beverage  called  qtiass  is  made  from.  oats. 
The  straw  of  oats  is  very  useful  as  fodder,  bringing 
a  higher  price  than  any  other  kind  of  straw. 
— The    varieties    of    oats    in    cultivation    are    veri 


OAT— OATES. 


numerous,  and  some  highly  esteemed  varieties  are 
of  recent  and  well-known  origin.     It  is  <l< >ul>tful  if 

they  really  belong  to  more  than  one  species  ;  hut 
the  follow  im;  are  very  generally  distinguished  as 
species  :  1.  COMMON  Oat  [A.  aaUva),  having  a  very 
loose  panicle,  which  spreads  on  all  sides,  and  two  or 
Fertile  florets  in  each  spikelet,  the  palese  quite 
smooth,  not  more  than  one  floret  awned  ;  2.  TAR- 
TARIAN Oat  {A.  orientaHa),  also  called  Hungarian 
Oat  and  Siberian  Oat,  distinguished  chiefly  by 
having  the  panicle  much  more  contracted,  and  all 
turned  to  one  side;  3.  Naked  Oat  (A.  mtda), 
differing  from  the  Tartarian  Oat  chielly  in  having 
the  pales  very  slightly  adherent  to  the  seeds,  which, 
therefore,  fall  readily  out  of  them,  whilst  in  the 
other  kinds  they  adhere  closely;  4.  Chinese  Oat 
(A.  chi ik  litis),  which  agrees  with  the  last  in  the 
characters  of  the  pales  and  seeds,  hut  is  more  like 
the  Common  Oat  in  its  panicle,  and  has  more 
numerous  florets,  4 — 8,  in  the  spikelet ;  5.  Short 
Oat  (.1.  br<  iris),  which  has  a  close  panicle  turned  to 
one  side,  the  Bpikelets  containing  only  one  or  two 
florets,  each  floret  awned,  the  grains  short.  Almost 
all  the  varieties  of  oat  in  cidtivation  belong  to  the 
first  and  second  of  these  species.  The  Naked 
Oat  is  cultivated  in  Austria,  but  is  not  much 
esteemed.  The  Chiuese  Oat,  said  to  have  been 
brought  by  the  Russians  from  the  north  of  China, 
is  prolific,  but  the  grain  is  easily  shaken  out 
by  winds.  The  Short  Oat  is  cultivated  as  a 
grain-crop  on  poor  soils  at  high  elevations  in  the 
mountainous  parts  of  France  and  Spain,  ripening 
where  other  kinds  do  not;  it  is  also  cultivated  in 
some  parts  of  Europe  as  a  forage  plaut. — Besides 
these,  there  is  another  kind  of  oat,  the  Bristle- 
pointed  Oat  (A.  strigosa),  regarded  by  some 
botanists  as  belonging  even  to  a  distinct  genus, 
DanUionia,  because  the  lower  palea  is  much  pro- 
longed, and  instead  of  merely  being  biricl  at  the 
point,  as  in  the  other  oats,  is  divided  into  two  long 
teeth,  extending  into  bristles.  The  panicle  is 
inclined  to  one  side,  very  little  branched ;  the  florets, 
2  or  3  in  a  spikelet,  all  awned,  the  grain  rather 
small.  This  plant  is  common  in  cornfields,  is  culti- 
vated in  many  countries,  but  chiefly  on  poor  soils, 
and  was  at  one  time  much  cultivated  in  Scotland, 


Wild  Oat  (Avana  fatua). 

but  is  now  scarcely  to  be  seen  as  a  crop. — Not 
nnlike  this,  but  with  the  panicle  spreading  equally 
on  all  sides,  the  outer  palea  merely  bifid,  and  long 
hairs  at  the  base  of  the  glumes,  is  the  Wild  Oat 
(A.  fatua),  also  frequent  in  cornfields,  and  a  variety 


of  which  is  cultivated  in  some  northern  countries 
for  meal,  but  which  is  more  generallj  iegarded  by 
fanners  as  a  weed  to  be  extirpated,  springing  up  BO 
abundantly  in  some  districts  as  to  choke  crops  of 

grain.     Its  awns  have  much  of  the  baro- 
metrical  property  which    gains  fat   A.   steruit,  a 

species  found  in  the  south  of  Enrope,  the  name  of 
the  Animal  Oat,  because  the  seeds  when  ripe  and 
fallen  on  the  ground  resemble  insects,  and  move 
about  in  an  extraordinary  manner  through  the 
twisting  and  untwisting  of  the  awns.  The 
the  Wild  Oat  has  been  sometimes  used  instead  of 
an  artificial  ily  for  catching  trout. — Amongst  the 
species  of  oat  useful  not  for  their  -rain  but  for 
fodder  are   the  Downy  Oat-grass    (.1.  pu\  < 

and  Yellow  Oat-grass  [A.  ft  both  referred 

by  some  botanists  to  the  genus  Triaetum — tie 
awn  being  like  a  middle  tooth  in  the  bifid  palea — 
and  both  natives  of  Britain,  the  former  growing  on 
light  ground  and  dry  hills,  especially  where  the 
soil  is  calcareous,  the  latter  on  light  meadow  lands. 
— Other  species  are  found  in  Britain,  continental 
Europe,  North  America,  Australia.  &c.  In  some 
parts  of  the  Sahara  are  bottoms  of  ravines  richly 
productive  of  a  species  of  oat-grass  (.4.  Forskalii) 
much  relished  by  camels. 

Ear  more  ground  is  occupied  with  oats  in  Scotland 
than  with  any  other  grain.  In  all  the  higher  dis- 
tricts, it  is  almost  the  only  kind  of  grain  which  ia 
cultivated.  Throughout  Scotland,  it  is  the  crop 
that  is  chiefly  sown  after  land  has  been  in  pasture 
for  one  or  more  years.  The  seed  is  generally  sown 
broadcast  over  the  ploughed  land,  which  is  after- 
wards well  harrowed  and  pulverised.  It  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  have  the  latter  operations 
well  done,  as  it  prevents  the  attacks  of  insect 
larvae.  On  soils  that  are  infested  with  annual 
weeds,  such  as  charlock,  it  is  common  to  drill  the 
seed,  which  permits  the  land  to  be  hand-hoed  and 
thoroughly  cleaned.  Oats  thrive  best  upon  deep 
and  rich  soils,  and  yield  but  poorly  on  thin  sandy 
soils,  where  they  suffer  sooner  from  drought  than 
barley,  rye,  or  wheat.  On  good  soils,  it  is  common 
to  dress  oats  with  2  to  3  cwts.  of  guano  to  the  acre. 
The  plant  is  not  easily  injured  by  large  applications 
of  heterogeneous  manures.  The  Potato  Oat  is  a 
variety  generally  cultivated  in  the  best  soils  aud 
climates.  It  is  an  early  and  productive  variety. 
Oats  of  every  variety  are  most  successfully  grown 
in  a  cool  and  moist  climate,  and  hence  when  raised 
in  the  Eastern  and  Northern  United  States  decline 
in  value  annually.  New  varieties  are  constantly  in- 
troduced from  the  North  under  various  names,  such  as 
the  Norwegian,  Excelsior,  Swedish,  Prohsteier,  &c, 
which  prove  more  productive  for  a  few  seasons,  but 
eventually  decline  in  value.  In  America  and  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  this  grain  is  seldom  seen  of  qual- 
ity equal  to  that  produced  in  Scotland ;  and  even  in 
most  parts  of  England  the  climate  is  less  suitable  to 
it,  and  it  is  less  plump  and  rich. 

OATES  (alias  AMBROSE),  Trrus,  was  the  son  of 
a  ribbon  weaver,  who,  having  first  become  an  Ana- 
baptist minister  under  Cromwell,  took  orders  and  a 
benefice  in  the  English  Church  after  the  Restora- 
tion. Titus  appears  to  have  been  born  about  1620 
in  London.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Merchant  Taylors' 
School,  whence  he  passed  to  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, took  orders,  and  received  a  small  living 
from  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  This  position,  however, 
he  forfeited,  in  consequence  of  a  malicious  prosecu- 
tion, in  which  he  narrowly  escaped  conviction  for 
perjury  ;  and  having  been  afterwards  appointed  to 
the  chaplaincy  of  one  of  the  king's  ships,  he  was 
expelled  from  it  on  a  charge  still  more  disgraceful. 
In  this  extremity,  he  conformed  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  was  admitted  as  a  scholar  of 

21 


OATES. 


the  Jesuits'  College  at  Valladolid ;  but  was  expelled 
for  misconduct,  after  a  trial  of  a  few  months.  He 
was  again  received  by  the  Jesuits,  on  his  earnest 
protestations  of  repentance,  at  St  Omer,  where  he 
was  do  less  unsuccessful,  and  was  finally  dismissed 
by  them  in  the  early  part  of  1678.  He  now,  as  a 
mere  vagabond  adventurer,  set  himself  to  live  by 
his  wits,  in  the  evil  exercise  of  which  he  devised, 
about  this  time,  the  atrocious  scheme  with  which 
his  name  is  identified  in  history.  Just  then,  great 
excitement  and  alarm  pervaded  the  Protestant 
party  in  England.  It  was  well  known  that  Charles 
was  at  heart  a  Roman  Catholic ;  and  his  brother, 
the  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II.,  was  an 
active  and  avowed  zealot  on  the  same  side.  The 
growing  confidence  of  the  Roman  Catholics  was 
unconcealed ;  and  with  or  without  instant  reason, 
the  cry  so  often  since  heard  arose,  and 
was  everywhere  re-echoed,  that  the 
'  Protestant  religion  was  in  danger.'  In 
this  fevered  state  of  general  feeling,  0. 
saw  his  opportunity,  and  dexterously 
and  boldly  availed  himself  of  it.  He 
communicated  to  the  authorities  the 
details  of  a  pretended  plot,  the  figment 
of  his  own  brain,  the  main  elements  of 
which  were  a  rising  of  the  Catholic 
party,  a  general  massacre  of  Protest- 
ants, the  burning  of  the  city  of  London, 
the  assassination  of  the  king,  and  the 
invasion  of  Ireland  by  a  French  army. 
In  certain  of  its  items,  the  fiction  was 
devised  with  considerable  ingenuity  to 
catch  the  popular  belief.  By  the  strangest 
coincidence,  moreover,  there  just  then 
occurred  in  aid  of  it  a  series  of  events 
which  seemed  conclusively  to  attest  its 
genuineness.  A  correspondence,  the 
object  of  which  was  the  propagation  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  came  to 
light  between  the  secretary  of  the  Duke 
of  York  and  Pere  La  Chaise,  the  con- 
fessor and  confidant  of  Louis  XIV. 
Danby,  the  prime  minister,  it  also 
appeared,  had  been  busy  with  intrigues 
in  the  same  quarter.  Finally,  Godfrey, 
the  zealous  magistrate  through  whom 
publicity  was  first  given  to  'the  plot,' 
was  found  mysteriously  murdered.  After 
this,  could  reasonable  doubt  exist  ?  Was 
not  the  English.  St  Bartholomew  already 
begun?  All  London  went  wild  with 
fear  and  rage ;  and  it  seemed  at  one 
time  likely  that  a  massacre  of  Roman 
Catholics  would  be  substituted  for  the 
dreaded  extermination  of  the  Protestants. 
The  parliament,  which  might  have  done 
something  to  allay  the  excitement,  was 
itself  swept  headlong  away  by  it.  The 
king  alone,  whose  life  was  threatened, 
but  who,  dissolute  and  indolent  as  he 
was,  wanted  neither  courage  nor  shrewd- 
ness, much  to  his  honour,  scornfully  insisted  that  the 
plot  was  merely  some  insane  delusion,  and  tried,  so 
far  as  he  could,  to  control  the  excesses  which  fol- 
lowed. Too  probably,  his  interference  was  of  the 
characteristically  easy,  insouciant  kind  ;  in  any  case, 
it  did  not  avail.  The  story  of  0.  was  universally 
believed ;  and  he  became  the  popidar  hero  of  the 
day.  A  pension  of  £900  a  year  was  granted  him  ; 
a  puite  of  apartments  in  the  palace  at  Whitehall 
was  set  apavt  as  sacred  to  his  use  ;  and  wherever  he 
went,  the  Protestant  public  wildly  cheered  him  as 
their  saviour.  With  the  aid  of  a  set  of  suborned 
ruffians,  only  one  degree  less  foul  than  himself, 
convictions  of  his  victims  were  readily  obtained, 
22  J  ' 


judges  and  juries  vying  with  each  other  in  their 
unquestioning  reception  in  evidence  of  the  grossest 
and  most  manifest  perjuries ;  and  many  innocent 
Roman  Catholic  gentlemen  died  the  death  of  traitors 
at  the  block.  Over  the  space  of  two  years,  the  base 
success  of  0.  was  signalised  by  a  series  of  judicial 
murders.  Naturally,  however,  as  reason  resumed 
its  sway,  doubts  began  to  be  felt ;  and  on  the 
execution  of  a  venerable  and  respected  noblemau, 
Viscount  Stafford,  with  a  strong  shock  of  pity  and 
remorse,  public  suspicion  awoke,  and  a  violent 
reaction  set  in.  It  was  only,  however,  on  the  acces- 
sion of  James  II.  in  1G85  that  retribution  overtook 
the  malefactor.  Active  steps  against  him  were  then 
taken.  He  was  tried  before  the  Court  of  King's 
Bench,  convicted  of  perjury,  and  sentenced  to  be 
pilloried,  whipped  at  the  cart's  tail,  and  afterwards 


Oates  in  the  Pillory. — From  a  Contemporary  Print. 


imprisoned  for  life.  We  might  wonder  a  little  at 
the  leniency  of  the  sentence,  were  it  not  thus  tc 
be  explained:  it  was  intended  that  the  severity  of 
the  first  two  items  of  punishment  should  render 
the  last  one  superfluous,  and  that  the  wretch 
should  die  under  the  lash  of  the  executioner.  But 
the  hide  of  O.  was  beyond  calculation  tough; 
and  horribly  lacerated,  yet  living,  his  carcass  was 
conveyed  to  the  prison,  from  which  it  was  meant 
never  more  to  issue.  Very  strangely,  however,  the 
next  turn  of  the  political  wheel  brought  back  the 
monster  to  the  light  of  day  and  to  prosperity. 
When  the  revolution  of  ]  688  placed  William  on  the 
throne,    the    Protestant    influence    triumphed    ones 


OATH. 


more.  In  the  outburst  of  enthusiasm  which  ensued, 
what  more  natural  than  that  <>.  should  be  glorified 
as  a  Protestant  martyr?  Parliament  solemnly 
declared  bis  trial  an  illegal  one;  he  was  pardoned, 

and  obtained  his  liberty  ;  and  in  order  to  his  perfect 
enjoyment  of  it,  a  pension  of  £300  a  year  was 
granted  him.  He  was,  however,  no  more  heard 
of ;  lie  passed  his  seventeen  remaining  years  in 
obscurity,  and  died  in  1705  at  the  good  old  age  of 
eighty-six. 

OATH  (Ang.-Sax.  ath,  Ger.  eid),  in  the  religious 
use  of  tho  word,  may  be  defined  an  expressed  or  im- 
plied calling  upon  the  Almighty  to  witness  the  truth 
of  an  asseveration,  or  the  good  faith  of  a  promise; 
with  which  is  ordinarily  conjoined  an  imprecation 
of  his  vengeance,  or  a  renunciation  of  his  favour,  in 
case  the  asseveration  should  be  false,  or  the  promise 
should  be  broken.  This  practice  has  prevailed, 
in  some  form  or  other,  in  almost  all  the  religions  of 
the  ancient,  as  well  as  of  the  modern  world.  It 
supposes,  however,  a  belief  of  the  existence  of  a 
provident  Supreme  Being,  in  order  to  its  moral 
efficacy  as  a  safeguard  of  truth.  Among  the  Jews, 
we  find  instances  in  Gen.  xiv.  22,  xxi.  24,  xlvii.  31, 
L  5,  confirmed  even  by  the  example  of  God  himself, 
Numb.  xiv.  28,  Jerem.  xliv.  2G,  Isai.  lxii.  8.  It 
was  strictly  forbidden  to  the  Jews  to  swear  by 
false  gods  (Amos  viii.  14,  Jerem.  xii.  1G).  The  form 
of  oath  was  probably  variable,  either  a  direct 
adjuration,  as  '  The  Lord  liveth,'  or  an  imprecation, 
'  The  Lord  do  so  to  me ; '  but  in  all  cases,  the 
strongest  denunciations  are  held  out  against  the 
false  swearer  (Exod.  xx.  7,  Levit.  xix.  12).  Oaths 
were  employed,  both  judicially  and  extrajudicially, 
by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  Medes,  and 
Persians,  as  well  as  by  the  Greeks,  and  also  by  the 
Romans.  The  forms  were  very  various — one  of  the 
most  solemn  consisting  in  the  act  of  placing  the 
hand  on  the  altar  of  the  deity  who  was  invoked 
as  witness.  In  the  judicial  proceedings  of  both 
the  last-named  nations,  oaths  were  employed,  but 
not  universally  ;  and  in  examples  of  their  extra- 
judicial use,  the  literatures  of  both  abound.  In 
the  Christian  dispensation,  the  solemnity  of  an 
oath  is  enhanced  by  the  elevated  idea  of  the  sanctity 
and  perfection  of  the  Deity. 

The  lawfulness  and  fitness  of  the  practice,  under 
circumstances  of  due  solemnity,  are  commonly 
recognised  by  Christians.  Some  communions,  of 
which  the  most  remarkable  are  the  Moravians 
and  the  Society  of  Friends,  applying  literally  the 
words  of  Christ  (Mat.  v.  34),  regard  all  oaths  as 
unlawful.  But  other  communions  generally  re- 
strict this  prohibition  to  ordinary  and  private 
discourse,  and  rind  in  Bom.  i.  9,  2  Cor.  xi.  21, 
Gal.  i.  20,  Phil.  i.  8,  and  1  Thessal.  ii.  5,  full 
warrant  for  the  lawfulness  of  oaths  in  judicial 
and  other  solemn  use.  From  some  passages  of  the 
Fathers,  it  might  seem  that  they  shared  the 
difficulties  of  the  Quakers  and  Moravians  on  the 
subject  of  the  lawfulness  of  swearing ;  but  these 
Fathers  for  the  most  part  referred  to  the  oaths 
required  of  Christians  by  the  pagans,  which  gene- 
rally involved  a  recognition  of  particular  pagan 
divinities  ;  and  they  condemned  these  pagan  oaths, 
rather  as  involving  or  even  directly  containing 
a  profession  of  the  popular  paganism,  than  as 
unlawfnl  in  themselves.  The  Christians  of  the 
later  ages  may  perhaps  be  said  to  have  multiplied 
in  au  opposite  degree  the  occasions  of  oaths ; 
especially  of  what  were  called  'purgatorial'  oaths, 
in  which  a  party  charged  with  a  crime  justified 
himself  by  swearing  his  innocence.  These  oaths 
were  commonly  accompanied  by  some  imprecatory 
form  or  ceremonial  and  were  often  expected 
to    be   followed   by   immediate   manifestations    of 


the  divine  vengeance  upon  the  perjurer.  The 
common  instrument  of  attestation  on  oath  was  the 
Bible  or  some  portion  of  it;  but  oatl  some- 

times sworn  on  the  relics  of  saints,  or  other  sacred 
objects  ;  sometimes  simply  by  raising  the  band  to 
heaven,  or  by  laying  it  upon  the  breast  or  the  head. 
In  canonical  processes,  the  oath  was  often  adminis- 
tered to  the  party  kneeling.  The  forms  varii  d  very 
much ;  the  most  genera!  being  that  which  the 
English  oath  still  retains  {Sic  me  Deus  adjuvet) 
Divines  eoimnoiily  require,  in  order  to  the  lawful- 
ness of  an  oath,  three  conditions  (founded  upon 
Jerem.  iv.  2),  viz.,  trul/i,  justice,  and  judgment 
— that  is  to  say  (1),  that  the  asseveration,  if  the 
oath  be  assertive,  shall  be  true,  and  that  the 
promise,  if  the  oath  be  promissory,  shall  be  made 
and  shall  be  kept  in  good  faith;  (2),  that  the  thing 
promised  shall  be  objectively  lawful  and  good  ;  (3), 
that  the  oath  shall  not  be  sworn  without  due  dis- 
cretion and  deliberation,  and  without  satisfactory 
reasons  founded  on  necessity,  or  at  least  ou  grave 
and  manifest  utility. 

The  Mohammedans  do  not  employ  oaths  in  their 
judicial  proceedings ;  but  they  regard  deliberate 
perjury,  even  when  extrajudicially  committed,  as 
sinful,  and  deserving  of  God's  vengeance.  For 
this,  however,  they  require  that  the  oath  should 
be  an  express  adjuration  of  God  himself  by  some 
one  of  his  well-known  holy  names  ;  that  the  jurant 
shoidd  be  of  full  age  and  intelligence ;  and  that  the 
oath  should  be  sworn  deliberately,  and  with  the 
intention  of  swearing. 

OATH,  in  point  of  law,  is  that  kind  of  solemn 
declaration  which  is  necessary  as  a  preliminary  con- 
dition to  the  filling  of  some  office  more  or  less 
public,  or  of  giving  evidence  in  a  court  of  justice,  or 
in  some  judicial  proceedings.  Oaths  have  been 
usual  in  all  civilised  countries.  Nearly  all  the  great 
public  offices  of  the  state  in  this  country  can  only 
be  filled  by  persons  who  are  willing  to  take  an  oath 
before  acting  in  such  office.  The  most  important 
office  of  all — that  of  king  or  queen  of  Great  Britain — 
requires  a  Coronation  Oath  (q.  v.).  Members  of  par- 
liament also  require  to  take  the  oaths  of  allegiance, 
supremacy,  and  abjuration,  or  rather  the  consoli- 
dated oath  which  is  now  substituted  for  these  oaths. 
See  ABJURATION.  The  Friends,  Moravians,  and  Sep- 
aratists make  an  affirmation,  instead  of  an  oath,  to 
the  same  effect.  Boman  Catholics  take  the  oath 
as  enacted  by  10  Geo.  IV.  c.  7,  s.  -  ;  and  Jews 
may  be  allowed,  on  a  resolution  of  either  House  of 
Parliament,  to  take  the  oath,  omitting  the  words : 
'  And  I  make  this  declaration  on  the  true  faith  of 
a  Christian.'  With  respect  to  all  the  high  offices 
of  state,  and  all  offices  held  under  the  crown,  civU, 
naval,  or  military,  except  the  inferior  offices,  the 
appointee  is  bound,  under  a  penalty,  to  take  within 
six  months  the  oath  of  allegiance  ;  but  in  order 
to  indemnify  those  who  have  inadvertently  omitted 
to  do  so,  an  annual  act,  called  the  Indemnity  Act, 
is  passed.  A  statute  passed  in  the  time  of  WilL 
IV.,  dispensing  with  the  formality  of  an  oath  in 
most  of  the  government  offices,  and  substituting  a 
declaration  instead  thereof. 

The  most  important  oaths  affecting  the  general 
public  are  those  which  are  required  to  enforce  the 
truth  from  witnesses  in  courts  of  justice.  It  may 
be  stated  that  jurymen,  where  they  are  called  upon 
to  exercise  their  functions,  are  also  required  to  take 
an  oath.  The  oath  is  read  to  the  juror  thus — '  You 
shall  well  and  truly  try  the  issue  between  the  parties, 
and  a  true  verdict  give,  according  to  the  evidence,  so 
help  you  God  ;:  and  the  juror  kisses  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Witnesses  who  are  called  to  give  evidence 
must  all  be  first  sworn  in  a  similar  manner,  the 
words  being,  '  The  evidence  you  shall  give  shall  bo 


OATH  OF  CALUMNY— OB. 


the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but  the 
truth,  so  help  you  God.'  Hence,  the  person  who 
is  a  witness  must  have  sufficient  understanding  to 
know  the  nature  and  obligations  of  an  oath  ;  and 
on  this  ground,  young  children  are  incompetent  to 
be  witnesses.  Another  condition  or  qualification 
required  in  the  party  who  takes  an  oath  as  a  witness 
is,  that  he  has  a  competent  sense  of  religion,  in  other 
words,  he  must  not  only  have  some  religious  know- 
ledge, but  some  religious  belief.  He  must,  in  sub- 
stance, believe  in  the  existence  of  a  God,  and  in  the 
moral  government  of  the  world  ;  and  though  he 
cannot  be  questioned  minutely  as  to  his  particular 
religious  opinions,  yet,  if  it  appear  that  he  does  not 
believe  in  a  God  and  future  state,  he  will  not  be 
allowed  to  give  his  evidence,  for  it  is  assumed,  that 
without  the  religious  sanction,  his  testimony  cannot 
be  relied  upon.  So  long,  however,  as  a  witness 
appears  to  possess  competent  religious  belief,  the 
mere  form  of  the  oath  is  not  material.  The  usual 
practice  in  England  and  Ireland  is,  for  the  witness, 
after  hearing  the  oath  repeated  by  the  officer  of 
court,  to  kiss  the  four  gospels  by  way  of  assent ; 
and  in  Scotland,  the  witness  repeats  similar  words 
after  the  judge,  standing  and  holding  up  his  right 
hand,  '  swearing  by  Almighty  God,  as  he  shall 
answer  to  God  at  the  Great  Day  of  Judgment,' 
but  without  kissing  any  book.  Jews  are  sworn  on 
the  Pentateuch,  keeping  on  their  hats,  and  the  oath 
ends  with  the  words,  '  so  help  you  Jehovah.'  A 
Mohammedan  is  sworn  on  the  Koran ;  a  Chinese 
witness  has  been  sworn  by  kneeling  and  breaking 
a  china  saucer  against  the  ■witness-box.  Thus,  the 
mere  form  of  taking  the  oath  is  immaterial ;  the 
witness  is  allowed  to  take  the  oath  in  whatever 
form  he  considers  most  binding  upon  his  own  con- 
science— the  essential  thing  being,  however,  that 
the  witness  acknowledge  some  binding  effect  derived 
from  his  belief  in  a  God  or  a  fixture  state. 

The  policy  of  insisting  upon  the  religious  forma- 
lities attending  the  taking  of  an  oath,  has  been 
much  discussed  of  late  years,  and  it  has  been  dis- 
puted whether  atheists,  who  avow  an  entire  absence 
of  all  religious  belief,  should  be  entirely  rejected 
as  witnesses  (as  is  sometimes  the  case),  and  justice  be 
thereby  frustrated.  The  objections  of  the  Friends, 
Moravians,  and  Separatists  to  take  an  oath  have 
long  been  respected  as  not  being  fundamentally  at 
variance  -with  a  due  sense  of  religious  feeling,  and 
hence  they  have  by  statute  been  allowed  to  make 
an  affirmation  instead  of  taking  the  oath.  In  1854, 
another  concession  was  made  to  those  who,  not 
being  Friends,  yet  refuse  to  take  the  oath  from 
sincere  conscientious  motives,  and  these  are  now 
also  allowed  to  affirm  instead  of  swear.  But  the 
law  remains  as  before,  that  atheists  and  persons 
who  admit  that  they  have  no  religious  belief 
whatever,  are  excluded  from  giving  evidence  in 
courts  of  justice. 

When  a  witness,  after  being  duly  sworn,  gives 
false  evidence  in  a  court  of  justice  or  in  a  judicial 
proceeding,  and  his  evidence  so  falsely  given  is 
material,  he  commits  the  offence  of  perjury ;  but 
it  is  necessary,  in  England,  not  only  that  two 
witnesses  shall  be  able  to  prove  the  falsity  of  such 
evidence,  but  also  that  the  party  shoidd  be  pro- 
ceeded against,  in  the  first  instance,  before  a 
justice  of  the  peace,  or  by  order  of  a  judge,  or 
the  attorney-general,  it  being  found  that  frivolous 
and  unfounded  indictments  were  often  preferred 
against  witnesses  by  disappointed  or  hostile  parties. 
As  a  general  rule,  perjury  cannot  be  committed 
except  in  some  judicial  proceeding,  or  rather 
the  giving  of  false  evidence  cannct  be  punished 
except  it  has  been  given  in  some  judicial  pro- 
ceeding.    The  practice  formerly  existed  of  persons 


voluntarily  taking  oaths  in  various  matters  not 
connected  with  any  judicial  proceeding  ;  and  credi- 
tors often  in  this  manner  sought  to  add  to  other 
securities  by  insisting  on  a  formal  oath  before  a 
justice  of  the  peace,  in  some  isolated  matter  of  fact. 
This  practice  was  put  an  end  to  by  the  statute  5 
and  6  Will.  IV.  c.  62,  by  which  justices  of  the  peace 
were  prohibited  from  administering  or  receiving 
such  oaths  touching  any  matter  or  thing  whereof 
such  justice  has  not  jurisdiction  or  cognizance  by 
some  statute.  It  is  left  to  some  extent  to  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  justice  whether  the  particular  matter 
is  one  as  to  which  it  is  proper  to  administer  an 
oath  ;  but  when  it  is  considered  proper,  the  declara- 
tion may  be  made  in  the  form  given  by  that  statute  ; 
and  if  the  party  make  a  false  declaration,  he  com- 
mits a  misdemeanour.  Unlawful  oaths  generally 
mean  oaths  taken  by  members  of  secret  and  illegal 
societies  of  a  treasonable  description;  and  statutes 
long  ago  passed  to  inflict  penalties  on  all  who  took 
or  administered  such  oaths. 

OATH  OF  CALUMNY,  in  Scotch  Law,  means 
an  oath  taken  by  a  party  at  the  instance  of  his 
opponent,  that  the  allegations  were  well  founded. 
Oaths  of  verity  and  credulity  are  oaths  that  a  debt 
or  claim  is  well  founded. 

OATHS,  Military.  The  taking  of  the  oath 
of  fidelity  to  government  and  obedience  to  superior 
officers,  was,  among  ancient  armies,  a  very  solemn 
affair.  A  whole  corps  took  the  oath  together, 
sometimes  an  entire  army.  In  modern  times,  when 
so  many  other  checks  are  used  for  maintaining 
discipline,  the  oath  has  become  little  more  than 
a  form.  In  the  United  Kingdom,  a  recruit  enlisting 
into  the  army  or  militia,  or  a  volunteer  enrolling 
himself,  swears  to  be  faithful  to  the  sovereign,  and 
obedient  to  all  or  any  of  his  superior  officers ;  also 
to  divulge  any  facts  coming  to  his  knowledge  which 
might  affect  the  safety  of  his  sovereign,  or  the 
stability  of  that  sovereign's  government.  The 
members  of  a  court-martial  take  an  oath  to  try  the 
cases  brought  before  them  justly,  according  to  the 
evidence,  to  keep  secret  the  finding  until  confirmed 
by  the  crown,  and  to  keep  secret  always  the  opinions 
given  by  the  members  individually.  The  only  other 
military  oath  is  the  common  oath  of  a  witness 
before  a  court-martial  to  tell  the  truth,  the  whole 
truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth, 

OB,  or  OBI,  the  great  river  of  Western  Siberia, 
rises  in  two  branches,  the  Bia  and  the  Katune  or 
Katunga,  both  of  which  have  their  origin  in  the 
Altai  Mountains,  within  the  frontier  of  the  Chinese 
dominions,  about  lat.  49°  N.,  and  long.  90°  E. 
These  branches,  flowing  in  a  north-west  direction, 
unite  to  form  the  Ob  at  the  town  of  Biisk  in  lat. 
52°  30'  N.,  long.  S5"  E.  Pursuing  a  winding  course, 
with  a  general  north-west  direction,  the  Ob  reaches 
the  meridian  of  75°  E.,  when  it  turns  west,  and 
maintaius  that  direction  to  its  confluence  with  the 
Irtish,  the  greatest  of  its  tributaries.  It  then  flows 
north-west,  north,  and  north-east,  to  its  mouth  in 
the  Gulf  of  Ob,  which  it  reaches  after  a  course  of 
2000  miles.  Its  chief  affluents  on  the  right  are 
the  Tom — a  swifter  stream  than  the  Ob,  400  miles 
in  length,  and  navigable  for  the  last  2S0  miles  from 
the  beginning  of  May  till  July— the  Tchulim,  and 
the  Ket.  The  principal  affluent  on  the  left  is  the 
Irtish,  which,  rising  within  the  frontier  of  the 
Chinese  territories,  traverses  the  Altai  Mountains, 
and  after  a  course  longer  than  that  of  the  Ob  itself, 
joins  that  river  250  miles  below  Tobolsk.  The 
trade  of  the  Irtish,  of  which  the  centre  is  Tobolsk, 
is  important.  The  principal. towns  on  the  banks  of 
the  Ob  are  Narim,  Sargut,  Berezow,  an  I  Obdorsk. 
— The  Gulf  of  Ob  is  a  long  inlet  of  the  Arctic  Ocean, 


OBADIAH-OBELISK. 


450  miles  in  length  by  about  100  miles  in  breadth. 
At  present,  only  a  few  steamers  ply  on  the  great 
water-system  of  the  Ob;  but  that  system,  communi- 
cating as  it  does  between  Siberia,  the  Chinese  terri- 
tories, and  European  Russia,  is,  without  doubt, 
destined  to  become  a  great  commercial  thorough- 
fare. This  river  is  one  of  the  richest  in  fish,  of  all 
the  rivers  belonging  to  the  Russian  empire.  Its 
waters  are  swelled  in  May  by  the  melting  of  the 
snows  of  the  plains,  and  again  in  June  and  July  by 
the  melting  of  the  mountain  snows.  Below  its 
junction  with  the  Irtish,  it  divides  itself  into  several 

Sarallel  streams  ;  and  in  the  flood  season  it  inun- 
ates  great  tracts  of  country,  and  presents  the 
appearance  of  a  waste  of  waters,  its  desolate  uni- 
formity broken  only  by  the  occasional  tree-tops 
that  rise  above  the  surface.  At  Obdorsk,  about  20 
miles  south  of  the  southern  border  of  the  Gulf  of 
Ob,  the  river  freezes  in  the  middle  of  October,  and 
breaks  up  about  the  middle  of  May. 

OBADI'AH,  one  of  the  '  minor  prophets '  of  the 
Old  Testament,  regarding  whom  absolutely  nothing 
is  known.  His  book  or  '  vision ' — the  shortest  of 
the  Jewish  Scriptures — appears,  from  internal  evi- 
dence, to  have  been  composed  after  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  by  the  Chaldasans,  588  B.C.,  and  con- 
sists of  two  parts.  The  first  is  a  prophecy  of  the 
downfall  of  Edom.  The  second  foretells  the  future 
redemption  and  glory  of  the  house  of  Jacob,  in 
which  Edom — for  his  unbrotherly  conduct — shall 
not  share,  but,  on  the  contrary,  be  burned  up  as 
1  stubble.' 

O'BAN,  a  parliamentary  burgh  and  seaport, 
Argyleshire,  Scotland,  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name, 
20  miles  (in  direct  line)  north-west  of  Inveraray. 
The  bay  is  protected  from  every  wind  by  the  island 
of  Kerrera  on  the  west,  and  by  the  high  shores  of 
the  mainland,  and  is  overlooked  on  the  north  by 
the  picturesque  ruins  of  Dunolly  Castle.  It  is 
from  12  to  24  fathoms  deep,  and  although  the 
girdle  of  hills  that  seems  to  surround  it  gives  it  the 
appearance  of  a  lake,  it  is  easily  accessible,  and 
could  afford  anchorage  to  300  sail.  O.  is  the  great 
rendezvous  for  tourists  in  the  West  Highlands. 
Its  importance  dates  chiefly  from  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century.  The  burgh  now  contains  a 
number  of  churches,  several  hotels  and  inns,  schools, 
banks,  &c.  Within  three  miles  of  O.  is  Dunstaff- 
nage  Castle,  which  is  said  to  have  been  the  seat  of 
the  Scottish  monarchy  previously  to  its  transference 
to  Scone.  The  Stone  of  Destiny,  which  now  sup- 
ports the  coronation  chair  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
and  was  carried  thither  from  Scone  by  Edward  1., 
was  obtained,  iu  the  first  instance,  according  to 
tradition,  from  Dunstaffnage  Castle.  Pop.  of 
parliamentary  burgh  (which  is  one  of  the  Ayr  (q.  v.) 
group)  was  1940  in  1861 ;   in  1871,  2426. 

OBE,  or  OBI  (etymology  unknown),  the  name 
given  to  the  magical  arts  or  witchcraft  practised  by 
a  class  of  persons  among  the  negroes  of  the  West 
Indies.  The  practiser  is  called  an  Obeah-man  or 
0'ieah-ivoman.  It  differs  in  no  essential  respect 
from  the  corresponding  superstitions  all  the  world 
over.    See  Magic,  Witchcraft. 

OBEDIENCE,  in  Canon  Law,  means  the  duty  by 
which  the  various  gradations  in  ecclesiastical 
organisation  are  held  subject,  in  all  things  con- 
sistent with  the  law  of  God  or  of  the  church,  to 
the  several  superiors  placed  immediately  above  each, 
respectively,  in  the  hierarchical  scale.  Thus  priests 
and  inferior  clergy  owe  canonical  obedience  to  the 
bishop,  and  priests  are  bound  thereto  by  a  solemn 
promise    administered  at   ordination.      The  bishop 

Erimitively  took  a  similar  oath  to  the  metropolitan  ; 
ut  by  the  modern  law,  the   jurisdiction  of   the 


metropolitan  is  confined  to  the  occasions  of  his  hold- 
ing a  visitation,  or  presiding  in  the  provincial  sj  nod. 
Bishops,  by  the  present  law  of  tin-  Roman  Catholic 

Church,  take  an  oath  of  obedience  to  the  pope. 
This  obedience,  however,  is  strictly  limit*-  1  by  the 
canons,  and  is  only  held  to  bind  iu  tilings  COi 
with  the  divine  and  natural  law.  In  ecclesiastical 
history  the  word  Obedience  has  a  special  signifi- 
cation, and  is  applied  to  the  several  parties  in  tho 
church,  which,  during  the  great  Western  Schism 
(q.  v.),  adhered  to  the  rival  popes.  Thus  we  r<  ad 
of  the  •  Roman  Obedience,'  which  included  all  who 
recognised  the  pope  chosen  at  Rome,  and  the 
'Avignon  Obedience,' which  meant  the  supporters 
of  the  Avignon  pope.  So,  again,  historians  B] 
'  the  Obedience  of  Gregory  XII.,'  and  '  the  Obedience 
of  Benedict  XIII.,'  &e.  Applied  to  the  mo 
institute,  obedience  means  the  voluntary  Bubi 
which  all  members  of  religious  orders  vow,  at  the 
religious  profession,  to  their  immediate  superiors, 
of  whatever  grade  in  the  order,  as  well  as  to  the 
superior  general,  and  still  more  to  the  rules  and 
constitutions  of  the  order.  This  forms,  in  all 
orders,  one  of  the  essential  vows.  It  is,  however, 
expressly  confined  to  lawful  things ;  and  although 
it  is  held  that  a  superior  can  command  certain 
things  under  pain  of  sin,  yet  Roman  Catholics 
repudiate  the  notion  that  the  command  of  a 
superior  can  render  lawful,  much  less  good,  a  thing 
which  is,  of  its  own  nature,  or  by  the  law  of  God, 
sinful  or  bad.  The  name  Obedience  is  some- 
times given  to  the  written  precept  or  other  formal 
instrument  by  which  a  superior  in  a  religious  order 
commuiiicates  to  one  of  his  subjects  any  special 
precept  or  instruction — as,  for  example,  to  under- 
take a  certain  office,  to  proceed  upon  a  particular 
mission,  to  relinquish  a  certain  appointment,  &c. 
The  instruction,  or  the  instrument  containing  it,  is 
called  an  obedience,  because  it  is  held  to  bind  in 
virtue  of  religious  obedience. 

O'BELISK,  a  word  derived  from  the  Greek 
obelos  and  obdishos,  signifying  a  spit,  applied  to 
prismatic  monuments  of  stone  and  other  materials, 
terminating  with  a  pyramidal  or  pointed  top. 
These  monuments,  called  tekhen,  were  placed  upon 
.bases  before  gateways  of  the  principal  temples 
in  Egypt,  one  on  each  side  of  the  door.  They 
served  in  Egyptian  art  for  the  same  purposes 
as  the  stelae  of  the  Greeks  and  columns  of  the 
Romans,  and  appear  to  have  been  erected  to  record 
the  honours  or  triumphs  of  the  monarch.  They 
have  four  faces,  are  cut  out  of  one  piece,  and  are 
broader  at  the  base  than  at  the  top,  at  a  short 
distance  from  which  the  sides  form  the  base  of  a 
pyramidion  in  which  the  obelisk  terminates.  Ihey 
were  placed  upon  a  cubical  base  of  the  same 
material,  which  slightly  surpassed  the  breadth  of 
their  base.  Each  side  of  the  obelisk  at  the  base 
measures  Tykh  °f  the  height  of  the  shaft,  from  the 
base  line  to  that  where  the  cap,  or  pyramidion 
commences.  The  cap  is  also  i^th  °f  the  same 
height.  Their  sides  are  slightly  concave,  to  increase 
their  apparent  height.  Their  height  varies  from 
upwards  of  100  feet  to  a  few  inches,  the  tallest 
known  being  that  of  Karnuk,  which  rises  to 
105  feet  7  inches.  The  sides  are  generally  sculp- 
tured with  hieroglyphs  and  representations,  record- 
ing the  names  and  titles  of  kings,  generally  in 
one  line  of  deeply-cut  hieroglyphs  down  each  side. 
The  pyramid  of  obelisks  was  sometimes  decor- 
ated with  subjects.  The  mode  by  which  they 
were  made  appears  to  have  been  to  hew  them  first 
in  the  rough  out  of  a  solid  piece  in  the  quarries, 
and  one  unfinished  specimen  thus  prepared  still 
remains  in  the  quarries  of  Syene.  They  were  tran- 
sported down  the  Kile  during  the  inundation,  on 

25 


OBELISK. 


rafts,  to  the  spot  where  they  were  intended  to  be 
placed,  and  raised  from  their  horizontal  position 
by  inclined  planes,  aided  by  machinery.  Some 
obelisks,  before  their  erection,  had.  their  pyramid 
capped  with  broDze  gilded,  or  gold,  the  marks  of 
such  covering  still  being  evident  on  their  surfaces. 
Under  the  Roman  empire,  they  were  raised  by 
pulleys  and  heavy  tackle.  The  difficulty  of  erecting 
the  fallen  ones  in  the  ages  of  the  renaissance,  as 
also  the  mechanical  appliances  for  the  lowering  from 
its  original  site  the  obelisk  of  Luxor  in  1831,  and 
erecting  it  in  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  in  1833  by 
Le  Bas,  shew  the  difficulties  experienced  by  the 
ancients.  The  use  of  obelisks  is  as  old  as  the 
appearance  of  art  itself  in  Egypt;  these  grand, 
simple,  and  geometric  forms  being  used  in  the  4th 
d)rnasty,  and  continued  till  the  time  of  the  Romans. 
Their  object  is  enveloped  in  great  obscurity.  At 
the  time  of  the  18th  dynasty,  it  appears  that  reli- 
gious ceremonies  and  oblations  were  offered  to  the 
obelisks,  which  were  treated  as  divinities.  Their 
sepulchral  use  is  evinced  by  thei~  discovery  in  the 
tombs  of  the  4th  dynasty,  and  the  vignettes  of  early 

Sapyri.  No  large  obelisk  is  older  than  that  of 
latarieh  or  Heliopolis,  erected  by  Osortesen  I.  about 
1900  B.  c. ;  and  that  of  Beggig  or  Crocodilopolis  is, 
in  reality,  only  a  stele.  Thothmes  I.  placed  two  of 
large  size  before  the  granite  sanctuary  of  Karnak, 
and  his  daughter  Hatasu,  two  others  of  above  90 
feet  high,  before  the  second  propylseon.  Additional 
sculptures  were  made  on  these  obelisks  by  Sethos 
L,  who  restored  them.  Thothmes  III.  appears  to 
have  erected  many  obelisks.  The  oldest  is  that  of 
the  Atmeilan  or  Hippodrome  of  Constantinople, 
erected  to  record  his  conquest  of  Naharania 
or  Mesopotamia.  Two  others,  which  formerly 
stood  at  Heliopolis,  were  subsequently  re-erected 
by  Rameses  II.  at  Alexandria.  One  of  these 
still  remains  erect,  and  is  popularly  known  as 
Cleopatra's  Needle,  the  other  lies  prostrate.  Both 
have  greatly  suffered  from  the  effects  of  sea 
breezes.  The  highest  of  all  obelisks,  that  of  St  John 
of  the  Lateran,  appears  to  have  been  removed  from 
Thebes,  and  set  up  by  Thothmes  IV.  35  years  after 
the  death  of  Thothmes  III.  A  small  obelisk  of 
Amenophis  II.,  said  to  have  been  found  in  the 
Thebaid,  apparently  from  Elephantine,  is  in  the 
collection  of  the  Duke  of  Northumberland  at  Sion. 
Sethos  I.  commenced  the  Flaminian  obelisk,  sub- 
sequently completed  by  Rameses  II.,  and  placed  at 
the  temple  of  Heliopolis.  It  was  removed  to  Rome 
by  Constantius,  and  found  16  feet  under  the  surface 
in  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  XIII.,  and  erected  in 
that  of  Sextus  V.  by  the  architect  Fontana.  The 
other  obelisks  of  Rameses  II.  are,  the  one  at 
the  Luxor  quarter  of  Thebes,  the  companion  of  which 
was  removed  to  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  at  Paris  in 
1833  ;  the  two  obelisks  of  San  or  Tanis  ;  that  of  the 
Boboli  Gardens  of  Florence,  transported  from  the 
circus  of  Flora  at  Rome  ;  the  obelisk  of  the  Rotonda 
at  Rome,  erected  by  Clement  XII.,  1711  A.  D.  ;  and 
that  of  the  Villa  Mattei,  which  decorated  the  Ara 
Caeli  of  the  Capitol.  A  fragment  of  another  obelisk 
was  in  the  Collegio  Romano.  No  obelisks  are  known 
of  other  monarchs  till  the  26th  dynasty.  That  of 
the  Monte  Citorio  at  Rome,  erected  by  Psammetichus 
II.  at  Heliopolis,  was  transported  by  Augustus  to 
the  Campus  Martius,  having  been  exhumed  1748 
A.D.,  and  erected  by  the  architect  Antinori  in  that 
of  Pius  VI.  Two  other  obelisks  of  small  size,  made 
of  black  basalt,  dedicated  by  Nekhtherhebi  or 
Nectanebes  II.  at  Hermopolis,  commonly  known  as 
the  obelisks  of  Cairo,  are  in  the  British  Museum. 
Ptolemy  Piiiladelphus  is  said  to  have  erected  in  the 
Arsinoeum  at  Alexandria  a  plain  obelisk  of  80 
aubits,  cut  in  the  quarries  by  Nectabis.  It  was  set 
26 


up  by  the  architect  Satyrus.  Two  obelisks,  erected 
by  Ptolemy  Euergetes  II.  and  his  wife  Cleopatra, 
stood  before  the  temple  of  Philae,  one  of  which 
was  removed  to  Corfe  Castle  by  Mr  Bankes.  The 
so-called  Pamphiliano  obelisk  at  R,ome,  erected  by 
E.  Bernin  in  1651,  in  the  Piazza  Navona,  under  the 
pontificate  of  Innocent  X,  was  removed,  from  the 
Circus  of  Maxentius,  having,  as  their  hieroglyphical 
legends  testify,  been  originally  erected  by  Domitian 
before  the  Serapeum  at  Rome.  The  last  of  the 
Roman  obelisks  was  the  Barberini,  which  was  found 
in  1633  on  the  site  of  the  Circus  of  Aurelian,  and 
finally  erected  in  1822  on  the  Monte  Pincio.  It  was 
placed  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian  before  the  mauso- 
leum or  cenotaph  either  of  himself  or  Antinous, 
between  132 — 138  A.D.  Barbarous  hieroglyphs, 
found  on  the  Sallustian  obelisk,  are  copied  from 
the  Flaminian  obelisk.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
been  transported  to  Rome,  unadorned  with  hiero- 
glyphs, by  Sallustius  Crispus,  prefect  of  Numidia, 
and  to  have  been  set  up  in  the  gardens  of  Sallust,  in 
the  reign  of  Vespasian.  It  was  erected  by  Antinori, 
1789,  before  the  Church  of  Trinita  del  Monte.  It 
has  been  seen  how,  on  the  renaissance  of  the  arts, 
the  obelisks  were  restored  and  applied  to  the 
embellishments  of  modern  Rome,  either  as  columns 
in  the  centres  of  piazzas  or  squares,  or  else  as  the 
ornaments  of  fountains ;  one  obelisk  being  set  up 
alone  in  the  centre  of  the  piazzas  and  places  of 
Italy  and  France,  while  in  antiquity  they  always 
stood  in  pairs  before  the  Pylons. 

Two  small  obelisks,  and.  the  apex  of  a  third, 
have  been  found  in  Assyria,  in  shape  of  trun- 
cated prisms,  the  apices  step-shaped.  The  most 
interesting  is  that  of  the  north-west  palace  of  Nim- 
rud,  of  black  marble,  is  5  feet  9  inches  high. 
Each  side  has  five  compartments  of  bas-reliefs, 
representing  the  tribute  and  offerings  made  to 
the  Shalmanaser.  It  is  covered  with  a  ciuieifonn 
inscription,  recording  the  annals  of  the  king's  re^gn, 
from  his  1st  to  his  31st  year.     On  it  is  represented 


Obelisks  in  front  of  a  Temple. 

the  tribute  of  Jehu,  king  of  Israel.  A  second  obeliA, 
of  white  marble,  measures  8  feet  2  inches  high, 
is  covered  with  bas-reliefs,  representing  scenes  of 
ivar  and  tributes,  winding  round  it  like  those  of  a 
Roman  triumphal  column.  On  it  is  an  inscription 
of  Shamas-Pul.  The  broken  apex  of  a  third  has  a 
dedication  from  Ashur-izir-'pul  II.  An  obelisk  ot 
Semiramis  at  Babylon  is  mentioned  by  Diodorus, 
and  another  of  Aricarus  was  interpreted  by  Demo- 
critus.      Under  the    Roman   empire,   obelisks  were 


OBERLIN— OBESITY 


used  as  gnomons,  placed  in  the  public  spaces,  or 
erected  in  the  spina  of  the  circi.  The  first  removal 
of  obelisks  to  Home  took  place  in  the  reign  of 
Augustus,  who  placed  one  in  the  circus,  said  to 
have  been  originally  erected  in  the  reign  of  Semen" 
pserteus,  S~>\  feet  nigh  ;  and  another  of  9  feet  less, 
in  the  Campus  Martins,  and  had  it  adjusted  as  a 
gnomon  by  the  mathematician  Facundus  Novus  ;  a 
third  obelisk  was  erected  in  the  Circus  of  Caligula 
aud  Nero  in  the  Vatican,  and  originally  dedicated 
to  the  sun  by  Nuncoreus,  the  son  of  Sesosis,  on 
the  recovery  of  his  sight.  Two  other  small  obelisks, 
which  decorated  the  mausoleum  of  Augustus,  and 
were  erected  by  Claudius  or  Vespasian  and  his 
(ions,  have  been  found.  Other  obelisks  are  known 
to  have  been  removed  by  Constantius,  354  A.  D.  P. 
Victor,  in  his  description  of  the  quarters  of  ancient 
Rome,  reckons  G  of  the  largest  size  and  42  others. 
The  Romans  added  to  them  brazen  spheres  and 
other  decorations.  Some  were  removed  to  Constan- 
tinople by  Theodosius  the  younger,  and  Valentinian, 
390  A.  D.  The  translation  of  the  inscription  of  one 
of  the  Roman  obelisks  made  by  a  Greek  or  Egyptian, 
named  Hermapion,  has  been  preserved  by  Ammiauus 
Marcellinus. — Kircher,  (Edipus  JEgyptiacus  (torn. 
iii.  Rom.  1652 — 1654)  ;  Zoega,  De  Origine  et  Usu 
Obeliscorum  (fo.  Rom.  1797)  ;  Cipriani,  Sui  Dodlci 
Obelisci  di  Roma  (fo.  Rom.  1S23)  ;  L'Hote,  Notice 
ffi&torique  sur  les  Obelisques  E(jyptiens  (8vo,  Paris, 
1836) ;  Birch,  Notes  upon  Obelisks,  in  the  Museum  of 
Classical  Antiquities  (Svo,  Lond.  1853),  pp.  203 — 
239 ;  Layard,  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  i.  p.  346  ; 
Sir  H.  Rawlinson,  A  Commentary  on  the  Cuneiform 
Inscriptions  (12mo,  Lond.  1850). 

OBERLIN,  Johann  Friedrich,  distinguished 
for  his  active  benevolence  and  usefulness,  was  born  at 
Strasburg,  31st  August  1740 ;  and  in  1766  became 
Protestant  pastor  of  Waldbach,  in  the  Ban  de  la 
Roche  or  Steinthal,  a  wild  mountainous  district  of 
Alsace.  Here  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life, 
combining  an  affectionate  diligence  in  the  ordinary 
duties  of  the  pastorate,  with  wise  and  earnest 
endeavours  to  promote  the  education  and  general 
prosperity  of  the  people.  The  district  had  suffered 
terribly  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  the  scanty 
population  which  remained  was  sunk  in  poverty 
and  ignorance.  0.  introduced  better  methods  of 
cultivating  the  soil,  and  various  branches  of  manu- 
facture. The  population,  which  was  scarcely  500 
when  he  entered  on  his  labours,  had  increased  to 
5000  at  the  close  of  the  century.  Yet,  though 
animated  in  all  his  actions  by  the  most  pure  and 
disinterested  piety,  it  may  be  questioned  if  he  did 
not  carry  his  moral  supervision  too  far  when  he 
kept  a  register  of  the  moral  character  of  his 
parishioners,  and  searched  with  the  minuteness 
though  not  the  motives  of  an  inquisitor,  into  the 
most  insignificant  detads  of  their  private  life.  O. 
was  ably  assisted  in  his  reformatory  labours  by  his 

Eious  housekeeper,  Luise  Schepler,  who  survived 
er  master  eleven  years.  He  died  1st  June  1826. 
NotM  ithstanding  the  humble  sphere  in  which  his 
days  were  spent,  his  fame  as  a  philanthropist  has 
extended  over  the  world,  and  his  example  has 
Btimnlated  and  guided  many.  See  Brief  Memorials 
of  Oierlin,  by  the  Rev.  T.  Sims,  M.A.  (Lond.  1830), 
and  also  Memoirs  of  Oberlin,  with  a  short  notice 
of  Louisa  Schepler  (Lond.  183S  and  1852). 

O'BERON,  the  king  of  the  Elves  or  Fairies,  and 
the  husband  of  Titania.  The  name  is  derived  by  a 
change  of  spelling  from  Auberon,  more  anciently 
Alberon,  and  that  from  the  German  Alberich,  i.  e. 
king  of  the  Elves.  O.  is  first  mentioned  as  '  Roi  du 
royaume  de  la  f eerie'  in  the  old  French  poem  of 
Huon    de    Bordeaux,  par    la    France,    which    was 


afterwards  made  the  basis  of  a  popular  prost 
romance.  Prom  the  French,  O.  was  borrowed  by 
the  English  poets,  Chaucer,  Spenser,  and  others,  but 
he  is  most  familiarly  known  from  his  appearance  in 
Shaksjieare's  Midsummer  Nighfa  Dream.  From 
old  French  sources,  also,  Wieland  derived  part  of 
the  materials  of  his  poem  of  Oberon. 

OBE'SITY,  or  CORPULENCE,  may  be  defined 
to  be  '  an  accumulation  of  fat  under  the  integuments 
or  in  the  abdomen,  or  in  both  situations,  to  such  an 
amount  as  to  embarrass  the  several  voluntary 
functions.'  A  certain  degree  of  fatness  is  not  only 
quite  compatible  with  health,  but,  as  b  been 
shewn  in  the  article  Fats,  Animal,  the  fatty  tissue 
is  of  considerable  use  in  the  animal  body,  partly  in 
consequence  of  its  physical,  and  partly  in  con- 
sequence of  its  chemical  properties ;  and  it  is  only 
when  the  fatness  begins  to  interfere  with  the 
discharge  of  any  of  the  vital  powers,  that  it  can  be 
regarded  as  a  morbid  condition.  Obesity  may  occur 
at  any  period  of  life,  but  it  is  most  commonly  after 
the  fortieth  year  that  the  tendency  to  an  inordinate 
accumulation  of  fat  begins  to  shew  itself.  After 
that  time,  in  the  case  of  men,  the  pleasures  of  the 
table  are  usually  more  attractive  than  in  earlier  life, 
and  much  less  muscular  exercise  is  taken  ;  whde  in 
women,  the  cessation  of  the  power  of  chdd-bearing 
induces  changes  which  tend  remarkably  to  the 
deposition  of  fat.  The  extent  to  which  fat  may 
accumulate  in  the  human  body  is  enormous.  Daniel 
Lambert,  who  died  at  the  age  of  forty  years,  weighed 
739  lbs. ;  his  exact  height  is  not  recorded,  but, 
according  to  the  investigations  of  the  late  Dr 
Hutchinson  (the  inventor  of  the  spirometer),  the 
normal  weight  of  a  man  six  feet  high  shoidd  not 
exceed  178  lbs.  Dr  Elliotson  has  recorded  the  case 
of  a  female  child,  a  year  old,  who  weighed  60  lbs. ; 
and  those  who  are  interested  in  the  subject  will 
find  a  large  collection  of  cases  of  obesity  in  Wadd's 
Cursory  Remarks  on  Corpulence. 

The  predisposing  causes  of  obesity  are  a 
peculiar  habit  of  body,  hereditarily  transmitted; 
inactivity ;  sedentary  occupations,  &c. ;  while  the 
more  immediate  or  exciting  causes  are  a  rich  diet, 
including  fatty  matters,  aud  matters  convertible  in 
the  body  into  fats,  such  as  saccharine  and  starchy 
foods,  and  the  partaking  of  such  a  diet  to  a  greater 
exteut  than  is  necessary  for  balancing  the  dady 
waste  of  the  tissues.  '  Fat  meats,  butter,  ody 
vegetable  substances,  milk,  saccharine  and  farin- 
aceous substances  are  the  most  fattening  articles 
of  food ;  whilst  malt  liquors,  particularly  rich  and 
sweet  ale  are,  of  all  beverages,  the  most  conducive 
in  promoting  obesity.  The  fattening  effect  of  figs 
and  grapes,  and  of  the  sugar-cane,  upon  the  natives 
of  the  countries  where  these  are  abundant,  is  well 
known.  In  various  countries  in  Africa  and  the 
East,  where  obesity  is  much  admired  in  females, 
warm  baths,  indolence,  and  living  upon  saccharine 
and  farinaceous  articles,  upon  dates,  the  nuts  from 
which  palm-od  is  obtained,  and  upon  various  ody 
seeds,  are  the  means  usually  employed  to  produce 
this  effect.' — Copland's  Dictionary  of  Medicine, 
article  '  Obesity.'  The  knowledge  of  the  means  of 
inducing  obesity  affords  us  the  best  clue  to  the 
rational  treatment  of  this  affection.  It  is  a  popular 
belief  that  the  administration  of  acids — vinegar,  for 
example,  or  one  of  the  mineral  acids — will  check  the 
deposition  of  fat ;  but  if  the  desired  effect  is  pro- 
duced, it  is  only  at  the  cost  of  serious  injury  to  the 
digestive,  and  often  to  the  urinary  oi'gans.  The 
employment  of  soap  and  alkalies,  as  advocated  a 
century  ago  by  Dr  Flemyng  (A  Discourse  on  the 
Nature,  Causes,  and  Cure  of  Corpulency,  1760),  is 
less  objectionable  than  that  of  acids,  tut  the  pro- 
longed use  even  of  these  is  usually  prejudicial.     The 


OBIT— OBLIGATION. 


efficacy  of  one  of  our  commonest  sea-weeds,  sea- 
wrack  (Fucus  vesicv.losus),  in  this  affection  has 
lately  been  strongly  advocated.  It  is  prescribed  in 
the  form  of  an  extract,  and  its  value  is  probably 
dependent  on  the  iodine  contained  in  it. 

A  very  interesting  Letter  on  Corpulence,  recently 
(1863)  published  by  Mr  Banting,  in  which  he 
records  the  effect  of  diet  in  his  own  case  after 
all  medicinal  treatment  had  failed,  is  well  worthy 
of  the  attention  of  those  who  are  suffering  from 
the  affection  of  which  this  article  treats.  The 
following  are  the  leading  points  in  his  case.  He 
is  66  years  of  age,  about  5  feet  5  inches  in 
stature  (and  therefore,  according  to  Dr  Hutchin- 
son's calculations,  ought  to  weigh  about  142  lbs.), 
and  in  August  1862  weighed  202  lbs.  '  Few  men,' 
he  observes,  'have  led  a  more  active  life  .  .  .  . 
bo  that  my  corpulence  and  subsequent  obesity 
were  not  through  neglect  of  necessary  bodily 
activity,  nor  from  excessive  eating,  drinking,  or 
self-indulgence  of  any  kind,  except  that  I  partook  of 
the  simple  aliments  of  bread,  milk,  butter,  beer, 
sugar,   and  potatoes,    more   freely  than   my   aged 

nature  required I  could  not  stoop  to  tie  my 

shoe,  nor  attend  to  the  little  offices  humanity 
requires  without  considerable  pain  and  difficulty ;  I 
have  been  compelled  to  go  down  stairs  slowly  back- 
wards, to  save  the  jar  of  increased  weight  upon  the 
ankle  and  knee  joints,  and  been  obliged  to  puff  and 
blow  with  every  slight  exertion'  (pp.  10  and  14). 

By  the  advice  of  a  medical  friend,  he  adopted 
the  following  plan  of  diet :  '  For  breakfast  I  take 
four  or  rive  ounces  of  beef,  mutton,  kidneys,  broiled 
fish,  bacon,  or  cold  meat  of  any  kind  except 
pork ;  a  large  cup  of  tea  (without  milk  or  sugar), 
a  little  biscuit,  or  one  ounce  of  dry  toast.  For 
dinner,  five  or  six  ounces  of  any  fish  except 
salmon,  any  meat  except  pork,  any  vegetable 
except  potato,  one  ounce  of  dry  toast,  fruit  out  of  a 
pudding,  any  kind  of  poultry  or  game,  and  two  or 
three  glasses  of  good  claret,  sherry,  or  Madeira : 
champagne,  port,  and  beer  forbidden.  For  tea,  two 
or  three  ounces  of  fruit,  a  rusk  or  two,  and  a  cup  of 
tea  without  milk  or  sugar.  For  supper,  three  or 
four  ounces  of  meat  or  fish,  similar  to  dinner,  with  a 
glass  or  two  of  claret  (p.  IS).  I  breakfast  between 
night  and  nine  o'clock,  dine  between  one  and  two ; 
take  my  slight  tea  meal  between  five  and  six  ;  and 
sup  at  nine '  (p.  40).  Under  this  treatment  he  lost 
in  little  more  than  a  vear  (between  the  26th  of 
August  1862  and  the  12th  of  September  1863)  46 
lbs.  of  his  bodily  weight,  while  his  girth  round  the 
waist  was  reduced  12|  inches.  He  reports  him- 
self as  restored  to  health,  as  able  to  walk  up  and 
down  stairs  like  other  men  ;  to  stoop  with  ease  and 
freedom ;  and  safely  to  leave  off  knee-bandages, 
which  he  had  necessarily  worn  for  twenty  years  past. 
He  has  made  his  own  case  widely  known  by  the 
circulation  of  his  pamphlet  (which  has  now  reached 
a  third  edition) ;  and  '  numerous  reports  sent  with 
thanks  by  strangers  as  well  as  friends,'  shew  that 
(to  use  his  own  words)  'the  system  is  a  great 
success  ; '  and  that  it  is  so  we  do  not  doubt,  for  it  is 
based  on  sound  physiological  principles. 

O'BIT  (Lat.  obitus,  a  'going  down,'  'death'),  lite- 
rally means  the  decease  of  an  individual.  But  as  a 
certain  ecclesiastical  service  was  fixed  to  be  cele- 
brated on  the  day  of  death  (in  die  obitus),  the  name 
came  to  be  applied  to  the  service  itself.  Obit  there- 
fore signifies,  in  old  church  language,  the  service 
performed  for  the  departed.  It  consisted,  in  the 
Roman  Church,  of  those  portions  of  the  Officium 
Defunctoriim  which  are  called  Matins  and  Lauds, 
followed  by  a  Mass  of  the  Dead,  chanted,  or  occa- 
sionally read.  Similar  services  are  held  on  the  day 
of  the  funeral,  and  on  the  30th  day,  and  the  anni- 


versary ;  and  although  the  name  obit  was  primitively 
applied  only  to  the  first,  it  has  come  to  be  used  of 
them  all  indiscriminately. 

OBJECT,  in  the  language  of  Metapli3Tsics,  is 
that  of  which  any  thinking  being  or  Subject  can 
become  cognizant.  This  subject  itself,  however,  is 
capable  of  transmutation  into  an  Object,  for  one 
may  think  about  his  thinking  faculty.  To  consti- 
tute a  metaphysical  object,  actual  existence  is  not 
necessary ;  it  is  enough  that  it  is  conceived  by  the 
subject.  Nevertheless,  it  is  customary  to  employ 
the  term  objective  as  synonymous  with  real,  so  that 
a  thing  is  said  to  be  'objectively'  considered  when 
regarded  in  itself,  and  according  to  its  nature  and 
properties,  and  to  be  'subjectively'  considered,  when 
it  is  presented  in  its  relation  to  us,  or  as  it  shapes 
itself  in  our  apprehension.  Scepticism  denies  the 
possibility  of  objective  knowledge ;  i.  e.,  it  denies  that 
we  can  ever  become  certain  that  our  cognition  of  an 
object  corresponds  with  the  actual  nature  of  that 
object.  The  verbal  antithesis  of  objective  and  sub- 
jective representation  is  also  largely  employed  in 
the  fine  arts,  but  even  here,  though  the  terms  may 
be  convenient,  the  difference  expressed  by  them  is 
only  one  of  degree,  and  not  of  kind.  When  a 
poem  or  a  novel,  for  example,  obtrudes  the  pecu- 
liar genius  of  the  author  at  the  expense  of  a  clear 
and  distinct  representation  of  the  incident  and 
character  appropriate  to  itself,  we  say  it  is  a  sub- 
jective work ;  when,  on  the  contrary,  the  personality 
of  the  author  retires  into  the  background,  or  dis- 
appears altogether,  we  call  it  objective.  The  poems 
of  Shelley  and  Byron ;  the  novels  of  Jean  Paul 
Bichter,  Bulwer  Lytton,  and  Victor  Hugo  ;  and  the 
paintings  of  the  Pre-Raphaelites,  belong  essentially 
to  the  former  class  ;  the  dramas  of  Shakspeare,  the 
novels  of  Scott,  and  the  poems  of  Goethe,  to  the 
latter. 

OBJECT-GLASS,  the  glass  in  a  Telescope  (q.  v.) 
or  Microscope  (q.  v.),  which  is  placed  at  the  end  of 
the  tube  neai'est  the  object,  and  first  receives  the 
rays  of  light  reflected  from  it. 

O'BL  A.TES  (Lat.  oblatus,  oblata, '  offered  up '),  the 
name  of  a  class  of  religious  bodies  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  which  differ  from  the  religious 
orders  strictly  so  called,  in  not  being  bound  by  the 
solemn  vows  of  the  religious  profession.  The  institute 
of  oblates  was  one  of  the  many  reforms  introduced 
in  the  diocese  of  Milan  by  St  Charles  Borromeo, 
towards  the  close  of  the  16th  century.  The 
members  consisted  of  secular  priests  who  lived  in 
community,  and  were  merely  bound  by  a  promise 
to  the  bishop  to  devote  themselves  to  any  service 
which  he  should  consider  desirable  for  the  interest 
of  religion.  St  Charles  made  use  of  their  services 
chiefly  in  the  wild  and  inaccessible  Alpine  districts 
of  his  diocese.  This  institute  still  exists,  and  has 
beeu  recently  introduced  into  England.  Still  more 
modern  are  the  '  Oblates  of  the  blessed  Virgin  Mary,' 
a  body  of  French  origin,  which  arose  in  the  present 
century,  and  has  been  very  widely  extended ;  and 
whose  chief  object  is  to  assist  the  parochial  clergy, 
by  holding  missions  for  the  religious  instruction  of 
the  people  in  any  district  to  which  thejr  may  be 
invited.  This  body  also  has  been  established  in 
England  and  in  Ireland.  Other  similar  institutes 
might  be  enumerated,  but  the  constitution  of  all  is 
nearly  the  same.  There  is  also  a  female  institute 
of  oblates,  which  was  established  in  Rome,  about 
1440,  by  St  Francisca  of  Home,  and  which  consists 
of  ladies  associated  for  charitable  and  religious 
objects,  and  living  in  community,  but  bound  only 
by  promise,  and  not  by  vow. 

OBLIGA'TION  is  a  term  used  in  Scotch  Law  to 
denote  the  binding  effect  of  any  legal  contract,  and 


OBLIGATO— OBSERVANTISTS. 


is  often  used  synonymously  with  contract  or  promise. 
An  obligation  is  said  to  be  pure  when  it  may  be 
instantly  demanded  (called  in  England  an  absolute 
contract).  An  obligation  is  conditional  when  it 
depends,  for  its  legal  effect,  on  some  event  which 
may  or  may  not  happen.  Obligations  are  also 
divided  into  verbal  and  written. 

OBLIGA'TO,  in  Music  When  a  musical  com- 
position is  constructed  in  more  than  one  part,  any 
part  is  said  to  be  obligato  which  is  not  merely 
employed  to  strengthen  the  others,  but  is  necessary 
to  the  melodic  perfection  of  the  whole.  An  accom- 
paniment is  said  to  be  obligato  which  does  not  con- 
sist of  mere  chords,  but  has  its  own  melody. 

O'BOE.    See  Hautboy. 

O'BOLUS  (Gr.  obolos  or  obelos,  a  spit),  the  smallest 
of  the  four  common  Greek  coins  and  weights,  was 
originally,  as  is  generally  supposed,  a  small  piece  of 
iron  or  copper,  similar  in  form  to  the  head  of  a  spit, 
or  spear  head,  whence  its  name.  In  this  form  it  was 
used  as  a  coin,  and  a  handful  of  'oboli'  was  equi- 
valent to  a  Drachma  (q.  v.).  It  was  subsequently 
coined  of  silver,  and  in  the  ordinary  round  form, 
but  still  retained  its  original  name  ;  its  value,  both 
as  a  coin  and  a  weight,  was  now  fixed  as  the  £th 
part  of  a  drachma,  so  that  in  the  Attic  system  it 
was  equivalent  to  lfd.  and  15f  Troy  grains  respec- 
tively ;  while  the  iEginetan  obolus  was  worth  2fd. 
as  a  coin,  and  25f  Troy  grains  as  a  weight.  Multiples 
and  submultiples  of  this  coin  were  also  used,  and 
pieces  of  the  value  of  5,  4,  3,  2,  14  oboli,  and  of  f, 
\,  ^,  and  ^  of  an  obolus  respectively,  are  to  be  found 
in  collections  of  coins. 

O'BRIEN.  "William  Smith,  born  in  1803,  was  the 
second  son  of  the  late  Sir  Edward  O'Brien,  Bart,  of 
Dromoland,  in  the  county  of  Clare,  Ireland,  and 
brother  of  the  present  Lord  Inchiqnin  ;  that  ancient 
barony  having  recently  passed  to  the  Dromoland 
O'Briens  on  the  failure  of  the  elder  branch.  W.  S.  O. 
was  educated  at  Harrow  School,  whence  he  passed 
to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  entered  parlia- 
ment for  the  borough  of  Ennis  in  1826,  and  was  a 
warm  supporter  of  Catholic  emancipation.  In  1835, 
he  was  returned  on  advanced  liberal  principles  for. 
the  county  of  Limerick,  and  for  several  years 
strongly  advocated  the  claims  of  Ireland  to  a  strictly 
equal  justice  with  England,  in  legislative  as  well  as 
executive  measures.  Professing  his  inability  to 
effect  this  in  the  united  legislature,  and  having 
embroiled  himself  with  the  Speaker  by  refusing  to 
serve  o*»  committees  (for  which  refusal  he  was  com- 
mitted to  prison  in  the  House  by  the  Speaker's 
order),  he  withdrew  from  attendance  in  parliament 
in  1841,  and  joined  actively  with  Daniel  O'Connell 
(q.  v.)  in  the  agitation  for  a  repeal  of  the  legislative 
union  between  England  and  Ireland.  In  the  pro- 
gress of  that  agitation,  a  division  having  arisen  on 
the  question  of  moral  as  against  physical  force 
between  O'Connell  and  the  party  known  as  'Young 
Ireland,'  0.  sided  with  the  latter ;  and  when  the 
political  crisis  of  1S4S  eventuated  in  a  recourse 
to  arms,  he  took  part  in  an  attempt  at  rebellion  in 
the  south  of  Ireland,  which  in  a  few  days  came  to 
an  almost  ludicrous  conclusion.  He  was  in  conse- 
quence arrested,  and  having  been  convicted,  was 
sentenced  to  death.  The  sentence,  however,  was 
commuted  to  transportation  for  life ;  and  after  the 
restoration  of  tranquillity  in  the  public  mind  in 
Ireland,  he,  in  common  with  the  other  political 
exiles,  was  permitted  tc  return  to  his  native  country. 
After  that  date  (1856)  he  spent  much  of  his  time 
m  foreigr  travel ;  and  although  he  wrote  more  than 
jnce  in  terms  of  strong  disapproval  of  the  existing 
state  of  things,  he  abstained  from  all  active  share 


in  the  political  proceedings  of  any  party.    He  die  1  is 

18C4. 

OBSCE'NE  PRINTS,  BOOKS, or  PICTURES, 
exhibited  in  public  render  the  person  so  doing 
liable  to  be  indicted  for  a  misdemeanour.     Persona 

exposing  them  in  streets,  roads,  or  public 
are  also  liable  to  be  punished  as  rogues  and 
vagabonds  with  hard  labour.  An  important  change 
in  the  law  was  effected  by  Lord  Campbell's  Act  (2(J 
and  21  Vict.  c.  83),  which  was  passed  to  suppress  the 
traffic  in  obscene  books,  pictures,  prints,  and  other 
articles.  Any  two  justices  of  the  peace,  or  any 
police  magistrate,  upon  complaint  made  before  hira 
on  oath  that  such  books,  &c,  are  kept  in  any  house, 
shop,  room,  or  other  place,  for  the  purpo  le,  or 

distribution,  or  exhibition  for  gain  or  on  hire,  and  that 
such  things  have  been  sold,  &c,  may  authorise  a 
constable  to  enter  in  the  daytime,  and,  if  necessary, 
use  force  by  breaking  open  doors,  or  otherwise  to 
search  for  and  seize  such  books,  &c,  and  carry  them 
before  the  magistrate  or  justices,  who  may,  after 
giving  due  notice  to  the  occupier  of  the  house,  and 
being  satisfied  as  to  the  nature  and  object  of  keeping 
the  articles,  cause  them  to  be  destroyed. 

OBSCURA'NTISTS,  the  name  given,  originally 
in  derision,  to  a  party  who  are  supposed  to  look 
with  dislike  and  apprehension  on  the  progress  of 
knowledge,  and  to  regard  its  general  diffusion 
among  men,  taken  as  they  are  ordinarily  found, 
as  prejudicial  to  their  religious  welfare,  and  possibly 
injurious  to  their  material  interests.  Of  those  who 
avow  such  a  doctrine,  and  have  written  to  explain 
and  defend  it,  it  is  only  just  to  say  that  they 
profess  earnestly  to  desire  the  progress  of  all  true 
knowledge  as  a  thing  good  in  itself;  but  they 
regard  the  attempt  to  diffuse  it  among  men,  indis- 
criminately, as  perilous,  and  often  hurtful,  by  pro- 
ducing presumption  and  discontent.  They  profess 
but  to  reduce  to  practice  the  motto — 

A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing. 

It  cannot  be  doubted,  however,  that  there  are  fanatics 
of  ignorance  as  well  as  fanatics  of  science. 

OBSERVANTISTS,  or  OBSERVANT  FRAN- 
CISCANS.  Under  the  head  Franciscans  (q.  v.) 
has  been  detailed  the  earlier  history  of  the  contro- 
versies in  that  order  on  the  interpretation  of  the 
original  rule  and  practice  established  by  St  Francis 
for  the  brethren,  and  of  the  separate  organisation  of 
the  two  parties  at  the  time  of  Leo  X.  The  advo- 
cates of  the  primitive  rigour  were  called  Observantes, 
or  Strietioris  Observantice,  but  both  bodies  were  still 
reputed  subject,  although  each  free  to  practise 
its  own  rule  in  its  own  separate  houses,  to  the 
general  administrator  of  the  order,  who,  as  the 
rigorists  were  by  far  the  more  numerous,  was  a 
member  of  that  schooL  By  degrees,  a  second 
reform  arose  among  a  party  in  the  order,  whose 
zeal  the  rigour  of  the  0.  was  insufficient  to  satisfy, 
and  Clement  VII.  permitted  two  Spanish  friars, 
Stephen  Molena  and  Martin  Guzman,  to  carry 
out  in  Spain  these  views  in  a  distinct  branch  of 
the  order,  who  take  the  name  of  Feformati,  or 
Reformed.  This  body  has  in  later  times  been 
incorporated  with  the  0.  under  one  head.  Before 
the  French  Revolution,  they  are  said  to  have  num- 
bered above  70,000,  distributed  over  more  than  3000 
convents.  Since  that  time,  their  number  has,  of 
course,  been  much  diminished ;  but  they  still  are 
a  very  numerous  and  widespread  body,  as  well  in 
Europe  as  in  the  New  World,  and  in  the  missionary 
districts  of  the  East.  In  Ireland  and  England,  and 
for  a  considerable  time  in  Scotland,  they  maintained 
themselves  throughout  all  the  rigour  of  the  penal 

39 


OBSERVATION  AND  EXPERIMENT-  OBSERVATORY. 


times.     Several  communities  are  still  found  in  the 
two  first-named  kingdoms. 

OBSERVATION  and  EXPE'RIMENT  are  the 
leading  features  of  modern  science,  as  contrasted 
with  the  philosophy  of  the  ancients.  They  are 
indispensable  as  the  bases  of  all  human  knowledge, 
and  no  true  philosophy  has  ever  made  progress 
without  them,  either  consciously  or  unconsciously 
exercised.  Thus,  by  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle, 
no  less  than  by  Archimedes  and  the  ancient  astro- 
nomers, observation  and  experiment  are  exten- 
sively though  not  prominently  or  always  obviously 
employed ;  aud  it  was  by  losing  this  clue  to  the 
spirit  of  their  masters'  teaching,  that  the  later  dis- 
ciples in  these  schools  of  philosophy  missed  the  path 
of  real  progress  in  the  advancement  of  knowledge. 
It  was  in  the  latter  half  of  the  16th  c.  that 
the  minds  of  philosophers  were  first  consciously 
awakened  to  the  importance  of  observation  and 
experiment,  as  opposed  to  authority  and  abstract 
reasoning.  This  result  was  first  occasioned  by 
the  discoveries  and  controversies  of  Galileo  in 
Florence  ;  and  to  the  same  end  were  contributed 
the  simultaneous  efforts  of  a  number  of  philo- 
sophers whose  minds  were  turned  in  the  same 
direction — Tycho  Brahe  in  Holland,  Kepler  in 
Germany,  William  Gilbert  in  England,  who  were 
shortly  afterwards  followed  by  a  crowd  of  kindred 
spirits.  The  powerful  mind  of  Francis  Bacon  lent 
itself  to  describe  the  newly-awakened  spirit  of 
scientific  investigation,  and  though  he  ignored  or 
affected  to  despise  the  results  achieved  by  the  great 
philosophers  just  mentioned,  he  learned  from  them 
enough  to  lay  the  foundation  of  a  philosophy  of 
inductive  science,  which,  if  we  look  at  the  course  of 
scientific  progress  since  his  day,  seems  to  have 
been  almost  prophetic.  The  difference  between 
observation  aud  experiment  may  be  said  to  consist 
in  this,  that  by  observation  we  note  and  record 
the  phenomena  of  nature  as  they  are  presented  to 
Us  in  her  ordinary  course ;  whereas  by  experiment 
we  note  phenomena  presented  under  circumstances 
artificially  arranged  for  the  purpose.  Experiment 
is  thus  the  more  powerful  engine  for  discovery, 
since   one   judiciously  conducted   experiment   may 

f>rovide  the  data  which   could   only  result  from  a 
ong  course  of  observations. 

OBSE'RVATORY,  an  institution  supplied  with 
instruments  for  accurately  observing  and  recording 
the  position  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  superin- 
tended by  an  astronomer,  with  usually  one  or 
more  assistants.  The  objects  to  which  the  work  of 
an  observatory  is  directed  are,  1st,  The  ascertain- 
ment of  elements  necessary  to  the  science  of  theo- 
retical and  physical  astronomy  ;  2d,  The  accurate 
measurement  and  publication  of  time.  A  third 
object,  namely,  the  observation  of  meteorological 
phenomena,  though  not  a  necessary  part  of  the  work 
of  an  observatory,  is  often  combined  with  the  above. 
It  often  happens  that  the  purpose  for  which  a 
particular  observatory  is  instituted  has  especial 
reference  to  one  of  the  above  objects,  and  in  most 
observatories  the  character  of  the  instruments 
possessed  is  more  especially  fitted  for  some  classes 
of  observations  than  for  others.  Since,  therefore, 
almost  every  civilised  country  possesses  one  or  more 
observatories  of  excellent  character,  the  time  of 
the  observers  in  each  is  often  better  employed  in 
carrying  out  those  classes  of  observations  for  which 
they  have  special  opportunities,  than  by  attempting 
observations  of  more  various  kinds.  Thus,  almost 
every  observatory  has  some  distinctive  feature  of 
ite  own. 

The  ancients  have  made  no  mention  of  observa- 
tories, though  we  are  toU  that  Hipparchus  made 
30 


his  observations  at  Rhodes,  and  Ptolemy  at  Alex- 
andria, the  latter  astronomer  possessing  the  greatest 
collection  of  astronomical  instrumentsthen  in  use  ; 
so  we  are  led  to  conclude,  that  among  the  ancients 
it  was  not  the  custom  to  erect  houses  exclusively 
adapted  for  astronomical  observations.  The  case 
was  very  different  with  the  Arabs,  who  ere-jted 
observatories  in  all  parts  of  their  empire,  the  chief 
of  which  were  those  of  Cairo,  two  in  number ;  the 
Bagdad  observatory ;  the  celebrated  one  of 
Meraghah,  superintended  by  Nazir-ed-din ;  and 
last,  and  greatest  of  all,  that  of  Samarkand,  erected 
by  the  celebrated  Ulugh  Beg  (q.  v.).  Observatories 
are  also  found  in  various  parts  of  China. 

The  principal  instruments  in  general  use  in  an 
observatory  are  the  Transit  Instrument  (q.  v.),  the 
Mural  Circle  (see  Circle,  Mural),  the  Equatorial 
(q.  v.),  and  the  Sidereal  Clock  (q.  v.).  The  alti- 
tude and  azimuth  instrument,  or  altazimuth 
(see  Altitude),  is  sometimes  added,  and  the 
transit  instrument  and  mural  circle  are  sometimes 
combined  in  a  single  instrument  called  the  tran- 
sit circle.  For  meteorological  observations,  the 
principal  instruments  are  the  barometer,  the  ther- 
mometer, the  rain-gauge,  and  the  anemometer  (q.  v.), 
or  instrument  for  measuring  and  registering  the 
force  and  direction  of  the  wind.  We  proceed 
to  notice  some  of  the  principal  existing  observa- 
tories, more  particularly  those  belonging  to 
Britain. 

The  principal  observatory  in  England  is  the 
Royal  Observatory  of  Greenwich,  under  the  direction 
of  the  Astronomer- Royal  (now  Mr  Airy),  with  a 
staff  at  present  of  six  assistants  and  six  computers, 
with  other  supernumei'ary  computers  occasionally 
employed.  The  publications  consist  of  a  large 
volume  yearly  of  observations  in  a  reduced  form, 
prepared  under  the  superintendence  of  the  astro- 
nomer-royal, the  initials  of  the  particular  observer 
being  given  with  each  observation.  The  most 
important  instrument  in  this  observatory  is  the 
great  transit  circle,  erected  in  the  year  1850,  and 
brought  into  use  at  the  beginning  of  1S51.  It 
was  constructed  by  Messrs  Ransomes  and  May  as 
engineers,  and  Mr  Simms  as  optician.  The  length 
of  the  telescope  is  nearly  12  feet,  the  clear  aper- 
ture of  the  object-glass  8  inches,  and  the  length  of 
axis  between  the  pivots  6  feet.  For  determining 
the  error  of  collimation  there  are  two  horizontal 
telescopes,  of  about  5  feet  focal  length,  and  4  inches 
aperture,  one  north,  and  the  other  south  of  the 
instrument.  There  is  a  chronographic  apparatus, 
which  registers  the  transits  through  a  galvanic 
contact,  made  by  the  hand  of  the  observer,  on  a 
paper  stretched  over  a  drum  in  connection  with 
the  sidereal  clock.  A  massive  altitude  and  azi- 
muth instrument,  erected  in  1847,  was  constructed 
under  the  direction  of  the  astronomer-royal,  on 
peculiar  principles  of  solidity  and  strength,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  extra-meridional  observations  of 
the  moon,  which  are  effected  by  it  with  an  accuracy 
equal  to  those  made  on  the  meridian.  There  are 
three  telescopes  in  use,  with  equatorial  mounting. 
The  great  equatorial  was  constructed  by  Messrs 
Ransomes  and  Sons  as  engineers,  and  Mr  Simms  as 
instrument-maker  and  optician.  The  object-glass  by 
Messrs  Merz  and  Son  of  Mimich  has  a  clear  aperture 
of  about  12^  inches,  and  a  focal  length  of  16  feet  6 
inches.  The  observatory  at  Greenwich  was  the  first 
to  employ  galvanic  signals  on  an  extensive  scale  in 
the  transmission  of  time.  By  this  means,  since  the 
year  1852,  a  time-ball  has  been  dropped  on  the  dome 
of  the  Observatory,  and  also  at  the  office  of  the 
Electric  Telegraph  Company  in  London,  at  precisely 
one  o'clock.  By  means  of  the  telegraph-wires,  also, 
the  longitude  of  the  other  principal  observatories 


OBSERVATORY-OBSIDIAN. 


throughout    the    kingdom     has     been     accurately 
determined. 

The  observatory  of  Cambridge  had  its  building 
completed  in  lS2t,  and  its  first  director  was  Pro- 
fessor Woodhouse.  It  is  now  (1874)  under  the 
direction  of  Mr  Adams,  well  known  in  connection 
with  the  discovery  of  the  planet  Neptune.  The 
observatory  was  at  lirst  furnished  only  with  a 
10-feet  tr-uisit  instrument  by  Dollond.  To  this  was 
added,  in  1832,  an  S-feet  mural  circle  by  Troughton 
and  Simms,  and  a  S-feet  equatorial  by  Jones.  The 
Northumberland  Telescope,  so  called  from  its  donor 
the  Duke  of  Northumberland,  was  erected  under 
the  direction  of  Mr  Airy  in  1838.  This  fine  teles- 
cope, which  is  equatorially  mounted,  is  of  nearly 
20  feet  focal  length,  and  has  an  object-glass  with 
a  clear  apei-ture  of  11J  inches.  It  has  been 
actively  employed  in  observations  of  the  planets 
and  planetoids.  The  observatory  has  also  been  fur- 
nished with  a  transit  circle,  on  the  principle  of  the 
Greenwich  instrument  (1854).  It  was  while  in  the 
Cambridge  Observatory  that  Mr  Airy  first  introduced 
the  principle  which  he  has  since  actively  followed 
up,  and  which  has  been  extensively  imitated,  of 
thoroughly  reducing  every  observation  before  its  pub- 
lication. 

The  Radcliffe  Observatory  at  Oxford  was  erected 
about  the  year  1774.  In  July  1861  was  purchased 
for  this  observatory  Mr  Carrington's  transit  circle, 
formerly  used  by  him  at  Red  Hill.  It  possesses  a 
fine  heliorneter,  erected  in  1850  by  the  Messrs 
Repsold  of  Hamburg,  the  object-glass  by  Messrs 
Merz  of  Munich,  of  10£  feet  focal  length,  and  7* 
inches  aperture. 

The  Royal  Observatory  of  Edinburgh  is  situated 
on  the  Calton  Hill  there.  It  had  its  origin  in  a 
private  astronomical  institution  ;  but  it  has  been 
transferred  to  the  crown,  on  condition  of  the  latter 
taking  upon  itself  the  sole  charge  of  defraying  the 
expenses  of  the  establishment,  and  of  providing  for 
its  adequate  and  perpetual  maintenance.  It  has 
recently  taken  a  distinguished  place  as  a  time- 
keeping observatory,  and  by  means  of  its  mean- 
time clock,  fitted  with  a  pendulum  on  the  principle 
of  Mr  Jones's  recent  invention  (see  Electric  Clock), 
time-guns  are  fired  from  Edinburgh  Castle,  at 
Newcastle,  and  in  Glasgow  precisely  at  one  o'clock. 
The  present  astronomer  is  Mr  Piazzi  Smyth,  who 
has  taken  an  active  part  in  the  introduction  of  these 
useful  measures. 

Among  the  observatories  in  the  British  dominions, 
that  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  founded  in  1821,  in 
pursuance  of  an  order  in  council  made  in  1820  at  the 
instigation  of  the  then  existing  Board  of  Longitude, 
holds  a  distinguished  place,  both  with  regard  to  the 
excellence  of  its  instruments  and  the  importance  of 
the  observations  which  have  been  there  made  by 
several  of  its  directors. 

Among  foreign  observatories,  those  of  most  note 
are  the  observatory  of  Paris,  commenced  under  the 
directorship  of  the  celebrated  Dominique  Cassini ; 
the  observatory  of  Berlin,  of  recent  date,  but  fitted 
with  excellent  instruments  ;  the  observatories  of 
Gottingen  and  Konigsberg ;  those  of  Dorpat  and 
Pulkowa,  in  Russia ;  and  those  of  Milan,  Florence, 
&c,  in  Italy. 

Of  observatories  especially  devoted  to  particular 
and  practical  objects,  the  observatory  of  Liverpool, 
as  conducted  under  its  present  able  director,  Mr 
Hartnup,  deserves  especial  mention.  This  obser- 
vatory was  established  in  1844  by  the  corpor- 
ation of  Liverpool,  in  order  to  obtain,  with  all 
practicable  accuracy,  the  longitude  of  Liverpool, 
and  then  to  obtain  and  preserve  the  Greenwich 
time  for  the  benefit  of  the  port  of  Liverpool,  by 
rating  and  testing  chronometers,  and  by  giving  the 


Decenary    information    to    mariners,    chronometer- 
makers,    and    professional    raters    of    chronometers. 
On    the   8th  January    18.r>8,   the    observatory   was 
transferred  by  an  act  of  parliament  to  the  Mersey 
j  Docks  and  Harbour  Board.     The  principal  instru- 
ments possessed  by  the  observatory  for  the  carrying 
out  of  the  main  object— namely,  that  of  obtaining 
and  preserving  correct  time— are  an  excellent  tran- 
sit instrument  of  about  four  feet   focal   length,  a 
sidereal   clock,   and   a   mean-time   clock.      Besides 
these  means  of  obtaining  accurate  time,  there   is 
now  in  use  an  admirable  arrangement  for  testing 
the  rates  of  chronometers  at  various  temperatures, 
!  in  which  branch  of  practical  horology,  as  well  as  in 
the  adaptation  of  electricity  to  the  publication  of 
time  through  the  contrivance  patented  by  Mr  R. 
j  L.  Jones   of   Chester,  this   observatory   has  taken 
the  lead  of  all  other  establishments  (see  Electric 
!  Clock,  Horology,  *Watch).     When  it  is  remem- 
[  bered  that  each  error  of  4"  in  a  chronometer  cor- 
'  responds  to  a  geographical  mile  of  longitude  upon 
the  equator,  the  importance  of  extreme  accuracy  in 
these  rating  observations  cannot  be  overestimated. 
The  Liverpool  observatory  is   also  provided  with 
excellent   meteorological  instruments,   especially  a 
self-registering  barometer   on   a   new  construction 
by  Mr   King  of   Liverpool,   and   an   anemometer, 
which  registers  the  force  and  direction  of  the  wind, 
i  The  record  kept  by  all  these  instruments  consists 
of  tracings  on  a  paper,  by  which  the  registered 
phenomena  during  any  twenty-four  hours  are  seen 
at  a  glance.     The  observatory  also  possesses  a  good 
1  equatorial,  which   has   been   extensively  used  for 
1  determining  with    accuracy  the   positions    of    the 
'  small  members  of  the  solar  system  revolving  be- 
1  tween  Mars  and  Jupiter — a  class  of   observations 
I  to  which   the    instrument    is    peculiarly   adapted, 
and  which  are  important  towards  supplying  data 
for  increasing  the  accuracy  of  navigation. 

There  are  eighteen  observatories  in  the  United  States, 
though  at  many  of  them  no  real  astronomical  work  is 
done.  Systematic  astronomical  observations  are  made 
at  the  U.  S.  Naval  Obs.,  the  Cambridge  and  Dearborn, 
those  of  Hamilton  Coll.  and  Ann  Arbor.  The  only  sys- 
I  tematic  magnetical  observations  are  made  at  Wash- 
ington by  the  United  States  Coast  Survey.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  list  of  the  usually  recognised  observatories 
in  America :  Dartmouth  Coll.,  Hanover,  N.  H. ;  Cam- 
bridge, Cambridge, Mass. ;  Yale  Coll.,  N.  Haven,  Conn. ; 
Vassar  Coll.,  Poughkeepsie,  N.Y. ;  Dudlcv  Obs.,  Albany, 
N.Y.;  Litchfield  Obs.  of  Hamilton  Coll.,  Clinton,  N. 
Y. ;  Alfred  Obs.,  Alfred  Centre,  N.  Y. ;  Halstead  Obs., 
Princeton,  N.  J. ;  Philadelphia  Hi^h  School,  Philada., 
Pa. ;  Lafayette  Coll.,  Easton,  Pa. ;  Lehigh  Univ.,  Beth- 
lehem, Pa. ;  Alleghany  Obs.,  Alleghanv,  Pa. ;  U.  States 
Naval  Obs.,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  Cincinnati  Obs.,  Cin- 
cinnati, O. ;  Hudson  Obs.,  Hudson,  O. ;  Univ.  of  Mich- 
igan, Ann  Arbor,  Mich. ;  Dearborn  Obs.,  Chicago,  HI.; 
and  Univ.  of  California,  San  Francisco,  Cab. 

OBSI'DIAN,  a  mineral  accurately  described  by 
Pliny  under  the  name  which  it  still  bears.  It  is  a 
true  kind  of  native  glass,  composed  of  silica  (from 
70  to  80  per  cent.),  alumina,  lime,  soda,  potash,  and 
oxide  of  iron.  It  is  hard  and  brittle,  with  remark- 
ably vitreous  lustre,  and  perfectly  conchoidal 
fracture,  the  edges  of  the  fractures  very  sharp  and 
cutting  like  glass.  It  varies  from  semitransparency 
to  translucency  only  on  the  edges.  It  is  often 
black,  or  very  dark  gray;  sometimes  green,  red, 
brown,  striped,  or  spotted ;  and  sometimes  cluttoyant 
or  avanturine.  It  occurs  in  volcanic  situations,  and 
often  in  close  connection  with  pumice,  in  roundish 
compact  pieces,  in  grains,  and  in  fibres.  It  is 
capable  of  being  polished,  but  is  apt  to  break  in 
the  process.  It  is  made  into  boxes,  buttons,  ear- 
drops,  and  other  ornamental   articles;    and  before 


OB  VERSE— OCCASIONALISM. 


the  uses  of  the  metals  were  well  known,  it  was 
employed,  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  for  making 
arrow  and  spear  heads,  knives,  &c.  It  is  found 
in  Iceland,  the  Lipari  Isles,  Vesuvius,  Sardinia, 
Hungary,  Spain,  Teneriffe,  Mexico,  South  America, 
Madagascar,  Siberia,  &c.  Black  0.  was  used  by 
the  ancients  for  making  mirrors,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose was  brought  to  Rome  from  Ethiopia.  It  was 
used  for  the  same  purpose  in  Peru  and  Mexico. 
Mirrors  of  Black  0.  are  indeed  still  employed  by 
artists.  Chatoyant  or  Avanturine  0.  is  very  beauti- 
ful when  cut  and  polished,  and  ornaments  made  of 
it  are  sold  at  a  comparatively  high  price. 

O'BVERSE,  or  FACE,  the  side  of  a  coin  or 
medal  which  contains  the  principal  device  or 
inscription,  the  other  side  being  in  contradistinction 
called  the  Reverse.     See  Numismatics. 

OCCAM,  William  of,  '  surnamed  Doctor 
Singularis  et  Invincibilis,  a  famous  schoolman,  was 
born  in  England,  at  the  village  of  Ockam,  in  the 
county  of  Surrey,  about  the  year  1270.  We  do  not 
possess  any  precise  or  satisfactory  knowledge  of  his 
early  life.  He  is  said  to  have  been  educated  at 
Merton  College,  Oxford,  and  to  have  held  several 
benefices  in  his  native  country,  but  soon  after 
resigned  them  on  entering  the  Franciscan  order. 
Early  in  the  14th  c,  it  is  supposed  he  proceeded  to 
Paris,  where  he  attended  the  lectures  of  Duns 
Scotus,  of  whose  philosophy  he  was  afterwards 
the  most  formidable  opponent.  Here  he  soon 
became  prominent  by  the  boldness  of  his  ecclesias- 
tical views.  Philippe,  le  Bel,  king  of  France,  having 
forbidden  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  to  levy  contributions 
in  his  dominions,  the  latter,  by  way  of  retaliation, 
excommunicated  him.  O.  rushed  to  the  defence  of 
the  monarch,  and  in  his  Disputatio  inter  Clericum  et 
Militem,  super  Potestate  Prcelatis  Ecclesice  atque 
Principibus  Terrarum  Commissa,  denies  that  the 
popes  have  any  authority  in  temporal  affairs,  and 
boldly  declares  that  all  who  favoured  such  a 
doctrine  ought  to  be  expelled  from  the  church  as 
heretics.  Meanwhile,  from  being  a  listener,  he  had 
become  a  lecturer  in  philosophy.  The  system  which 
he  advocated — for  he  was  not  properly  its  originator 
— is  known  by  the  name  of  Nominalism  (q.  v.),  but 
it  had  never  before  received  so  rigorously  logical 
and  rational  a  treatment;  hence  his  epithet  of 
Invincibilis.  The  work  in  which  his  views  are  set 
lorth  is  entitled  Expositio  Aurea,  et  admodum 
utilis  super  totam  Artem  Veterem.  It  contains  a 
series  of  commentaries  upon  the  Isagoge  of  Porphyry, 
and  on  the  Categories  and  Interpretation  of  Aristotle, 
with  a  special  treatise  headed  Tractatus  Communi- 
tatum  Porphyria,  and  a  theological  opusculum  on 
Predestination.  It  is  intended  as  a  demolition  of 
the  moderns — i.  e.,  the  scholastics— and  shews  that 
in  their  method  they  have  completely  departed 
from  the  principles  and-  methods  of  the  great 
Stagyrite,  for  whom,  like  every  sound,  and  solid 
thinker,  he  shews  the  deepest  respect  and  admira- 
tion. About  1320  or  1321,  he  again  plunged  into 
ecclesiastical  controvers)'.  A  certain  Narbonese 
priest,  having  affirmed  that  Jesus  Christ  and  his 
apostles  held  everything  in  common,  and  that  every 
ecclesiastical  possession  is  a  modern  abuse,  was 
pounced  upon  by  the  inquisitors,  and  defended  by 
a  certain  Berenger  Talon,  a  Franciscan  monk  of 
Perpignan.  But  Berenger's  defence  of  apostolical 
poverty  was  naturally  enough  very  disagreeable  to 
the  pope,  John  XXII.,  who  therefore  condemned 
it.  Berenger  was,  however,  vigorously  supported 
by  his  order,  and  among  others  by  Michael  de 
Cesena,  the  general-superior,  Bonayatia  of  Bergamo, 
and  William  of  Occam,  who  attacked  the  pope  with 
great  vehemence  and  trenchant  logic.    Shortly  after 


they  were  arrested  as  favourers  of  heresy,  and 
imprisoned  in  Avignon.  But  while  their  trial  was 
proceeding,  Michael  de  Cesena  and  0.,  knowing 
what  little  mercy  or  justice  they  had  to  expect 
from  their  accusers  and  judges,  made  their  escape 
to  the  Mediterranean,  and  were  received  at  a  little 
distance  off  shore  on  board  a  galley  of  Ludwig, 
king  of  Bavaria,  the  patron  of  the  Franciscan  anti- 
pope,  Peter  of  Corbaras,  and  one  of  the  most  power- 
ful sovereigns  in  Europe.  The  remainder  of  O.'s 
life  was  spent  at  Munich,  where,  safe  from  the 
machinations  of  his  enemies,  he  continued  to  assail 
at  once  the  errors  of  papistry  in  religion,  and  of 
realism  in  philosophy.  He  died  7th  April  1347. 
It  is  impossible  to  praise  0.  too  highly.  He  was 
the  first  logician,  and  the  most  rational  philosopher 
among  the  whole  body  of  schoolmen.  We  are  often 
reminded  by  his  clear  and  vigorous  common  sense 
and  wholesome  incredulity,  that  he  was  the  country- 
man of  Locke  and  Hobbes,  and  that  he  came  of  a 
people  ever  noted  for  the  solidity  of  their  under- 
standing. Besides  the  works  already  mentioned, 
O.'s  principal  writings  are — Dialogus  in  tres  Partes 
distinctv.s,  quarum  prima  de  H&reticis,  secunda  de 
Erroribus  Joannis  XXII.,  tertia  de  Potestate  Papas, 
Conciliorum  et  Imperatoris  ;  Opus  Nonaginta  Dierum 
contra  Errores  Joannis  XXII.  ;  Compendium 
Errorum  Joannis  Papas  XXII. ;  Decisiones  Octo 
Quosstionum  de  Potestate  summi  Pontificis ;  Super 
Quatuor  Libros  Sententiarum  Subtilissimoz  Quozs- 
tiones  earumque  Decisiones  (based  on  Peter  the 
Lombard's  famous  Sentential,  and  containing  nearly 
the  entire  theology  of  Occam.  These  Decisiones 
were  long  almost  as  renowned  as  the  Sentential, 
which  gave  them  birth) ;  Antiloquium  Theologtcum; 
Summa  Logvces  ad  Adamum;  and  Major  Summa 
Logices. — See  Luke  Wadding's  Scriptores  Ordiu:s 
Minorum  (1650);  Cousin's  Histoire  de  la  Philosophie 
(2d  ed.  1840) ;  and  B.  Haureau's  De  la  Philosophie 
Sc/wlastique  (1848). 

OCCA'SIONALISM,  or  the  doctrine  of  Occa- 
sional  Causes  (see  Cause),  is  the  name  given  to 
the  philosophical  system  devised  by  Descartes  and 
his  school,  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  the  action 
of  mind  upon  matter,  or,  to  speak  more  correctly, 
the  combined,  or  at  least  the  synchronous  action 
of  both.  It  is  a  palpable  fact  that  certain  actions 
or  modifications  of  the  body  are  accompanied  by 
corresponding  acts  of  mind,  and  vice  versa.  This 
fact,  although  it  presents  no  difficulty  to  the  popular 
conception,  according  to  which  each  is  supposed  to 
act  directly  upon  the  other — body  upon  mind,  and 
mind  upon  body — has  long  furnished  to  philosophers 
a  subject  of  much  speculation.  But  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  the  possibility  of 
any  direct  mutual  interaction  of  substances  so 
dissimilar,  or  rather  so  disparate.  And  more  than 
one  system  has  been  devised  for  the  explanation  of 
the  problem,  as  to  the  relations  which  subsist 
between  the  mind  and  the  body,  in  reference  to 
those  operations,  which  are  clearly  attributable 
to  them  both.  According  to  Descartes  and  the 
Occasionalists,  the  action  of  the  mind  is  not,  and 
cannot  be  the  cause  of  the  corresponding  action  of 
the  body.  But  they  hold  that  whenever  any 
action  of  the  mind  takes  place,  God  directly  pro- 
duces, in  connection  with  it,  and  by  reason  of 
it,  a  corresponding  action  of  the  body ;  and  in 
like  manner  conversely,  they  explain  the  coincident 
or  synchronous  actions  of  the  body  and  the  mind. 
It  was  in  opposition  to  this  view  that  Leibnitz, 
believing  the  Cartesian  system  to  be  open  to 
nearly  equal  difficulties  with  that  of  the  direct 
action,  devised  his  system  of  Pre-established 
Harmony.  See  Leibnitz.  His  real  objection  to 
the  Occasionalist  hypothesis  is,  that  it  supposed  a 


OCCULTATIONS -OCHTIKS. 


perpetual  action  of  God  upon  creatures,  and,  in 
tact,  is  hut  a  modification  of  the  system  of  •direct 
assistance.1 

OCCULTATIONS  (Lat.  occultatio,  a  conceal- 
ment) are  neither  more  nor  less  than  'eclipses;'  hut 
the  latter  term  is  confined  hy  usage  to  the  obscu- 
ration of  the  sun  hy  the  moon,  and  of  the  moon 
by  the  earth's  shadow,  while  the  former  is  restricted 

to  the   eclipses  of  stars  or  planets  by   the    mi. 

Occultations  are  phenomena  of  frequent  oecur- 
renoe  ;  they  are  confined  to  a  belt  of  the  heavens 
about  M°  174'  wide,  situated  parallel  to,  and  on 
both  sides  of  the  equinoxial,  and  extending  to 
equal  distances  north  and  south  of  it,  being 
the  belt  within  which  the  moon's  orbit  lies. 
These  phenomena  serve  as  data  for  the  measure- 
ment of  the  moon's  parallax  ;  and  they  are 
also  occasionally  employed  in  the  calculation  of 
longitudes.  As  the  moon  moves  in  her  orbit 
from  west  to  east,  the  occupation  of  a  star  is 
made  at  the  moon's  eastern  limb,  and  the  star 
emerges  en  the  western  limb.  When  a  star  is 
occulted  hy  the  dark  limb  of  the  moon  (a  pheno- 
menon which  can  only  occur  between  new  moon 
and  full  moon),  it  appears  to  an  observer  as  if 
it  were  suddenly  extinguished,  and  this  appear- 
ance is  most  deceptive  when  the  moon  is  only  a 
few  days  old.  When  an  occultation  occurs  between 
full  moon  and  new  moon,  the  reappearance  of  the 
star  at  the  outer  edge  of  the  dark  limb  produces 
an  equally  startling  effect.  '  It  has  often  been 
remarked,'  says  Herschel,  '  that  when  a  star  is 
being  occulted  by  the  moon,  it  appears  to  advance 
actually  upon  and  within  the  edge  of  the  disc  before 
it  disappears,  and  that  sometimes  to  a  considerable 
depth.'  This  phenomenon  he  considers  to  be  an 
optical  illusion,  though  he  admits  the  possibility  of 
its  being  caused  by  the  existence  of  deep  fissures  in 
the  moon's  substance.  Occultations  of  stars  by 
planets  and  their  satellites  are  of  rarer  occurrence 
than  lunar  occultations,  and  still  more  unfrequent 
are  the  occultations  of  one  planet  by  another. 
Occultations  are  calculated  in  the  same  way  as 
eclipses,  but  the  calculation  is  simplified  in  the 
case  of  the  fixed  stars,  on  account  of  their  having 
neither  sensible  motion,  semi-diameter,  nor  parallax. 

OCEAN,  a  term  which,  like  Sea,  in  its  general 
acceptation,  denotes  the  body  of  salt  water  that 
separates  continent  from  continent,  and  is  the 
receptacle  for  the  waters  of  rivers.  The  surface  of 
the  ocean  is  about  three-fifths  of  the  whole  surface 
of  the  earth.  Although  no  portion  of  it  is  com- 
pletely detached  from  the  rest,  the  intervening 
continents  and  islands  mark  it  off  into  divisions, 
which  geographers  have  distinguished  by  special 
Dames  :  the  Atlantic  Ocean  (q.  v.),  between  America 
and  Europe  and  Africa ;  the  Pacific  Ocean  (q.  v.), 
between  America  and  Asia ;  the  Indian  Ocean 
(q.  v.),  lying  south  of  Asia,  and  limited  on  the  east 
and  west  by  Australasia  and  South  Africa;  the 
Arctic  Ocean  (q.  v.),  surrounding  the  north  pole; 
and  the  Antarctic  Ocean  (q.  v.),  surrounding  the 
south  pole.  The  general  features  and  characteristics 
of  the  ocean  will  be  described  under  Sea. 

OCEA'NIA,  the  name  given  to  the  fifth  division 
of  the  globe,  comprising  all  the  islands  which  inter- 
vene between  the  south-eastern  shores  of  the  con- 
tinent of  Asia  and  the  western  shores  of  the 
American  continent.  It  naturally  divides  itself 
into  three  great  sections — Malay  Archipelego  (q.  v.), 
Australasia  (q.  v.),  or  Melanesia  and  Polynesia  (q.  v.). 

O'CELOT,  the  name  of  several  species  of  Felidce, 

natives    of  the  tropical   parts   of    South   America, 

allied  to  the  leopard  by  flexibility  of  body,  length 

of  tail,  and  other  characters,  but  of  much  smaller 

315 


size.  They  are  usually  included  in  the  genis 
Leopardus  by  those  who  divide  the  Fends  into  a 
Dumber  of  genera  They  are  inhabitants  of  forests, 
and  very  expert  in  climbing  trees.  Their  prey 
consists  in  great  part  of  birds.  They  are  beauti- 
fully marked  and  coloured.  The  best  known 
species,  or  Common  0.  [Fdia  pardalu),  a  native  of  the 
warm  parts  of  America,  from  Mexico  to  Brazil,  is 


Ocelot  (Felis  pardalis). 

from  two  feet  nine  inches  to  four  feet  long,  exclusiva 
of  the  tail,  which  is  from  eleven  to  fifteen  inches, 
and  nearly  of  uniform  thickness.  The  ears  are 
thin,  short,  and  pointed.  The  muzzle  is  rather 
elongated.  The  colours  vary  considerably,  but  the 
ground  tint  is  always  a  rich  red  or  tawny  colour, 
blending  finely  with  the  dark  brown  on  the  margins 
of  the  open  spots,  of  which  there  are  chains  along 
the  sides ;  the  head,  neck,  and  legs  being  also 
variously  spotted  or  barred  with  dark  brown  or 
black.  The  O.  is  easily  tamed,  and  is  very  gentle 
and  playful,  but  excessively  mischievous.  It  may 
be  fed  on  porridge  and  milk,  or  other  such  food, 
and  is  said  to  be  then  more  gentle  than  if  per- 
mitted to  indulge  in  carnivorous  appetites. — Very 
similar  to  the  Common  0.  are  several  other 
American  species,  as  the  Linked  0.  (F.  catenata), 
the  Long-tailed  0.  {F.  macrourus),  the  Chati 
(F.  mitia),  &c.  The  similarity  extends  to  habits 
and  disposition,  as  well  as  form. 

O'CHIL  HILLS,  a  hilly  range  in  Scotland, 
occupying  parts  of  the  counties  of  Perth,  Clacli- 
mannan,  Stirling,  Kinross,  and  Fife,  and  extending 
from  the  vicinity  of  Stirling  north-east  to  the  Firth 
of  Tay.  The  range  is  24  miles  in  length,  and  about 
12  miles  in  breadth.  The  highest  summit  is  Ben- 
cleugh,  (2352  feet)  near  the  south-west  extremity. 
The  hills,  which  are  formed  chiefly  of  greenstone 
and  basalt,  contain  silver,  copper,  and  iron  ores, 
and  afford  excellent  pasturage. 

OCHNA'CEiE,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  containing  not  quite  100  known  species, 
natives  of  tropical  and  subtropical  countries.  Some 
of  them  are  trees,  most  of  them  under-shrubs  ;  all 
are  remarkable  for  their  smoothness  in  all  parts. 
Bitter  and  tonic  qualities  prevail  in  this  order,  and 
some  species  are  medicinally  used  in  their  native 
countries.  The  seeds  of  Gomphia  jabotapita  yield 
an  oil,  which  is  used  in  salads  in  the  West  Indies 
and  South  America. 

O'CHRES,  the  name  usually  applied  to  clays 
coloured  with  the  oxides  of  iron  in  various  propor- 
tions, giving  to  the  clay  a  lighter  or  deeper  colour. 
Strictly  speaking,  the  term  belongs  only  to  a  com- 
bination of  peroxide  of  iron  with  water.  From 
many  mines  large  quantities  of  water  charged  with 
ferruginous  mud  are  being  continually  pumped  up, 
and  from  this  water  the  coloured  mud  or  ochre 
settles.  In  this  way  large  quantities  are  procured 
from  the  tin  mines  of  Cornwall,  and  the  lead  and 
copper  mines  of  North  Wales  and  the  Isle  of  Man. 
Ochres  occur  also  ready  formed,  in  beds  several  feet 

33 


OCHRO -OCTAGON. 


thick,  in  the  various  geological  formations,  and  are 
occasionally  worked,  as  at  Shotover  Hill,  Oxford,  in 
Holland,  and  many  other  places  in  Europe  and 
America.  Very  remarkable  beds  are  worked  in 
Canada.  The  ochres  so  obtained  are  either  calcined 
for  use  or  not,  according  to  the  tint  wanted.  The 
operation  adds  much  to  the  depth  of  colour,  by 
increasing  the  degree  of  oxidation  of  the  contained 
iron.  The  most  remarkable  varieties  of  ochre  are 
the  Siena  Earth  (Terra  di  Siena)  from  Italy  ;  the 
so-called  red  chalk,  with  which  sheep  are  m  irked  ; 
Dutch  Ochre ;  Armenian  Bole  or  Lemnian  Earth  ; 
Italian  Rouge,  and  Bitry  Ochre.  They  vary  in  colour 
from  an  Isabelline  yellow,  through  almost  every 
shade  of  brown,  up  to  a  tolerably  good  red.  The 
finest  kinds  are  used  by  painters,  the  coarsest  by 
carpenters  for  marking  out  their  work,  by  farmers 
for  marking  cattle,  &c. 

O'CHRO.     See  Hibiscus. 

OCKMU'LGEE,  a  river  in  Georgia,  TJ.  S.,  which 
rises  in  the  northern  centre  of  the  state  by  three 
branches,  and  after  a  course  of  200  miles  south- 
south-east,  joins  the  Oconee,  to  form  the  Altamaha. 
It  is  navigable  to  Macon,  130  miles  above  its  mouth. 

OCO'NEE,  a  river  of  Georgia,  U.  S.,  rises  in  the 
north-east  part  of  the  state,  and  flows  southerly 
250  miles,  where  it  unites  with  the  Ockmulgee  to 
form  the  Altamaha;  it  is  navigable  to  Milledgeviile, 
100  miles. 

O'CONNELL,  Daxiel,  eldest  son  of  Mr  Morgan 
O'ConneJl  of  Darrynane,  near  Cahirciveen,  in  the 
comity  of  Kerry,  Ireland,  was  born  August  9,  1775. 
His  family  was  ancient,  but  straitened  in  circum- 
stances. O'C.  received  his  rirst  education  from  a 
hedge-schoolmaster,  and  after  a  further  training 
under  a  Catholic  priest  in  the  county  of  Cork,  was 
sent  in  1790  to  the  English  College  at  St  Omer.  His 
school  reputation  was  very  high  ;  but  he  was  driven 
home  prematurely  by  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, and  in  1794,  entered  as  a  law-student  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn.  In  179S,  he  was  called  to  the  bar;  and 
it  was  the  boast  of  his  later  career  as  an  advocate  of 
the  Repeal  of  the  Union  with  England,  that  his  first 
public  speech  was  delivered  at  a  meeting  in  Dublin, 
convened  for  the  purpose  of  protesting  against  that 

E rejected  measure.  He  devoted  himself  assiduously, 
owever,  to  the  practice  of  his  profession,  in  which 
he  rose  steadily.  By  degrees,  the  Roman  Catholic 
party  having  begun  to  rally  from  the  prostration 
into  which  they  had  been  thrown  through  the 
•rebellion  of  1798  and  its  consequences,  O'C.  was 
drawn  into  public  political  life.  In  all  the  meetings 
of  his  co-religionists  for  the  prosecution  of  their 
claims,  he  took  a  part,  and  his  unquestioned 
ability  soon  made  him  a  leader.  He  was  an  active 
member  of  all  the  successive  associations  which, 
under  the  various  names  of  '  Catholic  Board,' 
'  Catholic  Committee,'  '  Catholic  Association,'  &c, 
were  organised  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  the 
repeal  of  the  civil  disabilities  of  the  Catholic  body. 
Of  the  Catholic  Association  he  was  himself  the  origi- 
nator ;  and  although  his  supremacy  in  its  councils 
was  occasionally  challenged  by  some  aspiring  asso- 
ciates, he  continued  all  but  supreme  down  to  its 
final  dissolution.  By  means  of  this  association, 
and  the  'Catholic  Rent'  which  it  was  enabled 
to  raise,  he  created  so  formidable  an  organisation 
throughout  Ireland,  that  it  gradually  became  appa- 
rent that  the  desired  measure  of  relief  could  not 
longer  be  safely  withheld  ;  and  the  crisis  was  pre- 
cipitated by  the  bold  expedient  adopted  by  O'C, 
of  procuring  himself  to  be  elected  member  of  parlia- 
ment for  Clare  in  1828,  notwithstanding  his  well- 
known  legal  incapacity  to  serve  in  parliament,  in 
oonaequence  of  his  being  obliged  to  refuse  the 
34 


prescribed  oaths  of  abjuration  and  supremacy,  which 
then  formed  the  ground  of  the  exclusion  of  Roman 
Catholics  from  the  legislature.  This  decisive  step 
towards  the  settlement  of  the  question,  although  it 
tailed  to  procure  for  O'C.  admission  to  parliament, 
led  to  discussions  within  the  House,  and  to  agitations 
outside,  so  formidable,  that  in  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1829,  the  Duke  of  Wellington  and  Sir  Robert 
Peel  found  it  expedient  to  give  way ;  and,  deserting 
their  former  party,  they  introduced  and  carried 
through,  in  the  spring  of  that  year,  the  well-known 
measure  of  Catholic  Emancipation.  O'C.  was  at 
once  re-elected,  and  took  his  seat  for  Clare,  and 
from  that  date  until  his  death  continued  to  sit  in 
parliament.  He  was  elected  for  his  native  county 
in  1S30,  for  the  city  of  Dublin  in  1S36,  for  the  tcwn 
of  Kilkenny  in  1836  (having  been  unseated  for 
Dublin  on  petition),  for  Dublin  again  in  1837,  and 
for  the  county  of  Cork  in  1841.  During  all  these 
years,  having  entirely  relinquished  his  practice  for 
the  purpose  of  devoting  himself  to  public  affairs,  he 
received,  by  means  of  an  organised  annual  subsidy, 
a  large  yearly  income  from  the  voluntary  contribu- 
tions of  the  people,  by  whom  he  was  idolised  as 
their 'Liberator ;'  and  who  joined  with  him  in  all 
the  successive  agitations  against  the  act  of  Union, 
against  the  Protestant  Church  establishment,  and 
in  favour  of  reform,  in  which  he  engaged.  In  the 
progress  of  more  than  one  of  these  political  agita- 
tions, his  associations  were  suppressed  by  the 
government ;  and  the  agitation  for  a  Repeal  of  the 
Union,  recommenced  in  1841,  and  earned  on  by 
'  monster  meetings'  throughout  Ireland,  at  which 
O'C.  himself  was  the  chief  speaker,  assumed  propor- 
tions so  formidable,  that  he,  in  common  with  several 
others,  was  indicted  for  a  seditious  conspiracy,  and 
after  a  long  and  memorable  trial,  was  convicted,  and 
sentenced  to  a  year's  imprisonment,  with  a  tine  of 
£2000.  This  judgment  was  reversed  by  the  House 
of  Lords;  and  O'C,  on  his  discharge,  resumed  his 
career ;  but  his  health  had  suffered  from  confinement, 
and  still  more  from  dissensions  and  opposition  in 
the  councils  of  his  party ;  and  as,  on  the  return  of  the 
Whigs  to  power  in  1846,  he  consented  to  support 
their  government,  the  malcontents  of  the  Repeal 
Association  openly  separated  from  him,  and  a  bitter 
feud  between  'Young'  and  'Old'  Ireland  ensued. 
In  this  quarrel,  O'C.  steadfastly  maintained  his 
favourite  precept  of  '  moral  force,'  and  was  sup- 
ported by  the  great  body  of  the  Catholio  bishops 
and  clergy  ;  but  his  health  gave  way  in  the  struggle. 
He  was  ordered  to  try  a  milder  climate  ;  and  on  his 
journey  to  Rome  in  the  spring  of  1S47,  he  was  sud- 
denly seized  with  paralysis,  and  died  at  Genoa  on 
the  15th  May  of  that  year.  His  eminence  as  a 
public  speaker,  and  especially  as  a  master  of  popular 
eloquence,  i3  universally  admitted.  Into  the  contro- 
versies as  to  his  public  and  political  character,  it  is 
not  our  place  to  enter  here.  His  speeches  unfortu- 
nately were  for  the  most  part  extempore,  and  exist 
but  in  the  reports  (uncorrected  by  himself)  taken  at 
the  time.  He  published  but  a  single  volume,  A 
Memoir  of  Ireland,  Native  and  Saxon,  and  a  few 
pamphlets ;  the  most  important  of  which,  as  illus- 
trating his  personal  history  and  character,  is  A 
Letter  to  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury. — See  Life  and 
Times  of  Daniel  O'Connell,  by  his  son,  John  O'Oon- 
nell ;  also  Recollections  of  Daniel  CfConnell,  by 
John  O'Neill  Daniel ;  and  Fagan's  Life  of  Daniel 
O'ConneJl. 

O'CTAGON,  a  plane  closed  figure  of  eight  sides. 
When  the  sides  are  equal,  and  also  the  angles,  the 
figure  is  called  a  '  regular  octagon  ; '  in  this  case,  each 
angle  is  135°,  or  equal  to  three  half  right  angles.  If  the 
alternate  corners  of  a  regular  octagon  be  joined,  a 
square  is  constructed;   and  as  the  angle  contained 


OCTAHEDRON— OD. 


Octahedron. 


between  the  sides  of  the  square  find  of  the  octagon 
is  one-fourth  of  a  right  angle,  the  octagon  may  easily 

be  constructed  from  the  square  as  a  l>asis. 

OCTAHEDRON  (Gr.  okto,  eight,  hedra,  base)  is 
a  solid  figure  bounded  by  eight 
tri  i  i  les,  and  having  twelve  edges 
and  six  angles.  A  regular  octahedron 
lias  its  eight  triangular  faces  all 
equilateral,  and  may,  tor  convenience, 
he  defined  as  a  figure  composed  of 
two  equal  and  similar  square  pyramids 
with  equilateral  triangles  for  their 
sides  placed  base  to  base.  This  solid 
is  symmetrical  round  any  angle,  and 
is  one  of  Plato's  live  regular  solids. 
The  octahedron  appears  in  nature 
as  one  of  the  forms  of  crystals  of 
sulphur. 
O'CTAVE  (Lat.  octavns,  eighth),  the  interval 
between  any  musical  note  and  its  most  perfect 
concord,  which  is  double  its  pitch,  and  occupies  the 
position  of  the  eighth  note  from  it  on  the  diatonic 
Bcale.  The  name  octave  is  often  given  to  the  eighth 
note  itself  as  well  as  to  the  interval.  There  is 
between  a  note  and  its  octave  a  far  closer  relation 
than  between  any  other  two  notes  ;  they  go  together 
almost  as  one  musical  sound.  In  combination,  they 
are  hardly  distinguishable  from  one  another,  and 
their  harmonics  agree  invariably,  a  coincidence  which 
occurs  in  the  case  of  no  other  interval. 

OCTA'VIA,  the  sister  of  the  Roman  emperor 
Augustus,  and  wife  of  Mark  Antony.  She  was  dis- 
tinguished for  her  beauty,  her  noble  disposition,  and 
womanly  virtues.  Her  first  husband  was  C.  Mar- 
cellus,  to  whom  she  was  married  50  B.C.  He  died 
41  B.C.,  shortly  after  which  she  consented  to  marry 
Antony,  to  make  secure  the  reconciliation  between 
him  and  her  brother.  The  event  was  hailed  with 
joy  by  all  classes.  In  a  few  years,  Antony  became 
tired  of  his  gentle  and  virtuous  spouse,  and  forsook 
her  for  Cleopatra.  When  the  Parthian  War  broke 
out,  0.  wanted  to  accompany  her  husband,  and 
actually  went  as  far  as  Corcyra,  whence  Antony 
sent  her  home,  that  she  might  not  interrupt  his 
guilty  intercourse  with  the  Egyptian  queen.  In  35 
B.C.,  0.  made  an  effort  to  rescue  him  from  a  degra- 
dation that  was  indifferent  even  to  the  honour  of 
thi  Roman  arms,  and  sailed  from  Italy  with  rein- 
forcements ;  but  a  message  reached  her  at  Athens 
ordering  her  to  return  home.  She  proudly  obeyed, 
but,  with  a  magnanimity  that  reminds  us  of  the 
Roman  character  in  earlier  and  better  days,  she 
forwarded  the  supports  to  her  husband.  Her 
brother,  Octavian,  was  indignant  at  the  treatment 
she  received,  and  would  have  had  her  quit  her 
husband's  house,  and  come  and  live  with  him  ;  but 
she  refused.  In  32  B.C.,  war,  long  inevitable,  broke 
out  between  Antony  and  Octavian  ;  and  the  former 
crowned  his  insults  by  sending  0.  a  bill  of  divorce- 
ment. But  no  injury  was  too  great  to  be  forgiven 
by  this  '  patient  Grizel '  of  the  ancient  world ;  and 
after  her  husband's  death,  she  brought  up  with 
maternal  care  not  only  her  own  children,  but  also 
Cleopatra's  bastards.     Her  death  took  place  11  B.C. 

OCTOBER  (Lai  octo,  eight)  was  the  eighth 
month  of  the  so-called  '  year  of  Romulus,'  but 
became  the  tenth  when  (according  to  tradition) 
Numa  changed  the  commencement  of  the  year 
tc  the  first  of  January,  though  it  retained  its 
original  name.  It  has  since  maintained  its  posi- 
tion as  the  tenth  month  of  the  year,  and  has  31 
days.  October  preserved  its  ancient  name  notwith- 
standing the  attempts  made  by  the  Roman  senate, 
and  the  emperors  Commodus  and  Domitian,  who 
substituted  for  a  time  the  terms  Faustinus,  Invictus, 


Domitianus.  Many  Roman  and  Greek  festival*  fell 
to  be  celebrated  in  this  month,  the  most  remark- 
able of  which  was  the  sacrifice  at  Liomeof  a  horse 
(which  was  called  October)  to  the  god  Mars.  The 
other  festivals  were  chiefly  bacchanalian.  Among 
the  Saxona,  it  was  styled  Wyn  imoneth, or  the  wine 
month 

OCTO'PODA  (Gr.  eight-footed),  a  section  of 
dibranchiate  cephalopoda  (see  <  'kciialopoda),  having 
the  body  in  general  very  short,  the  head  very  dis- 
tinct;  ei.^ht  anus,  not  very  unequal,  furnished  with 
simple  suckers  ;  with  or  without,  a  shelly  covering. 
To  this  section  belong  Argonauts,  1'oulps,  &e.  See 
these  heads. 

O'CTOSTYLE,  the  name  given  in  classic  archi- 
tecture to  a  portico  composed  of  eight  columns  in 
front. 

OCTROI  (Lat.  auctoritas,  authority),  a  term 
which  originally  meant  any  ordinance  authorised 
by  the  sovereign,  and  thence  came  to  be  restric- 
tively  applied  to  a  toll  or  tax  in  kind  levied  from 
a  very  early  period  in  France,  and  other  countries 
of  Northern  Europe,  on  articles  of  food  which  passed 
the  barrier  or  entrance  of  a  town.  The  right  to 
levy  this  toll  was  often  delegated  to  subjects,  and 
in  order  to  increase  its  amount,  a  device  was 
resorted  to  of  raising  the  weight  of  the  pound  in 
which  the  octroi  was  taken.  The  large  pound,  an 
ounce  heavier  than  that  in  ordinary  use,  was  called 
the  llvre  (F octroi,  whence  the  expression  pound  troy. 
The  octroi  came  eventually  to  be  levied  in  money, 
and  was  abolished  in  France  at  the  Revolution.  In 
170S,  it  was  re-established,  under  the  pretext  that 
it  was  required  for  purposes  of  charity,  and  called 
the  octroi  de  bienfaisance,  and  it  has  been  reorganised 
in  1816,  18-42,  and  1852.  Of  the  octroi  duty  which 
is  at  present  levied  at  the  gates  of  the  French  towns, 
one-tenth  goes  to  the  national  treasury,  and  the  rest 
to  local  expenses.  The  octroi  officers  are  entitled 
to  search  all  carriages  and  individuals  entering  the 
gates  of  a  town.  From  the  octrois  of  Paris  alone 
government  derives  a  revenue  of  about  56  million 
francs.  In  1860,  the  Belgian  government  acquired 
great  popularity  by  abolishing  the  octroi 

The  epithet  octroye  is  applied  by  continental 
politicians  to  a  constitution  granted  by  a  prince, 
in  contradistinction  to  one  which  is  the  result  of  a 
paction  between  the  sovereign  and  the  represen- 
tatives of  the  people.  Any  public  company  pos- 
sessing an  authorised  monopoly  like  that  held  bv 
the  East  India  Company,  is  said  to  be  octroye. 

OD  (from  the  same  root  as  Odin,  and  supposed  to 
mean  all-pervadiug),  the  name  given  by  Baron 
Reichenbach  (q.  v.)  to  a  peculiar  physical  force 
which  he  thought  he  had  discovered.  This  force, 
according  to  him,  pervades  all  nature,  and  manifests 
itself  as  a  flickering  flame  or  luminous  appearance 
at  the  poles  of  magnets,  at  the  poles  of  crystals,  and 
wherever  chemical  action  is  going  on.  This  would 
account  for  the  luminous  figures  said  to  be  some- 
times seen  over  recent  graves.  The  od  force  haa 
positive  and  negative  poles,  like  magnetism.  The 
human  body  is  od-positive  on  the  left  side,  and 
od-negative  on  the  right.  Certain  persons,  called 
'sensitives,'  can  see  the  odic  radiation  like  a  lumi- 
nous vapour  in  the  dark,  and  can  feel  it  by  the  touch 
like  a  breath.  As  the  meeting  of  like  odic  poles 
causes  a  disagreeable  sensation,  while  the  pairing  of 
unlike  poles  causes  a  pleasant  sensation,  we  have 
thus  a  sufficient  cause  for  those  likings  and  anti- 
pathies hitherto  held  unaccountable.  Some  sensitive 
persons  cannot  sleep  on  their  left  side  (in  the 
northern  hemisphere),  because  the  north  pole  of  the 
earth,  which  is  od-negative,  affects  unpleasantly  the 
od-negative  left   side.      All  motion  generates  odj 

35 


ODAL  OR  UDAL  RIGHT— ODER. 


why,  then,  may  not  a  stream  running  underground 
affect  a  sensitive  water-tinder,  so  that  the  divining- 
rod  in  his  or  her  hand  shall  move  without,  it  may 
be,  any  conscious  effort  of  will  ?  All  the  pheno- 
mena of  mesmerism  are  ascribed  to  the  workings  of 
this  od-force.  Reichenbach  does  not  pretend  to 
have  had  the  evidence  of  his  own  senses  for  any  of 
those  manifestations  of  his  assumed  od-force ;  the 
whole  theory  rests  on  the  revelations  made  to  him 
by  'sensitives.'  It  may  be  added,  that  few  if  any 
really  scientific  men  have  any  belief  in  the  exist- 
ence of  such  a  force. — Those  curious  in  such  matters 
are  referred  for  the  details  of  the  subject  to  Reichen- 
bach's  large  work,  translated  into  English  by  Dr 
Ashbumer,  under  the  title  of  The  Dynamics  of 
Magnetism,  or  to  a  briefer  account  in  his  Odisch- 
Magnetische  Brief e  (Stutfc,  1S52). 

O'DAL  or  UDAL  RIGHT  (Celtic  od,  property), 
4»  tenure  of  land  which  was  absolute,  and  not 
dependent  on  a  superior,  and  prevailed  throughout 
Northern  Europe  before  the  rise  of  feudalism.  It 
was  founded  on  the  tie  of  blood  which  connected 
freeman  with  freeman,  and  not  on  the  tie  of  service. 
It  was  the  policy  of  the  sovereign  authority  every- 
where to  make  it  advantageous  for  the  freemen  to 
exchange  the  odal  tie  for  the  tie  of  service — a 
change  which  paved  the  way  for  the  feudal  system. 
The  odallers  of  Orkney  were  allowed  to  retain  or 
resume  their  ancient  privileges,  on  paying  a  large 
contribution  to  the  erection  of  St  Magnus's  Cathe- 
dral at  Kirkwall ;  and  the  Odal  tenure  prevails  to 
this  day  to  a  large  extent  in  the  Orkney  and  Shet- 
land Islands,  the  right  to  land  being  completed 
without  writing  by  undisturbed  possession  proved 
by  witnesses  before  an  inquest. 

ODD-FELLOWS,  the  name  assumed  by  one 
of  the  most  extensive  self-governed  provident 
associations  in  the  world.  The  institution  was 
originated  in  Manchester  in  1S12,  although  isolated 
'lodges'  had  existed  in  various  parts  of  the  country 
for  some  time  previously.  These  latter  were  gener- 
ally secret  fraternities,  humble  imitations  of  Free- 
masonry— adopting  a  similar  system  of  initiatory 
rites,  phraseology,  and  organisation — instituted  for 
social  and  convivial  purposes,  and  only  occasionally 
extending  charitable  assistance  to  members.  On 
its  institution  in  Manchester,  the  main  purpose  of 
Odd-fellowship  was  declared  by  its  laws  to  be,  '  to 
render  assistance  to  every  brother  who  may  apply 
through  sickness,  distress,  or  otherwise,  if  he  be 
well  attached  to  the  Queen  and  government,  and 
faithful  to  the  order ;'  and  this  continues  to  be  the 
basis  of  all  its  operations.  It  still,  however,  retains 
some  of  the  characteristics  of  Freemasonry,  in  pos- 
sessing pass-words  and  peculiar  '  grips,'  whereby 
members  can  recognise  one  another.  The  head- 
quarters of  the  society  is  at  Manchester,  where 
reside  the  Grand  Master  and  Board  of  Directors 
of  the  '  Manchester  Unity  of  the  Independent 
Order  of  Odd-fellows,'  In  1873  the  lodges  in  Eng- 
land numbered  4003,  with  470,043  fellows;  the  an- 
nual income  being  about  £595,000,  with  an  expendi- 
ture of  nearly  £396,000. 

The  order  in  the  United  States  differs  widely  from 
that  in  England,  and  has  no  connection  with  any 
branch  in  that  country.  It  owes  its  origin  to  the 
efforts  of  Thomas  Wildey,  who  had  been  connected 
with  similar  associations  in  England.  In  1820  he 
instituted  the  Washington  Lodge,  No.  1,  and  received 
a  charter  therefor  from  York  Lodge,  Preston,  Eng- 
land; but  in  1826  another  charter  was  obtained, 
granting  to  the  Grand  Lodge  of  the  U.  States  sole 
jurisdiction  over  the  order  in  this  country.  The  orig- 
inal objects  of  the  order  were  the  relief  of  the  breth- 
ren, interment  of  the  dead,  and  care  for  the  widows 
.36 


and  orphans,  but  gradually  there  bream':  tainted  into 
its  lectures  and  charges  much  nnsectarian  religions 
instruction,  and  in  time  its  beneficiid  aud  relief 
measures,  from  being  ends,  became  meana  for  the 
improvement  and  elevation  of  human  character.  The 
number  at  present  (1871)  is  upwards  of  300,0(0,  of 
whom  one-fourth,  or  75,000,  are  in  Pennsylvania, 
33,000  in  Ohio,  and  20,000  in  the  state  of  New  York. 
The  order  is  rapidly  increasing,  and  American  branches 
have  been  introduced  into  Australia,  New  Zealand, 
and  Germany.  A  monthly,  entitled  The  Odd  Fellows' 
Journal,  is  published  in  Philadelphia. 

ODE  (Gr.  a  song)  originally  meant  any  lyrical 
piece  adapted  to  be  sung.  In  the  modern  use  of  the 
word,  odes  are  distinguished  from  songs  by  not 
being  necessarily  in  a  form  to  be  sung,  and  by 
embodying  loftier  conceptions  and  more  intense 
and  passionate  emotions.  The  language  of  the 
ode  is  therefore  abrupt,  concise,  and  energetic  ;  and 
the  highest  art  of  the  poet  is  called  into  requisition 
in  adapting  the  metres  and  cadences  to  the  varying 
thoughts  and  emotions.  Hence  the  changes  of 
metre  and  versification  that  occur  in  many  odes. 
The  rapt  state  of  inspiration  that  gives  birth  to 
the  ode,  leads  the  poet  to  conceive  all  nature  as 
animated  and  conscious,  and,  instead  of  speaking 
about  persons  and  objects,  to  address  them  as 
present. 

Among  the  highest  examples  of  the  ode  are  the 
Song  of  Moses  and  several  of  the  psalms.  Dryden's 
Alexander' 's  Feast  is  reckoned  one  of  the  first  odes 
in  the  English  language.  We  may  mention,  as 
additional  specimens,  Gray's  Bard,  Collins's  Ode  to 
the  Passions,  Burns's  Scots  wha  luCe,  Coleridge's  Odes 
to  Memory  and  Despondency,  Shelley's  Ode  to  the 
Skylark,  and  Wordsworth's  Ode  on  the  Recollections 
of  Immortality  in  Childhood. 

O'DENSEE  (anciently  known  as  Odin's-Ey,  or 
Odin's  Oe  (i.  e.,  Odin's  Island),  the  chief  town  of  the 
Danish  island  of  Fiiuen,  and  the  oldest  city  of  the 
kingdom,  is  situated  in  the  amt  or  district  of  the 
same  name,  in  55°  25'  N.  lat.,  and  10°  20'  E.  long. 
Pop.  about  15,000.  O.,  which  is  the  seat  of  the 
governor  of  the  island  and  the  see  of  a  bishop,  has 
a  gymnasium,  several  literary  societies,  and  is  an 
active,  thriving  provincial  town.  A  bishopric  was 
founded  here  in  OSS,  prior  to  which  time  O.  bore  the 
reputation  of  being  the  first  city  established  by  Odin 
and  his  followers.  The  cathedral,  founded  in  1086 
by  St  Knud,  whose  remains,  like  those  of  several  of 
the  early  Danish  kings,  were  deposited  here,  is  a  tine 
specimen  of  the  early  simple  Gothic  style.  The  lay 
convent  or  college  for  ladies  contains  an  extensive 
library,  furnished  with  copies  of  all  printed  Danish 
works.  At  O.,  a  diet  was  held  in  1527,  in  which 
the  Reformed  or  Lutheran  doctrines  -yere  declared 
to  be  the  established  creed  of  Denmark,  and  equality 
of  rights  was  granted  to  Protestants  ;  while  another 
diet  "held  there  in  1539  promulgated  the  laws  regu« 
lating  the  affairs  of  the  Reformed  Church. 
O'DENWALD.     See  Hesse-Darmstadt. 

O'DER  (Lat.  Viadrus,  Slavon.  Vjodr),  one  of  the 
principal  rivers  of  Germany,  rises  in  the  Leselberg 
on  the  table-land  of  Moravia,  more  than  1000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  enters  Prussian 
Silesia  at  Odersberg,  after  a  course  of  some  60  miles. 
After  traversing  Brandenburg  in  a  north-west  direc- 
tion, it  crosses  Pomerania,  and  empties  itself  into 
the  Stettiner  Haff,  from  whence  it  passes  into 
the  Baltic  by  the  triple  arms  of  the  Dievenow, 
Peene,  and  Swine,  which  enclose  the  islands  of 
Wollin  and  Usedom.  The  O.  has  a  course  of  more 
than  500  miles,  and  a  river-basin  of  50,000  square 
miles.  The  rapid  flow  of  this  river,  induced  by  its 
very  considerable  fall,  is  accelerated  by  the  affluence 


ODESSA-ODIN. 


of  several  important  mountain -streams,  ami  thus 
tontsibutes,  cogetlier  with  the  silting  at  the  embou- 

whines  of   these  streams,   t<>   render   the    navigation 

difficult;  great  expense  and  labour  being,  moreover, 

necessary  to  keep  the  emhankments  in  order,  and 
prevent  the  overllowing  of  the  river.  The  < '.  has 
numerous  secondary  streams,  the  most  important 
of  which  are  the  Oppa,  Neisae,   Ohlau,   Klodnitz, 

Bartsh  Warte,  and  the  lima;  and  is  connected  with 
tlie  Have]  and  thence  with  the  Elbe  by  the  Finow 
Canal,  and  with  the  spree  by  the  Friedrich-Wilhelma 
OanaL  The  chief  trading  port  of  the  0.  is  Swine- 
munde,  which  constitutes  an  important  centre  lor 
the  transfer  of  colonial  and  other  foreign  goods  to 
Northern  Germany  and  Poland.  At  Ratibor,  17 
miles  below  Oderberg,  the  river  becomes  navigable, 
and  is  upwards  of  li)0  feet  in  breadth  ;  at  Oppeln, 
in  Prussian  Silesia,  it  has  a  breadth  of  238  feet.  As 
a  boundary  river,  it  is  of  considerable  importance  in 
a  military  point  of  view,  and  is  well  defended  by 
the  fortresses  of  Kosel,  Grossglogau,  Klistrin,  and 
Stettin. 

ODESSA,  an  important  seaport  and  commercial 
city  of  South  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Kherson, 
stands  on  an  acclivity  sloping  to  the  shore,  on 
the  north-west  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  32  miles 
north-east  of  the  mouth  of  the  Dniester.  Lat. 
46°  29'  N.,  long.  30°  44'  E.  The  harbour  is  formed 
by  two  large  moles  defended  by  strong  works,  and 
is  capable  of  containing  21)0  vessels.  The  bay  is 
deep  enough  even  close  in  shore  to  admit  the 
approach  of  the  largest  men-of-war,  and  is  frozen 
only  in  the  severest  winters,  and"  then  only  for  a 
short  time.  The  promenade  along  the  face  of  the 
cliff,  descending  to  the  shore  by  a  broad  stone  stair 
of  204  steps,  is  the  favourite  walk  of  the  inha- 
bitants. Here  also  stands  the  mouument  of  the 
Due  de  Richelieu,  to  whom  in  great  part  the  town 
is  indebted  for  its  prosperity.  In  the  pedestal  of  the 
monument  is  preserved  the  ball  by  which  he  was 
shot  during  the  bombardment  of  the  town  by  the 
allied  fleet  in  1854.  There  is  a  high  school  of  law, 
literature,  and  science,  called  Richelieu's  Lyceum, 
in  honour  of  its  founder.  The  city  contains  many 
fine  edifices,  as  the  Cathedral  of  St  Nicholas,  the 
Admiralty,  the  Custom-house,  &c.  Owing  to  the 
intensity  of  the  heat  in  summer  (rising  occasionally 
to  120°),  and  the  dryness  of  the  soil,  vegetation 
in  the  vicinity  of  O.  is  very  poor.  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood are  quarries  of  soft  stone,  which  is  used 
for  building  purposes  in  O.  and  in  the  surround- 
ing towns.  One  of  the  great  deficiencies  of  0.  is 
its  want  of  good  water;  but  the  construction  of  works 
for  receiving  an  ample  supply  from  the  Dniester  was 
begun  in  1872.  Gas  was  first  used  in  0.  in  1866,  and 
the  theatre  and  hotels  and  nil  the  larger  houses  now 
use  this  handiest  of  the  artificial  lights.  A  railway, 
opened  in  1S72,  has  added  enormously  to  the  commer- 
cial success  and  importance  of  O.,  as  it  connects  it. 
and,  of  course,  Kherson,  with  the  governments  north 
nnd  enst  of  it  in  Russia.  Prior  to  that  date  it  had 
been  connected  (by  minor  lines)  with  Balta  in  Podolia 
(132  miles)  and  with  Tiraspol  on  the  Dniester.  The 
principal  exports  of  O.  are  wheat  and  other  sorts  of 
grain,  linseed,  tallow,  leather,  and  wool,  all  of  which 
articles  abound  in  South  Russia.  In  1864,  12.762,656 
bushels  of  wheat,  valued  at  about  $10,662,478,  were 
exported  from  Odessa.  The  whole  exports  amounted 
to  $24,565,000,  and  the  whole  imports  in  the  same 
year  amounted  to  $8, 846,871,  chiefly  coffee,  oil,  wines, 
tobacco,  &e.  The  rapid  strides  which  O.  is  making 
in  commerce  will  he  seen  by  comparing  the  exports  of 
1869— about  $2,325,000— with  those  of  1871,  when 
Jiey  had  risen  to  $35,550,000. 

In  ancient  times,  O.  (Gr.  Odes-tux)  was  inhabited 
by  a  Greek  colony,  and  later  by  Tartar  tribes.     Iu 


inning  of  the  15th  c,  the  Turks  constructed 
a  fortre  a  here,  which  was  taken  by  th>-.  Russians  in 
17*9.  In  1 T  *  *  - :  -  a  Russian  lortress  was  built  lure, 
and  became  the  nucleus  of  a  town  and  port,  which 
two  years  after  received  the  name  of  Odessa.  The 
Due  de  Richelieu,  a  French  emigrant  in  the  Russian 
service,  was  appointed  governor  here  in  1803,  and 
during  the  eleven  years  of  lus  wise  administration, 
the  town  prospered  rapidly.  Since  1823,  the  city 
has  formed  part  of  the  general  governorship  of  South 
Russia  ;  is  the  seat  of  its  administration,  and  is  the 
residence  of  the  governor-general  and  of  an  art.  fa- 
bishop.  The  advantageous  commercial  position  cf 
the  city,  and  the  privileges  granted  to  it  by  govern, 
ment,  but  chiefly  the  privileges  of  a  free  port  from 
the  year  1819,  have  developed  this  city  from  a  mere 
Turkish  fortress  into  the  chief  commercial  town  of 
the  Black  Sea,  and  the  third  in  the  Russian  empire, 
after  St  Petersburg  and  Riga.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  Crimean  War.  April  1S54,  the  British  steamer 
FurtQUS  went  to  O.  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  away 
the  British  consul.  While  under  a  flag  of  true 
she  was  fired  upon  by  the  batteries  of  the  city.  On 
the  failure  of  a  written  message  from  the  admirals 
in  command  of  the  fleet  to  obtain  explanations,  twelve 
war-steamers  invested  ( )..  22d  April,  and  in  a  few  hours 
destroyed  the  fortifications,  blew  up  the  powder-magi  - 
zines,  and  took  a  number  of  Russian  ressels.  Pop.  in 
1873,  162,814.  chiefly  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Italian-. 

ODEYPOO'R,  a  town  of  British  India,  capital  of 
the  small  state  of  the  same  name,  320  miles  west  of 
Calcutta.  The  town  is  unimportant,  and  the  state, 
which  is  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  political 
agent  for  the  south-west  frontier  of  Bengal,  has  an 
area  of  2506  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  133,000. 

O'DIN,  the  chief  god  of  Northern  Mythology. 
According  to  the  sagas,  O.  and  his  brothers,  Vile 
and  Ve,  the  sons  of  Boer,  or  the  first-born,  slew 
Ymer  or  Chaos,  and  from  his  body  created  the 
world,  converting  his  flesh  into  dry  land ;  his  blood, 
wdiich  at  first  occasioned  a  flood,  into  the  sea ;  his 
bones  into  mountains  ;  his  skull  into  the  vault  of 
heaven  ;  and  his  brows  into  the  spot  known  as 
Midgaard,  the  middle  part  of  the  earth,  intended 
for  the  habitation  of  the  sons  of  men.  0.,  as  the 
highest  of  the  gods,  the  Alfader,  rules  heaven  and 
earth,  and  is  omniscient.  As  ruler  of  heaven, 
his  seat  is  Valaskjalf,  from  whence  his  two  black 
ravens,  Huginn  (Thought)  and  Muninn  (Memory), 
fly  daily  forth  to  gather  tidings  of  all  that  is  being 
done  throughout  the  world.  As  god  of  war,  he  holds 
his  court  in  Valhalla,  whither  come  all  brave  war- 
riors after  death  to  revel  in  the  tumultuous  joys  in 
which  they  took  most  pleasure  while  on  earth.  His 
greatest  treasures  are  his  eight-footed  steed  Sleipner, 
his  spear  Gungner,  and  his  ring  Draupner.  As  the 
concentration  and  source  of  all  greatness,  excellence, 
and  activity,  0.  bears  numerous  different  names. 
By  drinking  from  Mimir's  fountain,  he  became  the 
wisest  of  gods  and  men,  but  he  purchased  the  dis- 
tinction at  the  cost  of  one  eye.  He  is  the  greatest 
of  sorcerers,  and  imparts  a  knowledge  of  his  won- 
drous arts  to  his  favourites.  Frigga  is  his  queen, 
and  the  mother  of  Baldur,  the  Scandinavian  Apollo ; 
but  he  has  other  wives  and  favourites,  and  a  nume- 
rous progeny  of  sons  and  daughters.  Although  the 
worship  of  O.  extended  over  all  the  Scandina- 
vian lands,  it  found  its  most  zealous  followers  in 
Denmark,  where  he  still  rides  abroad  as  the  wild 
huntsman,  rushing  over  land  and  water  in  the 
storm-beaten  skies  of  winter. 

The  historical  interpretation  of  this  myth,  as 
given  by  Snorre  Sturleson,  the  compiler  of  the 
Heirmkringla,  or  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of  Norway 
prior  to  the  introduction  of   Christianity,  and   fol- 

37 


ODOACER— ODOMETER, 


lowed  in  recent  times  by  the  historian  Suhm,  is,  that 
<>.  was  a  chief  of  the  CEsir,  a  Scythian  tribe,  -who, 
fleeing  hefore  the  ruthless  aggressions  of  the  Romans, 
passed  through  Germany  to  Scandinavia,  where,  by 
their  noble  appearance,  superior  prowess,  and  higher 
intelligence,  they  easily  vanquished  the  inferior 
races  of  those  lands,  and  persuaded  them  that  they 
were  of  godlike  origin.  According  to  one  tradition, 
0.  conquered  the  country  of  the  Saxons  on  his 
way  ;  and  leaving  one  of  his  sons  to  rule  there,  and 
introduce  a  new  religion,  in  which  he,  as  the  chief 
god  Wuotan,  received  divine  honours,  advanced  on 
his  victorious  course,  and  making  himself  master  of 
Denmark,  placed  another  son,  Skjold,  to  reign  over 
the  land,  from  whom  descended  the  royal  dynasty 
of  the  Skjoldingar.  He  next  entered  Sweden,  where 
the  king,  Gylfi,  accepted  his  new  religion,  and  with 
the  whole  nation  worshipped  him  as  a  divinity,  and 
received  his  son  Yugni  as  their  supreme  lord  and 
high-priest,  from  whom  descended  the  royal  race  of 
the  Yuglingars,  who  long  reigned  in  Sweden.  In 
like  manner  he  founded,  through  his  son  Seeming,  a 
new  dynasty  in  Norway ;  and  besides  these,  many 
sovereign  families  of  Northern  Germany,  including 
our  own  Saxon  princes,  traced  their  descent  to  Odin. 
As  it  has  been  found  impossible  to  refer  to  one 
individual  all  the  mythical  and  historical  elements 
which  group  themselves  around  the  name  of  0., 
Wodin,  or  Wuotan,  it  has  been  suggested  by  Suhm 
and  other  historians,  that  there  may  have  been  two 
or  three  ancient  northern  heroes  of  the  name  ;  but 
notwithstanding  the  conjectures  which  have  been 
advanced  since  the  very  dawn  of  the  historical  period 
in  the  north  in  regard  to  the  origin  and  native 
country  of  the  assumed  0.,  or  even  the  time  at 
which  he  lived,  all  that  relates  to  him  is  shrouded 
in  complete  obscurity.  It  is  much  more  probable, 
however,  that  the  myth  of  0.  originated  in  nature- 
worship.     See  Scandinavian  Mythology. 

ODOA'CER  (also  Odovacer,  Odobagae,  Odo- 
vachar,  Otachar,  &c,  and,  according  to  St 
Martin,  the  same  as  Ottochar,  a  name  frequent  in 
Germany  during  the  middle  ages),  the  ruler  of  Italy 
from  the  year  476  to  493,  was  the  son  of  Edecon,  a 
secretary  of  Attila,  and  one  of  his  ambassadors  to 
the  court  of  Constantinople.  This  Edecon  was  also 
captain  of  the  Scyrri,  who  formed  the  bodyguard  of 
the  king  of  the  Huns.  After  the  death  of  Attila, 
he  remained  faithful  to  the  family  of  his  master, 
but  perished  about  4G3  in  an  unequal  struggle  with 
the  Ostrogoths.  He  left  two  sons,  Onulf  and  Odo- 
acer,  the  former  of  whom  went  to  seek  his  fortune 
in  the  East ;  while  0.,  after  leading  for  some  time 
the  life  of  a  bandit  chief  among  the  Noric  Alps, 
determined  to  proceed  to  Italy,  whither  barbarian 
adventurers  were  Hocking  from  all  Europe.  Accord- 
ing to  a  monkish  legend,  a  pious  hermit,  St  Seve- 
riims,  whom  he  went  to  visit  before  his  departure, 
prophesied  his  future  greatness.  0.  entered  the 
military  service  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire,  and 
rapidly  rose  to  eminence.  He  took  part  in  the 
revolution  by  which  Orestes  (475)  drove  the  Empe- 
ror Julius  Nepos  from  the  thi-one,  and  conferred 
on  his  son  Romulus  the  title  of  Augustus,  which 
the  people  scoffingly  changed  into  Augustulus.  He 
soon  perceived  the  weakness  of  the  new  ruler,  and 
resolved  to  profit  by  it.  He  had  little  difficulty  in 
persuading  the  barbarian  soldiery,  who  had  effected 
the  revolution,  that  Italy  belonged  to  them,  and  in 
their  name  demanded  of  Orestes  the  third  part  of 
the  land,  as  the  reward  of  their  help.  This  Orestes 
refused;  and  O.,  at  the  head  of  his  Herulians, 
Rugians,  Turcilingians,  and  Scyrii,  marched  against 
Pa  via,  which  Orestes  had  garrisoned,  stormed  the 
city,  and  put  Iris  opponent  to  death  (476).  Romulus 
abdicated,     and    withdrew    into    obscurity.      What 


became  of  him,  is  not  known.  Tims  perished  the 
Roman  empire.  O.  shewed  himself  to  be  a  wise, 
moderate,  and  politic  rider,  quite  unlike  our  general 
notion  of  a  barbarian.  In  order  not  to  offend  the 
Byzantine  emperor  Zeno,  he  took  the  title  of  king 
only,  and  caused  the  senate  to  despatch  to  Constan- 
tinople a  flattering  letter,  in  which  it  declared  one 
emperor  to  be  enough  for  both  East  and  West, 
renounced  its  right  of  appointing  the  emperors, 
expressed  its  confidence  in  the  civil  and  military 
talents  of  0.,  and  begged  Zeno  to  confer  upon  hirn 
the  administration  of  Italy.  After  some  hesitation, 
the  Byzantine  emperor  yielded  to  the  entreitiea 
of  the  senate,  and  0.  received  the  title  of  PatrtciuB, 
He  fixed  his  residence  at  Ravenna.  According  to 
his  promise,  he  divided  among  his  companions  the 
third  part  of  the  land  of  Italy — a  measure  far  less 
unjust  than  at  first  sight  may  seem,  for  the  penin- 
sula was  then  almost  depopulated,  and  many 
domains  were  lying  waste  and  ownerless.  This 
barbarian  ruler  did  everything  in  his  power  to  lift 
Italy  out  of  the  deplorable  condition  into  which 
she  had  sunk,  and  to  breathe  fresh  life  into  her 
municipal  institutions  —  those  venerable  relics  of 
nobler  days !  He  even  re-established  the  con- 
sulate, which  was  held  by  eleven  of  the  most 
illustrious  senators  in  succession,  maintained  peace 
throughout  the  peninsula,  overawed  the  Gauls  and 
Germans,  and  reconquered  Dalmatia  and  Noricum. 
In  religion,  though  an  Arian  himself,  he  acted  with 
a  kingly  impartiality  that  more  orthodox  monarcha 
have  rarely  exhibited.  Gibbon  remarks,  with  hia 
usual  pointed  sarcasm,  that  the  silence  of  the 
Catholics  attests  the  toleration  which  they  enjoyed. 
The  valour,  wisdom,  and  success  of  O.  appear  to 
have  excited  the  jealousy  and  alarm  of  Zeno,  who 
encouraged  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  a 
still  greater  warrior  and  sovereign  than  0.  himself, 
to  undertake  an  expedition  against  Italy.  The  first 
battle  was  fought  on  the  banks  of  the  Isontius 
(mod.  Isonzo),  28th  August  4S9.  0.  was  beaten,  and 
retreated.  During  his  retreat,  he  hazarded  another 
battle  at  Veroua,  and  was  again  beaten.  He  now 
hastened  to  Rome,  to  rouse  the  inhabitants,  but  the 
gates  of  the  city  were  closed  against  him.  Return- 
ing northwards  to  his  capital,  Ravenna,  he  reas- 
sembled the  wrecks  of  liio  army,  and  in  490  once 
more  marched  against  the  Ostrogoths,  whose 
advance-guard  he  defeated,  and  pursued  to  the  walla 
of  Pavia.  Another  great  battle  now  took  place  on 
the  banks  of  the  Adda,  when  0.  was  vanquished  for 
the  third  time.  He  now  shut  himself  up  in  Ravenna, 
where  Theodoric  besieged  him  for  three  yeara.  O. 
then  capitulated,  on  condition  that  the  kingdom  of 
Italy  should  be  shared  between  him  and  Theodoric. 
This  agreement  was  solemnly  sworn  to  by  both 
parties,  27th  February  493 ;  but  on  the  5th  of  March, 
O.  was  assassinated  at  a  feast,  either  by  Theodoric 
himself,  or  by  his  command. 

ODO'METER  (Gr.  odos,  a  road,  me'trb'n,  a  measure), 
also  called  Perambulator,  or  surveying- wheel,  is  an 
instrument  attached  to  a  carriage  or  other  vehicle, 
for  the  purpose  of  registering  the  distance  it  haa 
travelled.  Such  machines  have  been  in  use  from  an 
early  period,  and  one  is  described  by  Vitruvius  in 
that  part  of  his  work  De  Arcldtectura  which  is 
devoted  to  machines.  The  instrument,  as  commonly 
employed,  consists  of  a  train  of  wheel-work,  which 
communicates  motion  from  the  axle  of  the  carriage 
wheel  to  an  index  which  moves  round  the  circum- 
ference of  a  dial  fixed  in  one  side  of  the  carriage 
over  the  axle.  The  wheel-work  is  arranged  so  aa 
to  produce  a  great  diminution  of  the  velocity  im- 
pressed by  the  axle  of  the  veliicle,  and  the  dial  is 
so  graduated  that  the  index  can  shew  the  number  of 
miles,  furlongs,  yards,  &c,  traversed.   The  instrument 


O'DONNELL— (EDEMA. 


is  also  constructed  to  work  independently,  being 
in  this  case  provided  with  wheels  and  an  axle  <>t' 

its  own  ;  when  this  is  done,  the  wheel  is  made  of 
BUcli  :i  size  that  its  circumference  is  an  aliquot  part 
of  a  mile,  an  arrangement  which  greatly  simplifies 
the  calculation  of  the  distaiue  traversed.  The  com- 
plete odometer  can  then  lie  drawn  along  by  a  man 
on  foot,  or  attached  behind  a  carriage. 

O'DOXNELL,  Lkopoi.d,  Duke  of  Tetuan,  Mar- 
shal of  Spain,  horn  in  1809,  is  descended  from  an 
ancient  Irish  family.  He  entered  the  Spanish  army 
when  young,  and  bravely  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
Infant  Queen  Isabella  against  her  uncle,  Don  Carlos. 
When  the  Caidists  were  overthrown,  he  was  created 
Count  of  Lucena,  made  General  of  Brigade,  and 
Chief  of  the  Stall'  to  Espartero.  He  took  the  side 
of  the  Queen-mother  in  1840;  emigrated  with  her  to 
Frame,  at  the  time  when  her  cause  seemed  des- 
perate ;  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Orleans,  where 
he  planned  many  of  the  political  risings  and  disturb- 
ances which  took  place  under  the  rule  of  Espartero. 
He  hea  led  in  person  a  revolt  of  the  Navarrese 
against  the  minister,  but  on  its  failure  returned  to 
France.  In  1843,  his  intrigues  against  Espartero 
(q.  v.)  were  successful ;  and  he  was  rewarded  by 
the  governor-generalship  of  Cuba,  where  he  amassed 
a  large  fortune  by  favouring  the  iniquitous  trade  in 
slaves.  When  he  returned  to  Spain  (1S45)  he 
intrigued  against  Bravo  Murillo  and  Narvaez  ;  and 
when  the  latter  was  succeeded  by  Sartorius,  O'D., 
proscribed  by  the  government,  headed  a  military 
insurrection.  Defeated,  and  driven  into  Anda- 
lusia in  1S54,  he  issued  a  liberal  manifesto.  The 
profligacy  of  the  court,  and  the  despotism  of  the 
government,  favoured  the  appeal ;  and  when  Espar- 
tero gave  in  his  adhesion,  the  Spaniards  rose  en 
maw,  and  replaced  the  ex-regent  at  the  helm. 
Espartero  reversed  the  confiscation  against  O'D., 
and  made  him  a  marshal  and  minister  of  war. 
O'D.  again  plotted  against  his  old  benefactor,  and 
in  July  1856,  supplanted  him  by  a  coup  d'etat. 
Blood  was  shed  in  the  streets  of  Madrid,  but  O'D. 
remained  president  of  the  council.  He  was  in  three 
months'  time  succeeded  by  Narvaez  ;  but  in  1858  he 
returned  to  power  again  ;  and  in  1S59,  while  still 
holding  the  position  of  prime  minister,  he  assumed 
the  command  of  the  army  sent  to  Morocco.  The 
campaign  continued  for  many  months,  without 
leading  either  to  reverses  or  glory.  The  Moors 
displayed  an  entire  absence  of  mditary  qualities; 
and  O'D.,  though  successful  in  obscure  skirmishes, 
occupied  three  months  in  the  march  from  Ceuta 
to  Tetuan.  A  battle  took  place,  February  4,  18(50; 
O'D.  gaiued  a  complete  victory,  took  the  Moorish 
camp,  and  the  city  of  Tetuan  surrendered  to  the 
Spaniards.  The  Emperor  of  Morocco  submitted  to 
a  loss  of  territory,  and  O'D.  was  raised  to  the  first 
rank  of  the  Spanish  nobles  as  Duke  of  Tetuan.  He 
resigned  office  Feb.,  1863,  hut  returned  to  power  at 
the  head  of  a  liberal  ministry  Jan.  21,  1865,  sup- 
pi  essed  a  great  military  revolt,  and  was  replnced  by 
Narvaez  in  July,  1866,  settled  in  Paris  with  his  late 
colleagues  in  Jan.,  1867,  and  died  at  Biarritz  in  the 
same  ve;ir. 

CECOLAMPADIUS,  Joannks— a  name  Latin- 
ised, according  to  the  fashion  of  the  age.  from  the 
German  Johann  Hausschein  —  one  of  the  most 
eminent  of  the  coadjutors  of  Zwingli  in  the  Swiss 
Hetormation,  born  in  14S2  at  Weinsberg,  in  Swabia. 
His  father  destiued  him  for  the  profession  of  the 
law,  and  he  studied  for  it  in  Heidelberg  and  Bologna ; 
but  yielding  to  his  own  strong  inclination,  he 
relinquished  this  study  for  that  of  theology,  which 
he  prosecuted  at  Heidelberg.  He  then  became 
tutor  to  the  sons  of  the  Elector  Palatine,  and  subse- 


quently preacher  in  Weinsberg.  This  office  he 
resigned  in  order  to  study  the  Greek  language  nndei 
Beuchlin  at  Stuttgart,  lie  also  learned  Hebrev 
from  a  Spanish  physician,  Matthew  Adrian,  Being 
appointed  preacher  at  Basel,  he  formed  the 
acquaintance  of  Erasmus,  who  highly  appreciated 
his  classical  attainments,  and  employed  Ins 
ance  in  his  edition  of  the  New  Testament.  In  1516, 
CE.  left  Basel  for  Augsburg,  he  filed  the 

otlice  of  preacher,  and  \.  utered  in*o  a  eon- 

vent.  But  Luther's  publications  exercised  so  great 
an  influence  on  him,  that  he  left  the  convent,  and 
became  chaplain  to  Franz  von  Sickingen,  after 
whose  death  he  returned  to  Basel  in  152.:.  aid  in 
the  capacity  of  preacher  and  professor  of  the,  logy, 
commenced  his  career  as  a  reformer.  lie  held 
d.sputations  with  supporters  of  the  Church  <,f  Home 
in  Baden  in  1526,  and  in  Bern  in  1528  hi  the 
controversy  concerning  the  Lord's  Supper,  he 
ally  adopted  more  and  more  the  views  of  Zwingli, 
and  at  last  maintained  them  in  1525,  in  a  treatise, 
to  which  the  Swabian  ministers  replied  in  the 
Sync/ramma  Suevicum.  In  1529  he  disputed  >vith 
Luther  in  the  conference  at  Marburg  lie  died  at 
Basel,  23d  November  1531,  not  long  after  tiie  death 
of  his  friend  Zwingli  He  was  remarkable  for  his 
gentleness  of  character.  His  treatise,  De  llitu 
Panchali,  and  his  Epistola  Canonicorum  Indoctonim 
ad  Eccium,  are  the  most  noted  of  his  works.  .See 
Herzog,  Das  Lehen  dea  J  oh.  (Ecolampodiw  und  die 
Reformation der  Kirche  zu  Basel  (2  vols.  Basel.  1843), 

CECUME'NICAL  (Gr.  oihoumenik-, ' of ,  or  belong, 
ing  to,  the  oikoumene,'  'the  world'),  the  name  given 
to  councils  of  the  entire  church,  and  synonymous 
with  the  more  ordinary  name  '  general.'  See 
Council.  The  conditions  necessary  to  constitute 
an  oecumenical  council  are  a  subject  of  .much  con- 
troversy. As  the  subject  is  of  less  importance 
in  Protestant  divinity,  it  will  be  enough  to  explain 
here  that  a  council  is  said  by  Roman  Catholic 
divines  to  be  oecumenical  in  three  different  ways : 
viz.,  in  convocation,  in  celebration,  and  in  accepta- 
tion. For  the  first,  the  summons  of  the  pope,  direct 
or  indirect,  is  held  to  be  necessary ;  this  summons 
must  be  addressed  to  all  the  bishops  of  the  entire 
church.  To  the  second,  it  is  necessary  that  bishops 
from  all  parts  of  the  church  should  be  present, 
and  in  sufficient  numbers  to  constitute  a  really 
representative  assembly :  they  must  be  presided 
over  by  the  pope,  or  a  delegate  or  delegates  of 
the  pope  ;  and  they  must  enjoy  liberty  of  discus- 
sion and  of  speech.  For  the  third,  the  decrees  of 
the  council  must  be  accepted  by  the  pope,  and  by 
the  body  of  the  bishops  throughout  the  church,  at 
least  tacitly.  The  last  of  these  conditions  is 
absolutely  required  to  entitle  the  decrees  of  a 
council  to  the  character  of  oecumenical ;  and  even 
the  decrees  of  provincial  or  national  councils  so 
accepted,  may  acquire  all  the  weight  of  infallible 
decisions,  in  the  eyes  of  Boinan  Catholics, 

OEDE'MA  (Gr.  a  swellinrj)  is  the  term  applied  in 
Medicine  to  the  swelling  occasioned  by  the  effusion  or 
iuliltration  of  serum  into  cellular  or  areolar  structures. 
The  subcutaneous  cellular  tissue  is  the  most  common, 
but  is  not  the  only  seat  of  this  affection.  It  is 
occasionally  observed  in  the  submucous  and  sub- 
serous cellular  tissue,  and  in  the  cellular  tissue  of  the 
parenchymatous  viscera  ;  and  in  some  of  these  cases, 
it  gives  rise  to  symptoms  which  admit  of  easy 
recognition  during  life.  Thus  oedema  of  the  glottis 
(see  Larynx)  aud  oedema  of  the  lungs  constitute 
well-marked  and  serious  forms  of  disease ;  while 
oedema  of  the  brain,  though  not  easily  recognised 
during  life,  is  not  uncommonly  met  with  in  the 
post-mortem  examination  of  insane  patients. 

39 


(EDIPUS— QEHLENSCHLAGER. 


(Edema  may  be  either  passive  or  active,  the 
former  being  by  far  the  more  common.  Passive 
(Edema  arises  from  impeded  venous  circulation 
(as  from  obstruction  or  obliteration  of  one  or 
more  veins ;  from  varicose  veins ;  f .om  standing 
continuously  for  long  periods,  till  the  force  of  the 
circulation  is  partly  overcome  by  the  physical  action 
of  gravitation  ;  from  deficiency  in  the  action  of  the 
adjacent  muscles,  which  in  health  materially  aids 
the  venous  circulation,  &c.)  ;  from  too  weak  action 
of  the  heart  (as  in  dilatation  or  certain  forms  of 
valvular  disease  of  that  organ) ;  or  from  a  too  watery 
or  otherwise  diseased  state  of  the  blood  (as  in  chlo- 
rosis, scurvy,  Bright's  disease,  &c).  By  means  of 
the  knowledge  derived  from  pathological  anatomy, 
we  can  often  infer  the  cause  from  the  seat  of  the 
swelling ;  for  example,  oedema  of  the  face,  usually 
commencing  with  the  eyelids,  is  commonly  caused 
by  obstruction  to  the  circulation  through  the  left 
side  of  the  heart,  or  by  the  diseased  state  of  the 
blood  in  Bright's  disease ;  and  oedema  of  the  lower 
extremities  most  commonly  arises  from  obstruction 
in  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  unless  it  can  be  traced 
to  the  pressure  of  the  gravid  uterus,  or  of  accumu- 
lated faeces  in  the  colon,  or  to  some  other  local 
cause. 

Active  (Edema  is  associated  with  an  inflammatory 
action  of  the  cellular  tissue,  and  is  most  marked  in 
certain  forms  of  erysipelas.  It  is  firmer  to  the 
touch,  and  pressure  with  the  finger  produces  less 
pitting  than  in  the  passive  form. 

From  the  preceding  remarks,  it  will  be  seen  that 
eedema  is  not  a  disease,  but  a  symptom,  and  often 
a  symptom  indicating  0reat  danger  to  life.  The 
means  of  removing  it  must  be  directed  to  the 
morbid  condition  or  cause  of  which  it  is  the 
symptom. 

CE'DIPUS  (Gr.  OkVpous),  the  hero  of  a  cele- 
brated legend,  which,  though  of  the  most  revolting 
nature  in  itself,  has  supplied  both  Euripides  and 
Sophocles  with  the  subject-matter  of  some  of  their 
most  celebrated  tragedies.  The  story,  as  generally 
related,  is  as  follows :  0.  was  the  son  of  Laius, 
king  of  Thebes,  by  Jocaste ;  but  his  father  having 
consulted  the  oracle  to  ascertain  whether  he  should 
have  any  issue,  was  informed  that  his  wife  would 
bring  forth  a  son,  by  whom  he  (Laius)  should  ulti- 
mately be  slain.  Determined  to  avert  so  terrible  an 
omen,  Laius  ordered  the  son  which  Jocaste  bare 
him  to  have  his  feet  pierced  through,  and  to  be 
exposed  to  perish  on  Mount  Oithaeron.  In  this 
helpless  condition,  OE.  was  discovered  by  a  herds- 
man, and  conveyed  to  the  court  of  Polybus, 
king  of  Corinth,  who,  in  allusion  to  the  swollen 
feet  of  the  child,  named  him  (Edipus  (from  oideo, 
to  swell,  and  pous,  the  foot) ;  and  along  with  his 
wife,  Merope,  brought  him  up  as  his  own  son. 
Having  come  to  man's  estate,  QE.  was  one  day 
taunted  with  the  obscurity  of  his  origin,  and  in 
consequence  proceeded  to  Delphi,  to  consult  the 
oracle.  The  response  which  he  received  was,  that 
he  would  slay  his  father,  and  commit  incest  with 
his  mother.  To  escape  this  fate,  he  avoided  return- 
ing to  Corinth,  and  proceeded  to  Thebes,  on 
approaching  which  he  encountered  the  chariot  of 
his  fa;her;  and  the  charioteer  ordering  him  out  of 
the  w.  iy,  a  quarrel  ensued,  in  which  OE.  ignorantly 
slew  1  aius,  and  thus  unconsciously  fulfilled  the  first 
part  of  the  oracle.  The  famous  Sphinx  (q.  v.)  now 
a]  ipeaved  near  Thebes,  and  seating  herself  on  a  rock, 
propounded  a  riddle  to  every  one  who  passed  by, 
puttii.g  to  death  all  who  failed  to  solve  it.  The 
terror  of  the  Thebans  was  extreme,  and  in  despair 
they  offered  the  kingdom,  together  with  the  hand  of 
the  queen,  to  the  person  who  should  be  successful 
ii»    delivering   it  from    the    monster.      OS.    came  I 


forward ;  the  Sphinx  asked  him,  ■  What  being  has 
four  feet,  two  feet,  and  three  feet ;  only  one  voice  ; 
but  whose  feet  vary,  and  when  it  has  most,  is 
weakest?'  03.  replied  that  it  was  '  Man  ; '  where- 
upon the  Sphinx  threw  itself  headlong  from  the 
rock.  OE.  now  became  king,  and  husband  of  his 
mother,  Jocaste.  From  their  incestuous  union 
sprung  Eteocles,  Polynices,  Antigone,  and  Ismene. 
A  mysterious  plague  now  devastated  the  country, 
and  when  the  oracle  declared  that  before  it  could  ba 
stayed,  the  murderer  of  Laiu3  should  be  banished 
from  the  country,  OE.  was  told  by  the  prophet 
Tiresias  that  he  himself  had  both  murdered  hit 
father  and  committed  incest  with  his  mother.  In 
his  horror  he  put  out  his  own  eyes,  that  he  mitrlit  no 
more  look  upon  his  fellow-creatures,  while  Jocasto 
hanged  herself.  Driven  from  his  throne  by  his  sons 
and  his  brother-in-law,  Creon,  OE.  wandered  towards 
Attica,  accompanied  by  Antigone,  and  took  refuge 
in  the  grove  of  the  Eumenides,  who  charitably 
removed  him  from  earth ;  but  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  is  differently  told. 

CEHLENSCHLAGER,    Adam    Gottlob,    the 
greatest  poet  of  Northern  Europe,  was  born  in  1779 
at  Copenhagen.     His  early  years  were  spent  at  the 
palace  of  Fredericksborg,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Danish  capital,  where  his  father  was  employed, 
first  as  organist,  and  afterwards  as  steward  or  bailiff. 
During  the    absence  of    the   royal   family   in    the 
winter,   CE.    and   his   sister  amused   themselves   in 
roaming  over  the  palace,  and  examining  the  paint- 
ings and  works  of  art  which  it  contained,  and  in 
improvising  private  theatricals,  for  which  he  sup- 
plied original  pieces.     After  an  irregular  and  desul- 
tory course  of  education,  GE.'s  love  of  the  drama  led 
him   to    offer  his   services  to  the   manager  of  the 
Copenhagen  theatre ;  but  discovering  soon  that  he 
had  no  chance  of  rising  above  the  rank  of  a  mere 
supernumerary,  he  entered  the  university  of  Copen- 
hagen as  a  student  of  law.     For  a  time,  he  seems  to 
have  pursued  his  studies  with  tolerable  assiduity, 
under  the  direction   of  his  friend,  A  S.   Oersted, 
who,   together  with  his   distinguished  brother,   H 
C.  Oersted  (q.  v.)  had  cemented  a  lifelong  friendship 
with  him.   QE.'s  studies  were  interrupted  in   1S01, 
when,   on    the    bombardment    of    Copenhagen   by 
Nelson  and  Parker,  he  and  his  friends  served  in 
the  student-corps  of  volunteers.     After  this  event, 
which  roused  the  dormant  patriotism  of  the  nation, 
OE.    found    the    study    of    law    too    irksome,    and 
devoted  all  his  energies  to  the  cultivation   of  the 
history  and  mythology  of  his   own   country.      In 
1803,  appeared  his  first  collection  of  poems,  including 
one    longer   dramatic    piece,    St   Hans   Aften-Spil, 
which   attracted   favourable   notice   for  the   lively 
fancy  with  which  national  habits  and  local  charac- 
teristics were  portrayed.     The  Vauluiulers  Saga  in 
the    Poetiske  Skrifter,  published   in    1805,  and   hie 
Aladdin's  forundeiiige  Lampe,  completed  his  success, 
and  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  the  first  of  living 
Danish  poets ;   the  former  of  these  works  basing 
shewn  a  marvellous  capacity  for  reflecting  the  dark 
and  stern  colouring  of  the  old  northern  Sagas,  while 
the  latter  gave  evidence  of  a  rich  and  genial  poetio 
fancy.     These  early  efforts  were  rewarded  by  the 
acquisition  of  a  travelling  pension,  which   enabled 
him  to  spend  some  years  in  visiting  various  parts 
of  the  continent,  and  becoming  acquainted  with  the 
great  literary  celebrities  of  the  day,  such  as  the 
Weimar  circle  of  whom  Goethe  was  the  head.     I& 
was  not   idle  with  his  pen   during  this   period   of 
comparative  recreation,  for  in   1807  he  wrote  his 
Hakon  Jarl,  the  first  of  his  long  series  of  northern 
tragedies,  at  Halle ;  and  in  1809,  he  composed  his 
Correygio    at    Rome.      In    1S10,    OE.    returned    to 
Denmark,  where  he  was  hailed  with  acclamation 


(E1L  DE  BCEUF— OEREBRO. 


as  the  greatest  tragic  poet  Denmark  had  ever 
known  ;  and  having  soon  afterwards  obtained  the 
chair  of  esthetics  at  the  university,  and  received 
Various  substantial  proofs  of  royal  favour,  he 
married,  and  settled  in  the  capital,  where  his  peace 
was,  however,  rudely  disturb  ■!  by  a  literary  feud 
with  Baggesan,  the  Danish  poet  and  critic,  whose 
poetical  supremacy  bad  been  superseded  by  that 
of  (Ehlcnschliiger.  In  1819  appeared  one  of  (E.'s 
most  masterly  productions,  NardeM  Glider,  and 
this  and  the  numerous  dramatic  compositions  written 
about  the  same  period,  shew  that  the  severe  criti- 
cism to  which  his  writings  had  been  exposed  during 
the  celebrated  Baggesen  quarrel,  had  corrected  some 
of  the  faults,  and  lessened  the  self-conceit  which  had 
characterised  his  earlier  works.  His  reputation 
spread  with  his  increasing  years  both  abroad  and 
at  home ;  and  after  having  repeatedly  visited  the 
more  southern  parte  of  Europe,  he  went  in  1829  to 
Sweden,  whore  his  arrival  was  welcomed  by  a  public 
ovation  ;  and  after  having  received  repeated  marks 
of  friendship  from  various  sovereigns,  he  was 
honoured  in  his  own  country  by  the  celebration,  in 
1849,  of  a  grand  public  festival  held  in  the  palace  at 
Copenhagen.  But  this  ovation  was  unfortunately 
followed  in  less  than  two  months  by  his  death, 
which  took  place  in  January  1859.  His  funeral  was 
kept  as  a  national  solemnity,  and  he  was  followed 
to  the  grave  by  a  civic  procession,  which  included 
members  of  every  class  of  society,  from  princes  to 
artisans.  The  fame  of  (E.  will  rest  principally  on 
his  tragedies,  of  which  he  wrote  24,  19  of  the 
number  being  on  northern  subjects.  These  were 
all  composed  originally  in  Danish,  and  re-written 
by  himself  in  German.  Besides  those  already 
referred  to,  the  best  are  Knud  den  Store,  Palnatoke, 
Axel  og  Walborg,  Voeringerne  i  Miklagord.  His 
poems  are  for  the  most  part  indifferent,  and  his 
numerous  prose  writiugs  deserve  little  notice.  His 
Danish  and  German  works  amount  in  all  to  62 
volumes,  to  which  must  be  added  4  volumes  of 
his  Erindringer,  or  Autobiographical  Becollections, 
published  after  his  death. 

CEIL  DE  BCEUF,  a  French  term  literally 
signifying  ox's  eye,  applied  in  architecture  to  those 
small  round  or  oval  openings  in  the  frieze  or  roof  of 
large  buddings,  which  serve  to  give  light  to  spaces 
otherwise  dark.  The  most  famous  is  that  in  the 
anteroom  (where  the  courtiers  waited)  of  the 
royal  chamber  at  Versailles,  which  gave  name  to 
the  apartment.  Hence  the  expression,  Les  Fastes 
de  r(EU'-de-B(£uf—i.e.,  t*he  history  of  the  courtiers 
of  the  Grand  Monarque,  and  by  extension,  of 
courtiers  in  general. 

GE'LAND,  a  long  and  narrow  island  in  the  Baltic, 
lying  off  the  eastern  coast  of  Sweden,  opposite  to. 
and  forming  part  of,  the  Ian  of  Kalmar,  and  at  a 
distance  of  from  4  to  17  miles  from  the  shore.  It 
is  85  miles  in  length,  and  from  2  to  8  mdes  in 
breadth.  The  area  is  5S8  scpiare  miles,  and  the 
pop.  35,009.  The  island,  which  is  scarcely  more 
than  a  lime  cliff,  is  scantily  covered  with  soil,  but 
in  some  parts  it  is  well  wooded,  and  has  good 
pasture-ground,  which  is  turned  to  account  by 
the  islanders,  who  rear  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep. 
In  favourable  seasons,  barley,  oats,  and  flax  yield 
good  crops.  The  fishing  is  excellent  all  round  the 
coasts.  There  are  large  alum-works  on  the  island, 
and  an  extensive  line  of  wind-mills  along  the  range 
of  the  Alwar  Hills,  near  which  stands  Borgholm 
(pop.  673),  the  only  town  on  the  island,  the  first 
foundations  of  which  were  laid  in  1817.  To  the 
north  of  the  island  lies  the  steep  but  wooded 
i8la  id-cliff,  the  Jungfruen,  orBlaakuUa,  which  bears 
the  mythical  reputation  of  having  been  the  scene  of 


various  deeds  of  witchcraft,  and  the  favourite  resori 
of  wizards  and  witches, 

OEL8,  a  small  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  stands 
on  a  plain  on   the   Oelsa,  or  Oelse,  i»;  mile 

north-east  of  Breslau.  Its  castle,  built  in  ]f).r.s.  jH 
surrounded    by    ramparts    and    ditches.       It    contains 

n  gymnasium,  several  churches,  and  other  public 
edifices.  Pop.  7413,  who  cany  on  manufactures  oi 
linens  and  cloth  goods, 

CENANTHY'LIC  ACID  (CtHhO,)  is  one  of  the 

volatile  fatty  acids  of  the  general  formula  G»Hj,,0|, 
It  is  a  colourless  oily  fluid,  with  an  aromatic  odour, 
lighter  than  water,  and  insoluble  in  that  fluid,  but 
dissolving  readily  in  alcohol  and  ether.  According 
to  .Miller  {Organic  Chemistry,  2d  ed.  p.  .'5551,  it  may 
be  exposed  to  a  cold  of  0°  without  becoming  Bolid* 
while    )t    boils    and    may    be    distilled    (with    partial 

decomposition)  at  298°.     it  is  (like  many  of  the 

allied  tatty  acids)  one  of  the  products  of  the  oxidation 
of  Oleic  Acid  (q.  v.)  by  nitric  acid,  and  is  likewise 
yielded  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  castor  oil,  wax, 
and  various  fats.  Its  most  characteristic  salt  is  the 
cenanthylate  of  copper,  which  crystallises  in  beautiful 
green  needles. 

GBNOTHE'RA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Onagracem  (q.  v.),  having  four  petals  and 
eight  stamens,  the  calyx-limb  4-clcft,  the  segments 
reflexed  ;  the  capsule  4-valved,  with  many  naked  seeds. 
The  Evening  Primrose  ((E.  biennis),  a  native  ot 
the  U.  States,  has  been  known  in  Europe  since  1614, 
and  is  now  naturalised  in  many  parts  of  Eurooe 


Evening  Primrose  ((Enothera  biennis) : 

a,  flower  divested  of  calyx  and  corolla,  to  shew  the  parte  of 

fructification  ;  6,  tuberous  root. 

and  in  some  parts  of  Britain,  on  the  banks  cf  ri7<  rs, 
in  thickets,  on  sandy  grounds,  &c.  It  is  a  biennial 
plant,  aud  produces  in  the  first  year  elliptic  oi 
obovate  obtuse  leaves,  and  in  the  second  year  a  stem 
of  14 — 4  feet  high,  which  bears  at  its  summit  nvm- 
erous  yellow  flowers  in  a  leafy  spike.  The  flowers 
are  fragrant  in  the  evening.  The  root  somewhat 
resembles  a  carrot  in  shape,  but  is  short ;  it  is 
usually  red,  fleshy,  and  tender ;  it  is  eaten  in  salads 
or  in  soups,  and  as  a  boded  vegetable.  The  plant  is 
often  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  its  large  yellow 
flowers.  Several  other  species  of  Oenothera,  natives 
of  North  America,  are  occasionally  ctdtivated  in  our 
gardens,  and  have  eatable  and  pleasant  roots. 

OERE'BRO,  an  inland  town  of  Sweden,  capital 
of  a  Ian  of  the  same  name,  i3  situated  at  tlie 
entrance  of  the  Swart- Elf  into  the  Heilmar  Lake, 

41 


OERSTED-CESOPHAGUS. 


lOO  miles  west  of  Stockholm.  Pop.  in  1889,  8990. 
The  town  still  retains  manv  memorials  of  its  earlier 
prosperity,  when  it  was  frequently  the  residence 
of  the  Swedish  rulers,  who  found  its  central  position 
in  the  more  fertile  southern  portion  of  the  kingdom 
favourable  both  in  regard  to  safety  and  pleasantness 
of  site.  The  old  castle  was  built  by  Berger  Jarl 
in  the  1.3th  c,  and  was  in  after- times  frequently 
chosen  as  the  seat  of  the  national  diets.  0.  has 
manufactories  of  wax-cloth,  carpets,  woollen  goods, 
Stockings,  guns,  and  mirrors  ;  and  these  industrial 
products,  together  with  the  minerals  obtained  from 
the  neighbouring  silver,  copper,  and  iron  mines,  are 
Conveyed  to  Gotheuborg  and  Stockholm  by  means 
of  the  extensive  system  of  canals  which  connects 
the  lakes  of  the  interior  with  the  maritime  ports. 

OERSTED,  Hans  Christian,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  scientific  discoverers  and  physicists  of 
modern  times,  was  born  in  1777  at  Rudkjobing,  on 
the  Danish  island  of  Langeland,  where  his  father 
practised  as  an  apothecary.  In  17  94,  he  entered 
the  university  of  Copenhagen,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  in  1799,  and  soon 
afterwards  became  assistant  to  the  professor  of 
medicine,  in  which  capacity  he  gave  lectures 
on  chemistry  and  naturpl  philosophy.  In  1806, 
after  having  enjoyed  a  travelling  scholarship  for 
several  years,  and  visited  Holland,  the  greater  part 
of  Germany,  and  Paris,  he  was  appointed  extraordi- 
nary professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  university 
of  Copenhagen.  In  1812  he  again  visited  Germany 
and  France,  after  having  published  a  manual  under 
the  title  of  Videnskabm  our  Natureri '*  Almindelige 
Love,  and  Fdrste  Indledning  til  den  Almindelige 
Naturlcere  (1811).  During  his  residence  at  Berlin, 
he  wrote  his  famous  essay  on  the  identity  of 
chemical  and  electrical  forces,  in  which  he  first 
developed  the  ideas  on  which  were  based  his  great 
discovery  of  the  intimate  connection  existing  between 
magnetism  and  electricity  and  galvanism — a  treatise 
which,  during  his  residence  in  Paris,  he  translated 
into  French,  in  conjunction  with  Marcel  de  Serres. 
In  1819,  he  made  known  these  important  truths  in 
a  Latin  essay,  entitled  Experimenta  circa  Efficaciam 
Coufl'ictus  Electrici  in  acum  Magneticam,  which  he 
addressed  to  all  the  scientific  societies  and  the 
leading  savans  of  Europe  and  America,  and  thus 
made  good  his  claim  to  be  regarded  as  the  originator 
of  the  new  science  of  electro-magnetism.  This 
discovery,  which  formed  one  of  the  most  important 
eras  in  the  history  of  modern  physical  science, 
obtained  for  0.  the  Copley  Medal  from  the  Royal 
Society  of  England,  and  the  principal  mathematical 
prize  in  the  gift  of  the  Institute  of  Paris.  The 
original  and  leading  idea  of  this  great  discovery 
had  been  in  his  mind  since  1SU0,  when  the  disco- 
very of  the  galvanic  battery  by  Volta  had  first 
led  him  to  enter  upon  a  course  of  experiments  on 
the  production  of  galvanic  electricity.  The  enun- 
ciation of  his  theory  of  electro-magnetism  was 
followed  by  many  important  experiments  in  regard 
Lo  the  compression  of  water,  and  by  numerous 
other  chemical  discoveries,  among  which  we  may 
instance  his  demonstration  of  the  existence  of  the 
metal  aluminium  in  alumina.  The  influence  which 
0.  exerted  on  the  science  of  the  day  by  his  dis- 
coveries, was  recognised  by  the  learned  in  every 
country,  and  honours  increased  upon  him  with 
increasing  years.  He  was  corresponding  member 
of  the  French  Institute,  perpetual  secretary  to  the 
Royal  Society  of  Sciences  in  Copenhagen,  a  knight 
of  the  Prussian  Order  of  Merit,  of  the  French 
Legion  of  Honour,  and  of  the  Danish  Order  of  the 
Dannebrog,  and  a  councillor  of  state.  O.'s  great  object 
through  life  was  to  make  science  popular  among  all 
classes,  in  furtherance  of  which  he  wrote  numerous 
42 


works,  contributed  scientific  papers  to  the  newspapers 
and  magazines  of  his  own  country  and  Germany, 
and  in  addition  to  his  regular  prelections  in  the 
university,  gave  courses  of  popular  scientific  lectures 
to  the  public,  including  ladies.  Among  the  works 
specially  written  to  promote  the  diffusion  of  scien- 
tific knowledge,  those  best  known  are  Aandeni 
Naturen  (Kop.  1845),  and  Natur-lcereris  Mechanische 
Dud  (Kop.  1847),  both  of  which  have  been  trans- 
lated into  several  other  European  languages.  The 
majority  of  his  more  important  physical  anoTchemical 
papers  are  contained  in  Poggendorff's  Annalen,  and 
were  written  by  him  in  German  or  French,  both  of 
which  he  wrote  with  the  same  facility  as  his  own 
language.  At  the  close  of  1850,  a  national  jubilee 
was  held  in  honour  of  the  50th  anniversary  of  his 
connection  with  the  university  of  Copenhagen — a 
festival  which  he  did  not  long  survive,  as  his  death 
occurred  at  Copenhagen  9th  March  1851.  A  public 
funeral,  attended  by  all  persons  distinguished  by 
rank  or  learning  in  the  Danish  capital,  bore  testi* 
mony  to  the  respect  and  esteem  with  which  he  was 
regarded  by  his  fellow-citizens,  among  whom  his  mem- 
ory is  cherished,  not  merely  as  one  of  the  greatest 
scientific  benefactors  of  his  times,  but  as  a  man  who 
contributed  largely,- by  his  eloquent  and  earnest  ad- 
vocacy of  liberal  principles,  to  the  attainment  of  the 
high  degree  of  constitutional  freedom  which  Denmark 
now  enjoys. 

CESO'PHAGUS  (Gr.  oio,  to  convey,  and  phagein, 
to  eat),  or  GULLET,  a  membranous  canal,  about  nine 
inches  in  length,  extending  from  the  pharynx  to  the 
stomach,  and  thus  forming  a  part  of  the  alimentary 
canal.  It  commences  at  the  lower  border  of  the  cri- 
coid cartilage  of  the  larynx,  descends  in  a  nearly  ver- 
tical direction  along  the  front  of  the  spine,  passes 
through  an  opening  in  the  diaphragm,  and  thus  enter* 
the  abdomen,  and  terminates  in  the  cardiac  orifice 
of  the  stomach,  opposite  the  ninth  dorsal  vertebra. 
It  has  three  coats  —  viz.,  an  external  or  muscular 
coat  (consisting  of  two  strata  of  fibres  of  considera- 
ble thickness — an  external,  longitudinal,  and  an  in- 
ternal, circular);  an  internal  or  mucous  coat,  which 
is  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  squamous  epithelium; 
and  an  intermediate  cellular  coat,  uniting  the  mus- 
cular and  mucous  coats.  In  this  tissue  are  a  large 
number  of  oesophageal  glands,  which  open  upon  the 
surface  by  a  long  excretory  duct,  and  are  most 
numei-ous  round  the  cardiac  orifice,  where  they  form 
a  complete  ring. 

The  oesophagus  is  liable  to  a  considerable  number 
of  morbid  changes,  none  of  which  are,  however,  of 
very  common  occurrence. 

The  most  prominent  symptom  of  (Esophagitis, 
or  Inflammation  of  the  (Esophagus,  is  pain  between 
the  shoulders,  or  behind  the  trachea  or  sternum, 
augmented  in  deglutition,  which  is  usually  more  or 
less  difficult,  and  sometimes  impossible.  The  affec- 
tion is  regarded  as  a  very  rare  one,  unless  when  it 
originates  from  the  direct  application  of  irritating  or 
very  hot  substances,  or  from  mechanical  violence — 
as,  for  instance,  from  the  unskilful  application  of  the 
stomach-pump  or  probang.  Dr  Copland,  however, 
is  of  opinion  that  it  is  not  un frequent  in  children, 
particularly  during  infancy,  and  observes  that 
'when  the  milk  is  thrown  up  unchanged,  we  should 
always  suspect  the  existence  of  inflammation  of 
the  oesophagus.'  The  ordinary  treatment  employed 
in  inflammatory  diseases  must  be  adopted ;  and  if 
inability  to  swallow  exists,  nourishing  liquids,  such 
as  strong  beef-tea,  must  be  injected  into  the  lewer 
bowel. 

Spasm  of  the  (Esophagus — a  morbid  muscular  con- 
traction of  the  tube,  producing  more  or  less  difficulty 
of  swallowing — is  a  much  more  common  affection 
than  inflammation.     The  spasm  generally  comes  on 


(ESOPHAGUS-OFFER  AND  ACCEPTANCE. 


suddenly  during  a  meal.  Upon  an  attempt  to  swallow, 
the  food  is  arrested,  ami  is  either  immediately 
rejected  with  considerable  force,  or  is  retained  fur 
a  time,  ami  then  brought  up  l>y  regurgitation;  the 
former  happening  when  the  contraction  takes  place 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  canal,  and  the  latter  when 
it  is  mar  the  lower  part.  In  some  cases,  solids  can 
be  swallowed,  while  liquids  excite  spasm;  while 
in  other  cases  the  opposite  is  observed  ;  but  in 
general  cither  solids  or  liquids  suffice  to  excite  the 
contraction,  when  a  predisposition  to  it  exists. 
1  lie  predisposition  usually  consists  in  an  excitable 
state  of  the  nervous  system,  such  as  exists  in 
hysteria,  hypochondriasis,  and  generally  in  a  debili- 
tated condition  of  the  body.  An  attack  may 
consist  of  a  single  paroxysm,  lasting  only  a  few 
hours,  or  it  may  be  more  or  less  persistent  for 
months  or  even  years.  The  treatment  must  be 
directed  to  the  establishment  of  the  general  health, 
by  the  administration  of  tonics  and  anti-spas- 
modics,  by  attention  to  the  bowels  and  the  vari- 
ous seeretious,  by  exercise  in  the  open  air,  the 
shower-bath,  a  nutritious  diet,  &c. ;  and  by  the 
avoidance  of  the  excessive  use  of  strong  tea,  coffee, 
and  tobacco.  Care  must  also  be  taken  not  to 
swallow  anything  imperfectly  masticated  or  too  hot; 
and  the  occasional  passage  of  a  bougie  is  recom- 
mended. Brodie  relates  a  case  that  ceased  spontane- 
ously on  the  removal  of  bleeding  piles.  Stiychuia 
is  deserving  of  a  trial  when  other  means  fail ;  and 
if  the  affection  assume  a  decidedly  periodic  form, 
qui  ilia  will  usually  prove  an  effectual  remedy. 

Paralysis  of  the  (Esophagus  is  present  in  certain 
forms  of  organic  disease  of  the  brain  or  spinal  cord, 
which  are  seldom  amenable  to  .treatment,  and  is 
often  a  very  important  part  of  the  palsy  that  so 
frequently  occurs  in  the  most  severe  and  chronic 
cases  of  insanity.  In  this  affection  there  is  inability 
to  swallow,  but  no  pain  or  other  symptom  of  spasm  ; 
and  a  bougie  may  be  passed  without  obstruction. 
The  patient  must  be  fed  by  the  stomach-pump,  and 
nutrient  injections  of  strong  beef-tea  should  be 
thrown  into  the  lower  boweL 

Permanent  or  Organic  Stricture  of  the  (Esophagus 
may  arise  from  inflammatory  thickening  and  indura- 
tion of  its  coats,  or  from  scirrhous  and  other  forma- 
tions, situated  either  in  the  wails  of  or  external  to 
the  tube.  The  most  common  seat  of  this  affection 
is  at  its  upper  part.  The  symptoms  are  persistent 
and  gradually  increasing  difficulty  of  swallowing, 
occasionally  aggravated  by  fits  of  spasm  ;  and  a 
bougie,  when  passed,  always  meets  with  resistance 
at  the  same  spot.  When  the  contraction  is  due 
to  inflammatory  thickening,  it  may  arise  from  the 
abuse  of  alcoholic  drinks,  or  from  swallowing  boiling 
or  corrosive  fluids ;  and  it  is  said  that  it  has  been 
induced  by  violent  retching  in  sea-sickness.  If 
unrelieved,  the  disease  must  prove  fatal,  either 
by  ulceration  of  the  tube  around  the  seat  of  the 
stricture,  or  by  sheer  starvation.  When  the  affec- 
tion originates  in  inflammation,  some  advantage 
may  be  derived  from  a  mild  course  of  mercury, 
occasional  leeching,  and  narcotics  ;  and  especially 
from  the  occasional  passage  of  a  bougie,  of  a  ball- 

Erobang  (an  ivory  ball  attached  to  a  piece  of  whale- 
one),  or  of  a  piece  of  sponge  moistened  with  a 
weak  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver.  If  it  is  dependent 
upon  malignant  disease,  and  the  tissues  have  become 
softeued  by  the  infiltration  of  the  morbid  deposit, 
the  bougie  must  be  directed  with  the  greatest  care 
through  the  stricture,  as  a  false  passage  may  be 
easily  made  into  important  adjacent  cavities. 

Foreign  bodies  not  very  unfrequently  pass  into 
the  oesophagus,  and  become  impacted  there,  giving 
rise  to  a  sense  of  choking  and  fits  of  suffocative 
cough,    especially    when    they    are    seated    in    its 


upper  part.  They  may  not  only  cause  immediate 
death   by  exciting    spasm    of   the   glottis,   but   if 

allowed  to  remain,  may  excite  ulceration  of  the 
parts,  and  thus  cause  death  by  exhaustion.  It 
the  body  is  small  and  sharp  (a  tish  bone,  for 
example),  it  may  often  be  got  rid  of  by  making 
the    patient    swallow   a   large    mouthful    of    bread  ; 

if  it  is  large  and  soft  (such  as  too  large  a  mouthful 
of  meat),  it  may  generally  l>e  pushed  down  into  the 
stomach  with  the  probang;  while  large  hard  bodies 
(such  as  pieces  of  bone]  should  be  brought  np  either 
by  the  action  of  an  emetic,  or  by  long  curved  forceps. 
If  the  offending  body  can  neither  be  brought  up 
nor  pushed  down,  it  must  be  extracted  by  the 
operation  of  (Esophagotomy—ua  operation  which  can 
only  be  performed  when  the  impacted  body  is  not 
very  low  down,  and  which  it  is  unnecessary  to 
describe  in  these  pages, 

CE'STIilDiE,  a  family  of  dipterous  insects,  having 
a  mere  rudimentary  proboscis  or  none,  the  palpi 
also  sometimes  wanting,  and  the  mouth  reduced  to 
three  tubercles  ;  the  antenme  short  and  enclosed  in 
a  cavity  in  the  forepart  of  the  head  ;  the  abdomen 
large.  They  are  generally  very  hairy,  the  hair 
often  coloured  in  rings.  They  resemble  flesh-flies 
in  their  general  appearance,  and  are  nearly  allied  to 
Museidce.  The  perfect  insect  is  very  short-lived. 
The  females  deposit  their  eggs  on  different  species 
of  herbivorous  mammalia,  each  insect  being  limited 
to  a  particular  kind  of  quadruped,  and  selecting  for 
its  eggs  a  situation  on  the  animal  suitable  to  the 
habits  of  the  larva,  which  are  different  in  different 
species,  although  the  larvae  of  all  the  species  are 
parasites  of  herbivorous  quadrupeds.  The  characters 
and  habits  of  some  of  the  most  notable  species  are 
described  in  the  article  Bot.  Animals  seem  gener- 
ally to  have  a  strong  instinctive  dread  of  the  0. 
which  infest  them. 

O'FFENBACH,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  river  Main, 
within  the  domains  of  the  Princes  of  Iseuburg- 
Birstein,  4  miles  south-east  of  Frankfurt.  Pop.  1 1  v7  1 ) 
2:2,670.  O.  is  pleasantly  situated  in  one  of  the 
richest  parts  of  the  valley  of  the  Main,  aud  is  one 
of  the  most  important  manufacturing  towns  in  the 
province.  Among  the  industrial  products,  its 
carriages  have  acquired  a  pre-eminent  character  for 
excellence ;  and  next  to  these,  stand  its  book- 
bindings, articles  of  jewellery,  gold  and  silver  goods, 
carpets,  and  silk  fabrics.  It  has  also  good  manu- 
factories of  wax-cloth,  papier-mache  snuff-boxes, 
tin-lackered  wares,  umbrellas  and  parasols,  wax- 
candles,  leather,  hats,  tobacco,  sugar,  and  ginger- 
bread and  spiced  cakes.  0.  has  several  churches, 
and  a  Jewish  synagogue.  The  palace  is  the  winter 
residence  of  the  Isenburg-Birstein  famdy,  to  whom 
the  old  castle,  now  in  ruins,  also  belongs.  A 
pontoon-bridge  across  the  river,  and  a  railway  to 
Frankfurt,  facilitate  intercommunication,  and  tend 
materially  towards  the  maintenance  of  its  active 
trade. 

OFFENCES  AGAINST  RELIGION, 
PUBLIC  PEACE,  &c.     See  Religion,  Peace,  fee. 

OFFER  AND  ACCEPTANCE  is  one  mode  of 
entering  into  a  contract  of  sale.  At  an  auction,  thb 
highest  offer  is  generally  accepted  as  a  matter  of 
course ;  and  when  accepted,  the  contract  is  com- 
pleted. An  offer  is  often  made  by  letter  from  one 
merchant  to  another  to  buy  or  sell  goods.  In  such 
a  case,  the  party  offering  is  bound  to  wait  until  he 
gets  an  answer  by  return  of  post  or  messenger;  for 
until  then  the  offer  is  supposed  to  be  continuously 
made.  But  if  A  offer  to  B  personally  to  sell,  and  B 
ask  time  to  consider  for  a  day,  or  any  given  time,  A 
is  not  bound  to  wait  a  single  moment,  according  tc 

43 


OFFERING— OFFICIAL  ASSIGNEE. 


English  law,  and  may  withdraw  at  any  time  from 
the  offer,  because  he  had  no  legal  consideration  for 
waiting;  whereas,  in  Scotland,  in  the  same  circum- 
stances, A  would  be  bound  to  wait  the  time  agreed 
nj)on. 

OFFERING.  Under  the  head  First-fruits 
(q.  v.)  have  h^en  described  the  various  offerings 
prescribed  in  the  Jewish  law.  We  shall  have 
occasion  to  consider,  under  the  head  of  Sacrifice 
(q.  v.),  some  further  questions  connected  with  the 
subject  of  offerings  in  public  worship.  In  the  Chris- 
tian community  there  appears  to  have  existed,  from 
the  earliest  times,  a  practice  of  making  voluntary 
offerings,  for  purposes  not  directly  connected  with 
public  worship.    See  Offertory. 

O'FFERTORY  (Lat.  offertorium,  from  offero,  I 
offer)  is  the  name  given  to  that  portion  of  the 
public  liturgy  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
with  which  the  eucharistic  service,  strictly  so 
called,  commences.  In  the  Roman  Liturgy  it 
consists  of  one  or  two  verses  from  some  book  of 
Scripture,  generally  from  the  Old  Testament,  but 
sometimes  also  from  the  Epistles.  In  the  Ambro- 
sian  Liturgy  it  consists  of  a  prayer,  similar  in  form 
to  the  collect  or  secret  of  the  mass  ;  and  in  both,  this 
recital  is  followed  by  the  preparatory  offering  up  of 
the  bread  and  wine,  accompanied  by  certain  cere- 
monies and  forms  of  prayer. 

This  offering  of  the  bread  and  wine  in  the  public 
service  became,  from  a  very  early  period,  the  occa- 
sion of  a  voluntary  offering,  on  the  part  of  the  faith- 
ful; originally,  it  would  seem,  of  the  bread  and 
wine  designed  for  the  eucharistic  celebration  and  for 
the  communion  of  the  priest  and  the  congregation, 
sometimes  even  including  the  absent  members,  and 
also  for  the  agape,  or  common  sacred  feast,  which 
accompanied  it.  That  portion  of  the  offerings 
which  remained  in  excess  of  what  was  requisite 
for  these  purposes  was  applied  to  the  relief  of 
the  poor,  and  to  the  support  of  the  clergy.  These 
offerings  were  ordinarily  made  by  the  faithful 
in  person,  and  were  laid  upon  the  altar ;  and 
the  Ambrosian  rite  still  preserves  this  usage  in 
a  ceremonial  which  may  be  witnessed  in  the 
cathedral  of  Milan.  By  degrees,  other  gifts  were 
superadded  to  those  of  bread  and  wine — as  of  corn, 
oil,  wax,  honey,  eggs,  butter,  fruits,  lambs,  fowl, 
and  other  animals ;  and  eventually  of  equivalents  in 
mopey  or  other  objects  of  value.  The  last-named  class 
of  offerings,  however,  was  not  so  commonly  made- 
upon  the  altar  and  during  the  public  liturgy,  as  in 
the  form  of  free  gifts  presented  on  the  occasion  of 
other  ministerial  services,  as  of  baptism,  marriages, 
funerals,  &c. ;  and  from  this  has  arisen  the  practice 
in  the  R-oman  Catholic  Church  of  the  mass-offering, 
or  honorarium,  which  is  given  to  a  priest  with  the 
understanding  that  he  shall  offer  the  mass  for  the 
intention  (whence  the  honorarium  itself  is  often 
called  an  'intention')  of  the  offerent.  In  some 
places,  however,  and  among  them  in  some  parts 
of  Ireland,  offerings  '  in  kind '  are  still  in  use,  not 
indeed  in  the  form  of  the  ancient  offertory,  but 
in  the  shape  of  contributions  of  corn,  hay,  &c.,  at 
stated  seasons,  for  the  use  of  the  parochial  clergy. 
At  weddings  also,  and  in  some  places  at  funerals, 
offerings  in  money  are  made  by  the  relations  and 
friends  of  the  newly  married  or  of  the  deceased.  In 
the  Liturgy  of  the  English  Church  allusion  is  made 
to  the  practice  of  oblations,  and  some  of  the  recent 
controversies  have  turned  upon  the  revival  of  the 
4  offertory,'  which  has  found  some  advocates. 

OFFICE,  The  Divine  (Lat.  officium,  duty),  is 
the  name  popularly  given  to  the  Canonical  Hours 
(q.  v.)  prescribed  to  be  read  each  day  by  bishops, 
priests,  deacons,  and  sub-deacons   in   the   Roman 


Catholic  Church.  Under  the  head  Brevi4.r\  will 
be  found  a  general  description  of  the  contents  and 
the  arrangement  of  that  great  service-book.  The 
special  portions  assigned  for  any  particular  day 
constitute  what  is  called  the  divine  office  for  that 
day  ;  and  each  person  who  is  bound  in  virtue  of  his 
order  to  recite  the  Breviary,  is  obliged,  under  pain 
of  sin,  to  read,  not  merely  with  the  eye,  but 
with  distinct,  although  it  may  be  sdent,  articulation, 
each  and  all  these  portions.  The  adjustment  of 
the  portions  of  the  office  of  each  day,  the  com- 
bination of  the  '  ordinary '  portions  which  are 
read  every  day  in  common,  with  the  parts  'proper' 
for  each  particular  day,  is  a  matter  of  considerable 
difficulty,  and  is  regulated  by  a  complicated  system 
of  Rubrics  (q.  v.). 

OFFICE,  Holy,  Congregation  of  the.  In  the 
article  Inquisition  (q.  v.)  it  has  been  explained  that 
that  tribunal  is  sometimes  called  by  the  name  Holy 
Office.  That  title,  however,  properly  belongs  to 
the  '  Congregation '  at  Rome,  to  which  the  direction 
of  the  Roman  tribunal  of  the  Inquisition  is  subject. 
This  Congregation  was  established  by  Paul  III.  in 
1542,  and  its  organisation  was  completed  by  Sixtus 
V.  It  consists  of  twelve  cardinals,  a  commissary, 
a  number  of  'theologians'  and  canonists  who  are 
styled  '  consulters,'  and  of  another  class  of  officials 
called  'qualifiers,'  whose  duty  it  is  to  report  on 
each  case  for  the  information  of  the  cardinals.  In 
the  most  solemn  sessions  of  the  Holy  Office  the 
pope  himself  presides  in  person.  The  action  of  the 
Holy  Office,  in  addition  to  questions  of  heresy  and 
crimes  against  faith,  also  extends  to  ecclesiastical 
offences,  especially  in  connection  with  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  sacraments. 

OFFICE  COPY  is  a  copy  made  of  a  document 
by  some  officer  of  a  court  in  whose  custody  the 
document  is  ;  and  in  general  such  copies  are  receiv- 
able in  evidence,  without  further  proof,  in  the  same 
court,  but  not  in  other  courts,  except  some  statute 
makes  them  evidence. 

OFFICERS,  Military  and  Naval. — Military 
Officers  are  combatant  and  non-combatant,  the 
latter  term  including  paymasters,  medical  officers, 
commissariat,  and  other  civil  officers.  The  great 
divisions  of  rank  are  commissioned,  warrant,  and 
non-commissioned  officers.  Commissioned  officers 
are  those  holding  commissions  from  the  crown,  or  a 
lord-lieutenant,  and  comprise  all  holding  the  rank  of 
ensign,  or  corresponding  or  superior  rank.  Divided 
by  duties,  they  are  Staff  Officers  (see  Staff),  or 
Regimental  Officers  (see  Regiment)  ;  divided  by 
rank,  General  Officers  (q.  v.),  Field-Officers  (q.  v.), 
and  troop  or  company  officers.  The  last  are  captains, 
lieutenants,  aud  cornets  or  ensigns,  and,  except  in 
the  cavalry,  are  unmounted.  The  different  systems 
of  promotion  for  officers,  and  especially  the  intricacies 
of  the  purchase  system,  will  be  explained  under 
Promotion,  Army,  and  Purchase  System.  The 
only  warrant  officers  in  the  army  are  Master- 
gunners  (see  Gunner)  and  Schoolmasters.  Non- 
commissioned officers  are  described  under  that 
heading. 

Officers,  Naval,  are  commissioned,  warrant,  and 
petty  officers.  Commissioned  officers  are  admirals, 
captains,  commanders,  lieutenants,  and  sub-lieu* 
tenants,  described  under  their  respective  titles. 
Warrant  Officers  (q.  v.)  are  boatswains,  carpenters, 
gunners,  and  one  class  of  engineers.  Petty  officers 
will  be  described  under  that  heading,  and  constitute 
a  very  important  portion  of  the  management  in  a 
ship-of-war. 

OFFI'CIAL  ASSIGNEE',  in  English  Law,  is 
an  officer  of  the  Bankruptcy  Court,  in  whom  a 


OFFICINAL  PLANTS -OGHAMS. 


bankrupt's  estate  vests  the  moment  an  adjudication 
of  bankruptcy  is  made.  He  is  the  manager  of  the 
property,  and  can  sell  the  estate  under  the  directions 
of  the  court  in  urgent  cases,  such  as  where  the 
goods  are  perishable  ;  but  in  general,  he  is  assisted 
in  the  management  by  the  creditors'  assignees,  who 
are  selected  from  the  body  of  creditors  by  the  other 
creditors'  votes.  The  official  assignee  is  appointed 
by  the  Lord  Chancellor,  being  selected  from  the 
body  of  merchants,  brokers,  or  accountants..  He  is 
bound  to  find  security  to  the  extent  of  £6000.  He 
is  prohibited  from  carrying  on  trade  on  his  own 
account.     The  salary  is  £1000. 

OFFICI'NAL  PLANTS  (Lat.  officina,  a  shop) 
are  those  medicinal  plants  which  have  a  place  in 
the  pharmacopoeias  of  different  countries,  and  which 
are  therefore  sold — or  some  of  their  products  or 
preparations  of  them — by  apothecaries  and  druggists. 
The  medicinal  plants  cultivated  to  any  considerable 
extent  are  all  officinal,  but  many 
are  also  officinal  which  are  not  culti- 
vated.    See  Medicinal  Plants. 

OFFSET,  or  SET-OFF,  the  splay 
or  sloping  part  of  a  wall,  &c,  joining 
parallel  surfaces  when  the  upper 
face  recedes  from  the  lower.  This 
frequently  occurs  on  buttresses  (see 
fig.).  The  0.  is  usually  protected 
with  dressed  stones,  having  a  pro- 
jection or  drip  on  the  lower  edge 
to  prevent  the  rain  from  running 
down  the  wall. 

OFFSETS,  a  term  used  by  gardeners  to  designate 
the  young  bulbs,  which  springing  from  the  axils  of 
the  scales  of  a  bulb  (q.  v.),  grow  beside  it,  exhausting 
its  strength,  but  which  serve  for  the  propagation  of 
the  plant.  A  crop  of  shallots,  or  of  potato  onions, 
consists  entirely  of  the  offsets  of  the  bulbs  planted 
in  spring  ;  although  the  term  is  not  commonly  used 
except  as  to  bulbous-rooted  plants  prized  for  the 
beauty  of  their  flowers. 

OFFSETS.    Let  AEF ....B D....C  be  a 

field  with  very  irregular  sides  ;  take  the  points 
A,  0,  M,  C  at  or  as  near  the  corners  as  convenient, 
the  object  being  to  enclose  as  much  of  the  field  as 
possible  within  the  quadrilateral  AOMC ;  and  for  this 


Offset. 


purpose  it  is  sometimes  necessary,  as  in  the  present 
case,  to  include  a  corner  (as  SRQ)  which  is  outside 
the  field.  The  area  AOCD  is  found  by  means  of 
the  diagonal  AM,  and  the  perpendiculars  on  it 
from  C  and  O.     The  area  AEFG BL  is  found 


by  dividing  it  into  triangles  and  trapezoids  by 
meant  "t  perpendiculars  (to  which  the  term  qfaia 
was  originally  applied,  though  it  now  denote!  the 
irregular  area  before  mentioned)  from  the  corners 
E,  G,  H,  &c.  (see  T&IANOLB  and  T&APBZOID),  and 
adding  together  the  areas  of  the  separate  figures 
AEF,    EQg,    QRgh,    itc.      Similarly    the    areas    of 

OLN D  and  MDUVV  are  found.     To  the  sum  of 

these  must  be  added  the  areas  of  the  triangles 
ATS,  QPC,  diminished  by  the  area  of  SKQ,  ami  the 
result  is  the  whole  area  of  the  field.  If  the  offset 
have  no  distinct  corners,  as  (tig.  2)  ABLMN OK. 


then  the  base  AK  is  divided  into  equal  parts  by 
perpendiculars  ABLl,  Mm,  Nrc,  &c,  and  the  area 
of  the  offset  is  found  approximately  as  follows  :  the 
whole  offset  =  ABLl  +  L/Mra  +  MrwNw  +  &c.  + 
P/jOK  =  Al  X  ^  (AB  +  LI)  +  lmx  i  (LI  +  Mm)  -f 
mn  X  ^  (Mm  +  Nra)  +  . . . .  +  pK  x  £  irP  4-  OK)  =* 
(since  the  divisions  of  the  base  are  etjual)  Al  x  .} 
{AB  +  2LI  +  2Mm  +  2N«  +  ....  +  2pP  +  OK}  = 
.  ,       I  AB  +  OK      _ ,      ._         ._  _  , 

x   1 2 +        +  +         + +     p)  • 

i.  e..  the  area  of  an  offset  is  found  approximately  by 
adding  the  intermediate  perpendiculars  to  the  semi- 
sum  of  the  first  and  last,  and  multiplying  the  sum- 
total  by  the  length  of  a  division  of  the  base,  the 
divisions  being  equal ;  and  the  greater  the  number 
of  perpendiculars,  the  nearer  the  result  is  to  the 
true  area. 

O'GDENSBURG,  a  village  and  port  ot  entry  in 
New  York,  U.  S.,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  river 
St  Lawrence,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Oswegatchie,  210 
miles  north-west  of  Albany,  and  at  the  western 
terminus  of  the  Northern  Railway.  It  has  ,\  large 
lake  and  river  trade,  mills  and  factories,  custom- 
house, town-hall,  &c,  and  a  steam-ferry  to  Prescott, 
Canada.     Pop.  in  1860,  7410;   in  1880,  10,430. 

OGEE',  a  moulding  consisting  of  two  curves,  on* 
concave  and  the  other 
convex  (a).  It  is 
called  (in  Classic 
Architecture)  Cyma- 
tium  or  Cyma  Seversa 
(see  Moulding).  The 

ogee    is    also    much       \  i 

used  in  Gothic  archi- 
tecture. An  arch 
having  each  side  0 
formed  with  two  contrasted  curves  is  called  an 
ogee  arch  (&).  Figure  a  represents  Hogarth's  line 
of  beauty. 

O'GHAMS,  the  name  given  to  the  letters  or  signs 
of  a  secret  alphabet  long  in  use  among  the  Irish  and 
some  other  Celtic  nations.  Neither  the  origin  nor 
the  meaning  of  the  name  has  been  satisfactorily 
explained. 

The  alphabet  itself  is  called  Bethluisnin,  or 
Bethluia,  from  its  first  two  letters,  '  6,'  called  '  beith' 
(birch),  and  '  l,'  called  '  luis'  (quicken).  Its  charac- 
ters are  lines,  or  groups  of  lines,  deriving  their 
significance  from  their  position  on  a  single  stem  or 
chief  line — over,  under,  or  through  which  they  a/e 
drawn  either  straight  or  oblique.  In  some  cases, 
the  edge  of  the  stone  or  other  substance  on  which 
the  Oghams  are  incised,  serves  the  purpose  of  the 
stem  or  chief  line.     About  eighty  different  forms  of 


Ogee 


OGHAMS -OHIO. 


the  alphabet  are  known.    The  following  is  the  one 
most  commonly  used  : 


f 


I    s 


.q..    I    I'    I"    IHI    Mill 


Vh  d     t       c 
a    on       c 


m  9    ncf     st 

i ii  111  iimim in  in  mi  liitt 

Ogham  Alphabet. 

These  seem  to  have  been  all  the  letters  of  the  first 
Ogham  alphabet.  Five  characters  were  afterwards 
added  to  represent  diphthongs  : 


#-e- 


ui        la 


The  sign  for  the  diphthong  •  ea '  is  said  to  be  the 
only  one  which  has  been  observed  on  ancient  monu- 
ments. It  is  added  that  the  sign  for  '  ui '  sometimes 
stands  for  '  y,'  that  the  sign  for  '  ia '  sometimes 
stands  for  '  p,'  and  that  the  sign  for  •  ae '  stands  also 
for  '  £,'  for '  cc?  for  '  c/i,'  for  '  ach,'  aud  for  '  uch.' 

Ogham  inscriptions  generally  begin  from  the 
bottom,  and  are  read  upwards  from  left  to  right  to 
the  top,  when  they  are  carried  over,  and  run  down 
another  side  or  angle.  Most  of  those  which  have 
been  read  give  merely  a  proper  name  with  its 
patronymic,  both  in  the  genitive  case.  The  stones 
on  which  Oghams  are  cut  woidd  seem,  for  the  most 
part,  to  have  been  sepulchral.  Oghams  are  of  most 
frequent  occurrence  in  Ireland,  where  they  are 
found  both  written  on  books  and  inscribed  on 
stones,  metals,  or  bones.  The  Oghams  on  stones 
are  most  numerous  in  the  counties  of  Kerry  and 
Cork.  A  few  Ogham  inscriptions  on  stones  have 
been  discovered  in  Wales — as  at  St  Dogmael's,  in 
Pembrokeshire ;  near  Margam,  in  Glamorganshire ; 
and  near  Crickhowel,  in  Brecknockshire.  There  are 
a  few  in  Scotland,  as  on  the  Newton  Stone  and  the 
Logie  Stone  in  Aberdeenshire,  on  the  Golspie  Stone 
in  Sutherland,  and  on  the  Bressay  Stone  in  Shetland. 
One  has  been  found  in  England — at  Fardel,  in 
Devonshire.  Oghams  have  been  observed  on  an 
ancient  MS.  of  Priscian,  which  belonged  to  the  [ 
famous  Swiss  monastery  founded  in  the  7th  c.  by  I 
the  Irish  missionary,  St  Gall  (q.  v.). 

The  difficulties  of  deciphering  Ogham  inscriptions  j 
cannot  be  said  to  have  been  as  yet  altogether ' 
overcome.  It  is  confessed  by  the  most  learned  and 
judicious  of  Ogham  scholars,  the  Rev.  Charles 
Graves,  D.D.,  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  that  the 
nature  of  the  character  is  such  that  it  does  not  at 
once  appear  which,  of  four  different  ways  of 
reading,  is  the  right  one  ;  that  the  words  being 
written  continuously,  as  in  ancient  MSS.,  there  is 
great  chance  of  error  in  dividing  them ;  and  that 
the  Celtic  names  inscribed  are  generally  Latinised 
in  siich  a  manner  as  not  readily  to  be  recognised. 

The  old  school  of  Irish  antiquaries  contended  that  j 
the  Oghams  were  of  Persian  or  Phoenician  origin, 
and  were  in  use  in  Ireland  long  before  the  intro- 1 
duction  of   Christianity.      But  this  theory  is  now  i 
generally  discarded,  as  not  only  unsupported,  but  as  ■ 
contradicted  by  facts.     A  comparison  of  the  Ogham 
alphabet,   with   the    alphabets   of    Persepolis   and  i 
Carthage,  shews  that  there  is  no  likeness  between 
them.     The  great  majority  of  Ogham  monuments,  j 
it  has  been  observed,  bear  more   or   less  distinct 
marks  of  Christian  hands.      Several  are  inscribed 
with  crosses,  as  old,  to  all  appearance,  as  the  Oghams 
themselves.      Many   stand   in    Christian    burying-  I 


'  grounds,  or  beside  Christian  cells  or  oratories. 
I  Some  still  bear  the  names  of  primitive  saints.  At 
I  least  one  is  inscribed  with  a  Christian  name  ;  and 
j  some  of  the  inscriptions  betray  an  undeniable  know- 
ledge of  Latin.  At  the  same  time,  it  has  been 
argued  by  one  of  the  most  learned  of  Celtic  philo- 
logists, Mr  Whitley  Stokes,  that  '  the  circumstance 
that  genuine  Ogham  inscriptions  exist  both  in 
Ireland  and  in  Wales  which  present  grammatical 
forms  agreeing  with  those  of  the  Gaidish  linguistic 
monuments,  is  enough  to  shew  that  some  of  the 
Celts  of  these  islands  wrote  their  language  before  the 
5th  c,  the  time  at  which  Christianity  is  supposed . 
to  have  been  introduced  into  Ireland.'  It  has  been 
observed  by  Dr  Graves,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
there  are  many  points  of  resemblance  between  the 
Oghams  of  the  Celts  and  the  Ruues  of  the  Norse- 
men ;  and,  indeed,  one  Irish  MS.  asserts  that  the 
Oghams  came  to  Ireland  from  Scandinavia : 

'  Hither  was  brought,  in  the  sword  sheath  of  Lochlan's 

king, 
The  Ogham  across  the  sea*     It  was  his  own  hand  that 

cut  it.' 

The  Ogham  is  said  to  have  been  in  use  so  recently 
as  the  middle  of  the  17th  c,  when  it  was  employed 
in  the  correspondence  between  King  Charles  I.  and 
the  Earl  of  Glamorgan. 

The  best  account  of  Oghams  is  in  Dr  Graves's 
papers  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy, 
vol.  iv.  pp.  70,  173,  183,  254 ;  vol.  v.  pp.  234,  401 ; 
vol.  vi.  pp.  71,  209,  248;  and  the  Catalogue  of  the 
Museum  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  pp.  134 — 140 ; 
and  in  Mr  Whitley  Stokes's  Three  Irish  Glossaries, 
pp.  55 — 57,  compared  with  Thomas  Innes's  Critical 
Essay  on  the  Ancient  Inhabitants  of  Scotland,  vol.  ii. 
pp.  440—466.  Dr  Graves  has  had  a  work  for  some 
time  in  the  press,  the  issue  of  which  is  looked  for 
with  considerable  interest — A  Treatise  on  the  Ogham 
or  Occult  Forms  of  Writing  of  the  A  ncienl  Irish,  from 
a  MS.  in  the  Library  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  with 
a  Translation  and  Notes,  and  a  Preliminary  Disser- 
tation. It  is  to  be  printed  for  the  Irish  ArchaBolo- 
gical  and  Celtic  Society.  Ogham  inscriptions  may 
be  seen  in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy 
at  Dublin,  in  the  Museum  of  the  Society  of  Antiqua- 
ries of  Scotland  at  Edinburgh,  and  in  the  British 
Museum  at  London. 

O'GIVES,  the  arches  in  pointed  Gothic  vaulting 
which  cross  the  vault  diagonally  from  one  angle  to 
another. 

OGY'GES,  the  earliest  king  of  Attica  and  Bceotia 
named  in  Greek  legend.  In  his  time  (according 
to  Larcher,  about  1759  B.C.)  a  great  flood  took  place, 
called  the  Ogygian  Flood,  which 
desolated  all  the  lower  districts 
of  both  countries,  and  destroyed 
their  inhabitants.  The  different 
legends  lead  to  the  supposition 
that  under  O.  an  Egyptian  colony 
came  to  Bceotia,  aud  thence  to 
Attica.  From  him  Boeotia  took 
the  name  of  Ogygia. 

OGY'GIA,  a  genus  of  Trilobites 
peculiar  to  the  Llandeilo  flags  of 
the  Lower  Silurian  period.  Six 
species  have  been  described. 

OHI'O,  one  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
lies  between  lat.  38'  17' — 41°  54'  N.,  and  long! 
80°  34'— 84°  40'  W. ;  225  miles  in  extent  from 
east  to  west,  and  about  200  miles  from  north  to 
south;  containing  .39,964  square  miles,  or  25.576,9fiO 
acres;  bounded  N.  by  Michigan  and  Lake  Ene, 
E,  by  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia,  and  separated 
from    the   latter   by   the    Ohio    R'ver,    which    also 


Ogygia  Buchii 


OHIO-OIL  PALM. 


forms  its  southern  boundary,  separating  it  from  West 
Virginia  and  Kentucky,  and  vV  Iv  [ndiann.  TheOhio 
River  tonus  its  boundary  for  486  miles,  and  it*  lake 
shore  is  230  miles.  The  high  table-landa  and  hilly 
regions  of  ( >.  me  dn.ined  by  the  Great  and  Little 
Miami,  Scioto,  and  Muskingum,  affluents  of  the 
Ohio;  and  the  Mauraee,  Sandnaky,  Huron,  Ver- 
milion, Cnyahoga,  and  Ashtabula,  which  empty  into 
Lake  Brie.  Drift  formations  prevail  in  the  north;  in 
the  east  are  extensive  eoal-measnres  ;  while  limestone 
strata,  marls,  and  gypsum,  give  the  whole  State  B 
wonderful  fertility.  The  eoal-heds  of  Eastern  Ohio 
cover  12,000  square  miles,  with  abundant  deposits  of 
iron  ore.  In  the  north  are  valuable  deposits  of  buhr- 
stone.  and  a  'grindstone  grit,'  highly  esteemed  for 
grindstones  and  for  building  purposes.  The  salt  wells 
of  Pomeroy  have  yielded  1,000,000  bushels  per  annum. 
Oil  wells  have  also  been  opened,  ami  1,000,000  bbls. 
of  petroleum  were  refined  in  Cleveland  in  1869.  The 
soil,  rich  everywhere,  is  so  fertile  in  the  riser  bottoms 
as  to  have  borne  heavy  cereal  crops  fifty  sueeessive 
years  without  manuring.  The  climate  is  temperate, 
with  n  liability  to  a  cold  in  winter  reaching  sometimes 
to  20°  below  zero.  It  is  healthy,  except  the  lowlands 
liable  to  fever  and  ague.  The  forests  are  rich  in 
oak,  black  walnut,  maple,  &c;  the  chief  agricultural 
productions  are  Indian  corn,  wheat,  rye,  oats,  hay, 
Borghum,  tobacco,  hemp,  peaches,  apples,  grapes, 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  the  latter  being  one  of  its  chief 
exports.  The  southern  shore  of  L.  Erie  seems  to 
be  the  proper  vine-land  of  the  eastern  states,  ami  the 
Still  Catawba  wines  from  that  locality  will  compare 
favourably  with  the  very  best  growth  of  the  Uhine. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  iron,  clothing,  furniture, 
spirits,  wines,  cotton,  and  woollen.  A  large  commerce 
is  carried  on  by  the  Ohio  River,  the  lakes,  two  canals 
which  connect  Lake  Erie  and  the  Ohio,  pud  numerous 
railways.  The  state  is  organised  in  88  counties.  The 
chief  towns  are  Cincinnati,  Cleveland,  Columbus  the 
capital,  Sandusky,  Zanesville,  &c.  In  1869  there 
were  130  national  and  141  private  and  other  banks, 
and  the  state  revenue  was  $4,781,614.  Among  the 
state  institutions  are  3  lunatic  asylums,  asylums  for 
deaf  and  dumb,  blind,  idiots,  penitentiary,  reforma- 
tories, &c.  In  the  p.bove  year,  974  convicts  earned 
$32,027  over  then  expenses.  In  June  1872  there 
were  4495  miles  cf  railroads,  with  a  total  of  stock 
and  debt  of  $24>\ 960  350.  In  1868  there  were  up- 
wards of  1,000,000  children  for  whose  education  pro- 
vision was  made  by  law.  The  expenditure  for  edi  ca- 
tion, in  1869,  was"$6,578,196.  There  are  34  colleges, 
9  theological  institutions,  10  medical  schools,  1  normal 
school,  and  extensive  state  and  school  libraries.  In 
187o  there  were  395  periodicals,  23  being  daily. 

O.  was  organised  and  admitted  as  a  state  in  1802. 
The  population  in  1800  was  45,365;  1820,  581,434; 
1840,  1,519,467;  1860,  2,339,599,  of  whom  111,257 
were  Germans,  51,562  Irish,  36,000  English  and 
Scotch;    1870,  2,675,4C8. 

OHIO,  a  river  of  the  U-jiled  States  of  America, 
called  by  the  French  explorers,  after  its  Indian 
name,  la  Utile  Rinierr,  next  to  the  Missouri  the 
largest  affluent  of  the  Mississippi,  is  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  Alleghany  and  Monongahels,  at  the 
western  foot  of  tbe  Alleghanies,  at  Pittsburgh,  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  flows  west-south-west  950  miles, 
with  a  breadth  of  1200  to  4000  feet,  draining,  with 
its  tributaries,  an  area  of  202,400  square  miles.  In 
its  course  it  separates  the  northern  states  of  Ohio, 
Indiana,  and  Illinois  from  the  southern  states  of  West 
Virginia  and  Kentucky.  The  principal  towns  upon 
its  banks  are  Cincinnati,  Louisville  (where  there  are 
rapids  of  22  feet  in  a  mile,  with  a  steam-boat  canal), 
Wheeling,  Maysville,  Pittsburgh  at  its  source,  and 
Cairo  at  its  mouth.  It  is  generally  navigable  through- 
out its  entire  length.     Hie  banks  of  the  Ohio  are 


generally  high  and  terraced.  It  is  often  shallow 
and  scarcely  navigable,  sometimes  frozen,  and 
subject  to  hoods  oi  ISO  or  00  feet  above  low-water. 
Bordered  by  a  rich  country,  and  great  deposits  of 
coal  and  iron,  it  is  the  channel  of  a  vast  commerce, 
which  it  shares  with  its  chief  branches,  the  Ten- 
nessee, Cumberland,  Wabash,  Ureen,  &e. 

OIL-OAKE,  the  cake  which  remains  in  the  press, 
when  seeds  are  crushed  to  express  the  oil  whu.h 
they  contain.  Oil-cake  still  retains  a  portion  of  the 
oil  of  the  seed,  along  with  almost  all  its  other  con- 
stituents, and  is  valuable  either  for  feeding  cattle  or 
for  manure.  Lin  Heed-cake  is  so  much  more 
used  in  Britain  than  any  other  kind,  that  the  name 
oil-cake  is  in  general  exclusively  appropriated  to  it, 
the  other  kinds  being  known  as  Rape-cake,  Poppy' 
cake,  Hemp-cake,  Colza-cake,  &c,  according  to  the 
plant  from  the  seed  of  which  they  are  produced. 
The  use  of  oil-cake  for  feeding  cattle  has  very  much 
increased  of  late  yeare,  and  it  is  an  article  of  com- 
mercial importance.  Large  quantities  are  imported 
into  Britain  from  different  parts  of  the  continent  of 
Europe,  and  from  North  America.  But  English 
Linseed-cake — cake  made  at  oil-mills  in  England, 
mostly  from  imported  seed — is  preferred  to  any 
other,  because  heat  not  being  so  freely  applied 
during  the  expression  of  the  oil,  more  oil  is  left  in 
the  cake,  and  also  because  foreign  cake  often  suffers 
from  dampness  both  before  and  during  the  sea 
passage.  Besides  the  oil  which  remains  in  it, 
linseed-cake  contains  from  24.  to  33  per  cent,  of 
nitrogenous  substances  or  protein  compounds,  whicn 
make  it  very  valuable  both  for  feeding  cattle  and 
for  manure.  The  value  of  linseed-cake  for  feeding 
is  greater  than  that  of  any  kind  of  grain  or  pidse. — 
Rape-cake  is,  next  to  linseed-cake,  the  kind  of  oil- 
cake best  known  in  Britain.  It  is  much  cheaper  than 
linseed-cake,  but  is  not  relished  by  cattle,  having  a 
hot  taste,  and  a  tendency  to  become  rancid.  Sheep, 
however,  eat  it  readily,  and  it  is  often  employed  for 
fattening  them.  It  is  often  also  ground  to  a  coarse 
powder  (rape-dust),  and  used  as  a  manure.  Its 
fertilising  power  is  great,  and  it  is  used  by  the 
Flemish  farmers  as  guano  now  is  by  those  of  Britain. 
— Cotton,  Seed-cake  is  much  used  as  a  manure  in 
some  parts  of  North  America. — Cocoa-nut-cake  is 
used  in  the  south  of  India,  both  for  feeding  cattle 
and  for  manure. — Other  kinds  of  cake  are  noticed, 
if  sufficiently  important,  under  the  plants  from 
which  they  are  derived.  Their  properties  are 
generally  similar  to  those  of  linseed-cake,  although 
the  pungency  of  some,  as  Mustard-cake,  renders 
them  unsuitable  for  feeding  cattle.  See  also  Oil- 
Plants. 

OILLE'TS,  or  GEILLETS,  small  openings,  often 
circular,  used  in  medieval  buildings  for  discharging 
arrows,  &c,  through. 

OIL  MILL.    See  Oils. 

OIL  PALM  (Eloeis),  a  genus  of  palms,  of  the 
same  tribe  wath  the  cocoa-nut  palm.  The  best 
known  species,  the  O.  P.  of  tropical  Africa,  some 
times  attains  a  height  of  60 — 80  feet.  The  stems  ai-a 
thickest  in  the  middle,  tapering  chiefly  upwards. 
The  leaves  are  pinnate,  their  footstalks  spiny.  The 
flowers  have  a  strong  peculiar  smell,  like  that  of 
anise  or  chervil.  The  fruit  forms  an  immense  head, 
like  a  great  pine-apple,  consisting  of  a  great  number 
of  bright  orange-coloured  drupes,  having  a  thin  skin, 
an  oily  pulp,  and  a  hard  stone.  The  pulp  of  the 
drupes,  forming  about  three-fourths  of  their  whole 
bulk,  yields,  by  bruising  and  boiling,  an  oil,  which 
when  fresh  has  a  pleasant  odour  of  violets,  and 
when  removed  into  colder  regions  acquires  the 
consistency  of  butter.  This  oil  is  now  very  largely 
imported  from  tropical  Africa  into  Britain,  and  is 


OIL-REFINING— OILS. 


much  used  for  many  purposes,  as  for  making  candles, 
toilet  soaps,  &c,  and  for  lubricating  machinery  and 
the  wheels  of  railway  carriages.  When  fresh,  it  is 
eateu  like  butter.  See  Oils.  The  nut  was 
formerly  rejected  as  useless  after  the  oil  had  been 
obtained  from  the  fruit ;  but  from  its  kernel  a  fixed 
oil  is  now  extracted,  called  Palm-nut  Oil  ;  which 
is  clear  and  limpid,  and  has  become  to  some  extent 
an  article  of  commerce.  The  0.  P.  abounds  in 
mangrove  swamps,  but  is  also  a  conspicuous  feature 


Oil  Palm. 
(Copied  from  Livingstone's  Travels  in  Central  Africa.) 

of  the  landscape  on  sandy  coasts  in  the  tropical 
parts  of  Western  Africa.  It  yields  from  its  trunk 
abundance  of  a  pleasant  aud  harmless  beverage, 
which,  however,  becomes  intoxicating  in  a  few 
hours ;  called  Malova  in  Angola,  and  much  used 
there  as  an  alcoholic  stimulant.  The  unripe  nuts  of 
the  0.  P.  are  used  in  some  parts  of  Africa  for  making 
an  excellent  kind  of  soup.  The  0.  P.  has  been 
introduced  into  some  parts  of  America,  and  is  now 
abundant  in  them. 

OIL-REFINING.  Several  oils,  from  the  mode 
of  their  extraction,  are  necessarily  impure,  and 
various  means  are  taken  for  refining  or  purifying 
them :  thus,  the  so-called  fish-oils — that  is,  whale, 
seal,  cod,  &c— are  clarified  either  by  mixing  them 
with  a  chemical  solution,  or  by  passing  steam 
through  them  and  filtering  through  coarse  charcoal. 
The  chemical  solutions  employed  are  various.  One 
method  is,  to  use  a  strong  solution  of  oak  bark,  the 
tannic  acid  in  which  combines  with  the  albuminous 
matters  present  in  the  oil,  and  precipitates  them ; 
another  plan  is,  to  agitate  bleaching-powder,  formed 
into  a  milk  with  water,  with  the  oil ;  and  then, 
after  subsidence  of  the  chloride  of  lime  and  water, 
to  wash  the  oil  with  water,  or  jets  of  steam  passed 
through  it.  A  more  simple  and  very  effective  plan, 
invented  by  Mr  Dunn,  is  to  apply  a  steam  heat  not 
exceeding  200°  F.,  and  then  pass  a  current  of  air  of 
the  same  temperature  through  it  continuously  for 
some  time  :  this  effectually  bleaches  the  oil. 

Olive,  and  some  other  vegetable  oils,  are  refined  by 
agitating  them  with  a  saturated  solution  of  caustic 
soda.  This  renders  the  whole  soapy ;  but  after  a 
time  the  od  precipitates  a  saponaceous  deposit,  and 
the  remainder  becomes  quite  clear  and  pure,  and  is 
then  poured  off.  The  value  of  several  of  the  most 
important  oils  of  commerce  is  so  greatly  increased 
by  refining,  that  this  art  has  now  become  a  very 
important  branch  of  business,  and  is  carried  out  on 
a  large  scale. 


OILS  (including  Fats).  The  fats  and  fixed  oils 
constitute  an  important  and  well-marked  group  of 
organic  compounds,  which  exist  abundantly  1-oth  in 
the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms.  They  a.e  not 
simple  organic  compounds,  but  each  of  them  is  a 
mixture  of  several  such  compounds  to  which  the 
term  r/lycerides  is  applied ;  and  the  glycerides  which 
by  their  mixture  in  various  proportions  form  the 
numerous  fats  and  oils  are  mainly  those  of  palmitic, 
stearic,  and  oleic  acids — if  we  adopt  the  recent  view 
that  Margaric  Acid  (q.  v.)  has  no  independent  exist- 
ence— and  to  a  less  extent  those  of  other  fatty  acids, 
which  will  be  presently  noticed,  such  as  butyric, 
caproic,  caprylic,  and  capric  acids,  which  are  obtained 
from  butter ;  myristic  acid,  which  is  obtained 
from  cocoa-nut  oil,  &c.  The  members  of  this 
group  may  be  solid  and  hard,  like  suet ;  semi-solid 
and  soft,  like  butter  and  lard ;  or  fluid,  like  the 
ods.  The  solid  and  semi-solid  are,  however,  gene- 
rally placed  together  and  termed  fats,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  fluid  oils.  The  most  solid 
fats  are  readily  fusible,  and  become  reduced  to 
a  fluid  or  oily  state  at  a  temperature  lower  than 
that  of  the  boiling-point  of  water.  They  are  not 
volatile,  or,  in  other  words,  they  cannot  be  distilled 
without  decomposition,  and  it  is  not  until  a  tem- 
perature of  between  500°  and  600°  is  reached  that 
they  begin  nearly  simultaneously  to  boil  and  to 
undergo  decomposition,  giving  off  acroleine  (an  acrid 
product  of  the  distillation  of  glycerine)  and  other 
compounds.  In  consequence  of  this  property,  these 
oils  are  termed  fixed  oils,  in  contradistinction  to  a 
perfectly  separate  group  of  ody  matters,  on  which 
the  odoriferous  properties  of  plants  depend,  and 
which,  from  their  being  able  to  bear  distillation 
without  change,  are  known  as  volatile  oils.  These, 
which  are  also  known  as  essential  or  ethereal  oils, 
differ  in  toto  in  their  chemical  composition  from  the 
compounds  we  are  now  considering,  and  will  be 
separately  noticed  in  the  latter  part  of  this  article. 
All  the  fats  and  oils  are  lighter  than  water,  and  are 
perfectly  insoluble  in  that  fluid.  Their  specific 
gravity  ranges  from  about  091  to  094  They  dis- 
solve in  ether,  oil  of  turpentine  (one  of  the  volatile 
oUs),  benzol,  and  to  a  certain  extent  in  alcohol; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  they  act  as  solvents  for 
sulphur,  phosphorus,  &c.  If  a  fatty  matter  be 
shaken  with  a  watery  solution  of  albumen,  gum,  oi 
some  other  substance  that  increases  the  density  of  the 
water,  and  renders  it  viscid,  the  mixture  assumes  a 
milky  appearance,  in  consequence  of  the  suspension 
of  the  fat  or  oil  in  the  form  of  microscopic  globules, 
and  is  termed  an  emulsion.  These  bodies  possess 
the  property  of  penetrating  paper  and  other  fabrics, 
rendering  them  transparent,  and  producing  what  is 
well  known  as  a  greasy  stain.  They  are  not  readdy 
inflammable  unless  with  the  agency  of  a  wick,  when 
they  burn  with  a  bright  flame.  In  a  pure  and  fresh 
state  they  are  devoid  of  taste  and  smell,  but  on 
exposure  to  the  air  they  become  oxidised  and  acid, 
assume  a  deeper  colour,  evolve  a  disagreeable  odour, 
and  are  acrid  to  the  taste  ;  or,  in  popular  language, 
they  become  rancid.  The  rapidity  with  which  this 
change  occurs  is  considerably  increased  by  the 
presence  of  mucdaginous  or  albuminous  bodies. 
The  rancidity  may  be  removed  by  shaking  the  od 
in  hot  water  in  which  a  little  hydrated  magnesia 
is  suspended. 

The  general  diffusion  of  fats  and  oils  in  the  animal 
kingdom  has  been  already  described.  (See  Fats, 
Animal.)  In  the  vegetable  kingdom  they  are 
equally  widely  distributed,  there  being  scarcely  any 
tissue  of  any  plant  in  which  traces  of  them  may  not 
be  detected ;  but  they  are  specially  abundant  in  the 
seeds.  The  seeds  of  the  crucifercB  are  remarkably 
rich  in  od ;  linseed  yielding  fully  20  per  cent.,  and 


OILS. 


rape-seed  about  40  per  cent,  of  oil  ;  and  some  fruits, 
as  those  of  the  olive  and  oil-palm,  yield  an  abun- 
dance of  oil. 

The  uses  of  the  oils  and  fats  are  numerous,  and 
highly  important,  various  members  of  this  group 
being  extensively  employed  as  articles  of  food,  as 
medicines,  as  lubricating  agents,  in  the  preparation 
of  soaps,  plasters,  ointments,  varnishes,  pigments, 
candles  and  other  means  of  illumination,  for  the 
purpose  of  dressing  leather,  &c.  The  following  are 
the  most  important  members  of  the  group  : 

1.  Vegetable  Fats. — The  chief  solid  fats  of  vege- 
tal >le  origin  are  cocoa-nut  oil,  nutmeg  butter,  and 
palm  oil.  The  fluid  vegetable  fats  or  oils  are  divisible 
mto  the  non-drying  and  the  drying  oils ;  the  latter 
beintj  distinguished  from  the  former  by  their  becom- 
ing dry  and  solid  when  exposed  in  thin  layers  to 
the  air,  in  consequence  of  oxygenation  ;  while  the 
former  do  not  absorb  oxygen,  but  are  converted  by 
hyponitric  acid  or  sub-oxide  of  mercury  into  elaidine 
(as  described  in  the  article  Oleine),  a  reaction  which 
is  not  exhibited  by  the  drying  oils.  Some  of  the 
drying  oils,  especially  linseed  oil,  when  mixed  with 
cotton,  wool,  or  tow,  absorb  oxygen  so  rapidly,  and 
consequently  become  so  heated  as  to  take  fire,  and 
many  cases  of  the  spontaneous  combustion  of  heaps 
of  oily  materials  that  have  been  employed  in  cleaning 
machinery  have  been  recorded.  The  drying  property 
may  be  much  increased  by  treating  the  oils  with  a 
little  litharge  or  oxide  of  manganese,  and  linseed 
oil  thus  treated  is  then  known  as  boiled  oil.  The 
chief  non-drying  oils  are  olive  od,  almond  oil,  and 
colza  oil ;  while  the  most  important  drying  oils  are 
those  of  linseed,  hemp,  poppy,  and  walnut ;  castor 
oil  seems  to  form  a  link  between  these  two  classes 
of  oils,  since  it  gradually  becomes  hard  by  long 
exposure  to  the  air. 

2.  Animal  Fats. — The  chief  solid  fats  are  suet, 
lard,  butter,  goose  grease,  &c.  ;  while  among  the 
fluid  fats  or  ods,  sperm  oil,  ordinary  whale  od,  cod- 
iiver  oil,  and  neat's-foot  oil  may  be  especially 
mentioned.  In  many  of  their  characters,  sperma- 
ceti and  bees-wax  resemble  the  solid  fats,  but,  as 
will  be  shewn  in  the  articles  on  these  subjects,  they 
are  not  glycerides.  As  a  general  rule,  stearine  and 
palmitine,  both  of  which  have  comparatively  high 
fusing  points  (between  157°  and  114°),  preponderate 
in  the  solid  fats  ;  while  oleine,  which  is  fluid  at  32°, 
is  the  chief  constituent  of  the  oils. 

One  or  two  of  the  most  important  of  the  decom- 
positions of  the  fats  must  be  noticed.  When  any  of 
these  bodies  are  heated  with  the  hydrated  alkalies, 
they  undergo  a  change  which  has  long  been  known 
as  Saponification,  or  conversion  into  soap  (q.  v.),  in 
which  the  fatty  acid  combines  with  the  alkali  to 
form  a  soap,  while  the  sweet  viscid  liquid  glycerine 
is  simultaneously  formed.  The  combination  of  a 
fatty  acid  with  oxide  of  lead  forms  a  plaster.  For 
further  details  on  these  points,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  articles  Soap  and  Plasters. 

The  process  of  saponification  affords  a  ready 
means  of  isolating  the  fatty  acids,  as  the  stearic  or 
oleic  acid  may  be  at  once  separated  from  an  alkaline 
•tearate  or  oleate  by  the  addition  of  hydrochloric 
or  tartaric  acid.  When  the  fatty  acids  are,  how- 
ever, required  on  a  large  scale,  as  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  so-called  stearine  candles,  which  in  reality 
consist  mainly  of  stearic  and  palmitic  acids,  sulphuric 
acid  and  the  oil  or  fat  are  made  to  act  upon  each 
other  at  a  high  temperature.  See  Candle.  The 
fatty  acids  may  also  be  procured  in  a  very  pure 
form  by  the  injection  of  superheated  steam  at 
a  temperature  of  between  500°  and  600°  into 
heated  fat — a  process  which,  according  to  Pro- 
fessor Miller,  'from  its  simplicity  and  from  the 
purity  of  the  products  which  it  yields,  bids  fair  to 
316 


supersede  those  previomtly  employed  in  the  pn-par. 
ation  of  the  fatty  acids  for  illuminating  purposta. 
The  only  fatty  acids  which  have  been  specially 

mentioned  in  this  article  arc  those  which  occur  in 
natural  glycerides,  such  as  stearic,  palmitic,  and  oleic 
acids.  The  term  fatty  acid  has,  however,  in  I'nem- 
iatry  a  wide  signification,  and  is  applied  to  many 
acids  homologous  to  stearic  acid,  but  not  OCCUrripg  in 
any  natural  fats  or  oils.  Thus  stearic  acid  may  be 
taken  as  the  type  of  a  group  of  acids  (of  which 
seventeen  are  already  known)  represented  by  the 
general  formula,  CnHfeOg,  commencing  with  formic 
acid  (CII2()'j),  including  acetic,  propionic,  butyric, 
valeric  (or  valerianic),  caproic,  ccnanthylic,  cspryli  \. 
pelargonic,  capric,  lanric,  mynstic,  palmitic,  sUjari.:, 
arachidic,  and  cerotic  acids,  and  terminating  with 
melissic  acid  (CsolIeoO?).  These  arc  dividnd  into 
the  volatile  and  the  true  (or  solid)  fatty  acids  ;  the 
volatile  acids  being  those  from  formic  to  capric  acid, 
while  the  remainder,  beginning  with  lanric  acid, 
are  the  true  fatty  acids.  The  volatile  fatty  acida 
are  fluid,  and  for  the  most  part  oily  at  ordinary 
temperatures,  may  be  distilled  without  change, 
possess  a  pungent  odour,  and  are  acrid  to  the  taste, 
and  their  solutions  redden  litmus  paper  strongly. 
The  true  fatty  acids,  on  the  other  hand,  arc  solid  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  are  devoid  of  taste  and  smell, 
cannot  be  distilled,  except  in  vacuo,  without  decom- 
position, and  only  exert  a  slight  action  ol.  litmus. 
The  volatile  acids  occur  in  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms  (formic  acid,  for  example,  in  red  ants,  and 
valeric  acid,  in  the  root  of  valerian),  and  they  are 
likewise  produced  by  the  oxidation  and  spontaneous 
decomposition  of  numerous  animal  and  vegetable 
products.  The  entire  series,  up  to  capric  aoid,  may 
be  obtained  by  oxidising  oleic  acid  with  nitric  acid. 
The  true  or  solid  acids  only  occur  as  constituents  of 
animal  and  vegetable  fats. 

Professor  Miller  makes  a  second  group  of  fatty 
acids,  of  which  oleic  acid  is  the  type,  ana  which 
have  the  general  formula  C„H;h..02;  but  as  oleio 
acid  is  the  only  member  of  this  group  which  is  of 
any  practical  importance,  it  is  sufficient  to  refer  the 
reader  to  the  special  article  on  that  acid. 

A  complete  list  of  even  the  chief  fats  and  fixed 
ods  would  take  up  far  more  space  than  we  can 
command.  In  the  article  '  Fixed  Oils,'  in  The  Eng- 
lish Cyclopaedia,  the  reader  will  find  64  of  the  most 
important  of  these  substances  mentioned,  with  in 
most  cases  a  brief  notice  of  the  origin  and  pro- 
perties of  each.  The  British  pharmacopoeia  contains 
hog's  lard,  mutton  suet,  cod-liver  oil,  concrete  oil 
(or  butter)  of  nutmeg,  and  almond,  castor,  croton, 
linseed,  and  olive  ods,  besides  the  closely  allied 
substances  spermaceti  and  wax. 

The  Volatile  or  Essential  Oils  exist,  in  most 
instances,  ready  formed  in  plants,  and  are  believed 
to  constitute  their  odorous  principles.  They  form 
an  extremely  numerous  class,  of  which  most  of  the 
members  are  fluid  ;  a  few  (od  of  aniseed,  for  example) 
being  solid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but  all  of  thein 
are  capable  of  being  distilled  without  undergoing 
change.  They  resemble  the  fixed  oils  in  their  inflam- 
mability, in  their  solubdity  in  the  same  fluids,  and 
in  their  communicating  a  greasy  stain  to  paper  or 
any  other  fabric  ;  but  the  stain  in  this  case  soon  dis- 
appears, and  they  further  differ  in  communicating  a 
rough  and  harsh  rather  than  an  unctuous  feeling  to 
the  skin.  Their  boiling  points  are  in  almost  all  cases 
far  higher  than  that  of  water,  but  when  heated 
with  water,  they  pass  off  with  the  steam — a  pro- 
perty on  which  one  of  the  chief  modes  of  obtaining 
them  depends.  See  Perfumery.  The  oils  have 
characteristic  penetrating  odours,  which  are  seldom 
so  pleasant  as  those  of  the  plants  from  which  they 
are  obtained,  and  their  taste  is  hot  and  irritating. 

49 


OILS. 


They  vary  in  their  specific  gravity,  but  most  of  them 
are  lighter  than  water,  and  refract  light  strongly. 
Alost  of  them  are  nearly  colourless  when  fresh,  but 
darken  on  exposure  to  light  and  air ;  hut  a  few 
are  green,  and  two  or  three  of  a  blue  colour.  By 
prolonged  exposure  they  absorb  oxygen,  and  become 
converted  into  resins. 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  them  are  products 
of  the  vital  activity  of  plants,  in  which  most  of 
them  exist  ready  formed,  being  enclosed  in  minute 
cavities,  which  are  often  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 
Although  diffused  through  almost  every  part  of  a 
plant,  the  oil  is  especially  abundant  in  particular 
organs  of  certain  families  of  plants.  In  the  Umbel- 
liferce,  it  is  most  abundant  in  the  seeds ;  in  the 
Rosacea,  in  the  petals  of  the  flowers  ;  in  the 
Myrtacece  and  Labiatce,  in  the  leaves  ;  in  the  Auran- 
tiacece,  in  the  rind  of  the  fruit.  As  in  the  case  of 
the  animal  and  vegetable  fats  and  fixed  oils,  so 
most  of  the  essential  oils  occurring  in  plants  are 
mixtures  of  two  or  more  distinct  chemical  com- 
pounds, one  of  which  usually  contains  no  oxygen, 
while  *he  others  are  oxidised.  Of  these,  the  former, 
which  is  a  pure  hydrocarbon,  is  the  more  volatile, 
and  acts  as  a  solvent  for  the  others.  Most  of  these 
oils,  when  cooled,  separate  into  a  solid  and  a  fluid 
portion,  to  which  the  terms  Stearopten  and  Elceopten 
have  been  applied. 

In  the  comparatively  few  cases  in  which  the  oils 
are  not  formed  naturally,  they  are  produced  by  a 
species  of  fermentation,  as  in  the  case  of  Oil  of 
Bitter  Almonds  and  Oil  of  Mustard  (q.  v.),  while 
others  are  the  product  of  the  dry  distillation  or  of 
the  putrefaction  of  many  vegetable  bodies.  Some 
of  the  natural  oils,  as  those  of  cinnamon,  spiraea, 
and  winter-green,  have  also  been  artificially  pro- 
duced. 

The  essential  oils  are  much  employed  in  the 
fabrication  of  Perfumery  (q.  v.),  for  the  purpose  of 
flavouring  liqueurs,  confectionery,  &c,  for  various 
purposes  in  the  arts  (as  in  silvering  mirrors),  and  in 
medicine.  The  special  uses  of  the  most  important  of 
these  oils  in  medicine  will  be  noticed  subsequently. 

The  members  of  this  group,  which  is  an  extremely 
numerous  one  (more  than  140  essential  oils  being 
noticed  in  the  article  on  that  subject  in  The  English 
Cyclopaedia),  admit  of  arrangement  under  four 
-heads.  1.  Pure  Hydrocarbons  ;  2.  Oxygenous 
Essential  Oils ;  3.  Sulphurous  Essential  Oils ;  4. 
Essential  Oils  obtained  by  Fermentation,  Dry 
Distillation,  &c. 

1.  The  Pure  Hydrocarbons  are  for  the  most  part 
fluid,  and  have  a  lower  specific  gravity,  a  lower 
boiling  point,  and  a  higher  refractive  power  than 
the  oxygenous  oils.  They  absorb  oxygen,  and  are 
converted  into  oxygenous  oils  and  resins.  They 
may  be  separated  from  oxygenous  oils,  with  which 
they  are  usually  associated,  by  iractional  distillation. 
They  include  oil  of  turpentine  (C10H16),  and  the 
oils  of  bergamot,  birch,  chamomile,  caraway,  cloves, 
elemi,  hop,  juniper,  lemons,  orange,  parsley,  savine, 
and  valerian,  most  or  all  of  which  contain  the  same 
hydrocarhon  as  Oil  of  Turpentine  (q.  v.),  and  in 
addition  to  it  an  oxidised  compound ;  oil  of  copaiva 
iCi)Hi6),  attar  of  roses  (C10II16),  &c 

2.  The  Oxygenous  Essential  Oils  may  be  either 
fluid  or  solid,  the  latter  being  also  termed  Camphors. 
A  stearopten  separates  from  most  of  the  fluid  oils 
on  cooling.  They  are  more  soluble  in  water  and 
spirit  of  wine  than  the  pure  hydrocarbons.  They 
maybe  divided  into  (1.)  those  which  are  fluid  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  such  as  those  of  aniseed, 
chamomile,*  cajeput,  caraway,*  cinnamon,  cloves,* 
fennel,  lavender,  peppermint,  rue,  spiraea,  thyme,* 
winter-green,  &c.  Those  marked  with  a  (*)  are 
associated  with    the    pure    hydrocarbons    already 

M 


described.  (2.)  The  camphors,  such  as  ordinarj 
camphor  (CioIIisO),  Borneo  camphor  (CioHisOt, 
&c 

3.  The  Sulphurous  Essential  Oils  are  chiefly 
obtained  from  the  Crurifene.  They  probably  all 
contain  the  radical  aUyl  (C3H5).  The  oils  of 
garlic  and  of  mustard  (both  of  which  have  been 
described  in  special  articles),  and  those  of  horse- 
radish, scurvy-grass,  and  asafoetida,  are  the  beat 
illustrative  of  this  division. 

4.  Amongst  the  essential  oils  obtained  by  fermen- 
tation, dry  distillation,  &c,  may  be  mentioned  the 
oils  of  bitter  almonds  and  of  black  mustard,  the  oils 
of  milfoil,  plantain,  centaury,  &c.  (whose  leaves  have 
no  smell  until  they  have  been  moistened  for  some 
time  with  water,  when  a  kind  of  fermentation  is  set 
up,  and  oil  is  yielded  in  abundance),  Furfuramide 
(q.  v.),  &c. 

The  British  pharmacopoeia  contains  the  essential 
oils  of  anise,  cajeput,  caraway,  chamomile,  cinnamon, 
cloves,  copaiva,  coriander,  cubebs,  dill,  juniper, 
lavender,  lemon,  nutmeg,  peppermint,  pimento, 
rosemary,  rue,  savine,  spearmint,  and  turpentine. 
Of  these,  the  oils  of  anise,  cajeput,  caraway,  cham- 
omile, coriander,  dill,  peppermint,  pimento,  and 
spearmint  are  used  as  stimulants  and  antispasmodics 
in  cases  of  flatulence,  griping,  &c. ;  and  to  disguise 
the  nauseous  taste  of  various  medicines.  The  oils  of 
cajeput,  cinnamon,  and  rue  act  similarly  but  more 
powerfully.  The  oils  of  copaiva  and  cubebs  act  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  substances  from  which  they 
are  derived  ;  oil  of  juniper  is  a  powerful  diuretic, 
and  oil  of  savine  (and  to  a  less  extent  oil  of  rue)  an 
emmenagogue.  The  oils  of  lavender  and  lemon  are 
used  to  conceal  the  smell  of  sulphur  ointment,  and 
to  give  an  agreeable  odour  to  lotions,  &c.  The  oil 
of  rosemary  is  chiefly  employed  as  a  stimulating 
liniment,  especially  in  cases  of  baldness ;  and  the 
oil  of  nutmeg  is  seldom  given  medicinally  except  in 
the  form  of  aromatic  spirit  of  ammonia,  into  the 
composition  of  which  it  enters. 

For  an  elaborate  paper  on  essential  oils,  with  tables 
exhibiting  their  specific  gravity,  boiling  points,  and 
refractive  energy,  which  last  property  is  intimately 
connected  with  their  ultimate  composition,  see  Watts' 
Diet,  of  Chemistry ,  Lond.,  1868. 

Bland  oils — such,  for  example,  as  olive  oil — were 
much  used  by  the  ancients  as  external  applications 
in  various  forms  of  disease.  (Jelsns  repeatedly 
speaks  of  the  use  of  oil  applied  externally  with 
friction  in  fevers,  and  in  various  other  diseases. 
Pliny  says  that  olive  oil  warms  the  body  and  at  the 
same  time  cools  the  head,  and  that  it  was  used  with 
these  objects  previously  to  taking  cold  baths. 
Aretseus  recommends  a  sitz-bath  of  oil  in  cases 
of  renal  calculi,  and  Josephus  relates  that  a  similar 
mode  of  treatment  was  employed  in  the  case  of 
Herod.  Galen  prescribed  'oil  and  wine'  for  wounds 
in  the  head ;  and  the  parable  of  the  good  Samaritan 
affords  additional  evidence  that  this  was  a  com  mm 
mode  of  treating  wounds.  The  use  of  oil  prepara- 
tory to  athletic  exercises  is  referred  to  by  numerous 
Greek  and  Latin  writers. 

Asa  cosmetic — that  is  to  say,  as  a  means  of  giving 
to  the  skin  and  hair  a  smooth  and  graceful  appear- 
ance— its  use  has  been  prevalent  in  hot  climates 
from  the  earliest  times.  There  is  abundant  historical 
evidence  of  this  usage  of  oil  amongst  the  Egyptians, 
the  Jews,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans  ;  and  Pliny's 
statement  that  butter  is  used  by  the  negroes,  and 
the  lower  class  of  Arabs,  for  the  purpose  of  anoint- 
ing, is  confirmed  by  the  observation  of  all  recent 
African  travellers.  In  hot  climates,  there  is  doubt- 
less a  practical  as  well  as  an  aesthetic  object  in 
anointing.     The  oil,  being  a  bad  conductor  of  heat, 


OILS. 


affords  a  certain  amount  of  protection  against  the 

direct  action  of  the  solar  beat ;  it  is  likewise 
serviceable  as  a  protection  against  the  attacks  of 
insects,  and  as  a  means  of  checking  excessive 
perspiration.  The  fact  of  oily  and  fatty  matters 
being  had  conductors  of  beat,  serves  also  to  explain 
why  the  Esquimaux  and  other  dwellers  in  Arctic 
regions  have  recourse  to  the  inunction  of  the 
blubber,  &c  In  their  case  the  oily  investment 
serves  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  bodily  heat. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  not  only  employed  oil 
for  the  purposes  already  mentioned,  but  in  their 
funereal  rites ;  the  bodies  of  their  dead  being 
anointed  with  oil.  with  the  view  probably  of  post- 
poning incipient  decomposition.  A  similar  practice 
exist.  I  amongst  the  Jews,  and  in  the  Gospels  we 
find  various  passages  in  which  our  Lord  referred  to 
his  own  body  being  anointed  by  anticipation.  It 
appears  from  the  evidence  of  S.  Chrysostom,  and 
other  writers,  that  this  ancient  usage  of  anointing  the 
bodies  of  the  dead  was  long  retained  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church.     See  Unction  ;  Extreme  Unction. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  remark  that  the  ancient 
system  of  anointing,  as  a  means  of  medical  treat- 
ment, has  to  a  certain  extent  been  revived  in 
modern  times.  Many  physicians  of  the  present  day 
combine  the  inunction  of  cod-liver  oil  with  its 
internal  administration,  a  combination  first  recom- 
mended by  Professor  Simpson  of  Edinburgh ;  and 
Sir  Henry  Holland  advocates  the  practice  of  anoint- 
ing the  harsh,  dry  skin  of  dyspeptic  patients  with 
warm  oils.  There  can,  we  think,  be  little  doubt  that 
there  are  many  forms  of  disease  in  which  the  local 
applicatK-u  of  medicinal  oils  would  prove  advan- 
tageous ;  but  the  great  drawback  to  their  use  is, 
that  th?  time  required  for  properly  rubbing  them 
into  the  skin  is  more  than  most  patients  are  willing 
to  concede.  For  much  curious  information  on  the 
subject  of  this  article,  the  reader  is  referred  to  a 
very  interesting  paper  by  Mr  Hunter,  'On  the  Exter- 
nal Application  of  Oils,'  in  the  second  volume  of  The 
Edinburgh  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal. 

Oils  in  their  Commercial  Relations. — The 
solid  animal  oil3  found  in  commerce  are  butter 
and  lard,  tallow,  mares'  grease,  goose  grease,  neats- 
foot  oil,  and  unrefined  yolk  of  egg  oils.  The  two 
first  are  fully  described  under  their  names.  See 
Butter,  Lard.  Tallow  is  the  fat  of  oxen  and  sheep, 
but  more  especially  the  fat  which  envelops  the 
kidneys  and  other  parts  of  the  viscera,  rendered 
down  or  melted.  The  qualities  of  this  solid  oil 
render  it  particularly  well  adapted  for  making 
candles,  and  until  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of 
the  present  century,  candles  for  ordinary  use  were 
almost  wholly  made  of  it,  the  high  price  of  wax  and 
spermaceti  preventing  their  employment  except  by 
the  most  wealthy  and  for  ecclesiastical  purposes. 
Besides  its  use  in  making  candles,  tallow  is  most 
extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap,  and 
for  the  purpose  of  preserving  machinery  from 
rust.  The  trade  in  tallow  with  Russia,  which  pro- 
duces the  largest  quantity  and  the  best,  and  with 
North  and  South  America,  as  well  as  with  other 
countries,  is  very  considerable;  but  it  is  declining, 
owing  of"  course  to  the  extension  of  gas  and  the  enor- 
mous development  ot*  the  paraffine  and  petroleum  oils, 
and  other  light-giving  materials.  The  quantities  and 
value  of  imports  of  tallow  into  Britain  of  late  years 
were  as  follows : 

1868, 1,237,348  cwts.,  valued  at  £2,961,319 

1869,  1,225,789      "  "        "     2,770,285 

1870,  1,530,893      "  "         "      3,318.5(56 

1871,  1,491,934      "  "         "      3,134,531 
1872,1,328,444      "  "        "      2,848,164 

The  chief  use  of  tallow  in  G.  Britain  is  now  in  the 
manufacture  of   Soap    (q.  v.),  and   even   in   this   it 


baa  yielded  in  importance  to  palm  and  cocoa-nut 
oils. 

Mares'  Grease  is  not  nearly  so  solid  as  tallow,  it 
is  a  yellowish  brown  grease,  imported  extensively 

from  Moat.'  Video  and  Buenos  A-VTeS,  where  vast 
numbers  of  horses  are  slaughtered  for  their  hides, 
hones,  and  grease  ;  it  is  particularly  valuable  as  a 
lubricant  for  machinery,  and  is  chiefly  employed  for 
that  purpose  after  much  of  its  stearine  has  been 
removed  for  candle*making.  The  reason  this 
material  is  called  nmreji  grease,  is  said  to  be  from 
the  circumstance,  that  in  South  America  horses  are 
chiefly  used,  and  mares  are  slaughtered  as  compar- 
atively useless.  Goose  Grease  is  another  soft  tat, 
much  valued  by  housewives  for  many  purposes,  hut 
excepting  that  it  is  sold  in  some  district  I  as  a 
remedial  agent,  it  has  no  commercial  importance. 
Neats-foot  rMl  is  a  soft  fat  procured  in  the  prepar- 
ation of  the  feet  and  intestines  of  oxen  for  food  as 
sold  in  the  tripe-shops.  The  quantity  obtained  is 
not  very  great,  but  it  is  in  much  request  by  curriers 
for  dressing  leather.  Yolk  of  Egg  Oil  is  a  hard  oil, 
which,  though  little  known  in  Britain,  is  extensively 
used.  In  Russia,  for  instance,  it  tonus  the  princi- 
pal material  in  the  celebrated  Kazan  Soap. 

The  liquid  animal  oils  are  more  numerous,  and, 
excepting  tallow,  are  far  more  important,  the 
so-called  fish-oils  being  the  principal.  These  are 
whale,  porpoise,  seal,  cod,  herring,  shark,  &c  The 
whales  which  are  pursued  for  their  oil  are:  (1.)  The 
Sperm  Whale.  This  huge  creature  is  from  60 
to  70  feet  in  length,  and  yields  generally  from 
5000  to  6000  gallons  of  oil.  The  finest  oil  is  taken 
from  the  great  reservoir  on  the  head.  The  oil 
of  this  species  is  all  of  a  quality  superior  to 
others,  and  is  known  as  sperm  oil.  For  the 
method  of  procuring  this  oil,  see  Cacholot. 
(2.)  The  Bight  Whale,  which  yields  by  far  the 
largest  proportion  of  whale  oil.  This,  with  that 
yielded  by  other  less  important  species,  is  usu- 
ally called  train  oil.  The  term  train  is  supposed 
to  he  a  corruption  of  drain,  and  applies  to  the 
circumstance  of  the  oil  being  drained  out  of  the 
blubber;  and  in  this  sense  it  is  also  applied  to 
sperm  oil  from  the  blubber  of  the  cacholot,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  finer  oil  from  the  head  matter. 
The  Right  Whale  forms  the  chief  object  of  the  north- 
ern fisheries,  but  other  species  of  Balsena  are  pursued 
in  different  parts  of  the  world  for  the  sake  of  their 
oil.     See  Whale. 

In  Great  Britain,  the  imports  and  consumption  of 
the  various  kinds  of  whale  oil  have  greatly  declined, 
and  the  British  whale  fishery,  it  is  believed,  has 
ceased  to  be  profitable. 

In  1858,  the  American  Whale  Fisher}'  was  very 
extensive  and  valuable,  employing  600  ships,  of 
198,593  tons,  and  principally  owned  at  New  Bedford, 
Nantucket,  &c. 

In  1867,  229  ships  and  barks,  17  brigs,  and  91 
schooners  were  engaged  in  the  whale-fishery  of  th6 
United  States.  Of  this  fleet,  198  ships,  barks,  and 
brigs  belonged  to  New  Bedford,  8  ships,  brigs,  &c  to 
New  London,  7  to  Edgar  town,  6  to  Nantucket,  6  to 
San  Francisco,  and  7  to  Sag  Harbour. 

The  produce  of  the  whale  fisheries  of  the  United 
States  from  1864  to  1870  was  as  follows: 


Sperm  Oil. 

Train  Oil. 

Wliale- 
bone. 

Tctal 
Vaiue. 

Gal  Ion  9. 

Value. 

Gallons. 

Value. 

Value. 

% 

$ 

S 

s 

1864 

2,027,718 

3.6(19  338 

2,263,684 

2,897,516 

1,368.810 

7,875,664 

1865 

1,047.123 

2,356.027 

2.401,497 

3,482,171 

1.71 2,389 

7,550.587 

1866 

1,154,884 

2.944,954 

2,340.513 

2,832,021 

1.260,914 

7,037,889 

1867 

1,368,139 

3,050.950 

2.812,603 

2,058,825 

1,771,641 

6,286,416 

1868 

1.485,981 

2,853,083 

2,065.612 

1,693,802 

923,371 

5,470.256 

1869 

1,448,919 

2,733,641 

4,278,715 

2,267,026 

633.368 

5.634,(135 

1870 

1,723.563 

2.652,676 

2,302,953 

1,785,815 

531,79714,970,731 

OILS. 


Amongst  the  smaller  Cetaceans,  the  porpoises, 
called  also  dolphins  and  grampuses,  yield  an  excel- 
lent oil,  second  only  in  value  to  that  of  regular  oil 
whales. 

A  large  quantity  of  very  valuable  oil  is  obtained 
from  Seals,  and  the  seal-fishery,  as  a  means  of 
obtaining  oil,  is  only  second  in  importance  to  that  of 
the  whale.  It  is  carried  on  chiefly  on  the  shores  of 
Newfoundland,  Greenland,  and  Labrador.  Like  the 
whale,  the  seals  have  a  thick  layer  of  blubber,  in 
which  the  oil  is  contained.  See  Seal.  The  first 
draining  from  the  blubber  is  of  a  fine  clear  pale 
straw  colour;  the  next,  yellow  or  tinged;  and  the 
last  is  brown  or  dark.  Whale  and  seal  oils  form  ex- 
cellent lubricants  for  machinery. 

Of  the  true  fish  oils,  that  from  the  cod  is  first  in 
importance,  more  especially  since  its  medicinal  pro- 
perties were  discovered.  It  is  made  only  from  the 
liver  of  the  fish;  and  the  attempt  which  was  marie 
to  induce  a  popular  belief  that  the  so-called  cod- 
liver  oil  was  different  from  the  ordinary  cod  oil  of 
commerce,  was  simply  a  cheat ;  no  difference  exists, 
and  the  oil  is  obtained  just  as  good  from  the  oil 
merchant,  at  a  moderate  price  per  gallon,  as  from 
the  empiric  at  an  exorbitant  price  per  pint.  Indeed, 
the  purer  the  oil  can  be  got,  the  better  it  is  in  a 
remedial  point  of  view,  notwithstanding  the  efforts 
male  to  convince  the  public  that  a  certain  colour  is 
better  than  any  other. 

Instead  of  the  old  and  somewhat  rude  methods 
of  preparing  the  oil  (see  Cod-liver  Oil),  much  more 
complete  and  efficient  arrangements  are  now 
adopted.  The  livers,  when  taken  from  the  fish,  are 
all  examined,  washed  in  clean  water,  and  placed  in 
sieves  to  dry.  Thence  they  are  transferred  to  pans 
heated  with  steam,  and  after  being  exposed  to  a 
gentle  heat  for  about  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  the 
heat  :3  discontinued  ;  and  when  cold,  the  oil  which 
has  separated  is  skimmed  off,  and  strained  through 
flannel  bags  into  tubs.  Here  certain  impurities 
subside,  and  the  clear  oil  is  poured  off  from  the 
dregs,  and  the  contents  of  numerous  tubs  are  trans- 
ferred to  galvanised  iron  cisterns,  in  which  a  further 
settlement  takes  place.  The  oil  is  now  ready  for  the 
filters,  which  are  made  of  the  strong  cloth  called 
moleskin,  through  which  it  is  forced  by  atmospheric 
pressure  into  the  store-tanks,  which  are  also  of 
galvanised  iron.  Hence  it  is  pumped  into  the  casks 
for  export,  which  are  usually  hogsheads,  tierces,  and 
barrels.  The  value  of  coddiver  od  is  about  £50  to 
£53  per  tun.  The  imports  vary  much  according  to 
the  success  of  the  fishery ;  they  have  reached 
nearly  1000  tuns  per  annum.  Besides  its  con- 
sumption in  lamps,  and  for  medicinal  purposes, 
cod  oil  is  used  in  making  some  kinds  of  soap.  Oil 
is  occasionally  made  from  the  herring,  but  not  in 
very  great  quantities  ;  it,  however,  forms  a  com- 
mercial article.  It  is  made  from  the  whole  of  the 
fish,  the  smell  of  which  it  retains  to  a  very  disagree- 
able extent. 

The  lightest  of  all  the  fixed  oils  is  made  from  the 
liver  of  the  common  shark  ;  it  ranges  from  specific 
gravity  0-865  to  0-867.  This,  and  the  oil  made 
from  the  livers  of  the  Common  Skate  (Rnia  batis), 
the  Tkornback  (/?.  clavata),  and  the  White  Skate 
(Rlunobatus  cerniculus),  are  often  substituted  for 
the  cod-liver  oil  used  medicinally,  but  have  not  its 
valuable  properties. 

Under  the  name  of  lard  oil,  large  quantities  of  the 
oleine  of  lard  have  been  exported  to  G.  Britain  from 
America.  It  is  a  secondary  product,  arising  from  the 
great  manufacture  of  lard  stearine  for  candle-making 
which  has  arisen  in  that  country.  Lard  oil  is  worth 
about  £45  to  £50  per  tun,  and  is  principally  used  as  a 
lnbricant  for  machinery. 

The  solid  vegetable  fixed  oils  which  find  a  place 
62 


in  commerce  are  palm  oil,  cocoa-nut  oil,  kokum  or 
vegetable  tallow,  and  carapa  or  carap  oil.  The  palm 
oil  is  an  oil  of  a  bright  orange-yellow  colour  and 
an  agreeable  violet  odour,  which  is  obtained  from 
the  not  very  thick  covering  of  the  hard  seeds 
of  the  Oil-palm  (q.  v.).  The  fruits,  when  gathered, 
are  shaken  out  of  the  clusters,  and  are  laid  in 
heaps  in  the  sun  for  a  short  time,  after  which 
the  natives  boil  them  slowly  in  water,  when  the 
oil  separates  and  is  skimmed  off  the  surface,  and 
carried  in  small  quantities  to  the  depots  of  the 
traders,  who  transfer  it  to  casks  which  are  prepared 
to  receive  it  on  board  the  ships.  The  quantity  ttiua 
collected  is  enormous.  The  imports  into  Britain 
alone  for  the  following  five  years  were  as  follows, 
in  tons:  1868,48.504;  1869,40.726;  1870,  43.414; 
1871,  52.394;  1872.  50.325.  Previous  to  1840.  the 
chief  use  of  palm  oil  was  in  making  soap,  but  about 
that  time  it  was  found  that  the  palmitine  or  fat  acid 
of  this  oil  was  admirably  adapted  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  Candles  (q.  v.) ;  and  since  then  it  has  become 
of  much  greater  importance. 

Cocoa-nut  Oil  is  a  white  fat,  with  the  peculiai 
smell  of  the  kernel ;  it  is  made  by  grinding  oi 
pounding  the  kernel  of  the  cocoa-nut.  After  it 
has  been  boiled  in  water  for  a  short  time,  the 
paste  is  submitted  to  great  pressure,  and  a  large 
quantity  of  milky  juice  is  obtained ;  this  is  slowly 
boiled,  and  the  oil  separates  and  rises  to  the  surface 
in  considerable  quantity,  and  is  skimmed  off.  Twenty 
ordinary -sized  nuts  will  yield  as  much  as  two  quarts 
of  oil.  This  oil  is  now  very  largely  imported,  and, 
treated  in  the  same  way  as  palm  oil,  forms  a  stearine, 
which  greatly  improves  that  of  palm  oil  when  mixed 
with  it  in  proper  proportions;  neither  does  so  well 
separately,  and  the  consumption  of  cocoa-nut  oil  has 
consequently  very  greatly  increased.  Most  of  it 
comes  from  Ceylon,  where  the  tree  is  largely  cultivated 
for  the  purpose.  The  imports  into  Britain  in  1872 
were  21,694  tons.  The  quantity  of  Palm  and  Cocoa- 
nut  oil  entering  into  consumption  in  the  United 
States  in  1869  was  717,572  gallons,  valued  at  $295,- 
207.  Cocoa-nut  oil  is  used  in  making  common  soap, 
its  disagreeable  smell  preventing  it  from  being  em- 
ployed for  the  better  kinds. 

Vegetable  Tallow,  or  Kokum  Oil,  is  also  used 
by  the  candle-makers ;  only  small  quantities,  how- 
ever, are  imported.  It  comes  from  Singapore,  and 
is  produced  from  the  seed  of  Garciaia  purpurea, 
a  species  of  the  same  genus  with  the  mangosteen. 
Another  kind  of  vegetable  tallow  is  made  in  China, 
from  the  seeds  of  Stillingia  sebifera. 

Carapa,  Carap,  Crab,  or  Andiroba  Oil,  is  very 
extensively  made  in  British  Guiana  and  the  West 
Indies,  but  it  is  nearly  all  used  there,  either  as  a 
pomade  for  preserving  the  hair,  or  as  an  unguent  for 
rheumatism  and  neuralgic  pains,  for  which  purposes 
it  is  said  to  be  very  useful.     See  Carapa. 

The  Bassia  Oil  is  beginning  to  attract  attention, 
and  several  importations  have  taken  place  from 
India,  and  some  rather  large  quantities  have  reached 
Liverpool  from  Bombay,  under  the  name  of  Muohwa 
Od.  This  oU  is  of  a  soft  butter-like  consistence, 
and  yellowish-green  colour,  and  is  well  adapted  for 
soap-making  and  for  machinery  grease.    See  Bassia. 

The  liquid  vegetable  oils  are  very  numerous, 
and  several  are  of  great  commercial  importance. 
First  in  rank  is  Olive  Oil,  made  from  the  ripe  fruit 
of  the  Common  Olive  (Olea  Europea).  When  good 
and  fresh,  it  is  of  a  pale  greenish-yellow  colour,  with 
scarcely  any  smell  or  taste,  except  a  sweetish  nutty 
flavour,  much  esteemed  by  those  who  use  it-  The 
finest  qualities  are  the  Provence  Oil  (rarely  seen  in 
Britain),  Florence  Oil,  and  Lucca  OiL  These  are 
all  used  for  salads  and  for  cooking.  The  Genoa 
is  used  on  the  continent  for  the  same  purposf  s ; 


OILS. 


nnd  Galipoii,  whfih  Lb  inferior,  constitutes  the  great 

lmlk  of  what  is  received  In  Great  Britain  for  doth 
dressing,  Turkey-red  dyeing,  and  other  purposes; 
the  continental  soap-makers  also  employ  it  exten- 
sively. The  high  price  of  the  best  qualities  leads 
to  much  adulteration  with  poppy  and  other  oils, 
but  it  is  generally  pretty  safe  when  in  the  original 
flasks  as  imported.  The  mode  of  obtaining  the 
finest  kinds  is  by  gentle  pressure  of  the  fruit. 
The  cake  is  afterwards  treated  with  hot  water, 
from  the  surface  of  which  an  interior  quality  is 
skimmed.  The  Galipoli  oil  is  obtained  by  allowing 
the  olives  to  ferment  in  heaps,  and  then  to  press 
them  in  powerful  oil-presses  ;  the  cake  or  marc  is 
then  treated  with  water  once  or  twice,  until  all  the 
oil  is  removed;  this  inferior  oil  is  darker  in  colour, 
being  a  yellowish  or  brownish  green.  We  receive 
the  finest  from  Italy,  and  the  commoner  qualities 
from  the  Levant,  Mogador,  Spain,  Portugal,  anil 
Sicily.  The  present  values  rai:/e  from  £52  to  £58 
for  common  kinds,  and  the  finest  Lucca  is  £1  the 
half  chest,  or  nearly  £85  per  tun  measure.  The 
total  quantity  Imported  into  Britain,  in  1869,  was 
'28.240  tons.  That  imported  into  the  United  States, 
in  1869.  was  195,470  galK.  vniued  st  $325,740. 

Nearly  all  the  other  liquid  vegetable  oils  of  this 
class  are  obtained  from  seeds,  and  as  they  are  most 
of  them  treated  in  the  same  way,  one  description  will 
suffice.  First,  the  seeds  are  ground — and  this  in 
Britain  is  always  done  by  vertical  stones  (see 
Mill,  fig.  4)  — into  a  kind  of  coarse  meal,  which  is 
first  warmed  in  pans,  and  then  put  in  certain 
portions  in  woollen  cloths  or  bags,  so  arranged  as 
to  be  of  uniform  thickness ;  these  are  again  wra]  iped 
in    horse-hair    cloths,   and   each    parcel   is  placed 


between  two  flat  boards  slightly  fluted  on  their 
inner  sides,  and  then  placed  in  the  wedge-press 
(fig.  1).  In  this  a,  a  are  two  flannel  bags  filled 
with  the  meal  and  enclosed 
in  horse-hair  bags,  each 
flattened  between  the  flat 
boards,  6,  b,  b,  b.  They  are 
set  upright,  between  the 
pressing- plates,. t,  i,  i,  i,  one  at 
each  eud  of  the  press-frame, 
ccc,  which  is  made  of  great 
strength,  and  often  of  cast 
iron ;  its  section  is  seen  in 
fig.  2.  Next  is  placed  the 
■i  wedge  d ;  the  other  wedge, 
e,  is  then  suspended  by  a  cord 
in  the  position  represented ; 
h,  h  are  then  placed,  as  seen 
in  the  drawing ;  the  main 
wedge,  g,  is  lastly  inserted,  and  the  press  is 
ready  for  action.     The   operation  is  very  simple ; 


Fig.  2. 


a  heavy  wooden  stamper,  from  500  to  fiOO  pounds- 
weight,   ia   raised   by    machinery  about  two   feet) 

and    allowed    to    fall     upon    the    wedge    '/.       Tin* 

tightens  all  the  other  wedges  and  pressing-plates, 

ami  exerts  a  on  lire  ol  about  60  tins  OH  each  hag 
when  fully  driven  home.  The  pressing-plates, 
i,  i,  »,  i,  are  pierced  with  holes,  and  so  are  the 
plates  6,  b,  l>,  h\  and  throo  boles  tlw  oil 

trickles  and  passes  away  by  the  pipe,  k,  shewn  in 
tig.  2, 

One  of  the  chief  seed  oils  is  that  of  linseed  (q.  v.). 
Very  little  linseed  oil  is  imported  into  Britain  ;  the 
improved  machinery,  and  the  great  demand  for  the 
oil-cake  (sec  OlL-OAKB),  cause  it  to  l/e  manufac- 
tured »t  home,  ami  at  present  it  is  exported  in 
considerable  quantities;  thus,  from  Hull  stone 
there  was  exported  in  1861,  16,180  tons  weight; 
1862,  14,200  tons;  1863,  only  9798  tons,  a  falling  off 
due  to  over-speculation.  But  in  l87o  the  export  was 
16,375  tons  weight;  1871,  15,667;  1872,  14.072 
tons.  The  total  production  of  Great  Britain  U  esti- 
mated for  the  rear  1868  at  65.000  tons;  1869,  61.000 
tons;  1870,  65,000  tons;  1871,  69.000  tons;  1872, 
67,000  tons.  Tt  is  worth  about  £36  per  ton.  Rape  or 
Colza  Oil  is  a  name  which  covers  the  product 
of  several  cruciferous  seeds,  as  rape,  turnip,  and 
other  species  of  Braasfca,  radish,  Sinapis  toria, 
Gold  of  Pleasure,  &c.  The  oil  is  clear  brown 
and  usually  sweet,  but  with  a  mustard-like  flavour ; 
its  illuminating  powers  are  excellent,  and  it  is  also 
well  adapted  lor  wool-dressing.  Very  large  quanti- 
ties are  made  in  Great  Britain,  chiefly  from  Sinapis 
toria  and  other  Indian  mustard  seeds,  which  are 
imported  under  the  name  of  Surzee  Seed.  The 
imports  of  these  seeds  are  occasionally  as  much  as 
60,001)  quarters  per  anuum.  Hemp  Seed  yields  a 
green  oil  which  is  much  used  in  making  soft  soap, 
especially  in  Holland.  In  Russia  it  is  much  eaten 
with  various  kinds  of  food,  and  is  greatly  liked  by 
all  classes. 

The  following  are  the  names  of  a  nnmher  of  oils 
which  are  more  or  less  used  in  Great  Britain :  Cotton- 
seed Oil.  Palm-nut  Oil,  a  clear  limpid  oil  from  the 
hard  nnt  of  the  oil-palm;  this  nut  was  formerly 
rejected  as  useless  after  the  oil  had  been  obtained 
from  the  fruit.  Saffiower-seed  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of 
Carthamus  tinctorius  ;  it  constitutes  the  real  Macassar 
Oil.  Sunflower-seed  Oil,  from  seed  imported  from 
the  Black  Sea  provinces  of  Russia ;  a  rapidly  increas- 
ing trade  is  springing  up  in  this  excellent  oil.  Poppy- 
seed  Oil,  from  the  seed  of  Papaver  somniferum, 
largely  imported  from  India ;  it  is  as  sweet  as  olive 
oil,  and  is  extensively  substituted  for  it,  especially 
in  France,  where  it  is  also  very  largely  cultivated. 
Gingelli-seed  Oil,  from  the  seed  of  Sesamiim  orien- 
tate, an  important  Indian  staple  of  which  the  British 
are  large  consumers;  the  oil  is  much  used  for  wool 
dressing,  &c.  Ground-nut  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Ara- 
chis  hypogcea,  imported  from  Western  Africa  and 
India;  this  oil  is  particularly  adapted  for  fine  ma- 
chinery, as  it  is  not  affected  by  cold.  Niger,  Til,  or 
Teel-seed  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Guizotia  oieiferi, 
much  imported  from  Bombay.  Croton  Oil,  from  the 
seeds  of  Jatropha  cartas,  largely  used  in  wool  dress- 
ing. The  Croton  Oil  used  in  medicine  is  from  Croton 
tiglium,  of  which  only  small  quantities  are  imported; 
whereas  of  the  other,  1200  or  1400  tuns,  besides  a 
quantity  of  the  seed,  often  reach  Britain  in  one  year. 
Another  highly  valuable  medicinal  oil,  Castor  Oil  (q. 
v.),  is  of  great  commercial  importance.  Almond  Oil, 
chiefly  used  for  perfumery  purposes,  is  made  from  the 
kernels  of  the  sweet  and  bitter  almond ;  it  is  the  most 
free  from  flavour  and  odour  of  any  oil  in  use,  not- 
withstanding that  the  essential  oil  of  bitter  almonds  is 
so  strongly  flavoured. 

Oils  made  from  the  seeds  of  the  folio  wing  plants 


OILS— OKEECHOBEE. 


have  some  commercial  value  in  other  countries: 
Madia  nativa;  Argemone  Mexicana;  various  species 
of  Gourds;  Garden  Cress  (Lepidinm  sativum);  to- 
bacco,  now  extensively  used  in  Southern  Russia,  Tor- 
key,  and  Austria;  maize,  rarely  made  in  Vienna; 
hazel-nuts;  walnuts;  nuts  of  stone  pine;  pistachio 
nut;  tea-seed,  this  in  China  is  a  common  painter's 
oil  ;  tlie  grape,  from  the  seeds  or  stones,  as  they  are 
called,  saved  from  the  wine-presses,  nsed  in  Italy; 
Brazil-nuts  (BerthoUtia  excebta)-  Calophylluui  tno- 
phyllum,  called  Pinnacottay  Oil  in  India;  Melia 
azadirachta,  called  in  India  by  the  names  Neem  and 
Margosa  ( )il ;  Aleurites  triloba,  called  in  India,  Coun- 
try Almond  Oil,  and  much  used  for  burning  in  lamps 
and  torches;  Psorafrd  corylifulia,  called  Baw-chee- 
seed  Oil.  The  seed  is  sometimes  imported  into  Great 
Britain  for  pressing.  Ben-seeds  (Moringa  Pterygo- 
sperma) ;  Bonduc-nuts,  the  seeds  of  Quilandina  bon- 
der and  Cf.  bonducella. 

The  following  oils,  new  to  European  commerce, 
were  shewn  in  the  International  Exhibition  of  1SG2. 
India. — Teorah  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Brassica 
erucastrum  ;  Capala  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Rottlera 
tinctoria  ;  Cardamom  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Elettaria 
Cardamomum  ;  Hidglee  Badham  Oil,  from  the  seeds 
of  Anacardmm  occidentale,  or  Cashew-nut,  now 
largely  cultivated  in  India  ;  Cassia-seed  Oil ;  Chaul- 
moogra  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  II  i/dnocarpus  odorata  ; 
Cheerongee  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Buclmnauia  lati- 
folia;  Chemmarum  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Amoora 
Toliituha ;  Circassian-bean  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of 
Adenanthera  pavonina ;  Hoorhoorya  Oil,  from  the 
seeds  of  Polanisia  icosa.ndra ;  Custard  Apple-seed 
Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Anona  squamosa  ;  Exile  OiL 
from  the  seeds  of  Cerbera  Thevetia ;  Monela-grain 
Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Dolichos  uniflorus ;  Kanari 
Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Canarium  commune  ;  Khaliziri 
Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Vernouia  Anthelmintica  ;  Mal- 
kungunnee  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Celastrus  pani- 
ciilutus ;  Baku!  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Mimusops 
tlengi ;  liana  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Mimusops  Kahi ; 
Moodooga  or  Pulas  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Butea 
frondosa  ;  Nahor  or  Nageshur  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of 
Mesua  ferox;  Hone-seed  Oil,  from  seeds  of  Calo- 
phyUum  calaba  :  Poonga,  Caron,  or  Kurrmig  Oil, 
from  the  seeds  of  Pongamia  glabra;  Vappanley  Oil, 
from  seeds  of  Wrightia  antidysenterica  ;  Babool  Oil, 
from  seeds  of  Acacia  Arabica  ;  Gamboge  Oil,  from 
seeds  of  the  Gamboge-tree  (Garcinia  pictoria)  ; 
Coodiri  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Sterculia  fwtida  ; 
Kikuel  Oil,  from  the  seed  of  Salvadorea  perska  ; 
Marotty,  Surrate,  or  Neeradimootoo  Oil,  from  the 
seeds  of  Hydnocarpus  inebrians  ;  and  Pundi-kai  Oil, 
from  the  nutmegs  of  Myristica  malabarica. 

From  Brazil. — Oils  from  the  seeds  of  Feutllea 
cardi/olia,  F.  monosperma,  Anisosperma  passiflora, 
Cuciubita  citrullus,  Mabea  fistuligera,  Anda  gomesii, 
Myristica  bicuhiba,  Carpotroche  Brasiliensis,  Dip- 
terL  3dorata,  Theobroma  cacao,  Acrocomia  sclero- 
carjja,  Nectandra  cymbai~um,  and  from  the  fat  of 
the  Alligator  and  the  Tapir,  all  for  medicinal  and 
perfumery  purposes;  and  oils  from  the  seeds  of  (Eno- 
carpvs  Bacdba,  (E.  patdud,  Caryoca  Brasiliensis, 
and  Euterpe  edulis,  used  for  culinary  and  lighting 
purposes. 

From  British  Guiana. — Oil  drawn  from  the  stem 
of  Oreodaphne  opifert  ;  it  resembles  refined  turpen- 
tine, and  is  suggested  as  a  solvent  for  india-rubber. 
Wallaba  Oil,  from  the  wood  of  the  Wallaba-tree 
(Eperera  fair/da),  medicinal. 

The  preparation  of  the  essential  oils  is  treated  of 
in  Perfumery. 

The  importance  of  the  manufacture  of  oils  is  very 
great;  in  1869  the  value  of  the  imports  into  the  U. 
States — viz.,  whale,  fish,  palm,  cocoa,  and  olive  and 
other  fixed  oils — was  $6,750,375.     The  aggregate  im- 


ports of  volatile  or  essential  oils,  in  1869,  was  273,- 
068  lbs.,  valued  at  $471,537.  In  addition,  linseed 
to  the  amount  of  11,176,528  bushels,  valued  at 
£3,675,573,  was  imported  for  crushing  in  Great 
Britain ;  and  2,954,731  bushels  were  entered  for 
consumption  in  the  United  States,  valued  at  $4,224,- 
137. 

OIRIR-GAEL,  a  name  which,  in  the  early  timed 
of  Scottish  history,  was  applied  to  the  Gaels  of  the 
coasts,  in  contradistinction  from  the  Gall-Gael  or 
islesmen.  There  was  long  a  struggle  for  superiority 
between  these  two  races,  represented  respectively 
by  Somerled  of  the  Isles  and  the  later  kings  of  Man, 
in  which  the  larter  were  eventually  succtssful, 
uniting  under  one  head  the  dominion  of  Argyle  and 
the  Isles. 

OISE,  a  river  of  France,  one  of  the  chief  affluents 
of  the  Seine,  rises  in  the  vicinity  of  Kocroy,  in  the 
north  of  the  department  of  Ardennes,  and  flows 
south-west,  joining  the  Seine  at  Conflans-Sainte- 
Honorine,  after  a  course  of  150  miles,  for  the  last  75 
of  which  it  is  navigable.  The  fall  of  the  river  is 
very  gradual,  and  its  course  is  extremely  sinuous. 
It  is  connected  by  canals  with  the  Somme,  the 
Sambre,  and  the  Scheldt,  and  forms  oue  of  the  chief 
commercial  routes  between  Belgium  and  Paris.  It 
becomes  navigable  at  Chauny. 

OISE,  a  department  in  the  north  of  France,  is 
bounded  on  the  E.  by  the  department  of  Aisne, 
and  on  the  W.  chiefly  by  that  of  Seine-Inferieure, 
which  intervenes  between  it  and  the  English  Channel. 
Area,  1,446,869  English  acres,  of  which  950,000  acres 
are  in  arable  land;  pop.  (1872;  596,804.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  Oise — from  which  the  depart- 
ment derives  its  name— and  its  tributaries  the  Aisne 
and  Therain.  The  department  is  almost  wholly 
included  in  the  basin  of  the  Oise  ;  and  as  the  course 
of  that  river  indicates,  the  surface — consisting  for 
the  most  part  of  extensive  plains — has  a  general 
slope  toward  the  south-west.  The  soil  is  in  general 
fertile,  and  agriculture  is  well  advanced.  The 
products  are  the  usual  grain-crops,  with  an  immense 
quantity  of  vegetables,  which  are  sent  to  the  markets 
of  the  metropolis.  The  department  is  divided  into 
the  four  arrondissements  of  Beauvais,  Clermont, 
Compiegne,  Senlis  ;  cajntal,  Beauvais. 

OITI  {Moquilea  tomentosa),  a  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Chrysobalanacece — by  many  botanists  regarded 
as  a  suborder  of  Rosacem  (q.  v.) — a  native  of  the 
north  of  Brazil,  and  valuable  on  account  of  its 
timber,  which  is  very  good  for  ship-building. 

O'KA,  an  important  commercial  river  of  Central 
Russia,  the  principal  affluent  of  the  Volga  from  the 
south,  rises  in  the  government  of  Orel,  and  flows  in  a 
generally  north-east  direction,  forming  a  common 
boundary  between  the  governments  of  Tula,  Kaluga, 
and  Moscow ;  and  afterwards  flowing  through 
the  governments  of  Riazan,  Vladimir,  and  Nijni- 
Novgorod.  It  joins  the  Volga  at  the  city  of  Nijni- 
Novgorod,  after  a  course  of  837  miles.  Its  basin, 
estimated  at  127,000  square  miles,  in  extent,  com- 
prises the  richest  and  most  fertile  region  of  Russia, 
The  principal  towns  on  its  banks  are  Orel,  Beleff 
or  Bielev,  Kaluga,  Riazan,  and  Murom;  the  most 
important  affluents  are  the  rivers  Moscow,  Kliasma. 
and  Tzna.  During  spring,  the  Oka  is  navigable  from 
Orel  to  the  Volga  ;  but  in  summer  the  navigation  is 
obstructed  by  sandbanks.  It  communicates  with 
the  ports  on  the  Baltic,  Caspian,  and  White  Seas ; 
and  the  cargoes  annually  shipped  down  the  river 
amount  in  value  to  several  million  pounds  sterling. 

O-KEE-CHO'-BEE,  a  lake  bordering  on  the 
Everglades  of  Southern  Florida  (see  Florida),  about 
120  miles  in  circuit,  receiving  several  small  rivers, 


OKEN-OLBERS. 


and  having  for  its  outlet  the  river  Caloo-aa-hatchee, 
which  flows  westerly  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

OKEN  (originally  OOKENFUSS),  LoBBNZ,  a 
oelebrated  German  naturalist,  was  horn  at  Bohlsbaoh, 
in  Wllrtemberg,  August  1,  1771*.  He  studied  at 
WUrzburg  and  Oiittingen ;  became  extra-ordinary 

f)rofessor  of  medicine  at  Jena  in  I8117,  where  hia 
ectures  on  natural  philosophy,  natural  history, 
■oology,  comparative  anatomy,  vegetable  and  animal 
physiology,  attracted  much  notice.  In  1812,  he  was 
appointed  ordinary  professor  of  natural  science ;  and  in 
1816,  commenced  the  publication  of  a  journal  partly 
Boientitic  anil  partly  political,  called  Iris,  which  con- 
tinued to  appear  till  1848.  The  opinions  promulgated 
in  the  Iris  led  to  government  interference,  and  (). 
resigned  his  chair,  and  became  a  private  tutor,  devot- 
ing his  leisure  to  the  composition  of  works  on  natural 
history.  In  1S2S,  he  obtained  a  professorship  in  the 
newly-established  university  of  Munich;  but  in 
1832,  exchanged  it  for  another  at  Zurich,  where  he 
died,  11th  August  1S51.  0.  aimed  at  constructing 
all  knowledge  d  priori,  and  thus  setting  forth  the 
system  of  nature  in  its  universal  relations.  The 
two  principal  works  in  which  this  idea  is  developed 
are  his  Lehrbuck  dor  Xaturphilosophie  (Jena,  1808 — 
1811),  and  his  Lelirbuch  der  Naturgescfiichte.  (3 
vols.  Leip.  1S13— 1827).  The  former  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English,  and  published  by  the  Ray  Society 
under  the  title  of  Elements  of  Physio-philosophy. 
As  O.'s  philosophic  system  of  nature  was  very 
peculiar,  and  quite  unlike  anything  that  had  pre- 
ceded it,  0.  invented  a  nomenclature  of  his  own, 
which,  however,  in  many  cases  is  forced  and  preten- 
tious, composed  for  the  most  part  of  new-coined 
words,  and  difficult  to  remember.  It  therefore 
found  little  favour,  and  0.  was  long  regarded — par- 
ticularly by  French  and  English  savans—  as  a  mere 
dreamer  and  transcendental  theorist ;  nor  can  it  be 
denied  that  he  is  largely  such,  infected  with  the 
worst  vices  of  the  school  of  Schelling,  to  which  he 
belonged;  but  some  of  his  'intuitions' — if  we  may 
so  term  his  scientific  suggestions —were  remarkably 
felicitous,  and  in  the  hands  of  rigorous  demonstra- 
tors, have  led  to  great  results.  In  his  work  Die  Zeu- 
gung  (On  Generation,  Bamb.  1805),  he  first  sug- 
gested that  all  animals  are  built  of  vesicles  or  cells  ; 
in  his  Beitrage  zur  vergleichenden  Zoologie,  Anatomie 
vnd  Physiologie  (1806),  be  pointed  out  the  origin  of 
the  intestines  in  the  umbilical  vesicle  ;  and  in  the 
same  year  lighted  accidentally  upon  the  idea,  since 
so  prolific  of  results,  that  the  bones  of  the  skull  are 
modified  vertebrae.  On  account  of  this  discovery, 
he  has  been  termed  '  the  father  of  morphological 
science.'  That  O.,  and  not  Gothe,  was  the  original 
discoverer  of  the  vertebral  relations  of  the  skull,  has 
been  conclusively  shewn  by  Owen,  in  a  valuable 
notice  of  O.  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 

OKHO'TSK,  Sea  of,  an  extensive  inlet  of  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  east  coast  of  Russian 
Siberia.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  wastes  of 
Siberia,  on  the  E.  by  the  peninsula  of  Kamtchatka, 
and  is  partially  enclosed  by  the  Kurile  Islands  on  the 
S.,  and  by  the  island  of  Saghalien  on  the  \V.  It  is 
1<Y>Q  miles  in  length,  and  500  miles  in  breadth.  The 
river  Ud,  which  enters  it  on  the  north,  is  400  miles 
in  length.  Owing  to  climate  and  position,  the  Sea 
of  O.  is  unlikely  ever  to  become  the  scene  of  much 
commerce.  On  its  northern  shore,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Okhota — from  which  it  derives  it  name — is  the 
small  seaport  of  Okhotsk,  lat.  57°  21'  N.,  long.  143° 
17'  E.  This  town  has  only  210  inhabitants,  and  has 
been  entirely  superseded  by  the  ports  of  Ayan  and 
Nikolayevsk. 

OLAF,  the  Saint,  one  of  the  most  revered  of  the 
early  Norwegian  kings,  was  born  in  995 ;  and  after 


having  distinguished  himself  by  his  gallant  exploits 
and  made  his  name  a  tenor  in  several  warlike  expe- 
ditions on  the  coasts  of  Normandy  and  England, 
succeeded, in  I015,in  wresting  the  throne  of  Norway 
from  Brio  and  Svend  Jarl.  The  cruel  severity  with 
which  he  endeavoured  to  exterminate  paganism  by 
fire  and  sword,  alienated  the  affection  of  In-  subjects, 
many  of  whom  sought  security  from  his  persecution 
in  the  territories  of  Knut  or  Canute  the  Great,  king 
of  Denmark;  and  it  was  only  through  the  po 
aid  of  his  brother-in-law,  the  Swedish  Anund  .Jacob, 
that  his  authority  could  be;  upheld,  o.'s  hot- 
headed zeal,  however,  after  a  time  exhausted  the 
patience  of  the  people,  who  hastened  to  tender  their 
allegiance  to  Knut,  on  his  lanuing  in  Norway  in 
1028,  when  0.  fled  to  the  court  of  his  brother- in- 
law, Jaroslav  of  Russia,  who  gave  him  a  band  of 
4000  men,  at  the  head  of  whom  he  returned,  in  1030, 
and  gave  Knut  battle  at  Stiklestad,  when;  <).  was 
defeated  by  the  aid  of  his  own  subjects,  and  slain. 
The  body  of  the  king,  which  had  been  left  on  the 
field  of  battle,  and  buried  on  the  spot  by  a  peasant, 
having  begun  to  work  miracles,  his  remains  were 
carefully  removed  to  the  cathedral  of  Trondhjem, 
where  the  fame  of  their  miraculous  power  spread  far 
and  wide,  attracting  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  the 
Scandinavian  peninsula.  0.  was  solemnly  pro- 
claimed patron  saint  of  Norway,  in  the  succeeding 
century;  and  from  that  period  till  the  Reformation, 
he  continued  to  gather  round  him  a  rich  heritage  of 
mythical  legends  and  popular  sagas,  the  memory  of 
which  still  lingers  in  the  folk-lore  of  Norway.  In 
1847,  the  order  of  Olaf  was  created,  in  honour  of  the 
Saint,  by  King  Oscar  I.  of  Sweden  and  Norway. 

OLBERS,  Hkinrtch  Wilhelm  Mathias,  a  cele- 
brated German  physician  and  astronomer,  Mas  born 
at  Arbergen,  a  small  village  of  Bremen,  October  11, 
1758.  He  studied  medicine  at  Giittingen  from  1777 
till  1780,  and  subsequently  commenced  to  practise 
at  Bremen,  where,  both  as  a  physician  and  as  a  man, 
he  was  highly  esteemed  by  his  fellow-citizens.  In 
1811,  he  was  a  successful  competitor  for  the  prize 
proposed  by  Napoleon  for  the  best  'Memoir  on  the 
Croup.'  O.  wrote  little  on  medical  subjects,  for, 
from  1779,  all  the  leisure  time  which  he  could 
abstract  from  professional  occupations  was  devoted 
to  the  enthusiastic  study  of  astronomy.  The  first 
thing  which  brought  him  into  notice,  was  his  calcu- 
lation of  the  orbit  of  the  comet  of  1779,  which  was 
performed  by  him  while  watching  by  the  bedside  of 
a  sick  patient,  and  was  found  to  be  very  accurate. 
Comets  were  the  chief  objects  of  his  investigation, 
and  he  seems  to  have  been  seized  with  an  irresistible 
predilection  for  these  va^al  >onds  of  the  solar  system, 
which  his  two  important  discoveries  of  the  planets 
Pallas  (1S02)  and  Vesta  (1807)  could  not  diminish. 
In  1781,  he  had  the  honour  of  first  re-discover- 
ing the  planet  Uranus,  which  had  previously  been 
supposed,  even  by  Herschel  himself,  to  be  a  comet, 
and  which  had  been  sought  for  in  vain.  He  also 
discovered  five  comets,  in  1798,  1802,  1804,  181").  and 
1821,  all  of  which,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  1815 
(hence  called  Gibers'  comet),  had  been  some  days  pre- 
viously observed  at  Paris.  His  observations,  calcula- 
tions, and  notices  of  various  comets,  which  are  of 
inestimable  value  to  astronomers,  were  published  in 
the  Annuaire  of  Bode  (1782—1829),  in  the  Annuaire 
of  Encke  (1833),  and  in  three  collections  by  the 
Baron  de  Zach.  Most  of  these  calculations  were 
made  after  a  new  method,  discovered  by  himself,  for 
determining  the  orbit  of  a  comet  from  three  observa- 
tions ;  a  method  which,  for  facility  and  accuracy,  he 
considered  as  greatly  preferable  to  those  then  in 
use.  A  detail  of  it  appeared  in  a  journal  published 
at  Weimar  (1797),  and  a  new  edition  by  Encke  in 
1847.    O.  was  on«»  of  that  small  band  af  astronomers 

bit 


OLD  POINT  COMFORT— OLD  RED  SANDSTONE. 


which  included  also  Schroter,  Gauss,  Piazzi,  Bode, 
Harding,  &c,  who  in  the  first  ten  years  of  the  19th 
c.  devoted  their  energies  to  the  ohservation  of  those 
planets  -which  were  coming  to  light  between  Mars 
and  Jupiter.  As  above  stated,  two  of  them,  the 
second  and  fourth  in  order  of  discovery,  were 
detected  by  0.  k  imself ;  and  the  general  equality  of 
the  elements  of  the  four  planetoids,  led  him  to  pro- 
pound the  well-known  theory,  that  these,  and  the 
other  planetoids  (q.  v.)  since  discovered,  are  but 
fragments  of  some  large  planet  which  formerly 
revolved  round  the  sun  at  a  distance  equal  to  the 
mean  of  the  distances  of  the  planetoids  from  the 
same  luminary.  It  was  this  theory  which  led  him, 
after  the  discovery  of  Pallas,  to  seek  for  more  frag- 
ments of  the  supposed  planet,  a  search  resulting 
in  the  discovery  of  Vesta.  0.  also  made  some 
important  researches  on  the  probable  lunar  origin 
of  meteoric  stones,  and  invented  a  method  for 
calculating  the  velocity  of  falling  stars.  O. 
died  at  Bremen,  2d  March  1840  ;  and  in  1850,  his 
fellow-citizens  erected  a  marble  statue  in  honour  of 
him.  O.,  as  a  writer,  possessed  great  powers  of 
thought,  combined  with  equal  clearness  and  ele- 
gance of  expression.  The  dissertations  with  which 
he  enriched »the  various  branches  of  astronomy  are 
scattered  through  various  collections,  journals,  and 
other  periodicals. 

OLD  POINT  COMFORT,  a  village  and  water- 
ing-place in  Virginia,  U.  S.,  at  the  entrance  of 
Hampton  Roads,  and  James  River,  12  miles  from 
Norfolk,  and  the  site  of  Fortress  Monroe,  the  largest 
military  work  in  the  United  States. 

OLD  RED  SANDSTONE,  the  name  given  to  a 
large  series  of  Palaeozoic  rocks,  of  which  red  sand- 
stones are  the  most  conspicuous  portions,  but  which 
contains  also  white,  yellow,  or  green  sandstones,  as 
well  as  beds  of  clay  and  limestone.  The  group  lies 
below  the  Carboniferous  strata,  and  was  called  'Old' 
to  distinguish  it  from  a  newer  series  of  similar  beds 
which  occur  above  the  Coal  Measures.  The  dis- 
covery that  the  highly  fossiliferous  calcareous  rocks 
of  Devonshire  and  the  continent  occupied  the  same 
geological  horizon,  shewed  that  the  name  was  very 
far  from  being  descriptive  of  all  the  deposits  of 
the  period,  and  suggested  to  Murchison  and  Sedge- 
wick  the  desirableness  of  giving  them  a  new 
designation.  They  consequently  proposed  Devonian, 
which  has  been  extensively  adopted;  but  it  is  liable 
to  the  same  objection  as  that  urged  against  the 
name  it  was  intended  to  supplant,  inasmuch  as  it 
incorrectly  limits  geographically  what  the  other 
limits  Ideologically.  Many  names  used  by  geolo- 
gists are  similarly  at  fault ;  there  is  therefore  no 
good  reason  why  the  old  name  should  be  given  up, 
especially  as  it  has  been  rendered  classical  by  the 
labours  and  writings  of  Hugh  Miller,  the  original 
monographer  of  these  rocks. 

The  position  of  the  0.  R.  S.  series  is  easily  deter- 
mined, though  the  sequence  of  the  various  beds 
which  form  it  is  somewhat  obscure.  All  the 
rocks  are  situated  between  the  beds  of  the  Silurian 
and  Carboniferous  periods.  In  Wales,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland  it  has  been  observed  that  there  is  an 
old  series  of  red  sandstones  which  are  more  or  less 
conformable  with  the  underlying  Silurians,  and  a 
newer  series  unconformable  with  the  older  strata, 
but  conformable  with  the  overlying  Carboniferous 
rocks.  The  great  interval  represented  by  this  break 
has  been  believed  to  be  that  during  which  the 
Calcareous  Devonian  rocks  were  deposited.  The 
recent  researches,  however,  of  Mr  Salter  shew  that 
the  one  set  of  beds  do  not  alternate  with  the  other, 
but  that  they  are  really  contemporaneous— the 
coarse  shallow  water  deposits  of  conglomerate  and 
M 


sandstone  having  been  formed  on  the  shores  of  that 
sea  in  whose  depths  the  deposits  of  thicker  mass, 
finer  grain,  and  lighter  colour,  full  of  marine  sheila 
and  corals,  were  at  the  same  time  being  aggregated. 
The  strata  of  the  period  have  been  arranged  in 
four  groups.  1.  Upper  Old  Bed  Sandstone,  includ- 
ing the  Marwood  and  Petherwin  groups.  2.  Middle 
Old  Red  Sandstone,  including  the  Dartmouth  and 
Plymouth  groups.  3.  Lower  Old  Red  Sandstone, 
including  the  North  Foreland  and  Torbay  groups. 
4.  Tilestones  or  Ledbury  Shales. 

1.  The  Upper  Old  Pted  Sandstones  are  conformable 
with  the  inferior  strata  of  the  Coal  Measures,  and 
differ  so  little  petrologically,  or  even  palaeontolo^ic- 
ally  from  them,  that  they  have  been  considered  as 
the  basement  series  of  that  period.  Investigations  on 
the  American  equivalent  by  Professor  Winehell  add  to 
the  probable  correctness  of  this  view.  They  consist 
of  yellowish  and  light-coloured  sandstones,  which 
are  at  Dura  Den,  in  Fifeshire,  remarkably  rich  in 
some  of  their  la\ers  in  the  remains  of  Holopty- 
chius,  Pterichthys,  Dendrodus,  &c.  In  the  south  of 
Ireland,  and  at  Dunse,  similar  beds  contain  t» 
fresh-water  shell  very  like  the  modern  Anodon,  and 
fragments  of  a  fern  called  Cydopterut  Hihernicus. 
Mr  Salter  has  shewn,  from  the  intercalation  of  the 
marine  beds  with  the  red  sandstone,  and  from  the 
identity  of  the  fossils,  that  the  Devonian  repre- 
sentatives of  these  beds  are  the  Marwood  and 
Petherwin  groups.  These  consist  of  dark-coloured 
calcareous  and  argillaceous  beds,  and  gray  and 
reddish  sandstones.  The  fossils  found  in  them  are 
shells  and  land-plants,  many  of  them  belonging  to  the 
same  genera,  but  different  species  to  those  which 
are  found  in  the  Carboniferous  system.  The  little 
crustacean  Cypridina  and  Clymenia  are  so  charac- 
teristic of  this  division,  that  in  Germany  the  strata 
are  known  as  the  Cypridinien  Schieffer  and  Clyme- 
nien  Kalk. 

2.  The  Middle  Old  Red  Sandstone  is  represented 
in  the  north  of  Scotland  by  the  Caithness  flags,  a 
series  of  dark-gray  bituminous  schists,  slightly 
micaceous  or  calcareous,  and  remarkably  tough  and 
durable.  Throughout  their  whole  thickness  they 
are  charged  with  fossil  fish  and  obscure  vegetable 
remains.  The  characteristic  fishes  belong  to  the 
genera  Coccosteus,  Asterolepis,  and  Dipterus.  Th& 
corresponding  beds  in  Devonshire  are  the  Dart- 
mouth and  Plymouth  groups,  which  consist  of 
extensive  deposits  of  limestones  and  schists,  all  of 
them  abounding  in  the  remains  of  corals,  trilobites, 
and  shells.  In  the  German  equivalent,  the  Eifel 
Limestone,  but  especially  in  the  Russian,  the  charac- 
teristic invertebrate  fossils  of  the  Devonshire  cal- 
careous beds  have  been  found  associated  with  the 
remains  of  Coccosteus,  shewing  beyond  doubt  the 
identity  of  these  various  beds.  The  Calceola  Schieffer 
of  German  geologists  belongs  to  the  Middle  Old 
Red  ;  it  receives  its  name  from  the  abundance  in  it 
of  a  singular  brachiopod  (Calceola  sandalina). 

3.  The  Lower  Old  Red  Sandstone  consists  of 
strata  of  red  shale  and  sandstone,  with  beds  of 
impure  arenaceous  limestone  (cornstone),  and  fre- 
quently at  the  base  great  deposits  of  red  conglo- 
merate. The  fossils  peculiar  to  this  division  are 
the  remarkable  fish  Cephalaspis,  and  the  huge 
Crustacea  of  the  genus  Pterygotus,  besides  a  few 
shells.  To  the  south  of  the  Grampians,  the  strata 
consist  of  a  gray  paving-stone  and  coarse  roofing- 
slate.  The  Devonian  representatives  of  this  section 
are  the  sandstoues  and  slates  of  the  North  Foreland, 
Linton,  and  Torbay,  and  the  series  of  slaty  beds  and 
quartz  ore  sandstoues  developed  on  the  banks  of  the 
Rhine  near  Coblontz.  The  Cephalaspis,  so  charac- 
teristic of  the  cornstones,  has  been  found  in  the 
Rhenish  beds. 


OLDBURY— OLDENBURG. 


4.  The  Tile-tones  or  Ledbury  Shales  consist 
of  finely  laminated  reddish  and  green  micaceous 
sandstones,  which  have  been  noticed  underlying  the 
Old  lxod  only  on  its  western  borders  in  Hereford* 
■hire.  The  fossils  of  those  beds  shew  a  Silurian  fauna 
with  a  number  of  old  Red  forma;  the  Ttleatones  are. 
consequently  referred  sometimes  to  t lie  one  period, 
nnd  sometimes  to  the  other. 

The  O.  K.  S.  occupies  m  considerable  portion  of  the 
surface  of  Great  Britain,  In  the  north,  it  Forms  the 
boundary  lands  of  the  Moray  Firth  (these  may,  how- 
ever, be  carboniferous)  •,  beginning  even  us  far  north 

as  the  Shethuiils  and  Orkneys,  it.  covers  the  whole  of 
Caithness,  anil  in  more  or   less   hroken   tracts  the  east 

of  Sutherland,  Ross,  and  Cromarty,  and  the  north  of 
Inverness,  Nairn,  and  Elgin.  In  the  great  central 
valley  of  Scotland  it  is  the  setting  in  which  the  coal 

measures  are  placed.      In  the  southern  division  of  the 
island  it  is  limited  to  a  large  triangular  district  in  the 
south-west.    The  Bristol  Channel  hiseots  it.     A  de- 
pression in  thi'  Welsh   portion  is  occupied  with   South 
Wales  coal-field  ;  and  in  a  similar  depression  in  Devon, 
the  culm-beds  are  situated.      In  Ireland,  strata  of  this  I 
age  are  found  in  the  counties  of  Kilkenny,  Waterford, 
Cork,   and    Kerry.     The    Devonian    rocks  have  been 
carefully  studied  in  Belgium  nnd   the   Rhine  district, 
and  also  in  Russia,  where  they  cover  a  larger  district1 
in  tin  north  of  the  empire.     The  American  represen-  j 
tatives  of  this  period  are  extensively  developed  in  New- 
York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Canada.     They  are  arranged 
under  the  epochs  of  the  Oriskany,  which  is  an  Alle- 
gheny Mt.  bed;   the  Corniferous,  in  the  N.  and  N.  \V. ' 
of  the  United  States;  the  Hamilton,  having  a  similar 
distribution  with  Alleghenian  extension;  and  the  Che-1 
mung,  found  in  New  York  and  the  Alleghenies.     The 
Invertebrate  animals  found  in  the  Old  Red  do  not  differ 
much  from  those  of  the  Upper  Silurian.     Corals  arai 
remarkably  abundant  and  beautiful  in  the  Devonian 
limestones.     Goniatites  and  Clymenia  make  their  first 
appearance  in  this  period,  with  several  forms  of  lower 
molluscs.    Trilobites  are  still  numerous.    But  the  most 
striking  feature  in  the  period  is  the  abundance  of  fish 
of  curious  forms,  strongly  protected  outside  by  hard 
bony  eases,  or  by  a  dense  armour  of  ganoid  scales. 

O'LDBURY,  an  important  manufacturing  town 
of  England,  in  the  county  of  Worcester,  29  miles 
north -north-east  of  the  city  of  that  name,  on  the 
river  Tame.  It  contains  numerous  churches,  meeting- 
houses,  and  schools.  Owing  to  the  extension  of  the  J 
iron  -trade,  O.  has  greatly  increased  in  size  and  pros- ( 
perity  within  recent  years.  There  are  coal  and  iron  [ 
mines  in  the  neighbourhood;  and  in  the  town,  iron,] 
steel,  locomotive  engines,  mills,  edge-tools,  draining- 
pipes,  &c,  are  made  and  constructed.  The  Stour : 
Valley  Railway  passes  close  by  the  town,  and  there  j 
is  a  station  here.  Bop.  in  1851,  5114;  iu  1861,  15, -, 
615;  in  1871,  16,410. 

OLDCASTLE,  Sir  John,  once  popularly  known 
as  the  'good  Lord  Cobham,'  whose  claim  to  dis- 
tinction is,  that  he  was  the  first  author  and  the 
first  martyr  among  the  English  nobility,  Avas  born ; 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  III. ;  the  exact  year  is  not 
known.  He  acquired  the  title  of  Lord  Cobham  by 
marriage,  and  signalised  himself  by  the  ardour  of 
his  attachment  to  the  doctrines  of  Wickliffe.  At 
that,  time,  there  was  a  party  among  the  English 
nobles  and  gentry  sincerely,  and  even  strongly, 
desirous  of  ecclesiastical  reform  —  the  leader  of 
which  was  'old  John  of  Gaunt  —  time-honoured 
Lancaster.'  O.  was  active  in  the  same  cause,  and 
took  part  in  the  presentation  of  a  remonstrance  to 
the  English  Commons  on  the  subject  of  the  corrup- 
tions of  the  church.  At  bis  own  expense,  he  got 
the  works  of  Wickliffe  transcribed,  and  widely  dis- 
seminated among  the  people,  and  paid  a  largf   body 


of  preachers  to  propagate  the  views  of  the  refor- 
mer throughout  the  country.  During  the  reign  of 
Henry  IV.,  he  commanded  an  English  army  in 
France,  and  forced  the  Duke  of  Orleans  to  raise  the 
siege  of  l'aris ;  but  in  the  reign  of  Henry  V.  lie  was 
accused  of  heresy,  and  haying,  in  a  disputation  with 
his  sovereign,  declared  that  '  as  sure  as  God'a,  word 
is  true,  the  pope  is  the  great  Antichrist  foretold  in 
Holy  Writ,'  he  was  thrown  into  the  Tower,  whence, 
after  some  time,  he  escaped,  and  concealed  him-elf 
in  Wales.  A  bill  of  attainder  was  passed  against 
him,  and  1000  marks  set  upon  his  head.  After  four 
years'  biding,  lie  was  captured,  brought  to  London. 
and — being  reckoned  a  traitor  as  well  as  a  heretic  -- 
he  was  hung  up  in  chains  alive  upon  a  gallows,  and 
tire  being  put  under  him,  was  burned  to  death, 
December,  1417.  O.  wrote  Twelve  Conelneiont 
addrested  to  the  Parliament  <>f  England,  several 
monkish  rhymes  against  '  ileshlye  livers'  among 
rhe  clergy,  religious  discourses,  &c. — See  Life,  of 
Qldcmtle,  by  Gilpin. 

O'LDENBURG,  a  grand-duchy  of  Northern  Ger- 
many, consisting  of  three  distinct  and  widely  separated 
territories,  viz.,  Oldenburg  Proper,  the  principality  of 
Liibeck,  and  the  principality  of  Birkenfeld.  The  col- 
lective area  of  these  districts  is  now  2461  square  miles. 
Pop.  in  1872,  .316.2-10.  Oldenburg  Proper,  which  com- 
prises seven-eighths  of  this  area,  and  four-fifths  of  the 
entire  population,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  I>y  the  Ger- 
man Ocean,  on  the  E.,  S.,  and  W.  by  the  Prussian 
province  of  Hanover.  The  principal  rivers  of  0. 
are  the  Weser,  the  Jahde,  and  the  Haase,  Vehne, 
and  other  tributaries  of  the  Ems.  The  grand- 
duchy  of  Oldenburg  Proper  is  divided  into  eight 
circles.  The  country  is  fiat,  belonging  to  the  great 
sandy  plain  of  Northern  Germany,  and  consists  for 
the  most  part  of  moors,  heaths,  marsh  or  fens,  and 
uncultivated  sandy  tracts ;  but  here  and  there,  on  the 
banks  of  the  rivers,  the  uniform  level  is  broken  by 
gentle  acclivities,  covered  with  wood,  or  by  pictu- 
resque lakes  surrounded  by  fruitful  pasture-lands. 
Agriculture  and  the  rearing  of  cattle  constitute 
the  chief  sources  of  wealth.  "The  horses  and  cattle 
raised  in  the  marsh-lands  are  excellent  of  their 
kind,  and  in  great  request ;  the  horse-markets 
at  Oldenburg,  and  the  cattle-sales  at  Ovelgbnne, 
being  frequented  by  purchasers  from  every  part  of 
Germany.  The  scarcity  of  wood  for  fuel,  and  the 
absence  of  coal,  are  compensated  for  by  the  exist- 
ence of  turf-beds  of  enormous  extent.  With  the 
exception  of  some  linen  and  stocking  looms,  and 
a  few  tobacco-works,  there  are  no  manufactories. 
There  are,  however,  numerous  distilleries,  breweries, 
and  tan-yards  in  all  parts  of  the  duchy. 

The  trade  is  principally  a  coasting-trade,  carried 
on  in  small  vessels,  from  20  to  40  tons,  which  can 
thread  their  way  along  the  shallow  channels  con- 
necting the  larger  rivers. 

The  exports  are  horses,  cattle,  linens,  threat! 
hides,  and  rags,  which  find  their  way  chiefly  to 
Holland  and  the  Hanseatic  cities ;  while  the  imports 
include  the  ordirary  colonial  goods,  and  manufac- 
tures of  numerous  kinds. 

The  receipts  for  the  collective  grand-duchy  were, 
for  1870,  2,233,550  thalers,  and  the  expenditure, 
2,101,650.  The  public  debt,  at  the  close  of  1869, 
was  7,767,200. 

The  principality  of  Liibeck,  consisting  of  the 
secularised  territories  of  the  former  bishopric  of  the 
same  name,  is  surrounded  by  Prussian  territory, 
and  is  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers  Schwartau 
and  Trave.  It  contributes  199  square  miies  to 
the  general  area  of  the  grand-duchy,  and  34,346 
inhabitants  to  the  collective  population.  It  la 
divided  into  four  administrative  districts.  It  has 
several  large   lakes,   as    those  of    Plon — noted  for 

67 


OLDENBURG. 


its  picturesque  beauty — Keller,  Uklci,  aud  Gross- 
Eutin ;  while  in  regard  to  climate,  soil,  and  natural 
products,    it    participates    in    the    general    physical 

characteristics  of  Slesvig-Holstein.  The  chief  town 
is  Eutin  (pop.  3268),  pleasantly  situated  on  the  hike 
of  the  same  name,  with  a  fine  castle  surrounded  by  a 
magnificent  park. 

The  principality  of  Birkenfehl,  lying  south-west 
of  the  Rhine,  among  the  Hundsriick  Mountains,  and 
between  Rhenish  Prussia  and  Lichtenberg,  is  an 
outlying  territory,  situated  in  lat.  49°  30'— 49°  52'  N., 
and  in  long.  7°— 7°  30' E.  Its  area  is  192  square 
miles,  and  its  pop.  35,668.  The  soil  of  Birkenfehl 
is  not  generally  productive ;  but  in  the  lower  and 
more  sheltered  valleys,  it  yields  wheat,  flax,  and 
hemp.  Wood  is  abundant.  The  mineral  products, 
which  are  of  considerable  importance,  comprise  iron, 
copper,  load,  coal,  and  building-stone  ;  while  in  addi- 
tion to  the  rearing  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine,  the 
polishing  of  stones,  more  especially  agates,  constitutes 
the  principal  source  of  industry.  The  principality 
is  divided  into  three  governmental  districts. 

0.  is  a  constitutional  ducal  monarchy,  hereditary 
in  the  male  line  of  the  reigning  family.  The  con- 
stitution, which  is  based  upon  that  of  1849,  revised 
in  1852,  is  common  to  the  three  provinces,  which 
are  represented  in  one  joint  chamber,  composed  of 
47  members,  chosen  by  free  voters.  Each  princi- 
pality has,  however,  its  special  provincial  council, 
the  members  of  which  are  likewise  elected  by  votes  ; 
while  each  governmental  district  within  the  pro- 
vinces has  its  local  board  of  councillors,  and  its 
several  courts  of  law,  police,  finance,  &c.  ;  although 
the  highest  judicial  court  of  appeal,  and  the  ecclesi- 
astical and  ministerial  offices,  are  located  at  Olden- 
burg. 

Perfect  liberty  of  conscience  was  guaranteed  by 
the  constitution  of  1849.  The  Lutheran  is  the 
predominant  church,  upwards  of  240,000  of  the 
population  belonging  to  that  denomination ;  while 
ahout  72,000  persons  profess  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion. 

There  are  two  gymnasia,  one  higher  provincial 
college,  several  secondary,  and  547  elementary 
schools;  but  in  consequence  of  the  scarcity  of 
villages  in  the  duchy,  and  the  isolated  position  of 
many  of  the  houses  of  the  peasantry,  schools  are  not 
common  in  the  country  districts,  and  the  standard 
of  education  of  the  lower  classes  is,  from  these  causes, 
scarcely  equal  to  that  existing  in  other  parts  of  North- 
ern Germany.  The  military  forces  of  ().,  which  are 
1815  men  in  time  of  peace,  and  4049  men  in  war,  form 
a  part  of  the  Prussian  army.  The  merchant  navy 
consists  (Jan.  1,  1870)  of  226  vessels,  of  55,982  tons, 
employing  1666  men.  O.  had  a  separate  vote  in  the 
Plenum  of  the  federal  diet,  and  a  joint  vote  with  An- 
halt  and  Schwarzhurg  in  the  limited  council. 

History. — The  territory  now  included  in  the 
grand-duchy  of  O.,  was  in  ancient  times  occupied 
by  the  Teutonic  race  of  the  Chauci,  who  were 
subsequently  merged  with  the  more  generally 
known  Frisii,  or  Frisians  ;  and  the  land,  under  the 
names  of  Ammergau  and  Lerigau,  was  for  a  loug 
period  included  among  the  dominions  of  the  Dukes 
of  Saxony.  In  1180,  the  Counts  of  O.  and  Delmen- 
horsfc  succeeded  in  establishing  independent  states 
from  the  territories  of  Henry  the  Lion,  which  fell 
into  a  condition  of  disorganisation  after  his  down- 
fall 

This  family  has  continued  to  rule  O.  to  the 
present  day,  giving,  moreover,  new  dynasties  to  the 
kingdom  of  Denmark,  the  empire  of  Russia,  and 
the  kingdom  of  Sweden.  See  Oldenburg,  House 
OF.  On  the  death,  in  1GC7,  of  Count  Anthony 
Gunther,  the  wisest  and  best  of  the  0.  rulers,  his 
dominions,  in  default  of  nearer    heirs,  fell   to   the 


Danish  reigning  family,  and  continued  for  a 
century  to  be  ruled  by  viceroys  nominated  by  the 
kings  of  Denmark.  This  union  was,  however, 
severed  in  1773,  when,  by  a  family  compact, 
Christian  VII.  made  over  his  0.  territories  to 
the  Grand  Duke  Paul  of  Russia,  who  represented 
the  Holstein-Gottorp  branch  of  the  family.  Paul 
having  renounced  the  joint  countships  of  Delmen- 
horst  and  0.  in  favour  of  his  cousin,  Frederick 
Augustus,  of  the  younger  or  Kiel  line,  of  the  House 
of  0.,  who  was  Prince-bishop  of  Liibeck,  the 
emperor  raised  the  united  O.  territories  to  the  rank 
of  a  duchy.  The  present  reigning  family  is 
descended  from  Duke  Peter  Friedrich  Ludwig, 
cousin  to  the  Prince-bishop,  Frederick  Augustus. 
For  a  time,  the  duke  was  a  member  of  Napoleon's 
Rhenish  Confederation  ;  but  French  troops  having, 
in  spite  of  this  bond  of  alliance,  taken  forcible  pos- 
session of  the  duchy  in  1811,  and  incorporated  it 
with  the  French  empire,  the  ejected  prince  joined 
the  ranks  of  the  allies.  In  recognition  of  this 
adhesion,  the  Congress  of  Vienna  transferred  certain 
portions  of  territory,  with  5000  Hanoverians  and 
20,000  inhabitants  of  the  quondam  French  district 
of  the  Saar,  to  the  O.  allegiance.  From  these  new 
acquisitions  were  organised  the  district  Amme,  and 
the  principality  of  Birkenfeld ;  while  O.  was  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  a  grand-duchy.  The  revolution- 
ary movement  of  1848  was  quite  as  productive  of 
violent  and  compulsory  political  changes  in  this  as 
in  other  German  states  ;  and  in  1849,  after  having 
existed  for  centuries  without  even  a  show  of  consti- 
tutional or  legislative  freedom,  it  entered  suddenly 
into  possession  of  the  most  extreme  of  liberal 
constitutions.  The  reaction  in  favour  of  absolutism, 
which  the  licence  and  want  of  purpose  of  the 
popular  party  naturally  induced  all  over  Germany, 
led  in  1852  to  a  revision  aud  modification  of  the 
constitution,  which,  however,  in  its  present  form 
contains  the  essential  principles  of  popular  liberty 
and  security,  though  it  must  be  confessed  this  is 
more  verbal  than  real.  In  the  German-Italian  war. 
Oldenburg  sided  with  Prussia,  and  afterwards  joined 
the  North  German  Confederation.  In  September, 
1866,  Oldenburg  concluded  a  treaty  with  Prussia,  by 
which  the  Grand  Duke  renounced  his  claims  to  the 
Holstein  succession,  in  consideration  of  the  cession  to 
him  of  a  small  portion  of  Holstein  territory,  and  an 
indemnity  of  1,000,000  thalers. 

OLDENBURG,  capital  of  the  grand-duchy  of 
the  same  name,  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  hanks 
of  the  navigable  river  Hnnte,  25  miles  west-north- 
west of  Bremen.  Pop.  14.928.  O.  is  the  seat  of  the 
administrative  departments,  and  the  focus  of  the 
literary,  scientific,  and  commercial  activity  of  the 
duchy.  It  has  a  normal  school,  a  military  academy, 
a  public  library  of  80,000  vols.,  a  picture-gallery, 
museum,  &c.  The  grand  ducal  palace  is  worthy  of 
note  for  its  fine  gardens,  its  valuable  pictures,  and 
other  art  collections,  and  its  library.  The  principal 
church  is  St  Lambert's,  containing  the  bnrying- 
vaults  of  the  reigning  family.  O.  is  the  seat  of  an 
active  river-trade,  and  is  noted  for  its  excellent 
studs,  and  the  great  cattle  and  horse  fairs  which  are 
annually  held  here  in  the  months  of  June  and 
August. 

OLDENBURG,  The  House  op,  which  lays  just 
claim  to  being  one  of  the  oldest  reigning  families  of 
Europe,  has  been  rendered  still  more  illustrious  by 
various  matrimonial  alliances,  which,  in  the  course 
of  ages,  have  successively  been  the  means  of  creating 
new  royal  dynasties.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  1448,  a 
scion  of  this  House  being  elected  King  of  Denmark, 
under  the  title  of  Christian  I.,  became  the  progenitor 
of   the   Danish  House  of    Oldenburg,    the  imperial 


OLDENBURG— OLDHAM. 


House  of  Russia,  the  late  royal  family  of  Sweden, 
ami  the  collateral  and  junior  Danish  lines  of  Angus- 
tenburg,  Kiel,  ami  Sonderburg-GlUcksburg.  Chris- 
tiau  owed  hia  election  to  the  recommendation  of  his 
maternal  uncle,  Duke  Adol|>h  of  slesvig,  who,  when 
the  throne  was  offered  to  him  on  the  sudden  death 
of  Kins  Christopher,  refused,  on  the  ground  of 
age,  and  proposed  Christian  of  Oldenburg,  who,  as 
the  direct  descendant  of  Eric  Clipping's  daughter, 
Princess  Richissa,  was  allied  to  the  old  extinct 
House  of  Denmark.  The  death,  in  14f>f>,  of  Adolph, 
Duke  of  Slesvig  and  Count  of  Holstein,  without 
male  heirs,  opened  the  question  of  succession  to 
those  states,  which  has  since  become  one  of  such 
vexatious  import.  The  ancient  law  of  Denmark 
recognised  hereditary  fiefs  only  in  exceptional  cases ; 
crown  fiefs  being  generally  held  for  life  or  merely 
for  a  time  ad  gratiam.  Such  being  the  case,  Slesvig 
might,  on  the  death  of  Adolph,  have  been  taken  by 
the  crown  as  a  lapsed  tenure ;  but  Holstein,  being 
held  under  the  empire,  would  have  been  separated 
from  it.  Adolph  and  bis  subjects  were  alike  anxious 
that  Slesvig  and  Holstein  should  continue  united  ; 
but  although  the  Slesvig  estates,  at  the  wish  of  the 
Duke  Adolph,  had  recognised  Christian  as  successor 
to  the  duchy  before  his  accession  to  the  throne  of 
Denmark,  the  Holstein  Chambers  were  divided  on 
the  question  of  succession,  the  majority  shewing  a 

E reference  for  the  claims  of  the  counts  of  Sehauen- 
urg,  who  were  descended  from  male  agnates  of 
the  Holstein  House.  Christian,  in  bis  eagerness  to 
secure  both  states,  was  willing  to  sacrifice  his  rights 
in  Slesvig  to  his  schemes  in  regard  to  Holstein  ;  and 
having  bought  over  the  Holstein  nobles  by  bribes 
and  fair  promises,  he  was  elected  Duke  of  Slesvig 
and  Count  of  Holstein  at  Ribe  in  1460,  where  he 
signed  a  deed,  alike  derogatory  to  the  interests 
and  unworthy  the  dignity  of  bis  crown.  In  this 
compact,  by  which  he  bartered  away  the  just 
prerogatives  and  independence  of  himself  and  his 
successors,  for  the  sake  of  nominal  present  gain, 
he  pledged  his  word  for  himself  and  his  heirs,  that 
the  two  provinces  should  always  remain  undivided, 
"ewig  bliben  too-tamende  ungedeelt,'  and  not  be  dis- 
membered by  division  or  heritage.  This  document, 
which  remained  for  ages  unknown  or  forgotten, 
was  discovered  by  the  historian  Dahlmann  amid  the 
neglected  papers  of  the  Holstein  state  archives  at 
Preetz,  and  proclaimed  in  1S48  by  that  ardent 
admirer  of  Germany  as  the  unchangeable  funda- 
mental law  of  the  Slesvig-Holstein  provinces.  The 
confusion,  dissension,  and  ill-will  to  which  this  fatal 
deed  has  given  rise,  are  the  fruits  which  Christian's 
unscrupulous  desire  to  secure  power  at  any  cost 
has  produced  for  his  descendants,  whose  complicated 
claims  on  the  duchies  resulted,  in  1864,  in  a  war, 
which  eventuated  in  Denmark's  losing  a  great  part  of 
her  territory.  From  Christian  I.  descend  two  dis- 
tinct branches  of  the  Oldenburg  line:  1.  The  royal 
dynasty,  extinct  in  the  male  line  in  Frederick  VII., 
late  King  of  Denmark,  and  the  collateral  branches  of 
Sonderburg-Augustenbnrg  and  Sonderburg-Gliicks- 
bnrg ;  2.  The  ducal  Holstein-Gottorp  line,  descended 
from  Duke  Adolph,  who  died  in  1 586,  and  was  the 
ascond  son  of  King  Frederick  I.  Thi3  prince  had 
received,  during  his  father's  lifetime,  a  portion  of 
the  Slesvig  and  Holstein  lands,  which  he  was 
permitted,  on  the  accession  of  his  elder  brother, 
Christian  III.,  to  retain  for  himself  and  his  heirs. 
This  line  became  illustrious  by  the  marriage  of 
Prince  Karl  Friedrich,  the  son  of  Hedwig-Sofia, 
eldest  sister  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  (a  direct 
descendant  of  Duke  Adolph),  with  the  Grand - 
iuchess  Anna,  daughter  of  Feter  the  Great,  and 
thus  gave  to  Russia  the  dynasty  which  still  occu- 
pies  the   imperial   throne;   while  Adolph-Friedrich, 


a  cousin  of  Prince  Karl  Friedrich,  by  bis  election  10 
the  throne  of  Sweden  in  1751,  added  another  crown 
to  those  already  held  by  the  House  of  Oldenburg. 
The  conduct  of  his  descendants  rendered  the  new 
dignity  short-lived,  for  with  the  abdication  of  Gus- 
tavtu    IV.,    in    1809,    the    Holstew-Gottorp    dynasty 

became  extinct  in  Sweden. 

J  lie  complicated  relations  of  the  House  of  O. 
in  regard  to  the  Danish  succession,  after  giving 
rise  to  much  angry  discussion  among  the  princes 
interested  in  the  question,  and  the  Danish  people 
themselves,  led  the  great  powers  to  enter  into  a 
treaty,  known  as  the  London  Treaty  of  18.V2,  for 
settling  the  question  of  succession,  on  the  ground 
that  the  integrity  of  the  Danish  monarchy  was 
intimately  connected  with  the  maintenance  of  the 
balance  of  power  and  the  cause  of  peace  in  Europe, 
England,  France,  Austria,  Prussia,  Russia,  Sweden, 
and  Denmark,  were  parties  to  this  treaty,  in  the 
first  article  of  which  it  was  provided,  that  on  the 
extinction  of  the  male  line  of  the  royal  House, 
Prince  Christian  of  Slesvig-Holstein-Sonderburg- 
GlUcksburg,  and  his  male  heirs,  according  to  the 
order  of  primogeniture,  should  succeed  to  all  the 
dominions,  then  united  under  the  sway  of  the  king 
of  Denmark.  The  rights  of  succession,  which  rested 
with  the  Augustenburg  family,  were  forfeited  by  a 
compact  which  the  Duke  of  Augustenburg  entered 
into  for  the  surrender  of  his  claims,  in  consideration 
of  a  sum  of  money  paid  to  him  by  Denmark.  The 
duke's  morganatic  marriage,  and  his  subsequent 
rebellion,  in  1848,  against  the  Danish  king,  were  the 
causes  which  led  to  the  arrangement  of  this  famdy 
compact  on  the  existing  terms.  This  treaty,  known 
as  the  London  Protocol  of  May  1852,  was  followed 
in  October  of  the  same  year  by  the  publication 
of  a  supplementary  clause,  which  stipulated,  that  on 
the  extinction  of  the  heirs-male  of  Prince  Christian 
of  Slesvig-  Holstein  -Sonderburg-Glucksburg,  the 
Holstein-Gottorp,  or  imperial  Russian  line  should 
succeed  to  the  Danish  dominions.  This  article,  even 
more  than  the  original  clauses  of  the  treaty,  met 
with  the  strongest  opposition  among  the  Danes,  and 
after  being  twice  rejected  in  the  Landsthing,  the 
London  Treaty  was  only  ratified  after  a  new 
election  of  members,  and  on  the  assurance  of  the 
king  that  in  excluding  all  female  cognate  lines  from 
the  succession,  there  was  no  definite  intention  of 
advancing  the  claim3  of  Russia.  King  Frederick's 
death,  in  1863,  brought  the  much-vexed  question  of 
the  Danish  succession  to  a  crisis.  See  Slesvig.  By 
the  treaty  of  Vienna,  concluded  Oct.  30,  1864,  the 
duchies  of  Slesvig  and  Holstein  were  made  over  to  the 
Emperor  of  Austria  and  the  King  of  Prussia.  By  the 
treaty  of  Prague,  August  23,  1866,  the  Emperor  of 
Austria  ceded  his  claims  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  with 
provision  that  the  northern  district  of  Slesvig  should 
be  joined  to  Denmark  if  the  people  should,  by  a  vote, 
decide  in  favour  of  annexation.  The  disagreement  of 
Prussia  with  Austria  in  the  Slesvig-Holstein  and  Fed- 
eral-German questions  led  to  the  war  between  thosa 
powers,  the  withdrawal  of  Prussia  from  the  Ger- 
man Confederation,  and  the  humiliation  of  Austria. 
The  claims  of  the  latter  to  Slesvig-Holstein  were  re- 
nounced, and  the  duchies  were  accordingly  incorpo- 
rated with  the  Prussian  monarchy.  The  Grand  Duke 
of  Oldenburg,  by  treaty,  September,  1866,  renounced 
his  claims  to  the  Holstein  succession  in  consideration 
of  a  portion  of  territory  and  an  indemnity  of  1,000,000 
thalers. 

O'LDHAM,  a  parliamentary  borough  and  flour- 
ishing manufacturing  town  of  England,  in  the 
county  of  Lancashire,  stands  on  the  Medlock,  six 
miles  north-east  of  Manchester.  It  owes  its  rapid 
increase  in  population  and  in  wealth  to  the  exten- 
sive coal-mines  in  the  vicinity,  and  tc  its  cotton- 
Mi 


OLDHAMIA— OLEFIANT  GAS. 


manufactures,  which  have  increased  remarkably 
within  late  years.  It  is  not  only  the  great  centre 
of  the  hat-manufacture,  but  is  also  celebrated  for 
its  manufactures  of  fustians,  velveteens,  cords, 
cotton,  woollen,  and  silk  goods.  Numerous  silk- 
mills,  brass  and  iron  foundries,  machine-shops, 
tanneries,  rope-works,  &c,  are  in  operation.  The 
parish  church,  the  town-hall,  the  Blue-coat  and  the 
Gi  ammar-schools,  are  the  chief  edifices.  Top.  iu 
1851  of  municipal  borough,  52,820;  1861,  of  muni- 
cipal borough,  72,333,  of  parliamentary  borough, 
(which  returns  two  members  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons), 94.344,  of  the  latter  in  1871,  113,100. 

OLDHA'MIA,  a  genus  of  fossil  zoophytes, 
dedicated  by  Forbes  to  Professor  Oldham,  who  was 
their  discoverer.  Only  two  species  are  known,  but 
they  are  of  peculiar  interest,  because,  with  their 
associated  worm-tracks  and  burrows,  they  are  the 
first  distinct  evidence  of  life  on  the  globe.  They 
exist  as  mere  tracings  on  the  surface  of  the  laminae 
of  metamorphosed  shales,  all  remains  of  the  sub- 
stance of  the  organism  having  entirely  disappeared. 
The  form  of  the  hard  polyjiidom  is  preserved,  and 
shews  a  jointed  main  stem,  giving  off  at  each  joint,  in 
the  one  species,  a  circle  of  simple  rays,  and  in 
the  other  a  fan-shaped  group.  Forbes  pointed  out 
their  affinities  in  some  respects  to  the  Hydrozoa, 
and  in  others  to  the  Polyzoa.  Kinahan,  who 
described  the  genus  at  some  length,  considers  them 
to  have  been  Hydrozoa  allied  to  Sertularia ;  while 
Huxley  places  them  among  the  Polyzoa. 

OLDYS,  William,  a  most  erudite  and  industrious 
bibliographer,  was  a  natural  son  of  Dr  William 
Oldys,  Chancellor  of  Lincoln,  and  advocate  of  the 
Admiralty  Court,  and  was  born  in  1687.  Regarding 
his  early  life,  little  is  known.  His  father  dying  in 
1708,  left  him  a  small  property,  which  0.  squan- 
dered as  soon  as  he  got  it  into  his  own  hands.  The 
most  of  his  life  was  spent  as  a  bookseller's  hack. 
He  drank  hard ;  and  was  so  scandalously  fond  of 
low  company,  that  he  preferred  to  live  within  the 
'  rules '  of  the  Fleet  Prison  to  any  more  respectable 
place.  As  may  easdy  be  supposed  from  his  habits, 
the  dissolute  old  bookworm  was  often  in  extremely 
necessitous  circumstances,  and  when  he  died  (April 
15,  1761),  he  left  hardly  enough  to  decently  bury 
him.  It  is  but  fair  to  add  that  O.  had  some  sterling 
merits.  Captain  Grose,  who  knew  him,  praises  his 
good-nature,  honour,  and  integrity  as  a  historian, 
and  says  that  'nothing  would  ever  have  biassed 
him  to  insert  any  fact  in  his  writings  which  he  did 
not  believe,  or  to  suppress  any  he  did.'  For  about 
ten  years,  0.  acted  as  librarian  to  the  Earl  of 
Oxford,  whose  valuable  collection  of  books  and 
MSS.  he  arranged  and  catalogued.  His  chief  works 
are  The  British  Librarian,  exhibiting  a  Compendious 
Review  of  all  Unpublislied  and  Valuable  Books  in  all 
Sciences  (London,  1737,  anonymously);  a  Life  of  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh,  prefixed  to  Raleigh's  History  of  th" 
World  (1738) ;  a  translation  of  Camden's  Britannia 
(2  vols.) ;  The  Harleian  Miscellany,  or  a  Collection 
of  Scarce,  Curious,  and  Entertaining  Tracts  (8  vols. 
Lond.  1753).  Besides  these,  0.  wrote  a  great  variety 
of  miscellaneous  literary  and  bibliographical '  articles ' 
for  his  friends  the  booksellers,  which  it  would  be 
tedious  to  mention. 

OLEA'CE^E,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants, 
consisting  of  trees  and  shrubs,  with  oj>posite  leaves, 
and  flowers  in  racemes  or  panicles.  The  calyx  is 
in  one  piece,  divided,  persistent ;  the  corolla  is 
hypogynous,  generally  4-cleft,  sometimes  of  four 
petals,  sometimes  wantiug ;  there  are  generally  two, 
rarely  four  stamens ;  the  ovary  is  free,  2-celIed,  the 
cells  2-seeded ;  the  fruit  is  a  drupe,  a  capsule,  or 
a  samara  (sue  these  heads) ;  the  cotyledons  are 
60 


foliaceous.  Nearly  150  species  are  known,  mostly 
natives  of  temperate  countries.  Among  them  are 
the  olive,  ash,  lilac,  privet,  phillyrea,  fringe  tree, 
&c.  Between  some  of  these  there  is  a  great  dis- 
similarity, so  that  this  order  is  apt  to  be  regarded 
as  a  very  heterogeneous  group  ;  but  the  real  affinity 
of  the  species  composing  it  is  manifested  by  ths 
fact,  that  even  those  which  seem  most  unlike  can  be 
grafted  one  upon  another,  as  the  lilac  or  the  olive 
on  the  ash.  Bitter,  astringent,  and  tonic  properties 
are  prevalent  in  this  order. 

OLEA'NDER  (Nerium),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Apocynacea;  having  a  5-parted  calyx, 
set  round  on  the  inside  at  the  base  with  many 
tooth -like  points  or  glands,  a  salver-shaped  5-cleft 
corolla,  in  the  throat  of  which  is  a  5-parted  and 
toothed  or  lacerated  corona,  five  stamens,  the  anthers 
adhering  to  the  stigma,  the  fruit  composed  of  two 
follicles.  The  species  are  evergreen  shrubs  with 
leathery  leaves,  which  are  opposite  or  in  threes ; 
the  flowers  in  false  umbels,  terminal  or  axillary. 
The  Common  0.  (N.  oleander),  a  native  of  the  south 
of  Europe,  the  north  of  Africa,  and  many  of  the 
warmer  temperate  parts  of  Asia,  is  frequently 
planted  in  many  countries  as  an  ornamental  shrub, 
and  is  not  uncommon  in  Britain  as  a  window-plant. 
It  has  beautiful  red,  or  sometimes  white,  flowers. 
The  English  call  it  Rose  Bay,  and  the  French  Rose 
Laurel  (Lauriei-  Rose).  It  attains  a  height  of  eight 
or  ten  feet.  Its  flowers  give  a  splendid  appearance 
to  many  ruins  in  the  south  of  Italy.  It  delights  in 
moist  situations,  and  is  often  found  near  streams. 
All  parts  of  it  contain  a  bitter  and  narcotic-acrid 
juice,  poisonous  to  men  and  cattle,  which  flows  out 
as  a  white  milk  when  young  twigs  are  broken  off. 
Cases  of  poisoning  have  occurred  by  children 
eating  its  flowers,  and  even  by  the  use  of  the  wood  for 
spits  or  skewers  in  roasting  meat.  Its  exhalations 
are  injurious  to  those  who  remain  long  under  their 
influence,  particularly  to  those  who  sleep  under  it. 
A  decoction  of  the  leaves  or  baik  is  much  used  in 
the  south  of  France  as  a  wash  to  cure  cutaneous 
maladies. — iV.  odoralum,  an  Indian  species,  has 
larger  flowers,  which  are  very  fragrant. — N. 
piscidium  (or  Eschaltum  piscidium),  a  perennial 
climber,  a  native  of  the  Kasya  Hills,  has  a  very 
fibrous  bark,  the  fibre  of  which  is  used  in  India 
as  hemp.  The  steeping  of  the  stems  in  ponds  kdla 
fish. 

OLEASTER.     See  Eljeagnt/s. 

O'LEFIANT  GAS  or  ETHYLENE  (C2H4)  W 
transparent  and  colourless,  possesses  an  alliaceous 
odour,  and  is  poisonous  when  breathed.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  0*978.  It  takes  fire  when  brought  in 
contact  with  a  flame,  and  burns  with  a  bright  clear 
light.  When  this  gas  is  mixed  with  oxygen  or 
atmospheric  air  in  the  proportion  of  1  volume  with 
3  volumes  of  oxygen,  or  with  15  volumes  of  atmo- 
spheric air,  it  forms  a  powerfully  explosive  mixture. 
It  is  more  soluble  in  cold  than  in  hot  water — 100 
volumes  of  water  at  32°  absorbing  26-5  volumes  of 
the  gas,  while  at  68°  they  only  absorb  1 4  volumes. 
It  was  liquefied  by  Faraday,  under  great  pressure, 
but  remained  unfrozen  at  — 166°.  If  it  be  conducted 
through  strongly-heated  tubes,  or  if  a  continuous 
series  of  electric  sparks  be  passed  through  it,  it 
is  decomposed  into  a  very  dense  black  carbon,  and 
double  its  own  volume  of  hydrogen;  and  if  it  is 
subjected  to  a  less  intense  heat,  the  products  of 
decomposition  are  carbon  and  light  carburetted 
hydrogen  or  marsh  gas  (C.H4).  Chlorine  acts  upon 
this  gas  in  a  very  remarkable  manner.  When  the 
two  gases  are  mixed  in  equal  volumes,  they  combine 
to  form  a  heavy  oily  liquid,  to  which  the  term 
chloride  of   ethylene,   or  Dutch    Liquid   (q.  v.),  is 


OLEIC  ACID -OLERON. 


jpven.  It  is  from  this  reaction  that  the  term  olefiant 
was  originally  applied  t<>  this  gas. 

Olefiant  gas  is  a  constituent  of  the  gaseous  explo- 
sive admixtures  that  accumulate  in  coal  pits,  and 
of  the  gaseous  products  yielded  by  the  distillation 
of  wood,  resinous  matters,  and  coal  ;  ami  the 
hnuhtness  of  the  flame  of  ordinary  gas  is  in  a  ureat 
measure  dependent  upon  the  quantity  of  olefiant 
gas  that  is  present. 

This  gas  is  most  readily  obtained  by  the  action 
Ot  oil  of  vitriol  on  alcohol  ;  the  reactions  that  ensue 
aie  too  complicated  to  be  described  in  these  pages. 

O'LEIC  ACID  (Ci&HmOj),  at  temperatures  above 
57°,  exists  as  a  Colourless  Umpid  thud,  of  an  oily  con- 
sistence, devoid  of  smell  and  taste,  and  (if  it  litis  not 

been  exposed  to  air)  exerting  no  action  on  vegetable 

colours.  At  40°,  it  solidifies  into  a  firm,  white,  crys- 
talline mass,  and  iii  this  state  it  undergoes  no  change 
in  the  nir;  but  when  lluid,  it  readily  absorbs  oxygen, 
becomes  yellow  and  rancid,  and  exhibits  a  strong  acid 
renetion  with  litmus  paper.  It  is  not  a  volatile  acid, 
and  on  the  application  of  a  Strong  heat,  it  breaks  up 
into  several  substances,  such  as  caproic,  caprylic,  and 
sebacic  acids — the  last-named  being  the  most  charac- 
teristic product  of  the  distillation.  If  oleic  acid  be 
exposed  to  the  action  of  nitric  peroxide  (NO*),  it  is 
converted  into  an  isomeric,  solid,  fatty  acid,  termed 
elaidie  acid.  A  very  small  quantity  of  nitric  peroxide 
(1  part  to  200  of  oleic  acid)  is  sufficient  to  effect  this 
remarkable  change.  Elaidie  acid  dissolves  in  alco- 
hol, and  is  deposited  from  the  concentrated  solution 
in  lamina?  resembling  benzoic  acid.  When  distilled 
with  moderately  strong  nitric  acid^  oleic  acid  is  oxi- 
dised into  a  large  number  of  products,  including 
all  the  volatile  fatty  acids  represented  by  the  formula 
CnII-;„<)2,  from  formic  acid  (CH2O2)  to  capric  acid 
(C10H20O2),  with  9  fixed  dibasic  acids  of  the  formula 
C„Il2„_2()4,  viz.,  succinic,  oxalic,  malonic,  lipic,  adi- 
pic,  pimelic,  suberic,  anchoic,  and  sebaeic.  When 
heated  with  hydrate  of  potassium,  it  <jives  off  hydro- 
gen, and  forms  palmitate  and  acetate  of  potassium: 

Oleic  acid.  Hydrate  of  Potasatum. 

C18H3402      +     2KIIO   = 

Palmitate  of  Potassium.      Acetate  of  Potassium. 


CisH3i,KOa  +  CaHs,KOa  +  H2. 
These  decompositions  and  disintegrations  seem  to 
illustrate  the  facility  with  which,  by  the  mere  pro- 
cess of  oxidation,  which  is  perpetually  at  work  in 
living  structures,  one  organic  acid  can  be  converted 
into  others. 

Oleic  acid  is  a  constituent  of  Oleine  (q.  v.),  which 
exists  in  most  of  the  fats  and  fatty  oils  of  the  animal 
and  vegetable  kingdoms,  and  most  abundantly  in 
the  liquid  fats  or  oils,  and  hence  its  name  is  derived. 
It  is  very  difficult  to  obtain  the  acid  in  a  state 
of  purity,  in  consequence  of  the  readiness  with 
which  it  oxidises ;  and  we  shall  not  enter  into 
details  regarding  the  method  of  its  preparation.  It 
is  obtained  in  a  crude  form,  as  a  secondary  product, 
In  the  manufacture  of  stearine  candles  ;  but  almond 
oil  is  generally  employed  when  the  pure  acid  is 
required. 

Oleic  acid  forms  normal  (or  neutral)  and  acid 
salts ;  but  the  only  compounds  of  this  class  that 
require  notice  are  the  normal  salts  of  the  alkalies. 
These  are  all  soluble,  and  by  the  evaporation  of 
their  aqueous  solution,  form  soaps.  Oleate  of  potash 
forms  a  soft  soap,  which  is  the  chief  ingredient  in 
Naples  soap  ;  while  oleate  of  soda  is  a  hard  soap, 
which  enters  largely  into  the  composition  of 
Marseille  soap. 

The  oleates  of  the  alkalies  occur  in  the  animal 
body,  in  the  blood,  chyle,  lymph,  and  bile;  they 


have  also  been  found  in  pus,  in  pulmonary  tubercles 
and  in  the  excrements,  after  the  administration  of 
purgatives, 

(yLEIN,  or  TRIOLEIN  (CwHtoiOs),  is  obtained  by 
heating  a  mixture  of  oleic  acid  and  glycerin.     See 

GLYCERIN.  Pnreolein  is  a  colourless  and  inodorous 
oil,  which  solidities  into  acirular  crystals  at  about 
23°,  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  only  slightly  soluble 
in  cold  alcohol,  but  dissolves  in  ether  in  all  propor- 
tions. By  exposure  to  the  air,  it  darkens  in  colour, 
becomes  acid  and  rancid  (from  the  gradual  decompo- 
sition of  the  oleic  acid),  and   finally  assumes  a  re-i- 

noid  appearance.  Nitric  peroxide  converts  it  into  an 
isomeric,  white,  solid  fat,  named  elaidin — the  glvce- 
ride  of  the  elaidie  acid  described  in  the  preceding 
article. 

Olein  is  also  obtained  by  cooling  olive  oil  to  32°, 
which  occasions  the  separation  of  the  stearin  and  pal- 
mitin  in  a  solid  form.  The  fluid  portion  is  then  dis- 
solved in  alcohol,  which,  on  being  cooled  to  32°, 
deposits  in  a  solid  form  everything  but  olein,  which 
is  obtained  in  a  pure  state  by  driving  off  by  heat  th« 
alcohol  from  the  decanted  or  filtered  solution. 

The  drying  oils,  such  as  those  of  linseed,  hemp, 
walnut,  poppy,  &C,  contain  a  variety  of  olein,  which 
is  not  converted  into  elaidin  by  the  action  of  nitric 
peroxide,  or  of  subnitrate  of  mercury,  which,  when 
prepared  without  the  aid  of  heat,  contains  enough  of 
the  acid  to  produce  a  similar  effect.  Hence,  these 
substances  may  be  used  to  detect  fraudulent  adul- 
terations of  olive  or  almond  od  with  poppy  and 
other  cheap  drying  ods. 

OLEO'METEll,  or  ELAIOMETER,  an  instru- 
ment for  ascertaining  the  densities  of  fixed  oils.  It 
consists  of  a  very  delicate  thermometer-tube,  the  bulb 
being  large  in  proportion  to  the  stem.  It  is  divided 
into  fifty  degrees,  and  floats  at  zero  in  pure  oU  of 
poppy-seed,  at  38°  to  384°  in  pure  oil  of  almonds, 
and  at  50°  in  pure  olive  oil. 

O  LEOPHOSPHO'RIC  ACID  is  a  yellow  viscid 
substance,  which  is  insoluble  in  water  and  cold 
alcohol,  but  dissolves  readily  in  boiling  alcohol  and 
in  ether.  When  boiled  for  a  long  time  with  water 
or  with  alcohol,  or  when  treated  with  an  acid,  it 
resolves  itself  into  olein  and  phosphoric  acid ;  whUe 
alkalies  decompose  it  into  phosphoric  acid,  oleates, 
and  glycerin.  It  exists,  according  to  Fremy  and 
other  chemists,  in  the  brain,  spinal  cord,  kidneys, 
and  liver. 

OLERON,  Isle  of  (anc.  Uliarus),  an  island  of 
France,  forming  a  portion  of  the  department  of 
Charente-Infgrieure,  lies  off  the  west  coast  of 
France,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  river  Charente. 
It  is  19  miles  long,  and  about  5  miles  broad,  and  is 
unusually  fertile,  producing  abundantly  all  the  crops 
grown  in  the  department  to  which  it  belongs.  See 
(Jharente-Inferieure.  At  its  northern  extremity, 
is  the  light-house  of  Chassiron.  In  the  seaport  of 
01§ron,  distilleries,  rope- walks,  and  ship-building 
yards  are  in  operation.  The  town  of  Sainte-Pierre- 
d'Oleron  (pop.  1556)  stands  near  the  centre  of  ttie 
island.     The  pop.  of  the  island  is  given  at  16,000. 

OLERON,  Laws  of,  or  Jugements  d'Oleron,  a 
celebrated  code  of  maritime  law  compiled  in  France 
in  the  reign  of  St  Louis,  and  so  numed  from  a 
groundless  story,  that  it  was  enacted  by  Richard  I. 
of  England  during  the  time  that  his  expedition  to 
Palestine  lay  at  anchor  at  that  island.  Tl>e  real 
origin  of  these  laws  was  a  written  code,  called 
II  Consolato  del  Mare,  of  about  the  middle  of  the 
13th  c,  compiled  either  at  Barcelona  or  at  Pisa, 
forming  the  established  usages  of  Venice  and  the 
other  Mediterranean  states,  and  acceded  to  by  the 
kings  of  France  and  counts  of  Provence.  Besides 
containing  regulations  simply  mercantile,  this  system 

61 


OLGA,  ST-OLIVAREZ. 


defined  the  mutual  rights  of  belligerent  and  neutral 
vessels,  as  they  have  been  since  understood  in  modern 
international  law.  The  so-called  laws  of  Oleron  were 
a  code  of  regulations  borrowed  from  the  Consolato, 
which  for  several  centuries  were  adopted  as  the 
basis  of  their  maritime  law  by  all  the  nations  of 
Europe,  Copies  of  the  Jugements  iV Oleron  are 
appended  to  some  ancient  editions  of  the  Coutumier 
de  Normandie.    See  Normandy,  Customary  Law 

OF. 

OLGA,  St,  a  saint  of  the  Russian  Church,  wife 
of  the  Duke  Igor  of  Kiev,  who,  having  undertaken 
an  expedition  against  Constantinople,  which  proved 
unsuccessful,  was  slain  on  his  return  to  his  own 
dominions.  His  widow  0.  avenged  his  death, 
assumed  the  government  in  his  stead,  and  for  many 
years  governed  with  much  prudence  and  suc- 
cess. Having  resigned  the  government  to  her 
eon  Vratislaf  about  the  year  952,  she  repaired  to 
Constantinople,  where  she  was  baptized,  by  the 
patriarch  Theophilaktes,  and  received  into  the 
church,  assuming  at  baptism  the  name  of  Helena,  in 
honour  of  St  Helena,  mother  of  Constantine.  She 
returned  to  Russia,  and  laboured  with  much  zeal 
for  the  propagation  of  her  new  creed  ;  but  she 
failed  in  her  attempt  to  induce  her  son,  Sw'antoslav, 
to  embrace  Cliristianity.  Her  grandson,  Vladimir, 
having  married  Chrysoberga,  the  sister  of  the 
emperors  of  Constantinople,  Basil  and  Constantine, 
was  baptized  in  the  year  9S8;  but  his  grandmother 
did  not  live  to  enjoy  this  gratification,  having  died 
in  978,  or,  according  to  other  authorities,  as  early  as 
970.  She  is  held  in  high  veneration  in  the  Russian 
Church.  Her  festival  is  held  on  July  21,  and  the 
practice  of  venerating  her  appears  to  date  from  the 
early  period  of  the  Russian  Church,  before  the 
schism  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches. 

OLI'BANUM,  a  gum-resin,  which  flows  from 
incisions  made  in  Boswellia  serrata,  a  tree  found  in 
Borne  parts  of  the  East.  See  Boswellia.  It  is  the 
Lebotiah  of  the  Hebrews,  Libanos  or  Libanolos  of 
the  Greeks,  Thus  of  the  Romans,  of  all  which  terms 
the  ordinary  English  translation  is  Frankincense 
(q.  v.).  It  occurs  in  commerce  in  semi-transparent 
yellowish  tears  and  masses ;  has  a  bitter  nauseous 
taste ;  is  hard,  brittle,  and  capable  of  being  pul- 
verised ;  and  diffuses  a  strong  aromatic  odour  when 
burned.  It  was  formerly  used  in  medicine,  chiefly 
to  restrain  excessive  mucous  discharges  ;  but  its  use 
for  such  purposes  is  now  rare.  It  sometimes  enters 
as  an  ingredient  into  stimulating  plasters.  It  is 
chiefly  employed  for  fumigation,  and  is  used  as 
incense  in  Roman  Catholic  churches.  It  is  some- 
times distinctively  called  Indian  O.  ;  a  similar  sub- 
stance, in  smaller  tears,  called  African  0.,  being 
produced  by  Boswellia  papyri/era,  a  tree  found 
growing  on  bare  limestone  rocks  in  the  east  of 
Abyssinia,  and  sending  its  roots  to  a  great  depth 
into  the  crevices  of  the  rock.  The  middle  layers  of 
the  bark  are  of  fine  texture,  and  are  used  instead  of 
paper  for  writing. 

O'LIFANT'S  RIVER.  Two  considerable  streams 
of  this  name  are  found  in  the  Cape  Colony.  The 
Olifant's  River  West  rises  in  the  Winterhoek  Moun- 
tains, and  enters  the  Atlantic  in  lat.  31°  40',  after  a 
course  of  150  miles,  and  a  basin  of  drainage  of 
25,000  square  miles. — The  Olifant's  River  East  drains 
a  great  part  of  the  district  of  George,  and  joins  the 
Gauritz  River  60  miles  above  the  entrance  of  that 
river  into  the  sea.  Its  course  is  upwards  of  150 
miles  in  length,  and  it  is  more  available  for  irriga- 
tion than  almost  any  other  Cape  river. 

O'LIGAKCHY  (oligos,  few,  and  archo,  to  govern), 
a  term  applied  by  Greek  political  writers  to  that 
perversion  of  an  aristocracy  in  which  the  rule  of  the 

a 


dominant  part  of  the  community  ceases  to  be  the 
exponent  of  the  general  interests  of  the  state,  owing 
to  the  cessation  of  those  substantial  grounds  of  pre- 
eminence in  which  an  aristocracy  originated.  The 
governing  power  in  these  circumstances  becomes  a 
faction,  whose  efforts  are  chiefly  devoted  to  their 
own  aggrandisement  and  the  extension  of  their 
power  and  privileges. 

OLINDA,   a   suburb   of    the    Brazilian   city  of 

Pernambuco  (q.  v.). 

O  LIP  II A  NT,  Mrs  Margaret,  a  Scottish 
authoress  of  considerable  celebrity  in  her  own 
country,  was  l>orn  about  the  year  1820.  The 
prevalent  impression  thstt  she  is  a  Scotchwoman, 
naturally  enough  derived  from  the  obvious  fondness 
with  which  in  her  earlier  works  she  has  treated 
Scottish  character  and  incident,  is  not  strictly 
correct.  She  is  a  native  of  Liverpool ;  her 
mother  was,  however,  a  Scotchwoman  of  a  some- 
what remarkable  type,  strongly  attached  to  old 
traditions.  In  1S49,  Mrs  O.  published  her  first 
work,  Passages  in  the  Life  of  Mrs  Margaret  Mail- 
land  of  Sunny  side,  which  instantly  won  attention 
and  approval.  Its  most  distinctive  charm  is  the 
tender  humour  and  insight  which  regulate  its 
exquisite  delineation  of  Scottish  life  and  character 
at  once  in  their  higher  and  lower  levels.  This 
work  was  followed  by  Merldand  (1851);  Adam 
Graeme  of  Mossgray  (1852);  Harry  Muir  (1853); 
Magdalen  Hepburn  (1354)  ;  Lillicsleaf  (1855)  ;  and 
subsequently  by  Zaidee,  Katie  Stewart,  and  The 
Quiet  Heart,  which  originally  appeared  in  succes- 
sion in  Blackwood's  Magazine.  Though  these  are 
of  somewhat  various  merit,  in  all  of  them  the 
peculiar  talent  of  the  writer  is  marked  They  are  rich 
in  the  minute  detad  which  is  dear  to  the  womanly 
mind  ;  have  nice  and  subtle  insights  into  character, 
a  flavour  of  quiet  humour,  and  frequent  traits  of 
delicacy  and  pathos  in  the  treatment  of  the  gentler 
emotions.  It  is,  however,  on  the  Chronicles  of 
Carlingford  that  her  reputation  as  a  novelist  most 
securely  rests.  In  the  first  of  the  two  sections 
separately  published,  apart  from  its  other  merits, 
which  are  great,  the  character  of  little  Netty,  the 
heroine,  vivifies  the  whole  work,  and  may  rank 
as  an  original  creation.  The  other,  Salem  Chapel, 
perhaps  indicates  a  wider  and  more  vigorous  grasp 
than  is  to  be  found  in  any  other  work  of  the 
authoress.  Certain  of  the  unlovelier  features  of 
English  dissent,  as  exhibited  in  a  small  provincial 
community,  are  here  graphically  sketched,  and 
adapted  with  admirable  skill  to  the  purposes  of 
fiction.  In  1869,  she  published  The  Minister's  Wife ; 
in  1870,  John,  a  Love  Story  ;  and  Three  Brothers; 
in  1871,  Squire  Arden  and  Ombra ;  in  1872,  At  fits 
Gates;  in  1873,  Innocent,  a  Tale  of  Modern  Life;  in 

1874,  A  Rose  in  June  and  For  Love  and  Life  ;  and  in 

1875,  Valentine  and  his  Brother  and  The  Curate  in 
Charge.  In  her  Life  of  Edward  Irving,  published  in 
1862;  St  Francis  of  Assisi  (1870),  and  Memoir  of  the 
Comte  de  Montalembert  (1872),  she  has  made  most 
valuable  contributions  to  biographical  literature. 

OLIVAREZ,  Don  Gasparo  de  Guzman,  Count 
of,  Duke  of  San  Lucar,  and  prime-minister  of  Philip 
IV.  of  Spain,  was  born  on  January  6, 1587,  at  Rome, 
where  his  father  was  ambassador.  He  belonged  to 
a  distinguished  but  impoverished  famdy,  received  a 
learned  education,  became  the  friend  of  Philip  IV., 
his  confidant  in  his  amours,  and  afterwards  his 
prime-minister,  in  which  capacity  he  exercised 
almost  unlimited  power  for  twenty -two  years.  O. 
shewed  ability  for  government,  but  his  constant 
endeavour  was  to  wring  money  from  the  country 
that  he  might  carry  on  wars.  His  oppressive 
measures    caused    insurrections    in  Catalonia    and 


OLIVE-OLIVES. 


Andaliaia,  and  roused  the  Portuguese  to  shake  off 
the  Spanish  ytke  in  1(540,  ami  make  the  Duke  of 
Braganza  their  king,  <xn  event  which  O.  reported  to 
Philip  with  satisfaction,  as  it  enabled  him  to  con- 
fiscate the  duke's  great  estates  in  Spain.  Hut  the 
anus  of  Spain  being  unsuccessful  the  kino;  was 
obliged  to  dismiss  the  minister  in  1643.      He  would 

Itrobably  have  been  recalled  to  the  head  of  affairs, 
nit  for  a  publication  in  which  lie  gave  offence  to 
many  persons  of  influence.  He  was  ordered  to 
retire  to  Toro,  and  confine  himself  to  that  place, 
where  he  died,  12th  July  1015.  (Cespedes,  Hist.  De 
Felipe  I  V.) 

OLIVE  (Oka),  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  of 
the  natural  order  OleacecB;  having  opposite,  ever- 
green, leathery  leaves,  which  are  generally  entire, 
smooth,  and  minutely  scaly  ;  small  flowers  in  com- 
pound  axillary  racemes,  or  in  thyrsi  at  the  end  of 
the  twigs  ;  a  small  4- toothed  calyx,  a  4-cleft  corolla, 
two  stamens,  a  2-cleft  stigma  ;  the  fruit  a  drupe. 
The  species  are  widely  distributed  in  the  warmer 
temperate  parts  of  the  globe.  The  Common  O. 
(U.  Europaa),  a  native  of  Syria  and  other  Asiatic 
countries,  and  perhaps  also  of  the  south  of  Europe, 
although  probably  it  is  there  rather  naturalised 
than  uidigenous,  is  in  its  wild  state  a  thorny  shrub 


Common  Olive  (Olea  Europeea)  : 

c,  fruit  reduced ;   6,  flower ;    c,   flower   with  corolla  and 

stamens  removed  to  shew  the  pistil. 

or  small  tree,  but  through  cultivation  becomes  a 
tree  of  20 — 40  feet  high,  destitute  of  spines.  It 
attains  a  prodigious  age.  The  cultivated  varieties 
are  very  numerous,  differing  in  the  breadth  of 
the  leaves,  and  in  other  characters.  The  leaves 
resemble  those  of  a  willow,  are  lanceolate,  entire,  of 
a  dull  dark-green  colour  above,  scaly  and  whitish- 
gray  beneath  ;  the  flowers  small  and  white,  in  short 
dense  racemes  ;  the  fruit  greenish,  whitish,  violet,  or 
even  black,  never  larger  than  a  pigeon's  egg,  gene- 
rally oval,  sometimes  globular,  or  obovate,  or  acu- 
minate. The  fruit  is  produced  in  vast  profusion,  so 
that  an  old  olive-tree  becomes  very  valuable  to  its 
owner.  It  is  chiefly  from  the  pericarp  that  olive 
oil  is  obtained,  not  from  the  seed,  contrary  to  the 
general  rule  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Olive  oil  is 
much  used  as  an  article  of  food  in  the  countries  in 
which  it  is  produced,  and  to  a  smaller  extent  in 
other  countries,  to  which  it  is  exported  also  for 
medicinal  and  other  uses  (see  Oils).  Olives, 
gathered   before  they  are  quite  ripe,  are  pickled 


in  various  ways,  being  usually  first  «tepj>ed  in 
lime-water,  by  which  they  are  rendered  softer  and 
mililer  in  taste.  They  are  well  known  as  a 
restorative  of  the  palate,  and  are  also  said  to 
promote  digestion.  Disagreeable  as  they  generally 
are  at  tirst,  they  are  soon  greatly  relished,  and  in 
the  south  of  Europe  are  even  a  considerable  article 
of  food.  Dried  olives  are  there  also  used,  as  well  as 
pickled  olives. — The  wood  of  the  olive-tree  takes  a 
beautiful  polish,  and  has  black  cloudy  spots  and 
veins  on  a  greenish-yellow  ground  ;  it  is  j  rincipally 
used  for  the  finest  purposes  by  cabinet-makers  ai.d 
turners.  The  wood  of  the  root  is  marked  in  a 
peculiarly  beautiful  manner,  and  is  used  for  making 
snuff-boxes  and  small  ornamental  articles.  The 
hark  of  the  tree  is  bitter  and  astringent  ;  and  both 
it  and  the  leaves  have  febrifuge  properties.  A  gum 
resin  exudes  from  old  stems,  which  much  resembles 
storax,  has  an  odour  like  vanilla,  and  is  used  in  all 
parts  of  Italy  for  perfumery. — Among  the  Greeks, 
the  O.  was  sacred  to  Pallas  Athene  (Minerva),  who 
was  honoured  as  the  bestower  of  it ;  it  was  also 
the  emblem  of  chastity.  A  crown  of  olive-twigs  was 
the  highest  distinction  of  a  citizen  who  had  merited 
well  of  his  couutry,  and  the  highest  prize  of  the 
victor  in  the  Olympic  games.  An  olive  branch  was 
also  the  symbol  of  peace  (compare  Gen.  viii.  11)  ; 
and  the  vanquished,  who  came  to  supplicate  for 
peace,  bore  olive-branches  in  their  hands. — The  0. 
has  been  cultivated  in  Syria,  Palestine,  and  other 
parts  of  the  east,  from  the  earliest  times.  Its  culti- 
vation extends  southwards  as  far  as  Cairo,  and 
northwards  to  the  middle  of  France.  It  is  very 
generally  propagated  by  suckers,  but  where  great 
care  is  bestowed  on  it,  inarching  is  practised.  It 
grows  from  cuttings.  The  climate  of  England  is 
too  cold  for  the  0.,  yet  in  Devonshire  it  ripens  its 
fruit  on  a  south  wall. — Olea  similis  and  several 
other  species  are  useful  trees  of  South  Africa,  yield- 
ing a  very  hard  and  extremely  durable  wood.  Some 
of  them  bear  the  name  of  Ironwood  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  The  American  O.  (O.  Americana)  is 
also  remarkable  for  the  hardness  of  its  wood.  It 
is  found  as  far  north  as  Virginia.  It  is  a  tree  of  30 
— 35  feet  high,  with  much  broader  leaves  than  the 
Common  Olive.  Its  fruit  is  fit  for  use.  Its  flowers 
are  fragrant.  The  Fragrant  0.  (O.  fragrant,  or 
Osmanthus  fragrans)  of  China  and  Japan  has 
extremely  fragrant  flowers,  which  are  used  by  the 
Chinese  for  flavouring  tea. 

O'LIVENITE,  a  mineral,  consisting  chiefly  of 
arsenic  acid  and  protoxide  of  copper,  with  a  little 
phosphoric  acid  and  a  little  water.  It  is  generally 
of  some  dark  shade  of  green,  sometimes  brown  or 
yellow.  It  is  found  along  with  different  ores  of 
copper  in  Cornwall  and  elsewhere.  It  is  often 
crystallised  in  obbque  four-sided  prisms,  of  which 
the  extremities  are  acutely  bevelled,  and  the  obtuse 
lateral  edges  sometimes  truncated,  or  in  acute  double 
four-sided  pyramids  ;  it  is  sometimes  also  spherical, 
kidney- shaped,  columnar,  or  fibrous. 

O'LIVES,  Mount  of,  called  also  Mount  Olivxt, 
an  inconsiderable  ridge  lying  on  the  east  sido  of 
Jerusalem,  from  which  it  is  only  separated  by  the 
narrow  Valley  of  Jehosaphat.  It  is  called  by  the 
modern  Arabs  Jebel-el-Tur,  and  takes  its  familiar 
name  from  a  magnificent  grove  of  olive-trees  which 
once  stood  on  its  western  flank,  but  has  now 
in  great  part  disappeared.  The  road  to  Mount 
Olivet  is  through  St  Stephen's  Gate,  and  leads  by 
a  stone  bridge  over  the  now  almost  waterless  brook 
Cedron.  Immediately  beyond,  at  the  foot  of  the 
bridge,  lies  the  Garden  of  Gethsemane ;  and  the 
road  here  parts  into  two  branches,  northwards 
towards  Galilee,  and  eastwards  to   Jericho.      The 

63 


OLIVETANS— OLORON. 


ridjre  rises  in  three  peaks,  the  central  one  of  which 
is  2556  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  416  feet 
nhove  the  Valley  of  Jchoshapliat.  The  southern 
summit  is  now  called  '  the  Mount  of  Offense  '  and  was 
the  scene  of  the  idolatrous  worship  established  by 
Solomon  for  his  foreign  wives  and  concubines.  The 
northern  peak  is  the  supposed  scene  of  the  appear- 
ance of  the  angels  to  the  disciples  after  the  resurrec- 
tion, and  is  remarkable  in  Jewish  history  as  the 
place  in  which  Titus  formed  his  encampment  in  the 
expedition  against  the  fated  city  of  Jerusalem.  But 
it  is  around  the  central  peak,  which  is  the  Mount  of 
0.  properly  so  called,  that  all  the  most  sacred  asso- 
ciations of  Christian  history  converge.  On  the 
summit  stands  the  Church  of  the  Ascension,  built 
originally  by  St  Helen,  the  modern  church  being 
now  in  the  hands  of  the  Armenian  community ;  and 
near  it  are  shewn  the  various  places  where,  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  our  Lord  wept  over  Jerusalem, 
■where  the  apostles  composed  the  apostles'  creed, 
where  our  Lord  taught  them  the  Lord's  Prayer,  &c. 
Near  the  Church  of  the  Ascension  is  a  mosque  and 
the  tomb  of  a  Mohammedan  saint.  In  the  Garden 
of  Gethsemane,  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  is  shewn  the 
scene  of  our  Lord's  agony.  The  northern  peak 
spreads  out  into  a  plain  of  considerable  extent, 
which  is  painfully  notable  in  Jewish  history  as  the 
place  where,  after  the  Jews  on  occasion  of  the 
revolt  under  Bar-Kochebah,  were  debarred  by 
Adrian  from  entering  Jerusalem,  they  were  wont  to 
assemble  annually  on  the  anniversary  of  the  burn- 
ing of  the  Temple  to  celebrate  this  mournful  anni- 
versary, and  to  take  a  distant  look  at  their  beloved 
Jerusalem.  The  scene  is  beautifully  described,  and 
with  much  dramatic  feeling,  by  St  Jerome. — Com. 
in  Sophoniam,  t.  iii.  p.  1665. 

OLIVETANS,  a  religious  order  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  one  of  the  many  remarkable  pro- 
ducts of  that  well-known  spiritual  movement 
which  characterised  the  12th  and  13th  centuries. 
The  0.,  or  Brethren  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Olivet, 
are  an  offshoot  of  the  great  Benedictine  Order  (q.  v.), 
and  derive  their  origin  from  John  Tolomei,  a  native 
of  Siena,  born  in  the  year  1272.  Tolomei  had 
been  a  distinguished  professor  of  philosophy  in  the 
university  of  his  native  city ;  but  his  career  was  sud- 
denly interrupted  by  the  loss  of  his  sight.  Although 
he  was  cured  of  his  blindness  (and,  as  he  himself 
believed,  miraculously),  this  visitation  convinced 
him  of  the  vanity  of  earthly  things  ;  and  in  cora- 
oany  with  some  friends  he  withdrew  to  a  solitary 
place  near  Siena,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
prayer  and  religious  exercises.  By  the  direction  of 
the  pope,  John  XXII.,  the  new  brethren  adopted  the 
Benedictine  rule  ;  but  they  chose  as  their  especial 
province  the  cultivation  of  sacred  science,  and  the 
duty  of  teaching.  In  the  year  1319,  Tolomei  was 
chosen  as  the  first  general ;  and  even  in  his  lifetime 
the  institute  made  rapid  progress,  especially  in  Italy. 
It  numbered  at  one  time  eighty  houses,  but  at 
present  the  number  is  reduced  to  four — namely,  the 
parent  house,  so  called,  of  Monte  Oliveto,  in  the 
diocese  of  Arezzo  in  Tuscany,  one  at  Rome,  one  at 
Genoa,  and  one  at  Palermo.  The  0.  order  has  pro- 
duced many  distinguished  ecclesiastics. 

OLIVINE.    See  Chrysolite. 

O'LLA  PODRI'DA  (literally,  putrid  pot),  a 
Spanish  term,  originally  signifying  an  accumulation 
of  remains  of  flesh,  vegetables,  &c,  thrown  together 
into  a  pot,  but  generally  employed  to  designate  a 
favourite  national  dish  of  the  Spaniards,  consisting 
of  a  mixture  of  different  kinds  of  meat  and  vege- 
tables stewed  together.  It  has  also  come  to  be 
figuratively  applied  to  literary  productions  of  very 
miscellaneous  contents.  The  French  equivalent  is 
64 


pot-pourri,  and  the  Scotch  hotch-potch,  both  of 
which,  but  especially  the  former,  are  also  employed 
in  a  figurative  sense. 

O'LMUTZ,  the  chief  fortress  of  Moravia,  Austria, 
is  the  capital  of  a  distinct  of  the  same  name,  and 
is  situated  in  lat.  49°  36'  N.,  and  in  long.  17°  15'  E., 
on  an  island  of  the  river  Morava,  which,  by  means 
of  sluices,  can  be  opened  into  the  moats,  and  thus 
made  available  for  purposes  of  defence.  O.  is  the 
see  of  an  archbishop,  nominated  by  the  chapter,  and 
is  the  chief  seat  of  the  administrative  departments. 
It  has  a  university,  founded  in  1581,  dissolved  in 
1778,  and  reorganised  in  1827 ;  a  library  of  50,000 
vols. ;  good  natural  history,  physical,  and  other 
museums  ;  a  gymnasium,  an  archiepiscopal  seminary, 
artillery  and  infantry  academies,  polytechnic  and 
other  schools,  a  hospital,  an  asylum  for  widows 
and  orphans,  &c.  The  most  noteworthy  of  its  13 
churches  are  the  cathedral,  a  fine  old  building, 
and  the  church  of  St  Mauritius,  completed  in  1412, 
with  its  celebrated  organ,  having  48  stops,  and 
more  than  2000  pipes.  The  noble  town-hall, 
with  its  complicated  clock-work,  set  up  in 
1574,  and  the  lofty  column  on  the  Oberring, 
with  several  fine  fountains  in  the  squares,  and 
the  splendid  archiepi3C-jpal  palace  and  chapter- 
house, all  contribute  towards  the  picturesque  aspect 
for  which  O.  is  distinguished.  The  deficiency  in 
public  gardens  has  \>f  late  years  been  in  part  sup- 
plied by  the  draining  and  planting  of  some  of  the 
inner  moats,  and  the  conversion  of  some  portions 
of  the  fortiheationn  into  pleasure-grounds.  A  mile 
from  the  city  lies  the  recently-restored  monastery  of 
the  Premonstratensians  at  Hradisch,  founded  in  1074. 
O.  has  a  few  manufactories  of  kerseymere,  cloth,  linen, 
and  porcelain,  and  »s  the  seat  of  an  extensive  trade 
in  cattle  from  Poland  and  Moldavia.  Pop.  15,231. 
Prior  to  1777,  when  0.  was  raised  into  an  arch- 
bishopric, its  bishops  had  loDg  been  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  the  rank  of  princes  of  the  empire.  The  city 
suffered  severely  during  the  Thirty  Yfars'  W&r, 
and  again  in  the  Seven  Years'  Wars  of  Silesia, 
when  it  more  than  once  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Prussians.  In  1848,  Ferdinand  I.  signed  his  abdi- 
cation here  in  favour  of  his  nephew,  the  present 
emperor;  while  in  1850,  0.  was  chosen  as  the  placb 
of  conference  between  the  Prussian,  Austrian,  and 
Russian  plenipotentiaries,  for  the  adjustment  of 
the  conflicting  differences  which  had  arisen  in  the 
German  states  generally,  as  the  result  of  the  revo- 
lutionary movement  of  1848. 

OLONE'TZ,  a  government  in  the  north  of  Russia, 
bounded  on  the  W.  by  Finland,  and  on  the  E.  and 
N.-E  by  Archangel.  Area,  exclusive  of  water, 
49,104  square  miles.  Pop.  302.490.  Large  lakes 
abound  in  this  government,  the  chief,  after  Lako 
Onega  (q.  v.),  being  Lakes  Wygo  and  Sego.  The 
surface  is  in  general  elevated,  and  about  four- 
fifths  of  it  are  covered  with  wood.  The  soil  is 
sterile,  and  the  climate  is  cold  and  damp.  The 
wealth  of  the  government  consists  principally 
in  its  minerals.  Its  iron-mines  supply  the  iron- 
works of  Petrasowodsk,  and  from  its  quarries 
marbles  are  sent  to  St  Petersburg.  The  principal 
employments  of  the  inhabitants,  who  are  principally 
Russians  and  Finns,  and  belong  to  the  Greek 
Church,  are  carving  in  wood,  fishing  and  hunting. 
Many  of  them  also  are  employed  in  the  ironworks 
and  quarries.  The  women  weave  and  spin.  The 
government  derives  its  name  from  the  small  but 
ancient  town  of  Olonetz.  Petrasowodsk  is  the 
centre  of  administration. 

OLORON,  or  OLORON-SAINTE-MARIE,  a 
town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Basses- Pyre- 
nees, on  the  Gave  d'Oloron,  15  miles  south-west  of 


OLYMPIA— OLYMPIC  GAMES. 


Pau-  The  Church  of  St  Marie  is  in  the  transition 
style  from  Romanesque  to  Gothic.  The  principal 
articles  of  manufacture  are  the  chequered  hand- 
kerchiefs which  form  the  favourite  head-dresses  of 
the  peasantry  of  Aragon  and  Gasoony,  and  also  the 
'barrets'  or  caps  of  the  Bearnais.    Pop.  (1872)  7173. 

OLY'MPIA,  the  scene  of  the  celebrated  Olympic 
Games  (q.  v.),  is  a  beautiful  valley  in  Elis,  in  the 
Peloponnesus,  through  which  runs  the  river  Alpheus. 
As  a  national  sanctuary  of  the  (Jreeks,  0.  contained, 
within  a  small  space,  many  of  the  choicest  treasures 
of  Grecian  art  belonging  to  all  periods  and  states, 
such  as  temples,  monuments,  altars,  theatres,  and 
multitudes  of  images,  statues,  and  votive-offerings 
of  brass  and  marble.  In  the  time  of  the  elder  Pliny, 
there  still  stood  here  about  3000  statues.  The  Sacred 
Grove  (called  the  A  Ills)  of  Olympia,  enclosed  a  level 
space  about  4000  feet  long  by  nearly  2000  broad,  con- 
taining both  the  spot  appropriated  to  the  games  and 
the  sauctuaries  connected  with  them.  It  was  finely 
wooded,  and  in  its  centre  stood  a  clump  of  sycamores. 
The  Altis  was  crossed  from  west  to  east  by  a  road 
called  the  '  Pompic  Way,'  along  which  all  the  proces- 
sions passed.  The  Alpheus  bounded  it  on  the  south, 
the  Cladeus,  a  tributary  of  the  former,  on  the 
west,  and  rocky  but  gently  swelling  hills  on  the 
north  ;  westward  it  looked  towards  the  Ionian 
Sea.  The  most  celebrated  building  was  the  Olym- 
pieium,  or  Olympium,  dedicated  to  Olympian  Zeus. 
It  was  designed  by  the  architect  Libon  of  Elis  in 
the  6th  c.  B.C.,  but  was  not  completed  for  more 
than  a  century.  It  contained  a  colossal  statue  of 
the  god,  the  master-piece  of  the  sculptor  Phidias, 
and  many  other  splendid  figures  ;  its  paintings  were 
the  work  of  Panamus,  a  relative  of  Phidias.  Next 
to  the  Olympieium  ranked  the  Herazum,  dedicated 
to  Hera,  the  wife  of  Zeus,  and  the  Queen  of  Heaven, 
containing  the  table  on  which  were  placed  the 
garlands  prepared  for  the  victors  in  the  games ;  the 
Pelopium,  the  Metroum,  the  ten  Thesauri  or  Trea- 
suries, built  for  the  reception  of  the  dedicatory 
offerings  of  the  Greek  cities,  the  temples  of  Eilei- 
thyia  and  Aphrodite  also  deserve  mention ;  the 
Stadium  and  the  Hippodrome,  where  the  contests- 
took  place,  stood  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Altis. 
The  ploughshare  now  passes  through  the  scene  of 
these  contests,  but  many  ruins  still  attest  the 
ancient  magnificence  of  the  buildings.  Explorations, 
attended  with  great  success,  have  been  made  by  the 
French  commission  of  the  Morea. 

OLY'MPIAD  (Gr.  olympias),  the  name  given  to 
the  period  of  four  years  that  elapsed  between  two 
successive  celebrations  of  the  Olympic  Games 
(q.  v.) ;  a  mode  of  reckoning  which  forms  the 
most  celebrated  chronological  era  among  the 
Greeks.  The  first  recorded  olympiad  dates  from 
the  21st  or  22d  of  July  776  B.C.,  and  is  frequently 
referred  to  as  the  Olympiad  of  Coroebus ;  for 
historians,  instead  of  referring  to  the  olym- 
piad by  its  number,  frequently  designate  it  by  the 
name  of  the  winner  of  the  foot-race  in  the  Olympic 
games  belonging  to  that  period,  though  at  times 
both  the  number  and  the  name  of  the  conqueror 
are  given.  A  slight  indefiniteness  is  frequently 
introduced  into  Greek  chronology,  from  the  custom 
of  mentioning  only  the  olympiad,  neglecting  to 
specify  in  which  year  of  the  olympiad  a  certain 
event  happened.  As  this  era  commenced  in  776  BC, 
the  first  year  of  our  present  era  (1  A.  D.)  corresponded 
to  the  last  half  of  the  fourth  year  of  the  194th  with 
the  first  half  of  the  first  year  of  the  195th  olympiad, 
and  394  a.  d.  corresponds  to  the  second  year  of  the 
293d  olympiad,  at  which  time  reckoning  by  olym- 
piads terminated.  This  era  is  used  only  by  writers, 
and  is  never  found  on  coins,  and  very  seldom  on 
317 


inscriptions.  Another  Olympic  era,  known  as  the 
'New  Olympic  Era,'  was  commenced  by  the  Roman 
emperors,  and  dates  from  131  A.I).  ;  it  is  found  both 
in  writings,  public  documents,  and  inscriptions. 

OLY'MPIAS,  the  wife  of  Philip  II.,  king  of 
Macedon,  and  mother  of  Alexander  the  Great!  .She 
was  the  daughter  of  Neoptolemus  L,  king  of  Epirus. 
She  possessed  a  vigorous  understanding,  hut  was  of 
a  most  passionate,  jealous,  and  ambitions  character. 
Philip  having,  on  account  of  disagreements,  separated 
from  her  and  married  Cleopatra,  niece  of  Attalus 
(337  B.C.),  she  went  to  reside  with  her  brother 
Alexander,  king  of  Epirus,  where  she  incessantly 
fomented  intrigues  against  her  former  husband,  and 
is  believed  to  have  taken  part  in  his  assassination 
by  Pausanias,  337  b.  c.  On  the  accession  of  her 
son  Alexander  to  the  throne,  she  returned  to 
Macedonia,  where  she  contributed  to  bring  about 
the  murder  of  Cleopatra  and  her  daughter.  Alex- 
ander was  filled  with  indignation,  but  O.  was  his 
mother,  and  he  could  not  obey  the  dictates  of 
justice.  During  his  brief  but  magnificent  career  he 
always  treated  her  with  the  utmost  reverence  and 
esteem,  though  he  never  allowed  her  to  meddle 
with  his  political  schemes.  After  his  death  she 
endeavoured  to  get  possession  of  the  vacant  throne, 
and  obtained  the  support  of  Polysperchon  in  her 
designs.  In  317,  the  two  defeated  Arrhidaeus,  the 
weak-minded  step-brother  and  successor  of  Alex- 
ander, and  his  wife  Eurydice,  whom  she  caused  to 
be  put  to  death  in  the  same  year.  She  now  began 
to  glut  her  revenge  on  such  of  the  Macedonian 
nobles  as  had  shewn  themselves  hostile  to  her  ;  but 
her  cruelties  soon  alienated  the  minds  of  the  pc<  >ple 
from  her,  even  though  she  was  the  mother  of  their 
heroic  king,  whereupon  Cassander  (q.  v.),  her  princi- 
pal adversary,  marched  north  from  the  Peloponnesus, 
besieged  her  in  Pydna,  and  forced  her  to  surrender 
in  the  spring  of  316  B.  c  She  was  immediately 
afterwards  put  to  death.  O.  was  a  woman  of  heroio 
spirit,  but  of  fierce  and  uncontrollable  passions,  and 
in  the  perpetration  of  crime,  when  she  reckoned  it 
necessary,  displayed  an  unscrupulousness  peculiarly 
feminine. 

OLYMPIC  GAMES,  the  most  splendid  national 
festival  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  were  celebrated 
every  fifth  year  in  honour  of  Zeus,  the  father  of  the 
gods,  on  the  plain  of  Olympia  (q.  v.).  Their  origin 
goes  back  into  prehistoric  ages.  According  to  the 
myth  elaborated  or  preserved  by  the  Elean  priests, 
they  were  instituted  by  the  Idrean  Herakles  in  the 
time  of  Kronos,  father  of  Zeus  ;  according  to  others, 
by  the  later  Herakles,  son  of  Zeus  and  Alkmene ; 
while  Strabo,  rejecting  the  older  and  more  incredible 
legends,  attributes  their  origin  to  the  Herakleidse 
after  their  conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus.  But  the 
first  glimpse  of  anything  approaching  to  historic 
fact  in  connection  with  the  games  is  their  so-called 
revival  by  Iphitos,  king  of  Elis,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  Spartan  lawgiver,  Lycurgus,  about  8S4  B.  Q ; 
or,  according  to  others,  about  828  B.  c,  an  event 
commemorated  by  an  inscription  on  a  disc  kept  in 
the  Herozum  at  Olympia,  which  Pausanias  (flor.  2d  c. 
A.  D.)  saw.  That  festive  games  were  celebrated 
here,  in  other  words,  that  Olympia  was  a  sacred 
spot,  long  before  the  time  of  Iphitos,  can  indeed 
hardly  be  doubted :  the  universal  tradition  that 
the  Elean  king  had  only  '  revived '  the  games 
proves  this ;  but  nothing  whatever  can  be  histori- 
cally ascertained  concerning  their  origin,  character, 
or  frequency,  in  this  remoter  time.  Iphitos  may, 
therefore,  be  regarded  as  their  founder,  yet  the 
reckoning  of  time  by  Olympiads  (q.  v.) — the  real 
dawn  of  the  historical  period  in  Greek  history — 
did  not  begin  till  more  than  a  century  later.     At 


OLYMPIODORUS— OM. 


tirst,  it  is  conjectured,  only  Peloponnesians  resorted 
to  the  Olympic  games,  but  gradually  the  other 
Greek  states  were  attracted  to  them,  and  the  festival 
became  Pan-Hellenic.  Originally,  and  for  a  long 
time,  none  were  allowed  to  contend  except  those  of 
pure  Hellenic  blood ;  but  after  the  conquest  of 
Greece  by  the  Romans,  the  latter  sought  and 
obtained  this  honour,  and  both  Tiberius  and  Nero 
figure  in  the  list  of  Roman  victors.  Women — with 
one  exception,  the  priestess  of  Demeter  Chamyne — 
were  forbidden  to  be  present,  on  pain  of  being 
thrown  headlong  from  the  Typsean  Rock.  The 
games  were  held  from  the  11th  to  the  15th  of  the 
Attic  month  Hekalombaeon  (our  July — August), 
during  which,  first  throughout  Elis,  and  then 
throughout  the  rest  of  Greece,  heralds  proclaimed 
the  cessation  of  all  intestine  hostilities ;  while  the 
territory  of  Elis  itself  was  declared  inviolable.  The 
combatants  were  required  to  undergo  a  preparatory 
training  for  ten  months  in  the  gymnasium  at  Elis, 
and  during  the  last  of  these  months  the  gymnasium 
was  almost  as  numerously  attended  as  the  games 
themselves.  Much  uncertainty  prevails  as  to  the 
manner  in  which  the  contests  were  distributed  over 
the  different  days.  Krause  (Olympia,  p.  106) 
suggests  the  following  order :  On  the  first  day  the 
great  initiatory  sacrifices  were  offered,  after  which 
the  competitors  were  properly  classed  and  arranged 
by  the  judges,  and  the  contests  of  the  trumpeters 
took  place ;  the  second  day  was  set  apart  for  the 
boys  who  competed  with  each  other  in  foot-races, 
wrestling,  boxing,  the  pentathlon,  the  pankration, 
horse-races ;  the  third  and  principal  day  was  devoted 
to  the  contests  of  men  in  foot-races  of  different 
kinds  (as,  for  example,  the  simple  race,  once  over 
the  course ;  the  diaulos,  in  which  the  competitors 
had  to  run  the  distance  twice ;  and  the  dolichos,  in 
which  they  had  to  run  it  seven  or  twelve  times) ; 
wrestling,  boxing,  the  pankration  (in  which  all  the 
powers  and  skill  of  the  combatants  were  exhibited), 
and  the  race  of  hoplites,  or  men  in  heavy  armour  ; 
on  the  fourth  day  came  off  the  pentathlon  (contest 
of  five  games — viz,  leaping,  running,  throwing  the 
discus,  throwing  the  spear,  and  wrestling),  the 
chariot  and  horse  races,  and  perhaps  the  contests  of 
the  heralds  ;  the  fifth  day  was  set  apart  for  proces- 
sions, sacrifices,  and  banquets  to  the  victors  (called 
Olympionikoi),  who  were  crowned  with  a  garland  of 
wild  olive  twigs  cut  from  a  sacred  tree  which 
grew  in  the  Altis  (see  Olympia),  and  presented  to  the 
assembled  people,  each  with  a  palm  branch  in  his 
hand,  while  the  heralds  proclaimed  his  name,  and 
that  of  his  father  and  country.  On  his  return 
home,  he  was  received  with  extraordinary  distinc- 
tion :  songs  were  sung  in  his  praise  (14  of  Pindar's 
extant  lyrics  are  devoted  to  Olympionikoi) ;  statues 
were  erected  to  him,  both  in  the  Altis  and  in  his 
native  city  ;  a  place  of  honour  was  given  him  at  all 
public  spectacles ;  he  was  in  general  exempted  from 
public  taxes,  and  at  Athens  was  boarded  at  the 
expense  of  the  state  in  the  Prytaneion. 

The  regulation  of  the  games  belonged  to  the 
Eleans,  from  whom  were  chosen  the  hellanodikai,  or 
judges,  whose  number  varied.  At  first  there  were 
only  two,  but  as  the  games  became  more  and  more 
national,  and  consequently  more  numerous,  they 
were  gradually  increased  to  ten,  sometimes  even  to 
twelve.  They  were  instructed  in  their  duties  for 
ten  months  beforehand  at  Elis,  and  held  their  office 
only  for  one .  year.  The  officers  who  executed  their 
commands  were  called  alytai,  and  wore  under  the 
presidency  of  an  alytarch. — See  Krause's  Olympia 
oder  Darstellung  der  grossen  Olympischen  Spiele 
(Wien,  1838). 

OLYMPIODO'RUS,  one  of  the  latest  of  the 
Alexandrian  Naoplatonists,  flourished  in  the  first 
66 


half  of  the  6th  c.  after  Christ,  during  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Justinian.  Regarding  his  life  nothing 
is  known.  Of  his  writings,  we  possess  a  Life  of 
Plato,  with  commentaries  or  scholia  on  several  of 
his  dialogues,  the  Gorgias,  Philebus,  Phredo,  and 
Alcibiades  I.  In  the3e  he  appears  as  an  acute  and 
vigorous  thinker,  and  as  a  man  of  great  erudition. 
O.'s  Life  of  Plato  was  published  by  Wetstein 
(1692),  Etwall  (Lond.  1771),  and  Fischer  (Leips. 
17S3) ;  the  best  edition  of  the  scholia  is  that  of 
Mystoxides  and  Schinas  (Venice,  1816). 

OLY'MPUS,  the  ancient  name  of  several  moun- 
tains or  chains  of  mountains — e.  g.,  of  the  north- 
western continuation  of  Taurus  in  Mysia,  of  a 
mountain  in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  of  one  in  Lycia, 
of  another  in  Elis,  of  one  on  the  borders  of  Laconia 
and  Arcadia,  and  of  another  on  the  frontiers  of 
Thessaly  and  Macedonia.  Of  these,  the  last- 
mentioned  (now  called  Elymbo)  is  the  most  famous. 
Its  eastern  side,  which  fronts  the  sea,  is  composed  of 
a  line  of  vast  precipices,  cleft  by  ravines,  filled  with 
forest-trees.  Oak,  chestnut,  beech,  plane  tree,  are 
scattered  abundantly  along  its  base,  and  higher  up 
appear  great  forests  of  pine,  as  in  the  clays  of  the 
old  poets  of  Greece  and  Rome.  With  Euripides,  it 
is  poludendros  Olympos ;  with  Virgil,  frondosus 
Olymjms ;  and  with  Horace,  opacus  Olympus.  Its 
highest  peak  is  9754  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
and  is  covered  with  snow  for  about  nine  months  of 
the  year.  It  was  regarded  by  the  ancient  Greeks  as 
the  chief  abode  of  the  gods,  and  the  palace  of  Zeus 
was  supposed  to  be  upon  its  broad  summit.  Accord- 
ing to  Greek  legend,  it  was  formerly  connected  with 
Ossa,  but  was  separated  from  it  by  an  earthquake, 
allowing  a  passage  for  the  Peneius  through  the 
narrow  vale  of  Tempe  to  the  sea.  The  philosophers 
afterwards  transferred  the  abode  of  the  gods  to  the 
planetary  spheres,  to  which  they  likewise  transferred 
the  name  of  Olympus. 

OM  is  a  Sanscrit  word  which,  on  acco\mt  of  the 
mystical  notions  that  even  at  an  early  date  of  Hindu 
civilisation  were  connected  with  it,  acquired  much 
importance  in  the  development  of  Hindu  religion. 
Its  original  sense  is  that  of  emphatic  or  solemn 
affirmation  or  assent.  Thus,  when  in  the  White- 
Yajur-Veda  (see  Veda)  the  sacrificer  invites  the 
gods  to  rejoice  in  his  sacrifice,  the  god  Savitr'i 
assents  to  his  summons  by  saying  :  '  Om  (Le.,  be  it 
so)  ;  proceed  ! '  Or,  when  in  the  Br'ihad-arauyaka- 
Upanishad,  Prajapati,  the  father  of  gods,  men,  and 
demons,  asks  the  gods  whether  they  have  under- 
stood his  instruction ;  he  expresses  his  satisfaction 
with  their  affirmative  reply,  in  these  words  :  '  Om, 
you  have  fully  comprehended  it ; '  and,  in  the  same 
Upanishad,  Pravahan'a  answers  the  question  of 
S'wetaketu,  as  to  whether  his  father  has  instructed 
him,  by  uttering  the  word  '  Om,'  Le.,  '  forsooth  (I 
am).'  A  portion  of  the  R'igveda,  called  the  Aitareya- 
Brahman'a,  where  describing  a  religious  ceremony 
at  which  verses  from  the  R'igveda,  as  well  as  songa 
called  Gathas,  were  recited  by  the  priest  called 
Hotr'i,  and  responses  given  by  another  priest,  the 
Adhwaryu,  says  :  '  Om  is  the  response  of  the  Adh- 
waryu  to  the  R'igveda  verses  (recited  by  the  Hotr'i), 
and  likewise  tathd  (i.e.,  thus)  his  response  to  the 
Gathas,  'for  Om  is  (the  term  of  assent)  used  by  the 
gods,  whereas  tathd  is  (the  term  of  assent)  used  by  men' 
(the  R'igveda  verses  being,  to  the  orthodox  Hindu, 
of  divine,  and  the  Gathas  of  human,  authorship).  In 
this,  the  original  sense  of  the  word,  it  is  little 
doubtful  that  om  is  but  an  older  and  contracted 
form  of  the  common  Sanscrit  word  evam,  '  thus,' 
which,  coming  from  the  pronominal  base  'a'. — in 
some  derivations  changed  to  'e' — may  have  at  one 
time  occurred  in  the  form  avam,  when,  by  the  elision 


OM. 


of  the  vowel  following  V — for  which  there  are  nume- 
ions  analogies  in  Sanscrit  ava/m  would  become  aum, 
and  hence,  according  to  the  ordinary  phonetic  laws 
of  the  language,  om.  This  etymology  of  the  word, 
however,  Beema  to  have  been  lost,  even  at  an  early 
period  of  Sanscrit  literature;  for  another  is  met 
with  in  the  ancient  grammarians,  enabling  us  to 
account  for  the  mysticism  which  many  religious  and 
theological  works  of  ancient  and  medieval  India 
■appose  to  inhere  in  it.  According  to  this  latter 
etymology,  om  would  como  from  a  radical  aw  by 
means  of  an  affix  man,  when  om  would  be  a  curtailed 
form  of  avman  or  oman ;  and  as  av  implies  the 
notion  of  '  protect,  preserve,  save,'  om  would  be  a 
term  implying  '  protection  or  salvation ; '  its  mystical 
properties  and  its  sanctity  being  inferred  from  its 
occurrence  in  the  Vedio  writings,  and  in  connection 
with  sacrificial  acts,  such  as  are  alluded  to  before. 

Hence  Om  became  the  auspicious  word  with 
which  the  spiritual  teacher  had  to  begin,  and  the 
pupil  had  to  end  each  lesson  of  his  reading  of  the 
Veda.  'Let  this  syllable,'  the  existing  Pratis'akhya, 
or  grammar  of  the  R'igveda,  enjoins,  'lie  the  bead 
of  the  reading  of  the  Veda,  for  alike  to  the  teacher 
and  the  pupil,  it  is  the  supreme  Brahman,  the  gate 
of  heaven.'  And  Manu  (q.  v.)  ordains:  'A 
Brahman,  at  the  beginning  and  end  (of  a  lesson  on 
the  Veda),  must  always  pronounce  the  syllable  Om; 
for  unless  Om  precede,  his  learning  will  slip  away 
from  him  ;  and  unless  it  follow,  nothing  will  be  long 
retained.'  At  the  time  when  another  class  of 
writings,  the  Puran'as  (q.  v.),  were  added  to  the 
inspired  code  of  Hinduism,  for  a  similar  reason, 
Om  is  their  introductory  word. 

That  the  mysterious  power  which,  as  the  fore- 
going quotation  from  the  law-book  of  Manu  shews, 
was  attributed  to  this  word,  must  have  been  the 
subject  of  early  speculation,  is  obvious  enough.  A 
reason  assigned  for  it  is  given  by  Manu  himself. 
•  Brahma,'  he  says,  '  extracted  from  the  three  Vedas 
the  letter  a,  the  letter  u,  and  the  letter  m  (which 
combined  result  in  Om),  together  with  the  (mysteri- 
ous) words  Bhiih'  (earth),  Bhuvah'  (sky),  and  Swali' 
(heaven)  ; '  and  in  another  verse  :  '  These  three 
great  immutable  words,  preceded  by  the  syllable 
Om,  and  (the  sacred  R'igveda  verse,  called)  Gayatrl, 
consisting  of  three  lines,  must  be  considered  as  the 
mouth  (or  entrance)  of  Brahman  (the  Veda) ' — or, 
as  the  commentators  observe — the  means  of  attaining 
final  emancipation;  and  "The  syllable  Om  is  the 
supreme  Brahman,  (three)  regulated  breathings 
(accompanied  with  the  mental  recitation  of  Om,  the 
three  mysterious  words,  Bhuh',  Bhuvah',  Swab',  and 

the  Gayatri),  are  the  highest  devotion All 

rites  ordained  in  the  Veda,  such  as  burnt  and 
other  sacrifices,  pass  away ;  but  the  syllable  Om 
must  be  considered  as  imperishable,  for  it  is  (a 
symbol  of)  Brahman  (the  supreme  Spirit)  himself, 
the  Lord  of  Creation.'  In  these  speculations,  Manu 
bears  out,  and  is  borne  out  by,  several  Upanishads. 
See  Veda.  In  the  Kalha-  Upanishad,  for  instance, 
Yama,  the  god  of  death,  in  replying  to  a  question  of 
Naehiketas,  says  :  '  The  word  which  all  the  Vedas 
record,  which  all  the  modes  of  penance  proclaim,  of 
which  desirous  the  religious  students  perform  their 
duties,  this  word  I  will  briefly  tell  thee,  it  is  Om. 
This  syllable  means  the  (inferior)  Brahman  and  the 
supreme  (Brahmin).  Whoever  knows  this  syllable, 
obtains  whatever  he  wishes.'  And  in  the  Pras'na- 
Upanishad,  the  saint  Pippalada  says  to  Satyakama : 
'The  supreme  and  the  inferior  Brahman  are  both 
the  word  Om;  hence  the  wise  follows  by  this 
support  the  one  or  the  other  of  the  two.  If  be 
meditates  upon  its  one  letter  (a)  only,  he  is 
quickly  born  on  the  earth;  him  carry  the  verses 
of    the    ITiirveda    to    the  world    of    man ;    and    if 


he  is  devoted  there  to  austerity,  the  duties  of  a 

religions  student,  and  faith,  he  enjoy 

But,  if  he  meditates  in  his  mind  on  its  two  letters 

(a  and  ?/),  be  is  elevated  by  the  verses  of  the  Yajur* 
Veda  to  the  intermediate  region  ;  he  comes  to  the 
world  of  the  moon,  and  having  enjoyed  there  power, 
returns  again  (to  the  world  of  man).  If,  however, 
he  meditates  on  the  supreme  Spirit  by  means  of  its 
three  letters  (a,  u,  and  in),  he  is  produced  in  light, 
in  the  sun  ;  as  the  snake  is  liberated  from  its  skin, 
so  he  is  liberated  from  sin.'  According  to  the 
Man'd'ukya-Upanishad,  the  nature  of  the  soul  is 
summarised  in  the  three  letters  a,  it,  and  m,  in 
their  isolated  and  combined  form — a  being  Vai- 
s'wanara, or  that  form  of  Brahman  which  represents 
the  soul  in  its  waking  condition  ;  u,  Taijasa,  or  that 
form  of  Brahman  which  represents  it  in  its  dreaming 
state  ;  and  m,  Praina,  or  that  form  of  Brahman 
which  represents  it  in  its  state  of  profound  sleep  (or 
that  state  in  which  it  is  temporarily  united  with  the 
supreme  Spirit)  ;  while  a,  u,  m  combined,  i.  e.,  Om, 
represent  the  fourth  or  highest  condition  of  Brahman, 
'  which  is  unaccountable,  in  which  all  manifestations 
have  ceased,  which  is  blissful  and  without  duality. 
Om,  therefore,  is  soul ;  and  by  this  soid,  he  who 
knows  it  enters  into  (the  supreme)  soul.'  Passages 
like  these  may  be  considered  as  the  key  to  the  more 
enigmatic  expressions  used,  for  instance,  by  the 
author  of  the  Yof/a  (q.  v.)  philosophy,  where,  in 
three  short  sentences,  he  says  :  '  His  (the  supreme 
Lord's  name)  is  Pran'ava  (i.  e.,  Om)  ;  its  muttering 
(should  be  made)  and  reflection  on  its  signification  ; 
thence  comes  the  knowledge  of  the  transcendental 
spirit,  and  the  absence  of  the  obstacles '  (such  as 
sickness,  languor,  doubt,  &c,  which  obstruct  the 
mind  of  an  ascetic).  But  they  indicate,  at  the  same 
time,  the  further  course  which  superstition  took  in 
enlarging  upon  the  mysticism  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
Upanishads.  For  as  soon  as  every  letter  of  which 
the  word  Om  consists  was  fancied  to  embody  a 
separate  idea,  it  is  intelligible  that  other  sectarian 
explanations  were  grafted  on  them,  to  serve  their 
special  purposes.  Thus,  while  S'ankara,  the  great 
theologian  and  commentator  on  the  Upanishads,  is 
still  contented  with  an  etymological  punning,  by 
means  of  which  he  transforms  'a'  (or  rather 
'a')  into  an  abbreviation  of  dpti  (pervading),  since 
speech  is  pervaded  by  Vais'wfuiara  ;  '  u '  into  an 
abbreviation  of  utkarsha  (superiority),  since  Taijasa 
is  superior  to  Vais'wanara  ;  and  '  m  '  into  an  abbre- 
viation of  miti  (destruction),  Vais'wanara  and 
Taijasa,  at  the  destruction  and  regeneration  of  the 
world,  being,  as  it  were,  absorbed  into  Prajna — the 
Puran'as  (q.  v.)  make  of  'a'  a  name  of  Vishn'u; 
of  'w,'  a  name  of  his  consort  S'ri;  and  of  '  m,'  a 
designation  of  their  joint- worshipper ;  or  they  see 
in  a,  u,  m  the  Triad,  Brahma,  Vishn'u,  and  S'iva ; 
the  first  being  represented  by  '  a,'  the  second  by 
'«,'  and  the  third  by  '?»'— each  sect,  of  course, 
identifying  the  combination  of  these  letters,  or  Om, 
with  their  supreme  deity.  Thus,  also,  in  the  Bhaga- 
vadglta,  which  is  devoted  to  the  worship  of  Vishn'u 
in  his  incarnation  as  Kr'ishn'a,  though  it  is  essenti- 
ally a  poem  of  philosophical  tendencies,  based  on 
the  doctrine  of  the  Yoga,  Kr'ishn'a  in  one  passage 
says  of  himself  that  he  is  Om  ;  while,  in  another 
passage,  he  qualifies  the  latter  as  the  supreme 
Spirit. — A  common  designation  of  the  word  Om — 
for  instance,  in  the  last-named  passages  of  the 
Bhagavadgita — is  the  word  Pran'ava,  which  comes 
from  a  so-called  radical  nu,  '  praise,'  with  the  prefix 
pra,  amongst  other  meanings,  implying  emphasis,  and 
therefore  literally  means  '  eidogium,  emphatic  praise.' 
Although  Om,  in  its  original  sense,  as  a  word  of 
solemn  or  emphatic  assent,  is,  properly  speaking, 
restricted  to  the  Vedic  kterature,  it  deserves  notice 

67 


OM  MANI  PADME  HUM— OMAHA  CITY. 


that  it  is  now-a-days  often  used  by  the  natives 
of  India  in  the  sense  of  'yes,'  without,  of  course, 
any  allusion  to  the  mystical  properties  which  are 
ascribed  to  it  in  the  religious  worka.  See  also  the 
article  Om  Man'i  Padme  Hum'. 

That  there  exists  no  connection  whatever,  as  has 
been  supposed  by  some  writers  to  be  the  case, 
between  Om  and  A  men,  requires  scarcely  any 
remark,  after  the  etymological  explanations  given 
above ;  but  it  may  not  be  without  interest  to 
observe  that,  though  the  derivation  of  Om,  as  a 
curtailment  of  av-man,  from  av,  '  protect,  save,' 
is  probably  merely  artificial,  and,  as  stated  before, 
invented  to  explain  the  later  mystical  use  of  the 
Vedic  word,  it  seems  more  satisfactory  to  compare 
the  Latin  omen  with  a  Sanscrit  avman,  '  protection,' 
as  derived  by  the  grammarians  from  av  (in  the 
Latin  tive-o),  than  to  explain  it  in  the  fashion  of 
the  Roman  etymologists  :  '  Omen,  quod  ex  ore 
primum  elatum  est,  osmen  dictum ; '  or, '  Omen  velut 
oremen,  quod  lit  ore  augurium,  quod  non  avibus 
aliove  modo  fit.'  And  since  pra-nava,  from  Sanscrit 
nu,  '  praise,'  is,  like  Om,  used  in  the  sense  of  '  the 
deity,'  it  is  likewise  probable  that  numen  does  not 
come,  as  is  generally  believed,  from  Latin  nu-(ere), 
'nod,'  but  from  a  radical  corresponding  with  the 
Sanscrit  nu,  '  praise.' 

OM  MAN'I  PADME  HUM'  is  the  * formula 
of  six  syllables'  which  has  acquired  much  celebrity 
from  the  conspicuous  part  which  it  plays  in  the  reli- 
gion of  the  Buddhists,  and  especially  in  that  form 
of  it  called  Lamaism  (q.  v.).  It  is  the  first  subject 
which  the  Tibetans  and  Mongols  teach  their  children, 
and  it  is  the  last  prayer  which  is  muttered  by  the 
dying  man  ;  the  traveller  repeats  this  formula  on 
his  journey,  the  shepherd  when  attending  his  flock, 
the  housewife  when  performing  her  domestic  duties, 
the  monk  when  absorbed  in  religious  meditation, 
&c.  It  is  met  with  everywhere  ;  on  flags,  rocks, 
trees,  walls,  columns,  stone-monuments,  domestic 
implements,  skulls,  skeletons,  &c.  It  is  looked  upon 
as  the  essence  of  all  religion  and  wisdom,  and 
the  means  of  attaining  eternal  bliss.  '  These  six 
syllables,'  it  is  said,  *  concentrate  in  themselves  the 
favour  of  all  the  Buddhas,  and  they  are  the  root  of 
the  whole  doctrine  .  .  .  . ;  they  lead  the  believer  to 
re-birth  as  a  higher  being,  and  are  the  door  which 
bars  from  him  inferior  births ;  they  are  the  torch 
which  illuminates  darkness,  the  conqueror  of  the 
five  evils ; '  &c.  They  are  likewise  the  symbol  of 
transmigration ;  each  syllable  successively  corre- 
sponding with,  and  releasing  from,  one  of  the 
six  worlds  in  which  men  are  reborn ;  or  they 
are  the  mystical  designation  of  the  six  transcenden- 
tal virtues,  each  successive  syllable  implying  self- 
offering  (ddna),  endurance  (kshdnti),  chastity  (s'ila), 
contemplation  {dhydna),  mental  energy  (virya),  and 
religious  wisdom  (prajnd).  The  reputed  author  of 
this  formula  is  the  Dhyani-Bodhisattwa,  or  deified 
saint,  Avalokites'wara,  or,  as  the  Tibetans  call  him, 
Padmapdn'i  (i.  e.,  the  lotus-handed).  It  would  not 
belong,  accordingly,  to .  the  earliest  stage  of  Bud- 
dhism, nor  is  it  found  in  the  oldest  Buddhistic 
works  of  the  north  of  India  or  of  Ceylon.  Its 
original  sense  is  rather  obscure.  Some  suppose 
that  it  means  0  !  (6m),  the  jewel  (man'i)  in  the 
lotus  (padme),  amen  (Mm') ;  'the  jewel'  being  an 
allusion  to  the  saint  Avalokites'wara  himself,  and 
the  word  'padme,  or  in  the  lotus,'  to  the  belief  that 
he  was  born  from  a  lotus.  It  is  probably,  however, 
more  correct  to  interpret  the  formula  thus  :  '  Sal- 
vation (om)  [is]  in  the  jewel-lotus  (man'i-padme), 
amen  (hilm') ;'  when  the  compound  word  'jewel- 
lotus'  woidd  mean  the  saint  and  the  flower  whence 
he  arose.  If  this  interpretation  be  correct,  the 
formula  would  be  originally  nothing  more  than 
68 


a  salutation  addressed  to  Avalokites'wara  or 
Padmapdn'i ;  and  the  mystical  interpretation  put 
upon  each  syllable  of  it,  would  then  be  analogous  to 
that  which  imparted  a  transcendental  sense  to  each 
of  the  letters  of  the  syllable  Om  (q.  v.).  Dr  Emil 
Schlagintweit,  in  his  valuable  work  on  Buddhism  in 
Tibet  (Leipzig,  1863),  relates  (p.  120)  that  'in  a 
prayer- cylinder  which  he  had  the  opportunity  of 
opening,  he  found  the  formula  printed  in  six  lines, 
and  repeated  innumerable  times  upon  a  leaf  49  feet 
long  and  4  inches  broad.  When  Baron  Schilling  de 
Canstadt  paid  a  visit  to  the  temple  Subulin,  in 
Siberia,  the  Lamas  were  just  occiipied  with  pre- 
paring 100,000,000  of  copies  of  this  prayer  to  be  put 
into  a  prayer-cylinder ;  his  offer  to  have  the  neces- 
sary number  executed  at  St  Petersburg  was  most 
readily  accepted,  and  he  was  presented,  in  return  for 
the  150,000,000  of  copies  he  forwarded  to  them,  with 
an  edition  of  the  Kanjur,  the  sheets  of  which  amount 
to  about  40,000.  When  adorning  the  head  of  religious 
books,  or  when  engraved  upon  the  slabs  resting 
on  the  prayer-walls,  the  letters  of  the  formula  are 
often  so  combined  as  to  form  an  anagram.  The 
longitudinal  lines  occurring  in  the  letters  "man'i 
padme  hxLml  "  are  traced  close  to  each  other,  and  to 
the  outer  longitudinal  line  at  the  left  are  appended 
the  curved  lines.  The  letter  "  om  "  is  replaced  by  a 
symbolical  sign  above  the  anagram,  shewing  a  half- 
moon  surmounted  by  a  disc  indicating  the  sun,  from 
which  issues  a  flame.  Such  a  combination  of  the 
letters  is  called  in  Tibetan  nam  cliu  vangdan,  "  the 
ten  entirely  powerful  (viz.,  characters,  six  of  which 
are  consonants,  and  four  vowels) ; "  and  the  power 
of  this  sacred  sentence  is  supposed  to  be  increased 
by  its  being  written  in  this  form.  These  kind  of 
anagrams  are  always  bordered  by  a  pointed  frame 
indicating  the  leaf  of  a  fig-tree.' — See  also  E. 
Burnouf,  Introduction  d  VHistoire  du  Buddhisme 
Indien  (Paris,  1844) ;  C.  F.  Koeppen,  Die  Religion 
des  Buddha  (Berlin,  1857 — 1859).;  and  the  worka 
quoted  by  these  authors. 

OMA'GH  (Irish,  Oigh  magh, '  seat  of  the  chiefs '), 
an  ancient  town,  capital  of  the  county  of  Tyrone 
in  Ireland,  situated  on  the  river  Stride,  distant  34 
miles  south  from  Londonderry,  and  110  miles  north- 
north-west  from  Dublin,  with  both  which  cities  it  is 
connected  by  radway.  O.  grew  up  around  an  abbey 
founded  in  the  year  792,  but  is  first  heard  of  as  a 
fortress  of  Art  O'Nial  in  the  end  of  the  15th  c, 
about  which  time  it  was  forced  to  surrender  to  the 
English,  although  its  possession  long  continued  to 
alternate  between  Irish  and  English  hands.  It 
formed  part  of  James  I.'s  '  Plantation '  grants,  and 
was  strongly  garrisoned  by  Mountjoy.  On  its 
being  evacuated  by  the  troops  of  James  H.  in  1689, 
it  was  partially  burned,  and  a  second  fire  in  1743 
completed  its  destruction.  But  it  has  been  well  re- 
built, and  is  now  a  neat  and  prosperous  town.  Pop. 
about  4000,  of  whom  one-half  are  Catholics,  about 
one-fourth  Protestants  of  the  Established  Church, 
and  the  rest  Protestants  of  other  denominations. 
O.  contains  a  very  handsome  court-house,  several 
neat  churches  (Roman  Catholic,  Protestant,  and 
Presbyterian),  a  convent,  several  partially  endowed 
and  national  schools,  a  district  lunatic  asylum,  and 
the  workhouse  of  the  Poor- Law  Union  of  which  it 
is  the  centre.  Its  trade  is  chiefly  in  brown  linens, 
corn,  and  agricultural  produce. 

O'MAHA  CITY,  the  chief  city  oi  the  state  of  Ne- 
braska, U.  S.,  is  pleasantly  situated  on  a  plateau  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Missouri  river,  opposite  Coun- 
cil Bluffs,  20  miles  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Ne- 
braska River.  It  contains  a  court-house  and  numerous 
churches.  It  is  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  Union 
Pacific  Railroadj  and  is  rapidly  rising  in  importance. 


OMAN— OMAR  PASHA. 


It  is  connected  by  railroads  with  Chicago,  St  Louis, 
£o.     Pop.  (1860)  1912;  (1870)16,083. 

OMA'X,  the  most  eastern  portion  of  Arabia,  a 
strip  of  maritime  territory,  extending  between  Baa- 
el-Jiboul  and  Ras-el-Had,  bounded  on  the  north- 
east  by  the  Gulf  of  Oman,  and  on  the  south-west 
by  the  deserts  of  the  interior.  It  is  about  .'570  miles 
in  length;  its  greatest  breadth  is  120  miles.  At 
a  distance  of  from  20  to  40  miles  from  the  coast, 
a  chain  of  mountains  runs  parallel  to  it,  which 
reaches  in  its  highest  ridge,  called  Oebel  Achdar 
('Great  Mountain'),  an  elevation  of  6000  feet;  the 
average  height  is  4000  feet.  There  are  a  few  not 
inconsiderable  streams,  and  some  richly  fertile  tracts 
in  this  region,  but  the  greater  part  is  a  waste  of 
sand,  with  here  and  there  a  small  oasis,  where, 
however,  the  vegetation  is  most  luxuriant.  Groves 
of  almond,  fig,  and  walnut-trees,  tower  to  an  enor- 
mous height,  overshadowing  the  orange  and  citron- 
trees,  hut  arc  themselves  overtopped  by  the  splendid 
date-palms.  The  most  powerful  state  of  O.  is  Muscat 
(q.  v.). 

OMAR,  Abu-Hafsa-ibn-al-Kiiettab,  the  second 
calif  of  the  Moslems,  was  born  about  5S1.  His 
early  history  is  little  known,  but  previous  to  his 
conversion  he  was  an  ardent  persecutor  of  Moham- 
med aud  his  followers.  After  his  conversion  he 
became  as  zealous  an  apostle  as  he  had  formerly 
been  a  persecutor,  and  rendered  valuable  aid  to  the 
prophet  in  all  his  warlike  expeditions.  After 
Mohammed's  death,  he  caused  Abu-bekr  to  be 
proclaimed  calif,  aud  was  himself  appointed  haujeb, 
or  prime-minister.  Though  of  a  fiery  and  enthusi- 
astic temperament,  he  proved  a  sagacious  adviser, 
and  it  was  at  his  suggestion  that  the  calif  put 
down  with  an  iron  hand  the  many  dissensions 
which  had  arisen  among  the  Arabs  after  the 
prophet's  decease,  and  resolved  to  strengthen  and 
consolidate  their  new-born  national  spirit,  as  well  as 

Eropagate  the  doctrines  of  Islam,  by  engaging  them 
1  continual  aggressive  wars.  On  the  death  of 
Abu-bekr,  O.  succeeded  as  calif,  aud  pushed  on 
the  wars  of  conquest  with  increased  vigour.  He 
was  summoned  to  Jerusalem  in  637,  to  receive  the 
keys  of  that  city,  and  before  leaving  gave  orders  to 
build  a  mosque,  now  called  by  his  name,  on  the  site 
of  the  temple  of  Solomon.  O.  now  took  the  com- 
mand of  a  portion  of  the  army,  and  reduced  the 
other  chief  cities  of  Palestine.  He  then  planned 
an  invasion  of  Persia,  which  was  commenced  the 
same  year,  and  by  642  the  whole  of  what  is  now 
known  as  Persia  was  subdued.  In  the  meantime 
the  war  in  Syria  was  vigorously  prosecuted,  and  the 
Byzantine  armies,  repeatedly  defeated,  at  length 
gave  up  the  contest.  In  639,  Aniru,  one  of  his 
generals,  had  invaded  Egypt  with  a  considerable 
force ;  but  such  was  the  prestige  of  the  Arabs,  or 
the  incapacity  of  the  lieutenants  of  the  Emperor 
Heraclius,  that  this  valuable  country,  with  its  six 
millions  of  people,  was  reduced  under  the  calif's 
authority  without  a  single  contest,  and  only  two 
towns,  Misr  and  Alexandria,,  were  even  attempted 
to  be  defended.  (For  the  story  which  was  till 
lately  believed  concerning  the  destruction  of  the 
Alexandrian  Library,  see  Alexandrian  Library.) 
Barca  and  Tripoli  were  next  subdued  by  Amru. 
On  the  north,  Armenia  was  overrun  in  641,  and 
the  calif's  authority  now  reached  from  the  Desert 
of  Khiva  to  the  Syrtis,  an  enormous  extension  in 
ten  years.  In  644,  O.  was  assassinated  in  the 
mosque  of  Medina  by  a  Persian  slave  from  motives 
of  revenge.  He  languished  five  days  after  receiving 
the  wound,  but  refused  to  appoint  a  successor,  and 
named  six  commissioners  who  were  to  choose  one 
from  themselves.     He  was  buried  in  the  mosque  of 


Medina,  near  the  prophet  and  Abu-bekr,  and  his 
tomb  is  still  visited  by  pilgrims. 

0.  may  be  called  the  founder  of  the  Mohanv 
medan  power,  as  from  a  mere  sect  be  raised  it 
to  the  rank  of  a  conquering  nation,  and  left  to  his 
successor  an    empire   which    Alexander    the    Great 

might  have  envied.      In   him    we   find   a   rare   - 

bination  of  qualities,  the  ardent  zeal  of  tin-  apostle 
side  by  side  with  the  cautious  foresight  and  calm 
resolution  of  the  monarch.  His  great  military 
talents,  and  severity  to  'obstinate  unbelievers,' 
rendered  him  formidable  to  his  enemies,  and  his 
inexorable  justice  rendered  him  no  Less  obnoxious 
to  the  more  powerful  of  his  subjects,  and  gave 
rise  to  many  attempts  at  his  assassination.  0.  was 
the  founder  of  many  excellent  institutions;  he 
assigned  a  regular  pay  to  his  soldiers,  established 
a  night-police  in  towns,  and  made  some  excellent 
regulations  for  the  more  lenient  treatment  of  slaves. 
He  also  originated  the  practice  of  dating  from  the 
era  of  the  Hedjrah  (q.  v.).  He  assumed  the  title  of 
Emir-al-mumenin  ('  Commander  of  the  Faithful')  in 
preference  to  that  of  Khalifah-rasouli-Ilu/u,  the 
ordinary  designation;  and  to  the  present  day  hia 
name  is  held  in  the  greatest  veneration  by  the 
orthodox  or  Sunt  sect  of  Moslems. 

OMAR  PASHA,  a  celebrated  Turkish  general, 
was  bom  at  Plaski,  an  Austrian  village  in  the 
Croatian  Military  Frontier,  in  1806  (according  to 
some  authorities,  in  1811).  His  real  name  was 
Mikail  Lattas,  and  his  father  being  an  officer  in 
the  Austrian  army,  Mikail  was  educated  at  the 
military  school  of  Thurn,  near  Carlstadt,  where 
he  greatly  distinguished  himself.  He  afterwards 
joined  one  of  the  frontier  regiments  as  a  cadet, 
and  was  employed  as  secretary  by  the  military 
inspector  of  roads  and  bridges  ;  but  having  by  some 
breach  of  discipline  rendered  himself  amenable  to 
punishment,  he  fled  to  Bosnia,  where  he  became 
book-keeper  to  a  Turkish  merchant,  and  embraced 
Mohammedanism.  He  was  next  employed  by 
Hussein  Pasha,  the  governor  of  Widin,  as  tutor  to 
his  sons ;  and  in  1834  was  sent  in  charge  of  them 
to  Constantinople,  where  his  beautiful  caligraphy 
gained  for  him  the  post  of  writing-master  in 
the  military  school.  Omar  Effeudi  (as  he  was 
now  called)  was  next  appointed  writing-master  to 
Abdul-Medjid,  the  heir  to  the  throne,  and  re- 
ceived the  honorary  rank  of  captain  in  the  Turkish 
army,  and  the  hand  of  a  rich  heiress.  On  his  pupil's 
accession  in  1839,  0.  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
colonel,  and  sent  to  Syria  to  aid  in  the  suppression 
of  disturbances  which  had  broken  out  in  that  pro- 
vince, and  in  1842  he  was  appointed  military  gover- 
nor of  the  Lebanon  district.  The  severity  of  his 
rule  did  not  hinder  the  Maronites  from  desiring  to 
have  him  as  chief  of  the  Mountain  ;  but  in  the 
following  year  he  was  recalled,  received  the  title  of 
pasha,  and  was  sent,  along  with  Kedschid  Pasha, 
against  the  revolted  Albanians.  The  skill  and 
energy  with  which  he  suppressed  this  insurrection, 
as  well  as  others  in  Bosnia  and  Kurdistan,  raised 
Mm  high  in  favour  with  the  sultan.  Towards  the 
end  of  1852  he  opened  the  campaign  against  the 
Montenegrins,  who  were  being  rapidly  subdued, 
when  Austria  interfered  and  compelled  a  treaty. 
On  the  invasion  of  the  Principalities  by  the  E.us- 
sians  (July  1853),  0.  collected  at  Schumla  an  army 
of  60,000  men  to  cover  Constantinople ;  but  being 
no  less  a  politician  than  a  soldier,  he  soon  divined 
that  the  Russians  would  not  immediately  cross  the 
Danube,  and  accordingly  pushed  on  to  Widin, 
where  he  crossed  the  river  in  presence  of  the  enemy 
and  intrenched  himself  at  Kalafat.  Another  part 
of  the  Turkish  army  moved  down  the  Danube  to 
Turtukai,  near  Silistria,  crossed  the  river  at  that 

62 


OMBAY— OMEN. 


place,  and  intrenched  themselves  at  Oltenitza.  On 
November  4,  the  latter  division  were  attacked  by 
9000  Russians,  whom  tbey  totally  defeated  with 
a  loss  of  nearly  4000  men  and  almost  all  their 
officers.  The  Russians  also  received  two  severe 
checks  at  Kalafat,  on  January  6  and  March  15, 
1855.  0.  kept  up  the  spirit  of  his  troops  by  occa- 
sional successful  skirmishes  with  the  Russians,  and 
threw  a  garrison  of  8000  men  into  Silistria.  In  the 
following  spring  the  Russians  passed  the  Danube 
at  two  points,  and  laid  siejre  to  Silistria  (q.  v.),  but 
their  assaults  were  invariably  repulsed  with  severe 
loss.  The  Russians  then  withdrew  from  the  Prin- 
cipalities, and  0.  entered  Bucharest  in  triumph  in 
August,  1854.  On  9th  February,  1855,  he  embarked 
for  Eupatoria,  where,  on  the  17th  of  the  same  month, 
he  was  suddenly  attacked  by  40,000  Russians,  who 
were  repulsed  with  great  loss.  He  was  soon  after- 
wards (October  3,  1855)  sent  to  relieve  Ears,  but 
arrived  too  late,  and  the  armistice  which  followed 
(February  29,  1856)  put  a  stop  to  his  military  career. 
He  was  subsequently  made  governor  of  Bagdad ;  but, 
having  been  accused  of  maladministration,  was  ban- 
ished to  Eaarport  in  1859.  He  was  recalled  in  the 
following  year,  and  in  September,  1861,  was  sent  to 
pacify  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  which  were  again  in 
insurrection.  This  being  accomplished,  he  attacked 
the  Montenegrins,  who  had  been  the  instigators  of 
these  rebellions,  captured  their  chief  town  of  Cettigne, 
overran  the  country,  and  reduced  it  to  the  condition 
of  a  tributary  state.  In  1867  he  was  sent  to  Crete  to 
suppress  the  insurrection,  and  was  appointed  governor- 
general  of  the  island.  In  Feb.,  1869,  he  was  made 
Minister  of  War.     He  died  in  1871. 

OMBA'Y,  or  MALOEWA  (Maluwa),  an  island 
between  Celebes  and  the  north-west  coast  of  Austra- 
lia, lies  to  the  north  of  Timor,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  Strait  of  Ombay,  lat.  8°  8' — 
S3  2S'  S.,  long.  124°  17—125°  7'.  Area,  961  square 
miles.  The  population  amounts  to  about  200,000. 
The  hills  of  O.  are  volcanic,  and  the  coasts  steep 
and  difficult  to  approach.  The  inhabitants  are  dark 
brown,  have  thick  lips,  flat  nose,  and  woolly  hair ; 
appearing  to  be  of  mixed  Negro  and  Malay  origin. 
They  are  armed  with  the  bow,  spear,  and  creese, 
and  live  on  the  produce  of  the  chase,  with  fish, 
cocoa-nuts,  rice,  and  honey.  A  portion  of  the 
island  formerly  belonged  to  the  Portuguese,  but 
since  August  6,  1851,  it  is  entirely  a  Netherlands 
possession.  The  Dutch  postholder  resides  at  the 
village  of  Alor,  to  which  iron  wares,  cotton  goods, 
&c.,  are  brought  from  Timor,  and  exchanged  for 
wax,  edible  nests,  provisions,  and  other  native 
products.  O.  has  oxen,  swine,  goats,  &c,  and  pro- 
duces maize,  cotton,  and  pepper.  Amber  is  also 
found,  and  the  Boeginese  of  Celebes  import  European 
and  Indian  fabrics,  exchanging  them  for  the  produce 
of  the  island,  which  they  carry  to  Singapore. 

O'MEAEA,  Barry  Edward,  was  born  in 
Ireland  in  the  year  1786.  Otherwise  without  claim 
to  be  remembered,  his  name  remains  notable  from  his 
connection  with  the  first  Napoleon,  whom  he  accom- 
panied to  St  Helena  as  household  physician.  At 
the  age  of  18  he  entered  the  British  army  as  assis- 
tant-surgeon. In  1808,  being  stationed  at  Messina, 
he  became  concerned  in  a  duel  as  second,  under  cir- 
cumstances which  must  more  or  less  have  been  held 
discreditable,  as  his  dismissal  from  the  service  by 
sentence  of  court-martial  was  the  result.  After- 
wards ho  succeeded  in  procuring  an  appointment  as 
surgeon  in  the  navy,  and  as  such  for  some  years  is 
certified  to  have  discharged  his  duties  with  zeal  and 
efficiency.  As  it  chanced,  he  was  serving  with 
Captain  Maitland  in  the  Bellerophon  when  the 
Emjieror  Napoleon  (q.  v.)  surrendered  himself  to 
70 


that  officer.  During  the  voyage  from  Rochefort  to 
Plymouth  he  was  introduced  to  Napoleon,  on  whom 
the  impression  he  produced  was  favourable,  leading 
to  a  proposal  that  he  should  accompany  the  emperor 
into  exile  as  private  physician,  an  arrangement 
to  which  he  acceded,  stipulating  that  he  should 
retain  his  rank  in  the  navy,  and  be  permitted  to 
return  to  it  at  pleasure.  By  Napoleon,  with  whom 
he  remained  in  daily  intercourse  at  St  Helena  for 
about  three  years,  he  seems  to  have  been  admitted 
to  something  more  or  less  like  intimacy;  and 
occasionally  it  might  well  be,  as  he  says,  that  the 
great  captive  would  kill  the  creeping  hours  by 
loose  talk  with  his  attendant  over  the  events  of  his 
strange  life.  Of  these  conversations  O'M.  naturally 
enough  took  notes,  which  he  afterwards  published. 
Meantime  he  became  involved  in  the  interest  of 
Napoleon,  in  the  series  of  miserable  and  petty 
squabbles  which  he  waged  with  the  governor,  Sir 
Hudson  Lowe  (q.  v.).  The  result  of  these,  as 
regards  O'M.,  was  that  in  1818,  after  a  violent 
altercation  with  Sir  Hudson,  he  was  committed  to 
close  arrest,  and  was  authorised  by  the  emperor  to 
resign  his  post.  On  his  return  to  England,  he 
addressed  a  letter  to  the  Admiralty,  in  which,  among 
other  things,  he  accused  Sir  Hudson  Lowe  of  inten- 
tions against  the  life  of  his  captive,  and  even  of  having, 
by  dark  hints  to  himself,  insinuated  a  desire  for  his 
services  as  secret  assassin.  For  this  he  was 
instantly  dismissed  the  service.  The  accusation 
was  plainly  monstrous  and  incredible.  In  1822, 
after  Napoleon's  death,  O'M.  published  Napoleon 
in  Exile,  by  which  book  alone  he  is  now  remembered. 
As  conveying  to  the  world  the  first  authentic  details 
of  the  prison-life  of  the  great  deceased,  it  made  on 
its  appearance  an  immense  sensation,  and — though 
for  obvious  reasons  everywhere  to  be  accepted,  if 
at  all,  with  caution — it  is  still  not  utterly  without 
interest.  The  last  years  of  O'M.'s  life  were  passed 
in  obscurity  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London,  where, 
in  1836,  he  died. 

O' ME  LET,  or  OMELETTE,  French,  a  disn 
chiefly  composed  of  eggs.  These  are  broken,  and 
their  contents  put  into  a  proper  vessel,  in  which 
they  are  whipped  into  a  froth,  which  is  poured  into 
a  very  clean  and  dry  frying-pan,  with  the  addition 
of  lard  or  butter  to  prevent  sticking,  and  then  fried 
carefully,  so  that  the  outside  is  nicely  bi'owned. 
Before  frying,  one  of  a  number  of  ingredients  may 
be  added  to  vary  the  omelette,  such  a3  chopped 
savoury  herbs,  minced  ham  or  bacon,  salt-fish,  shell- 
fish, game,  &c.  Or  sweet  omelettes  maybe  made  by 
placing  preserved  fruits  upon  them  when  quite  or 
nearly  cooked.  The  omelette  is  an  excellent  dish, 
and,  simple  though  it  be,  it  requires  much  skill  to 
prepare  it  successfully. 

O'MEN  (for  the  deriv.,  see  Om),  or  PRODIGY 
(generally  said  to  be  from  pro  and  dico,  but 
more  probably  from  pro  and  ago,  to  lead ;  hence 
anything  conspicuous,  or  extraordinary),  the  name 
given  by  the  Romans  to  signs  by  which  approaching 
good  or  bad  fortune  was  supposed  to  be  indicated. 
The  terms  Omen  and  Prodigy  were  not,  however, 
exactly  synonymous  ;  the  former  being  applied 
rather  to  signs  received  by  the  ear,  and  particularly 
to  spoken  words ;  the  latter  to  phenomena  and 
occurrences,  such  as  monstrous  births,  the  appear- 
ance of  snakes,  locusts,  &c,  the  striking  of  the 
foot  against  a  stone  or  the  like,  the  breaking  of 
a  shoe-tie,  and  even  sneezing,  &c.  If  an  omen  or 
prodigy  was  promised  on  the  part  of  a  god,  it  was  to 
be  interpreted  accordiug  to  the  j>romise  ;  but  other- 
wise, the  interpretation  was  extremely  arbitrary. 
It  was  supposed  that  evil  indicated  as  approaching 
might  be  averted  by  various  means,  as  by  saerincesj 


OMENTUM— OMMIADES. 


or  by  the  utterance  of  certain  magic  formulas  ;  or 
by  an  extempore  felicity  of  interpretation!  aa  when 
Caesar,  having  fallen  to  the  ground  on  landing  in 
Africa,  exclaimed:  'I  take  possession  of  thee, 
Africa.'  Occasionally,  it  is  true,  we  read  of  a  reck- 
less disregard  of  omens  ;  as,  for  example,  when  P. 
Claudius,  in  the  First  runic  War,  caused  the  sacred 
chickens,  who  would  not  leave  their  cage,  to  be 
pitched  into  the  sea,  saying:  'If  they  wont  eat,  they 
must  drink.'  Still  the  belief  in  them  was  universal, 
and  in  general  the  greatest  care  was  taken  to  avoid 
Unfavourable  omens.  The  heads  of  the  sacrificial 
priests  were  covered,  so  that  nothing  distracting 
might  catch  their  eyes  ;  silence  was  enjoined  at  the 
commencement  of  every  sacred  undertaking,  and  at 
the  opening  of  the  Ludi.  Before  every  sacrificial 
procession  ran  the  heralds,  calling  on  the  people 
to  '  pay  respect  to  it,'  and  admonishing  them  to 
cease  working  till  it  should  have  passed,  that  the 
priests  might  not  hear  unfavourable  sounds.  At 
the  beginning  of  a  sacrifice,  the  bystanders  were 
addressed  in  the  words  Favete  Unguis  ('Speak  no 
word  of  evil  import '),  and  the  aid  of  music  was 
sought  to  drown  whatever  noises  might  prove 
unpropitious.  Compare  Auguries  and  Auspices, 
and  Divination.  See  also  Fallati,  Ueber  Begriff 
und  Wesen  des  Rom.  Omen  (Tub.  1S36). 

The  belief  in  omens  has  existed  in  all  ages  and 
countries,  and  traces  of  it  linger  even  yet  in 
the  most  civilised  communities ;  in  the  dread,  for 
instance,  that  many  entertain  at  sitting  down  to 
table  in  a  party  of  thirteen.  Not  a  little  of  the 
philosophy  of  omens  is  contained  in  the  Scottish 
proverb  :  '  Them  who  follow  freits,  freits  follow  ; ' 
meaning,  that  a  fatalistic  belief  in  impending  evil 
paralyses  the  endeavour  that  might  prevent  it. 

OME'NTUM.    See  Peritoneum. 

O  M  M  I'  A  D  E  S  (Omaiades,  or  Ommeyades),  a 
dynasty  (deriving  its  name  from  an  ancestor, 
Ommeyah)  which  succeeded  to  the  Arabian  califate 
on  the  death  of  Ali,  the  fourth  calif  after  Mohammed, 
and  possessed  it  till  superseded  by  the  Abbasides 
(q.  v.)  in  750.  Moawiyah,  the  founder  of  the 
dynasty,  was  the  son  of  Abu-Sofiau,  who  defeated 
Mohammed  at  Beder,  and  his  mother  was  the 
notorious  Hinda.  After  the  death  of  Othman  the 
third  calif,  Moawiyah,  who  was  his  cousin,  claimed 
the  throne,  and  during  the  whole  of  Ali's  reign 
ruled  over  the  western  provinces  of  Syria  and 
Egypt;  but  it  was  not  till  the  death  of  that  calif, 
and  the  abdication  of  his  son  Hassan  in  661,  that 
Moawiyah's  authority  was  fully  recognised.  In  that 
year  he  transferred  the  seat  of  the  califate  to 
Damascus  ;  Kufa  having  been  the  residence  of  Ah, 
and  Medina  of  the  first  three  califs.  The  Arabs 
continued  to  extend  their  conquests  during  his 
reign  ;  the  Turks  in  Khorassan  were  subdued,  Turk- 
estan invaded,  and  several  important  acquisitions 
made  in  Asia  Minor.  But  besides  aggrandising  his 
empire,  the  calif  neglected  no  means  of  consoli- 
dating it,  and  partly  for  this  reason  he  made  the 
succession  hereditary,  and  caused  his  son  Yezid 
(680 — 683)  to  be  recognised  as  his  heir.  The  reigns 
of  Yezid  and  his  successors,  Moawiyah  II.  (683)  and 
Merwan  I.,  formerly  the  traitorous  secretary  of  the 
calif  Othman  (6S3 — 685),  are  devoid  of  importance, 
as  their  sway  extended  only  over  Syria  and  Palestine. 
Abdulmelek  (685  —  705),  an  able  and  warlike 
prince,  after  a  long  and  varying  struggle  of  eight 
years,  succeeded  in  rendering  himself  undisputed 
ruler  of  the  Mohammedan  world  (692),  but  the 
latter  part  of  his  reign  was  much  disturbed  by 
rebellions  in  the  eastern  provinces.  He  was  the 
first  calif  who  interested  himself  in  the  promotion 
of  liberal  knowledge,  by  causing  the  most  celebrated 


poetical   and   other   works  of    the   Persians  to  be 

translated  into  Arabic;   and  uinler   his   reign    coined 

money  was  first  introduced.     It  was  to  this  prince 
that  his  court-fool  related  the  celebrated  fabulous 
conversation  between  the  owl  of  Bassora  and  that 
of  Mosul     Four  of  his  sons,  W.u.id  1.  (To.")— 716), 
Siu.i.MAN  (716  —  717),  Yezid  II.  (720  —  723),  and 
Hksuam     (723  —  742),    successively     occupied    the 
tin  one,    and    a    fifth    son,    Mosslemah,   was,   from 
his    great    military    abilities    and   zealous   devotion 
to  the  interests  of  his  brothers,  the   terror  of   all 
their  enemies,  both  domestic  and  foreign.      Under 
Walid,  the   Ommiade  califate  reached  the  summit 
of  its  power  and  grandeur;   Northern   Africa  (709) 
and  Spain  (712),  Turkestan  (707),  and  (ialatia  (710) 
were   conquered;    while  towards  the   close    of   hia 
reign,  his  empire  was  extended  even  to  the  Indus. 
The  slender  structure  of  the  minaret  was  n 
the  first  time  introduced  into  mosque  architecture. 
Omar    II.    (717—720),   who,    in    the    justice    and 
mildness  of  his  government,  surpassed  the  whole  of 
the  race  of   Ommeyah,  was   appointed  to  succeed 
Suliman;  but  having  excited  discontent  among  his 
relatives,  by  suppressing  the  formula  of  malediction, 
which  had  hitherto  been  regularly  pronounced  at 
all  public  ceremonies  against  Ali  and  his  descendants, 
he  was  poisoned.     During  his  reign,  Mosslemah  had 
completed  the  conquest  of  Asia  Minor,  and  even 
compelled    the    Emperor  Leo    to    submit    to    the 
humiliation  of  walking  beside  his  horse  through  the 
principal  streets  of  Constantinople  itself,  and  paying 
a  large  ransom  (equivalent  to  about  £140,000)  for 
his   capital.      Hesham,  though  like   his   immediate 
predecessor,   fond    of    pleasure,   possessed    all   the 
qualities   necessary  for  a  sovereign.     The  Greeks, 
who  stdl  strove  for  the  possession  of  Asia  Minor, 
were    repeatedly    defeated :    the    fierce   Turks    of 
Northern  Persia  and  Turkestan,  were  kept  in  stern 
subjection;    and   the   civil    affairs  of    the    empire 
carefully  and  strictly  administered.      The  death  of 
Mosslemah,  the  champion  of  the  Ommiade  dynasty, 
seems  to  have  been  the  signal  for  insurrection ;  the 
descendants  of  Ali  raised  the  standard  of  revolt,  and 
no  sooner  were  they  subdued  than  Ibrahim,  the  fourth 
in  direct  descent  from  Abbas  the  uncle  of  Moham- 
med, solemnly  invested  the  celebrated  Abu-Mosslem 
(stated  to  be  a  descendant  of  Koderz,  one  of  the 
most    distinguished    heroes    of    Firdusi's    admired 
work  the   S/tah-nameh)  with  the  arduous  duty  of 
enforcing  his  long-agitated   claims  to  the   throne. 
During  this  reign  the  progress  of  Arab  conquest  in 
Western  Europe  was  checked  by  Charles  Martel,  who 
inflicted  upon  the  Arabs  a  severe  defeat  at  Tours 
(732),  and  almost  annihilated  their  army  at  Narbonne 
(736).   The  reigns  of  Walid  II.  (742—743),  Yezid  IIL 
(743 — 744),  and  Ibrahim  (744),  though  of  ephemeral 
duration,  were  long  enough  to  produce  a  complete  dis- 
organisation of  the  empire ;  and  though  Merwan  II. 
(744 — 750),  the  next  and  last  calif  of  the  house  of 
Ommeyah,  was  both  an  able  and  politic  ruler,  and  a 
skilful  warrior,  the  declining  fortune  of  his  family 
was  beyond  remedy.     Abu-Mosslem,  who  had  pub- 
lished the  claims  of  the  Abbasides  amidst  the  ruins 
of  Meru  in  747,  took  the  field  at  the  head  of  a 
small  but  zealous  band,  and  carried  the  black  fla» 
of    the    Abbasides    from    victory    to    victory,   till 
before  the  close  of  the  following  year  the  whole  of 
Khorassan  acknowledged  his  authority.     Irak  was 
subdued  in  749  ;  and  Jhough  Ibrahim  the  Abbaside 
claimant  was  seized  by  Meerwan,  and  executed  in 
the  same  year,  his  brother  Abul- Abbas  succeeded  to 
his  claims,  and  the  unfortunate   calif,  defeated  in 
two  engagements,  fled  to  Egypt  (750),  whither  he 
was  pursued   and   slain.      Abdallah,   the   uncle   of 
the  successful  claimant,  treacherously  invited  the 
remaining  members  of  the  house  of  Ommeyah  to  a 


OMMIADES— OMSK. 


conference,  and  ordered  a  general  massacre  of  them. 
Two  only  escaped :  the  one  to  the  south-east  of 
Arabia,  where  he  was  recognised  as  calif,  and  his 
descendants  reigned  till  the  16th  century ;  the  other, 
Abderrahman,  to  Spain,  where  he  founded  the 
califate  of  Cordova. 

Ommiades  of  Spain. — Abderrahman  I.  (755 — 
787),  on  accepting  the  Spanish  throne  which  was 
offered  him  by  the  Arab  chiefs,  assumed  the 
titles  of  Calif  and  Emir-al-mumenin,  and  in  spite 
of  numerous  revolts,  strengthened  and  extended 
his  power  in  Spain,  till,  with  the  exception  of 
Asturias  and  the  country  north  of  the  Ebro,  his 
authority  was  everywhere  acknowledged.  His 
defeat  of  Charlemagne  at  Roncesvalles  (q.  v.)  is 
too  widely  known  to  require  further  notice.  He 
divided  his  kingdom  into  six  provinces,  whose 
rulers,  with  the  walls  of  the  twelve  principal  towns, 
formed  a  sort  of  national  diet.  His  successors, 
Hesham  I.  (787—796)  and  Al-Hakem  I.  (796—821), 
were  much  troubled  with  internal  revolts,  under 
cover  of  which  the  Christians  in  the  north-east 
established  the  state  known  as  the  '  Spanish  March.' 
Abderrahman  II.  (821—852)  re-established  inter- 
nal quiet,  and  occupied  his  subjects  with  incessant 
wars  against  the  Christians.  These  conflicts  devel- 
oped among  the  Arabs  that  chivalrous  heroism 
which  is  found  nowhere  else  in  the  Mohammedan 
world  Abderrahman,  himself  a  man  of  learning, 
greatly  encouraged  the  arts  and  sciences,  and 
diffused  information  among  his  people  ;  he  also 
attempted,  by  regulating  the  laws  of  succession  to 
property,  to  constitute  his  kingdom  on  a  basis  analo- 
gous to  that  of  other  European  nations.  During  his 
reign  Mohammedan  Spain  was  the  best  governed 
country  in  Europe.  His  successors,  Mohammed  I. 
(852— 8S0),  Mondhar  (880— SS2),  and  Abdallah 
(882—912),  followed  in  his  footsteps.  Abderrahman 
III.  (912 — 961),  after  suppressing  some  dangerous 
revolts  which  had  gathered  head  during  his 
minority,  conquered  the  kingdom  of  Fez  from  the 
Edrisites,  and  brought  a  long  and  exhausting  war 
with  the  powers  of  Asturias  and  Leon  to  a  victorious 
conclusion.  This  period  is  justly  termed  the  golden 
age  of  the  Arab  domination  in  Spain,  for  at  no 
period  was  their  power  bo  consolidated,  and  their 
prosperity  so  flourishing.  Abderrahman,  like  his 
predecessors,  was  a  great  encourager  of  learning, 
and  a  poet  of  no  mean  ability.  He  founded  schools 
which  far  surpassed  those  in  other  parts  of  Europe. 
His  son,  Al-hakem  II.  (961—976),  was  in  every 
way  worthy  to  be  his  successor,  but  his  prema- 
ture death  was  the  cause  of  the  downfall  of  the 
Ommiades  in  Spain.  Hesham  II.  (976 — about  1013), 
a  child  of  eight  years,  now  occupied  the  throne ; 
but  fortunately  his  mother,  Sobeiha,  possessed 
the  abilities  necessary  for  such  an  emergency, 
and  appointed  as  her  son's  vizier  Mohammed 
ben  Abdallah,  surnamed  Al-Mansor,  who  had 
originally  been  a  peasant.  This  remarkable  man 
gained  the  affections  of  all  ranks  by  his  pleasing 
manners  and  great  abilities  ;  his  administration  was 
equally  just  and  judicious,  and  his  encouragement 
of  literature,  science,  and  art  alike  liberal  and 
discriminating.  But  it  is  as  a  warrior  that  he  is 
chiefly  remembered ;  he  had  vowed  eternal  enmity 
to  the  Christians,  and  in  all  his  numerous  expeditions 
fortune  seemed  chained  to  his  standard.      The  lost 

{>rovinces  were  recovered;  Castile,  Leon,  and  Barce- 
ona  were  conquered;  and  Navarre  was  on  the 
point  of  sharing  the  same  fate,  when  a  rebellion  in 
Fez  compelled  him  to  detach  a  portion  of  his  force 
for  service  in  Africa,  and  the  combined  armies  of 
the  four  Christian  monarchies,  seizing  this  oppor- 
tunity, inflicted  upon  the  Arabs  a  sanguinary  defeat 
in  iOOJ .  Mohammed's  spirit  was  completely  broken 
1% 


by  this  blow,  and  he  died  a  few  days  afterwarda 
With  him  the  star  of  the  house  of  Orameyah  set  fot 
ever.  The  rest  of  Hesham's  reign  was  a  scene  ol 
disorder  and  civil  war.  Pretenders  to  the  califate 
arose,  while  the  '  walis '  of  the  various  provinces  set 
up  as  independent  rulers,  and  the  invasions  of  the 
Christians  added  to  the  confusion.  Hesham  finally 
resigned  the  throne  about  1013;  and,  with  the 
exception  of  the  brief  reign  of  Hesham  III.  (1027 — 
1031),  from  this  time  the  family  of  Ommeyah, 
which  had  for  more  than  two  centuries  so  happily 
and  brilliantly  governed  the  greater  part  of  Spain, 
disappears  from  history.  One  remarkable  feature 
of  their  rule  deserves  mention,  as  it  contrasts  them 
so  favourably  with  the  contemporary  and  subsequent 
rulers  of  Spain,  even  to  the  present  time,  and  that 
is  their  universal  toleration  in  religious  matters. 

O'MNIBUS  (Lat.  omnibus,  'for  all'),  familiarly 
contracted  into  '  bus,'  is  the  largest  kind  of  public 
street  conveyance,  and  is  appointed  to  travel 
between  two  fixed  stations,  starting  at  certain  fixed 
hours,  and  taking  up  or  setting  down  passengers  at 
any  point  in  its  route.  Vehicles  of  this  sort  were 
first  started  in  Paris  in  1662,  when  it  was  decreed, 
by  a  royal  edict  of  Louis  XIV.,  that  a  line  of  carrosses 
&  cinq  sous  ('twopence-halfpenny  omnibuses'),  each 
containing  eight  places,  should  be  established  for 
the  benefit  of  the  infirm,  or  those  who,  requiring 
speedy  conveyance  from  one  part  of  the  town  to 
another,  were  unable  to  afford  a  hired  carriage  for 
themselves;  these  'carrosses'  were  bound  to  run  at 
fixed  hours  from  one  station  to  another,  whether 
full  or  empty.  The  public  inauguration  of  the  new 
conveyances  took  place  March  18,  1662,  and  was 
the  occasion  of  a  grand  fete ;  and  the  novelty  took 
so  well  with  the  Parisians,  that  the  omnibuses  were 
for  some  time  monopolised  by  the  wealthier  classes. 
However,  when  the  rage  for  them  died  awray,  it 
was  found  that  those  for  whose  special  benefit  they 
were  instituted  made  no  use  of  them,  and  they,  in 
consequence,  gradually  disappeared.  The  omnibus 
was  not  revived  in  Paris  till  1827,  when  it  was 
started  in  its  present  form,  carrying  from  15  to  18 
passengers  inside,  with  only  the  driver  above  and 
the  conductor  behind;  and  on  July  4,  1829,  they 
were  introduced  into  London  by  a  Mr  Shillibeer. 
Shillibeer's  conveyances,  which  for  some  time  after- 
wards were  known  as  shillibeers,  were  of  larger  size 
than  the  French  ones,  carrying  22  passengers  inside, 
and  were  drawn  by  three  horses  abreast.  The  om- 
nibus was  introduced  into  Amsterdam  in  1839,  and 
since  that  time  its  use  has  been  extended  to  all 
large  cities  and  towns  in  the  civilised  world.  The 
seats  of  the  omnibus  are  generally  placed  lengthwise, 
and  the  door  behind.  The  omnibus  is  under  the 
management  of  a  driver  and  a  conductor.  In  Phila- 
delphia, and  to  some  extent  in  New  York  and  other 
American  cities,  commodious  cars,  drawn  by  horses 
on  the  street  railways,  have  taken  the  place  of  the 
omnibuses.  In  the  former  city  nearly  65,000,000  fa«- 
sengers  were  conveyed  in  the  street  cars  in  1870. 

O'MNITJM,  a  term  used  at  the  Stock  Exchange 
to  express  the  aggregate  value  of  the  different 
stocks  in  which  a  loan  is  funded  See  M'Culloch'a 
Dictionary  of  Commerce. 

OMSK,  a  town  of  Western  Siberia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Tobolsk,  stands  on  both  banks,  and  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Om — a  river  upwards  of  200  miles 
in  lenfdh— with  the  Irtish  ;  2225  miles  from  St 
Petersburg.  Lat.  54°  59'  N,  long.  73°  62'  E.  It 
was  built  in  1716,  as  a  defence  against  the  Khirghiz; 
but  is  now  of  no  importance  as  a  fortress.  It  is  the 
centre  of  government  for  Western  Siberia,  is  the 
residence  of  the  governor-general,  the  centre  of  the 
administration  of  the  Siberian  Khirghiz,  the  seat  of 


OMUL— ONION. 


the  courts  of  justice,  and  of  the  Siberian  corps  of 
cadets.  It  contains  35*  manufactories  and  mining 
works.  Hitherto  its  commerce  has  been  limited  to 
a  trade  with  the  Khirghiz,  who  drive  up  their  cattle 
to  this  place  ;  but  its  advantageous  position  on  the 
great  post-road  and  commercial  line  of  traffic  from 
Europe  across  the  whole  of  Siberia  to  the  Chinese 
frontier,  makes  it  probable  that  it  will  some  day- 
become  an  intermediate  station  for  extensive  com- 
mercial exchanges.     Pop.  about  :ii),000. 

OMUL  (Salmo  migratoriiu),  a  fish  of  the  salmon 
and  trout  tribe,  abounding  in  Lake  Baikal  and  other 
waters  of  the  east  of  Siberia,  from  which  great 
quantities  are  sent  salted  to  all  the  western  parts  of 
that  country.  In  size  it  is  rarely  more  than  15  or 
16  inches  long.  Its  flesh  is  very  white  and  tender. 
It  ascends  rivers  in  shoals  for  the  purpose  of 
spawning. 

O'NAGER.     See  Ass. 

ONAGER.     See  Balista. 

ONAGRA'CE^E,     ONAGRARI^,    or    CENO- 

THER  A'CE.E,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants, 
consisting  chiefly  of  herbaceous  plants,  but  including 
also  a  few  shrubs  ;  with  simple  leaves  ;  axdlary  or 
terminal  flowers  ;  the  calyx  superior,  tubular,  some- 
times coloured,  its  limb  usually  4-lobed ;  the  petals 
inserted  into  the  throat  of  the  caly^r,  generally 
equal  in  number  to  its  segments  ;  the  stamens  gene- 
rally four  or  eight,  rarely  one  or  two,  inserted  along 
with  the  petals  ;  the  ovary  geuerally  4-celled,  some- 
times 2-cellcd ;  the  style  threadlike,  the  fruit  a 
capsule  or  a  berry.  There  are  about  450  known 
species,  natives  chiefly  of  temperate  climates,  among 
which  are  some  much  cultivated  for  the  beauty 
of  their  flowers,  particularly  those  of  the  genera 
Fuchsia,  Oenothera  (Evening  Primrose),  Clarkki,  and 
Godetia.  The  British  genera  are  Epilobium  (Willow- 
herb)  and  Girccea  (Enchanter's  Nightshade).  A 
few  species  produce  edible  berries,  and  the  roots  of 
one  or  two  are  eatable  ;  but  none  are  of  economical 
importance.  The  root  of  Isnarda  alternifolia,  fouud 
in  the  marshes  of  Carolina,  and  called  Bowman's 
Boot,  is  emetic.  Some  species  of  Jussiaza  are  used 
in  dyeing  in  Brazil. 

ONCOCA'RPUS,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Anacardiacece.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
trees  of  the  Fiji  Islands  is  0.  atra,  or  0.  vUiensis, 
a  tree  about  sixty  feet  high,  with  large  oblong  leaves 
and  a  corky  fruit,  somewhat  resembling  the  seed  of 
a  walnut ;  the  sap  of  which,  if  it  comes  into  contact 
with  the  skin,  produces  a  pain  like  that  caused  by 
red-hot  iron.  The  wood  is  often  called  Itch-wood, 
because  of  the  effect  produced  on  persons  who 
ignorantly  or  incautiously  bark  it  wlrilst  the  sap  is 
fresh,  even  the  exhalations  causing  an  intolerable 
itching  and  innumerable  pustules,  with  excessive 
irritation  for  several  days,  whilst  the  effects  con- 
tinue to  be  unpleasantly  felt  even  for  months. 

ONE'GA,  a  small  town  and  seaport  in  the  north 
of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Archangel,  and  90 
miles  south-west  of  the  city  of  that  name.  It  stands 
at  the  mouth  of  a  river,  and  on  the  shore  of  a  gulf 
of  the  same  name;  the  latter  a  branch  of  the  White 
Sea.  Lat.  G3°  54'  N.,  long.  38°  7'  E.  Pop.  2500, 
employed  in  connection  with  the  saw-mills  of  the 
'  Onega  Trading  Wood  Company.'  In  these  mills, 
where  400  men  are  at  work,  an  English  steam-engine 
has  recently  been  erected.  About  50  ships  leave 
the  port  annually  for  England,  with  cargoes  of  deals 
nnd  timber  to  the  value  of  i.37,000. 

ONEGA,  Lake,  an  extensive  lake  in  the  north 
of  Russia,  government  of  Olonetz,  and,  after  Ladoga, 
the  largest  lake  in  Europe,  is  59  miles  in  greatest 


breadth,  and  about  150  miles  in  length.  Area 
4830  square  miles.  It  is  fed  by  numerous  rivers, 
and  receives  through  the  river  Wodlo  the  waters 
of  the  lake  of  that  name.  Its  only  outlet  is 
the  river  Swir,  which  flows  south-wi-st  into 
Lake  Ladoga.  By  means  of  the  Mariinsky 
system  of  communication,  Lake  O.  communicates 
with  the  Volga,  and  thence  with  the  Caspian 
Sea  on  the  south,  and  with  the  Dwina,  and  thence 
with  the  White  Sea  on  the  north.  The  clear 
and  beautiful  waters  of  this  lake  are  rich  in  fish, 
and  embrace  many  islands.  The  depth  ranges  from 
550  to  700  feet.  The  navigation  of  the  lake  ia 
dangerous,  and  commerce  is  chielly  confined  to  the 
Onega  Canal,  which  extends  from  the  town  of 
Vytegra  on  the  river  of  that  name  to  the  river 
Sv/ir. 

O'NEROUS  CAUSE,  in  Scotch  Law,  means  a 
pecuniary  or  valuable  consideration. 

O'NION  (Fr.  oignon,  from  Lat.  unio,  a  pearl,  but 
found  in  Columella,  signifying  a  kind  of  onion),  the 
name  given  to  a  few  species  of  the  genus  Allium 
(q.  v.),  and  particularly  to  A.  cepa  (Lat.  cepa),  a 
biennial  bulbous-rooted  plant,  with  a  swelling  stem, 
leafy  at  the  base,  tapering  fistular  leaves,  a  reflexed 
spathe,  a  large  globose  umbel,  usually  not  bulbif- 
erous,  the  lobes  of  the  perianth  obtuse  and  hooded, 
not  half  as  long  as  the  stamens.  The  bull)  is  simple 
— not  composed  of  cloves,  like  that  of  garlic  ;  and  in 
the  common  variety  is  solitary,  shewing  little  ten- 
dency to  produce  lateral  bulbs.  The  native  country 
of  the  O.  is  not  certainly  known,  some  supposing  it 
to  be  India  and  some  Egypt,  in  both  of  which  it  has 
been  cultivated  from  the  most  remote  antiquity. 
The  part  chiefly  used  is  the  bulb,  but  the  young 
leaves  are  also  used,  and  young  seedlings  drawn 
from  onion  beds  are  a  very  common  ingredient  in 
soups  and  sauces  in  the  beginning  of  summer. 
These  are  known  in  Scotland  as  syboes  (evidently 
another  form  of  the  word  Cibol).  In  warmer 
climates,  the  O.  produces  a  larger  bulb,  and  generally 
of  more  delicate  flavour,  than  in  Britain ;  and  is 
more  extensively  used  as  an  article  of  food,  being 
with  us,  whether  fresh  or  pickled,  generally  rather 
a  condiment.  In  Spain  and  Portugal,  a  raw  O.  is 
often  eaten  like  an  apple,  and  often  with  a  piece  of 
bread  forms  the  dinner  of  a  working-man.  The  O. 
is,  however,  very  nutritious.  It  contains  a  large 
quantity  of  nitrogenous  matter,  and  of  uncrystallis- 
able  sugar ;  with  an  acrid  volatile  sulphurous  oiL 
resembling  oil  of  garlic.  The  od  of  the  O.  is  dis- 
sipated by  boiling,  so  that  boiled  onions  are  much 
milder  than  raw  onions.  In  Britain,  onions  are 
sown  either  in  spring  or  in  August.  Great  fields  of 
them,  as  of  other  favourite  vegetables,  are  cultivated 
for  the  London  market ;  and  large  quantities  of 
onions  are  also  imported  from  more  southern  regions. 
The  Bermudas  are  celebrated  for  their  onions.  The 
0.  loves  a  rich  light  soil  and  a  dry  subsod.  The 
transplanting  of  onions  is  often  practised  in  the 
warmer  Middle  State?,  especially  of  those  sown  the  pre- 
ceding summer,  and  when  these  are  placed  so  that  thf 
small  bulbs  are  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and 
surrounded  with  decayed  manure,  very  large  bulbs 
are  obtained.  The  frequent  stirring  of  the  scd  is  of 
great  advantage.  The  bulbs  are  taken  up  when 
the  leaves  decay,  and  after  being  dried  in  the  open 
air  or  in  a  loft,  may  be  kept  for  a  considerable  time. 
—The  Potato  O.,  also  called  the  Egyptian  or 
Ground  0.,  is  a  perennial  variety  which  produces 
offset  bulbs  at  the  root,  like  the  shallot ;  but  the 
bulbs  are  much  larger  than  those  of  the  shallot,  and 
have  less  of  the  flavour  of  garlic,  although  stronger 
than  those  of  the  common  onion.  It  is  sometimes 
said  to  have  been  introduced   into  Britain   from 

73 


ONISCUS  -ONOMATOPOEIA. 


Egypt  by  the  British  army  in  1805,  but  erroneously, 
as  it  was  cultivated  in  some  parts  of  Britain  long 
before.  It  is  in  very  general  cultivation  among  the 
peasantry  in  some  parts  of  Scotland.  —  The  Pearl 
O.  is  a  similar  variety,  with  much  smaller  bulbs. — 
The  Tree  O.  is  also  generally  regarded  as  a  variety 
of  the  common  onion.  It  produces  bulbs  at  the  top 
of  the  stem,  the  umbels  becoming  viviparous. — 
Onions  are  similar  to  Garlic  (q.  v.)  in  medicinal  pro- 
perties, but  milder.  As  a  condiment  or  article  of 
food,  they  agree  well  with  some  stomachs  and  stimu- 
late digestion,  but  are  intolerable  to  others.  Roasted 
onions  with  oil  make  a  useful  emollient  and  stimu- 
lating poultice  for  suppurating  tumours.  The  use  of 
onions  stimulates  the  secreting  organs.— The  Cibol 
or  Welsh  O.  (A.Jistulosuni),  a  native  of  Siberia,  cul- 
tivated in  Britain,  but  more  generally  in  Germany, 
has  a  perennial  fibrous  root,  with  no  bulb,  very  fistu- 
lar  leaves,  and  a  3-comered  ovary.  Immense  quanti- 
ties of  onions  are  grown  in  the  New  England  states, 
and  largely  exported  to  the  West  Indies  and  southern 
states.  The  Weathersfield  O.  is  the  most  prolific  and 
the  most  commonly  cultivated. 

ONISCUS.    See  Woodlouse. 

O'NKELOS,  the  supposed  author  of  an  Aramaic 
Version  (Targum)  of  the  Pentateuch.  The  name  seems 
a  corruption  from  that  of  Akilas,  .one  of  the  Greek 
translators  of  the  Old  Testament  (see  Versions). 
The  translation,  said  to  be  by  0.,  is,  in  its  present 
shape  at  least,  probably  the  work  of  the  Babylonian 
schools  of  the  3d  and  4th  centuries  A.D.  At  first 
orally  transmitted,  various  portions  of  it  began  to  be 
collected  and  written  down  in  the  2d  c,  and  were 
finally  redacted  about  the  time  mentioned.  The 
history  of  the  origin  and  growth  of  Aramaic 
versions  in  general  will  be  treated  under  Targum 
(Version's).  The  idiom  of  0.  closely  resembles 
that  of  Ezra  and  DanieL  The  translation  itself  is 
executed  in  accordance  with  a  sober  and  clear, 
though  not  a  slavish  exegesis,  and  keeps  closely  to 
its  text  in  most  instances.  In  some  cases,  however, 
where  the  meaning  is  not  clear,  it  expands  into  a 
brief  explanation  or  paraphrase,  uniting  the  latter 
sometimes  with  Haggadistic  by-work,  chosen  with 
tact  and  taste,  so  as  to  please  the  people  and  not  to 
offend  the  dignity  of  the  subject.  Not  unfrequently 
it  differs  entirely  from  the  original,  as  far,  e.  g.,  as 
anthropomorphisms  and  anthropopathies — anything, 
in  fact,  which  might  seem  derogatory  to  the  Deity 
— are  concerned.  Further  may  be  noticed  a  repug- 
nance to  bring  the  Divine  Being  into  too  close 
contact,  as  it  were,  with  man,  by  the  interposition 
of  a  kind  of  spiritual  barrier  (the  '  Word,'  '  She- 
chinah,'  'Glory')  when  a  conversation,  or  the  like, 
Is  reported  between  God  and  man.  Its  use  lies 
partly  in  a  linguistic,  partly  in  a  theological  direc- 
tion ;  but  little  has  been  done  for  its  study  as  yet. 
Notwithstanding  the  numerous  MSS.  of  it  extant 
in  almost  all  the  larger  libraries  of  Europe,  and  in 
epite  of  the  grossly  incorrect  state  of  our  current 
printed  editions,  no  critical  edition  has  ever  been 
attempted. 

ONOBRY'CHIS.    See  Saintfoin. 

ONOMA'CRITUS,  a  celebrated  religious  poet  of 
ancient  Greece,  lived  at  Athens  in  the  time  of  the 
Peisistratidse.  He  collected  and  expounded — accord- 
ing to  Herodotus — the  prophecies  or  oracles  of 
Musaeus  (q.  v.),  but  is  said  to  have  been  banished 
from  the  city  by  Hipparchus,  about  516  B.C.,  on 
account  of  interpolating  something  of  his  own  in 
these  oracles.  He  then,  we  are  told,  followed  the 
Peisistratidse  into  Persia,  and  while  there  was 
employed  by  them  in  a  very  dishonourable  way. 
They  got  him  to  repeat  to  Xerxes  all  the  ancient 
sayings    that    seemed    to    favour    his   meditated 

rl 


invasion  of  Greece.  Some  critics,  among  whom  ia 
Aristotle,  have  inferred  from  a  passage  in  Pausaniag 
that  0.  is  the  author  of  most  of  the  so-called  Orphic 
hymns.  More  certain,  however,  is  the  view  which 
represents  him  as  the  inventor  of  the  great  Orphic 
myth  of  Dionysus  Zagreus,  and  the  founder  of  Orphic 
religious  societies  and  theology.  Pausanias  states 
that  '  Onomacritus  established,  orgies  in  honour  of 
Dionysus,  and  in  his  poems  represented  the  Titans 
as  the  authors  of  the  sufferings  of  Dionysus.'  See 
Muller's  Geschichte  der  Grlech.  Literatur  bis  auj 
das  Zeitalter  Alexander's  (Breslau,  1S41) ;  Grote'a 
History  of  Greece,  &c. 

ONOMATOPCE'IA,  the  Latin  form  of  the  Greek 
word  onomatopoieia,  means  literally  the  making  or 
invention  of  names,  and  is  used  in  philology  to 
denote  the  formation  of  words  in  imitation  of 
natural  sounds,  as  in  cuckoo,  Lat.  c??cw(lus) ;  fee-wit, 
Scan,  pee-weip,  Dutch,  kiewit;  cock;  clash,  rap,  tap, 
quack,  rumble,  whizz,  clang.  Such  words  are  some- 
times called  onomatopoeias  ;  more  properly,  they  are 
onomatopoeian,  or  formed  by  onomatopoeia. 

In  a  more  extended  sense,  the  term  is  applied  to 
the  rhetorical  artifice  by  which  writers  (chiefly 
poets)  seek,  through  the  choice  and  arrangement  of 
words,  to  make  the  '  sound,'  throughout  whole 
phrases  and  sentences,  '  an  echo  to  the  sense,'  as  in 
Homer's  well-known poluphloisboio  thalasses,  expres- 
sive of  the  breaking  of  waves  upon  the  seashore ; 
or  where  Tennyson  makes  the  sea 

Roar  rock-thwarted  under  bellowing  caves. 

The  occurrence  of  so  many  obviously  onomato- 
poeian words  in  all  known  languages,  suggests  the 
question,  whether  the  same  principle  may  not  have 
been  concerned  in  producing  the  original  germs  or 
roots  of  the  great  bulk  of  words.  There  is  little 
hope  that  the  question  will  ever  be  conclusively 
settled  either  way ;  for  the  changes  of  time  have 
made  it,  in  most  cases  at  least,  impossible  to  say 
what  the  first  form  and  signification  of  a  root 
were;  but  the  balance  of  arguments  seems  in 
favour  of  the  affirmative  answer.  '  The  action  of 
the  mind,'  as  it  has  been  expressed,  '  produced  lan- 
guage by  a  spontaneous  repercussion  of  the  impres- 
sions received.'  Now,  the  articulate  sound  first 
affixed  in  this  way  to  an  object  or  an  action  as 
its  sign  cannot  be  conceived  as  arbitrary ;  nor  is 
there  any  mysterious  and  inherent  correspondence 
between  any  one  conception  of  the  mind,  and  a 
particular  articulate  sound.  The  sound  uttered 
must  have  been  suggested  by  something  connected 
with  the  object  or  action  itself;  and  by  what  more 
naturally  than  by  the  inarticulate  sound  which  the 
object  or  action  itself  emits  ? 

The  chief  objection  to  this  theory  is,  that  if  the 
first  words  were  merely  reproductions  of  natural 
sounds,  the  same  natural  objects  would  have  had 
the  same  names  all  the  world  over.  To  which  it  is 
answered,  that  the  mind  in  its  first  efforts  at  naming 
did  not  seek  an  exact  reproduction  of  the  sound, 
but  a  suggestive  imitation ;  primitive  words  were 
not  echoes,  but '  artistic  representations.'  Now,  the 
sounds  of  nature  are  not  simple,  but  composite. 
Like  other  concrete  phenomena,  they  present  a 
variety  of  aspects  ;  and  according  as  one  or  another 
aspect  seemed  the  most  prominent  to  the  observer, 
a  different  vocal  sound  would  suggest  itself  as  the 
appropriate  symbol.  Thus,  Avhen  Professor  Max 
Miiller  argues  {Science  of  Language,  Lond.  1861) 
that  if  the  'bow-wow'  theory,  as  he  nicknames  it, 
were  true,  men  would  have  everywhere  spoken  of  a 
moo,  as  is  done  in  the  nursery,  and  not  of  a  cow  ;  ii 
seems  a  valid  answer  to  say,  that  the  Indian  gn, 
the  Teut.  kuh  (Eng.  cow),  and  the  Grrceo-Lat.  bou-, 
are  really  as  suggestive  imitations  of  the  animal's 


ONTARIO-OOLITE. 


actual  voice  aj  moo.  To  take  a  more  striking 
instance:  few  words  ditTer  more  in  sound  and 
aspect  than  the  Eng.  thunder  (Ger.  dormer,  Lat. 
tonitru,  Fr.  tonnert)  does  from  the  Mexican  name 
for  the  same  thine,  tlatlatniizcl,  and  yet  it  would  he 
difficult  to  say  which  is  the  more  suggestive  of  the 
natural  sound. 

It  is  no  doubt  true  that  the  great  bulk  of  names 
are  derived  from  roots  having  a  general  predicative 
power  ;  but  this  by  no  means  excludes  the  principle 
of  onomatopoeia.  Thus,  to  take  one  of  the  instances 
adduced  by  Professor  Miiller  himself,  that  of  raven 
or  era iv  (Sans,  kdrava,  Lat.  corvus,  Gr.  korone) ;  this 
is  derived  from  the  root  ru  or  kru,  which  means  to 
cry  or  call,  and  the  bird  was  called  a  karava,  or 
crow,  not  in  imitation  of  his  voice,  but  because  he 
was  '  a  shouter,  a  caller,  a  crier.  The  name  might 
have  been  applied  to  many  birds,  but  it  became  the 
traditional  and  recognised  name  of  the  crow.' 
But  how  came  the  articulation  ru  or  ibra  to  be 
chosen  to  convey  the  general  meaning  of  crying  or 
calling  ;  may  we  not  suppose  that  it  was  suggested 
by  the  voice  of  birds  of  the  crow  kind,  whose  notes 
are  most  markedly  cries  or  calls  to  their  fellows,  as 
distinguished  from  singing  ?  Once  adopted  in  this 
particular  case,  it  would  naturally  be  extended  to 
any  kind  of  cry  or  call,  from  the  harshest  to  the 
softest. 

ONTA'RIO,  the  easternmost  and  smallest  of  the 
five  great  lakes  of  North  America,  lies  in  43°  10' — 
44°  8'  N.  lat.,  and  70°  30—80°  W.  long.  At  its 
south-west  corner  it  receives  the  waters  of  the 
upper  lakes  by  the  Niagara,  and  at  its  north-east 
corner  it  issues  into  the  St  Lawrence ;  which  for 
some  distance  below  is  called  the  Lake  of  the  Thou- 
sand Isles.  Its  surface,  which  varies  a  few  feet  with 
the  seasons,  is  about  330  feet  below  that  of  Lake 
Erie  and  234  feet  above  tide-water.  Its  bottom, 
therefore,  must  be  considerably  lower  than  the  level 
of  the  Atlantic,  as  it  is  in  some  places  600  feet  deep. 
It  is  190  miles  long,  55  in  its  widest  part,  and  about 
480  in  circumference.  Sufficiently  deep  throughout 
for  vessels  of  the  largest  tonnage,  it  has  many  con- 
venient and  thriving  ports,  of  which  the  chief  are 
Kingston,  Port  Hope,  Cobourg,  Toronto,  Hamilton, 
on  the  Canadian  shore,  and  Oswego,  Sackett's 
Harbour,  Port  Genesee  in  the  United  States.  Its 
navigation  has  been  facilitated  by  the  erection  of  15 
light-houses  on  the  American  side,  and  13  on  the  Ca- 
nadian; while  it  is  connected  with  Lake  Erie  by  the 
"Welland  Canal,  with  the  Erie  Canal  and  New  York 
by  the  Oswego  Canal,  and  by  the  Rideau  Canal  with 
the  Ottawa.  Lake  O.  is  subject  to  violent  storms, 
and  owing  to  its  great  depth  and  frequent  agitation,  it 
freezes  only  for  a  few  miles  from  shore.  The  climate 
of  the  southern  shore  of  L.  Ontario  is  modified  by  its 
waters,  and  in  consequence  has  proved  to  be  admirably 
adapted  to  the  production  of  fruit.  See  Fruit  Regions 
of  the  U.  States,  in  Rep.  of  Com.  of  Agricult.  for  1866. 

ONTARIO,  formerly  Canada  West  or  Upper  Can- 
ada, a  province  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  occupying 
121,260  sq.  miles,  with  a  pop.  in  1871  of  1,620,851. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  E.  and  E.  by  the  province  of 
Quebec  on  the  S.  E.,  S.,  S.  W.,  and  W.  by  the  St 
La^Ten^e  and  the  Great  Lakes.  In  1873  there  were 
267S  miles  of  railroads  in  operation.  The  public 
school  system  is  excellent.  In  1872  there  were  4598 
schools,  with  446,326  pupils.  Amount  of  money  ex- 
pended in  their  support,  $1,814,821.  Exports  (1872), 
$25,560,410;  imports,  $37,523,354.  See  CANADA, 
Dominion  of;  also  Canada,  in  Supplement. 

O'NYX,  an  agate  formed  of  alternating  white 
and  black  or  white  and  dark-brown  stripes  of 
chalcedony.  More  rarely,  a  third  colour  of  stripes 
occurs.      The   finest    specimens    are    brought    from 


India.  O.  is  in  much  esteem  for  ornamental  pur 
poses.  Tho  ancients  valued  it  very  highly,  and 
used  it  much  for  cameos.  M  my  of  the  finest 
cameos  in  existeuce  are  of  onyx.  The  name  0., 
however,  appears  to  have  been  applied  by  the 
ancients  more  extensively  than  it  now  is,  and 
even  to  striped  calcareous  alabaster,  such  a3  is  now 
called  Onyx  Marble.  The  Sardonyx  of  the  ancients 
is  a  variety  of  O.,  in  which  white  stripes  alternate 
with  stripes  of  a  dark-red  variety  of  carnelian, 
called  sard  or  sarda.  It  is  one  of  the  rarest  and 
most  beautiful  kinds  of  O.,  and  is  more  valued 
than  carnelian. 

ONYX  MARBLE,  a  very  beautiful  material, 
which  first  came  into  general  notice  in  this  country 
in  1862,  when  the  French  made  a  largo  display  of  it 
in  the  International  Exhibition.  It  is  a  stalagmitic 
formation,  which  was  discovered  by  the  French  in 
making  roads  in  the  province  of  Oran  in  Algiers. 
It  is  a  translucent  limestone,  containing  traces  of 
magnesia  and  carbonate  of  iron ;  its  specific  gravity 
is  2*730.  The  quarries  are  worked  by  a  company, 
and  the  artistic  workmen  of  France  have  turned  it  to 
good  account,  in  the  manufacture  of  very  beautiful 
ornamental  works. 

OOJEI'N.     See  Ujein. 

O'OLITE  (Gr.  egg-stone),  a  variety  of  limestone, 
often  very  pure  calcareous  spar,  distinguished  by  its 
pecidiar  structure,  being  composed  of  grains  con- 
nected together  by  a  calcareous  cement ;  the  whole 
much  resembling  the  roe  of  a  fish.  The  grains  are 
not  unfrequeutly  hollow.  Many  oolites,  a3  iu  the 
south  of  England,  are  excellent  building-stones. 
There  is  no  important  mineralogical  difference 
between  O.  and  Pisolite,  or  Pea-stone.  O.,  as  a 
geological  tenn,  is  extended  far  beyond  its  miner- 
alogical and  original  signification. 

OOLITE  or  JURASSIC  GROUP  (in  Geology), 
an  extensive  and  important  series  of  strata  of 
Secondary  age,  underlying  the  Chalk  formation,  and 
resting  on  the  Trias.  In  Britain  they  received  the 
name  Oolite,  because  in  the  district  where  they 
were  first  examined  and  described  by  Dr  W.  Smith, 
the  limestones  contained  in  them  had  an  oolitio 
structure  (see  foregoing  article).  The  name  Jurassio 
lias  been  given  to  them  on  the  continent,  because 
the  range  of  the  Jura  Mountains  in  the  north-west 
of  Switzerland  is  almost  entirely  composed  of  them. 
The  strata  of  the  group  have  been  arranged  in  the 
following  order.  The  maximum  thickness  of  each 
division  is  given  in  feet : 


Upper  Oolite. 


1.  Purbeek  Beds, 

2.  Portland  Beds,      . 

3.  Kimmeridge  Clay, 


Feet. 

200 
170 
600 


970 


Middle  Oolite. 


4.  Coral  Rag, 

5.  Oxford  Clay, 


190 
600 


790 


Loweb  Oolite. 

6.  Cnrnbrash  and  Forest  Marble,     . 

7.  Great  Oolite  and  Stonestield  Slate, 

8.  Fuller's  Earth,      ... 

9.  Inferior  Oolite,  .  . 


SO 
150 
150 
250 


630 


10.  Upper  Lias, 

11.  Marlstone, 

12.  Lower  Lias, 


Lias. 


Total, 


300 
200 
600 


-1100 
3490 


It  is  apparent  from  this  table  that  the  Oolitio 
rocks  consist  of  three  extensive  clay  deposits, 
each  of  which  forms  the  basis  of  a  smaller  and 
variable  set  of  sands  and  limestones;   the  Upper 

76 


OOLITE-OORGA. 


Oolites  resting  on  the  Kimmeridge  Clay,  the  Coral 
Rag  on  the  Oxford  Clay,  and  the  Lower  Oolite  on 
the  Lias. 

1.  The  Purbeck  beds,  unlike  the  other  oolitic 
rocks,  are  chiefly  freshwater  deposits.  Though 
lithologically  they  are  very  similar  throughout, 
the  peculiarities  of  the  contained  fossils  have  caused 
them  to  be  grouped  into  three  series — the  Upper, 
Middle,  and  Lower.  The  Upper  Purbecks  are 
purely  freshwater,  containing  beds  of  limestone 
and  shale,  which  abound  in  shells  of  lake  and 
river  mollusca  and  cyprides.  The  stone  called 
Purbeck  Marble,  formerly  so  extensively  used  in 
the  ornamental  architecture  of  English  churches 
and  other  buildings,  belongs  to  this  division  ;  it 
consists  of  the  shells  of  Paludinse,  held  together 
by  a  somewhat  argillaceous  paste.  The  Middle 
Purbecks  are  partly  freshwater,  and  partly  brackish 
or  marine.  The  'cinder-bed,'  composed  of  a  vast 
accumulation  of  shells  of  Ostrea  distorta,  occurs 
in  this  section,  and  near  it  is  the  narrow  layer  from 
which  Mr  Beckles  recently  obtained  the  remains 
of  several  mammalia.  The  Lower  Purbecks  are 
chiefly  freshwater,  with  some  intercalated  brackish 
or  marine  beds,  and  one  or  two  old  vegetable  soils 
called  by  the  quarrymen  '  dirt-beds,'  which  contain 
the  stems  of  Cycadaceous  and  Coniferous  plants.  2. 
The  Portland  beds  consist  of  oolitic  and  other 
limestones  interstratified  with  clays,  and  passing 
below  into  sands  and  sandstones,  from  which  the 
well-known  building-stone  is  obtained,  of  which 
St  Paid's  and  many  of  the  principal  buddings  in 
London  are  built.  3.  The  Kimmeridge  Clay  is  gene- 
rally a  dark-gray  bituminous  shale,  with  intercalated 
beds  of  sand,  calcareous  grit,  and  layers  of  septaria. 
The  dark  shale  in  some  places  passes  into  an  impure 
brown  shaly  coal.  4.  The  Coral  Pag  contains,  as  its 
name  implies,  an  abundance  of  corals,  in  bluish 
limestone  beds  mixed  with  layers  of  calcareous  grit. 
The  Solenhofen  lithographic  stone,  with  its  beauti- 
fully preserved  and  varied  fossil  remains,  belongs  to 
this  division.  5.  The  Oxford  Clay  is  a  dark-blue  or 
blackish  clay  without  corals,  but  having  a  large 
number  of  beautifully  preserved  Ammonites  and 
Belemnites.  Beds  of  calcareous  sandstone,  called 
Kelloway  Pock,  occur  in  its  lower  portion.  6.  The 
Cornbrash  consists  of  thin  beds  of  cream-coloured 
limestone,  with  sandstones  and  clays,  and  the  Forest 
Marble  (so  named  from  Wychwood  Forest)  is  com- 
posed of  ail  argillaceous  limestone,  with  numerous 
marine  fossils,  blue  marls  and  shales,  and  yellow 
Bilicious  sand.  At  Bradford,  Wiltshire,  the  Forest 
Marble  is  replaced  by  a  considerable  thickness  of 
blue  unctuous  clay.  7.  The  Great  Oolite  is  com- 
posed of  shelly  limestones,  sandstones,  and  shelly 
calcareous  sandstones,  and  the  Stonesfield  Slate  is 
a  slightly  oolitic  shelly  limestone,  which  splits  into 
very  thin  slabs,  eiToneously  called  '  slates ; '  it  is 
remarkable  for  the  remains  of  terrestrial  reptiles 
and  mammals  found  in  it.  The  Bath  Oolite,  a  cele- 
brated building-stone,  belongs  to  this  division.  8. 
The  Fuller's  Earth  group  is  a  local  deposit  found 
near  Bath  ;  it  consists  of  a  series  of  blue  and  yellow 
Bhales  and  marls,  some  of  which  have  properties 
fitting  them  for  the  use  of  the  fuller.  9.  The  Infe- 
rior Oolite  is  composed  of  a  series  of  beds  of  piso- 
litic  and  shelly  limestones,  brown  marl,  and  brown 
6andy  limestone,  all  abounding  in  fossils.  10.  The 
Lias  (q.  v.)  is  a  great  clay  deposit.  It  is  divided 
into  the  Upper  and  Lower  Lias,  which  consist  of  thin 
beds  of  limestone  scattered  through  a  great  thick- 
ness of  blue  clay,  and,  separating  these  two  groups, 
the  Marlstoce,  or  calcareous  or  ferruginous  sand- 
stone. The  has  abounds  in  beautifully  preserved 
fossils. 

The  oolite  occupies,  in  England,  a  zone  nearly 
76 


thirty  miles  in  breadth,  extending  across  the  coun- 
try from  Yorkshire  to  Dorsetshire.  In  Scotland, 
patches  of  lias  and  Oxford  clay  occur  in  the  islands 
of  Mull  and  Skye,  and  on  the  western  shores  of  the 
mainland,  and  beds  belonging  to  the  lower  oolite 
are  found  at  Brora,  on  the  east  coast  of  Sutherland, 
which  contain  an  impure  coal.  The  only  oolite 
rocks  in  Ireland  are  a  few  isolated  patches  in 
Antrim,  which  abound  with  the  fossils  of  the  lower 
lias.  On  the  continent,  rocks  of  this  age  occur  in 
Germany  and  France,  but  they  have  been  most 
extensively  studied  in  the  Jura  Mountains,  which, 
though  having  a  height  of  6000  feet,  are  entirely 
composed  of  oolite  and  cretaceous  rocks.  The 
strata  are  greatly  bent  and  contorted,  and  as  they 
approach  the  Swiss  Alps,  the  great  mass  of  which 
is  also  formed  of  oolite,  they  become  completely 
metamorphosed  into  clay  slates,  mica  schists,  gneiss, 
and  crystalline  limestones.  Beds  of  oolite  have 
been  noticed  in  Cutch,  in  India.  In  Australia 
similar  beds  occur  on  the  western  coast,  and  pro- 
bably some  of  the  coal-beds  of  New  South  Wales, 
Victoria,  and  Tasmania  belong  to  the  oolite.  In 
North  America  they  are  developed  in  Utah  and  Ne- 
vada, very  little  in  the  east;  in  South  America  in 
Chili,  where  they  are  coal-bearing. 

The  oolite  is  remarkable  for  the  abundance  of  its 
fossils,  and  is  in  this  respect  in  striking  contrast  to 
the  immediately  preceding  Triassic  and  Permian 
periods.  The  several  freshwater  deposits,  and  the 
ancient  vegetable  surfaces,  contain  the  remains  of  a 
considerable  number  of  plants.  Ferns  still  abound, 
and  with  them  are  associated  species  that  are 
evidently  related  to  the  living  genera  Cupressus, 
Araucaria,  and  Zamia. 

Corals  abound  in  several  of  the  beds.  The  brachio- 
pods  are  the  only  division  of  the  mollusca  that  is 
not  largely  represented.  The  conchifers  and  gaster- 
opods  shew  a  great  number  and  variety  of  new 
genera,  which  are  nearer  the  forms  of  the  present 
day  than  those  that  preceded  them.  But  the 
remarkable  feature  of  molluscan  life  is  the  enormous 
development  of  the  cephalopods.  Whole  beds  are 
almost  entirely  made  up  of  their  shells.  No  less 
than  600  species  of  ammonites  have  been  described, 
chiefly  from  the  rocks  of  this  period,  and  the  belem- 
nites were  also  very  numerous.  The  crinoids  have 
become  scarce,  but  are  replaced  by  star-fishes  and 
sea-urchins.  The  freshwater  beds  contain  the 
remains  of  many  insect  forms.  The  heterocercal- 
tailed  fish  give  way  to  the  more  modern  homocer- 
cals,  and  the  true  sharks  and  rays  make  their 
appearance,  though  the  old  cestracionts  are  still 
represented  by  some  survivors.  The  characteristic 
feature  of  the  oolitic  period  was  its  reptiles.  The 
land,  the  sea,  and  the  air  had  each  their  fitting 
inhabitants  of  this  class.  The  various  species  of 
pterodactyles,  some  not  larger  than  the  bat,  others 
surpassing,  in  the  stretch  of  their  membranous 
'wing,'  the  size  of  the  largest  living  bird,  ware  the 
terrors  of  the  air ;  while  their  allies,  the  monster 
ichthyosaurs  and  plesiosaurs,  held  the  mastery  of 
the  waters ;  and  the  huge  megalosaurs,  some  not 
less  than  30  feet  in  length,  trod  the  earth.  The  few 
mammalian  remains  hitherto  found,  have  a  special 
interest  from  their  antiquity,  being  the  first 
evidence  of  this  high  order  of  animals  on  the 
globe.  They  belong,  apparently,  to  marsupial 
animals;  one  species  is,  however,  supposed  by  Owen 
to  have  been  a  hoofed  and  herbivorous  placental 
mammaL 

OONALA'SKA.    See  Unalashka. 

OORA'LSK.     See  Uralsk. 

OO'RFA.    See  Urfa. 

OO'PGA.    See  Ukoa- 


OORT  RIVER-OPERA. 


OO'RI  or  LIMPOPO  RIVER,  an  important  river 
system  of  South-Eastern  Africa,  rising  in  lat.  26°  S. 
in  the  high  plateau  called  the  Magaliesberg,  which 
bounds  the  basin  of  the  Orange  River  to  the 
north,  and  with  its  different  branches,  the  Mariqua, 
Ngotuane,  Lipalula,  &c,  draining  the  regions  now 
known  as  the  Transvaal  Republic.  Flowing  first 
to  the  north,  the  0.  gradually  turns  to  the  east, 
and  is  supposed  to  reach  the  Indian  Ocean  at 
Ihhambane,  in  lat.  24°,  after  a  course  of  950  miles, 
and  draining  a  basin  of  not  less  than  250,000  square 
miles,  yet.  like  other  South  African  rivers,  it  is 
not  navigable,  and  the  very  position  of  its 
embouchure  is  not  yet  very  satisfactorily  ascer- 
tained. The  basin  of  this  river  occupies  the  depres- 
sion which  exists  between  the  watershed  of  the 
Orange  River  on  the  south,  and  the  south  tribu- 
taries of  the  Zambesi  on  the  north. 

OOROOME'YAH,  town  and  lake.  See 
Urumeyah. 

OO'STERHOUT,  a  flourishing  town  in  the 
Netherlands,  province  of  North  Brabant,  six  miles 
north-north-east  from  Breda,  is  situated  in  a  well- 
woodeil,  fertile  district  of  country.  Pop.  (1871)  8755, 
of  whom  8425  belonged  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  Much  business  is  done  in  the  grain  and 
cattle  markets.  There  are  14  tanyards,  several 
flourishing  beer-brewing  establishments,  5  potteries, 
and  4  brick-works.  O.  has  a  grammar-school,  and 
a  nunnery,  the  inmates  of  which  employ  themselves 
in  teaching  the  chddren  of  the  poor.  The  handsome 
town-house  and  great  Roman  Catholic  Church  stand 
on  the  market-place,  which  is  shaded  with  linden- 
trees. 

Near  O.  is  an  extensive  wood,  where  are  the  ruins 
of  the  house  of  Stryen  or  Oosterhout,  formerly  the 
residence   of  the  Counts   of   Stryen,   under   whose 

5'urisdiction  were  not  only  the  town  and  barony  of 
Jreda,  but  also  the  marquisate  of  Bergen-op-Zoom. 

OOTACAMU'ND,  the  chief  town  in  the 
Neilgherry  Hills,  and  the  great  sanitarium  of 
Southern  India.  These  hills  are  situated  between 
11°— 12°  N.  lat,  and  76°— 77°  E.  long.  The 
elevation  of  0.  is  7400  feet  above  the  sea ;  the  mean 
temperature  being  about  49°,  the  maximum  77°,  arid 
the  minimum  38°.  The  average  rainfall  is  45  inches. 
Its  distance  is  only  about  350  miles  from  Madras, 
and  it  is  easy  of  access,  as  the  railway  now  conveys 
the  traveller  to  the  foot  of  the  Hills.  The  other 
stations  on  the  Neilgherries  are  Coonoor,  Kotta- 
gherry,  and  Jackatalla,  or  Wellington.  In  the  last 
place,  there  is  a  fine  range  of  barracks  for  European 
troops.  The  number  of  European  settlers  on  these 
hills  is  increasing.  There  are  thriving  plantations 
of  tea  and  coffee,  and  the  cinchona  or  quinine 
plant. 

O'PAH,  or  KLNG-FISH  {Lampris  guttatus  or  L. 
luna),  a  fish  of  the  Dory  (q.  v.)  family  (Zeidae), 
occasionally  found  in  the  British  seas,  but  more 
common  in  more  northern  regions,  and  found  not 
only  in  the  Atlantic  and  Arctic  Oceans,  but  also  in 
the  Pacific,  as  on  the  coasts  of  China  and  Japan.  It 
is  of  an  oval  form,  greatly  compressed,  with  small 
thin  scales,  the  mouth  small  and  destitute  of  teeth, 
a  single  dorsal  fin  much  elevated  in  front  and 
extending  almost  to  the  tail.  This  fish  attains  a 
large  size,  being  sometimes  five  feet  long  and  150 
pounds  in  weight.  It  is  brilliantly  coloured  ;  the 
upper  part  of  the  back  and  sides  rich  green,  reflect- 
ing purple  and  gold  in  different  fights,  the  lower 
parts  yellowish- green,  round  yellowish-white  spots 
above  and  below  the  lateral  line  ;  all  the  fins  bright 
vermilion.  The  flesh  is  much  esteemed ;  it  is  red 
like  salmon,  and  is  said  to  resemble  it  in  flavour. 


O'PAL,  a  mineral  which  differs  from  quartz  in 
containing  from  S  to  13  per  cent,  of  water,  its  only 
other  essential  constituent  being  silica,  although  a 
little  alumina,  oxide  of  iron,  &c,  is  often  present.  It 
is  never  found  crystallised,  and  does  not  exhibit  a 
crystalline  structure  like  quartz.  It  has  a  con- 
choidal  fracture,  and  is  very  easily  broken.  There 
are  many  varieties,  which  pass  into  one  another,  so 
that  their  precise  limits  cannot  be  defined,  from 
which  has  arisen  no  little  confusion  of  names.  The 
finest  kind  is  called  Precious  O.  or  Nolle  O.,  and 
sometimes  Oriental  Opal.  It  is  semitransparent  or 
translucent,  usually  of  a  bluish  or  yellowish  white 
colour,  yellow  by  transmitted  light,  and  exhibits  a 
beautiful  play  of  brilliant  colours,  owini^  to  minute 
fissures  which  refract  the  light.  It  is  much  valued 
for  setting  in  rings,  brooches,  &c,  and  is  polished 
with  a  convex  surface,  never  cut  into  facets,  both 
because  of  its  brittleness,  and  because  its  play  of 
colours  is  thus  best  exhibited.  The  ancients  valued 
opals  very  highlj.  The  Roman  senator  Nonius  pre- 
ferred exile  to  giving  up  an  O.  to  Mark  Antony. 
This  O.  was  still  to  be  seen  in  the  days  of  Pliny, 
who  ascribes  to  it  a  value  equal  to  more  than 
£100,000  sterling.  The  imperial  cabinet  of  Vienna 
contains  the  most  celebrated  O.  now  known  to  exist. 
It  is  five  inches  by  two  inches  and  a  half.  The 
finest  opals  are  almost  all  brought  from  Kaschau  in 
Hungary,  where  they  are  found  disseminated  in  a 
trachytic  conglomerate.  They  are  mostly  very 
small,  but  even  a  very  small  O.,  if  really  beautiful, 
is  worth  four  or  five  pounds ;  and  the  price  increases 
very  rapidly  with  increase  of  size.  Precious  0.  is 
found  also  in  Saxony,  in  South  America,  &c.  When 
the  colours  are  not  equally  diffused,  but  in  detached 
spots,  jewellers  call  it  Harlequin  Opal.  There  is  a 
dark  or  blackish  variety,  apparently  tinged  by  oxide 
of  iron,  which  occasionally  exhibits  very  beautiful 
reflections,  and  is  then  much  prized.  Girasol  (q.  v.) 
and  Cacholong  (q.  v.)  are  varieties  of  opal.  What 
lapidaries  call  Prime  oVOpal  is  clay-porphyry,  or 
other  stone  containing  many  small  grains  of  opaL 
It  is  cut  into  slabs,  and  made  into  boxes  and  other 
ornamental  articles  ;  the  stone  which  contains  the 
opals  being  often  artificially  blackened  by  boiling 
in  oil,  and  afterwards  exposing  to  a  moderate  heat. — 
Common  0.  is  semitransparent,  white,  yellow,  green, 
red,  or  brown,  and  does  not  exhibit  any  play  of 
colours.  It  is  not  a  rare  mineral,  and  is  chiefly 
found  in  clay -porphyry.  Semi-opal  is  more  opaque. 
Wood  0.  is  a  petrifaction,  and  exhibits  the  form  and 
structure  of  wood,  the  place  of  which  has  been  taken 
by  the  siliceous  mineral.  Hyalite  and  Menilite  are 
varieties  of  opaL 

OPEN-BILL  (Ana^tomus),  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  Heron  famdy  (Ardeida),  natives  of  the  East 
Indies  and  of  Africa,  remarkable  for  the  structure 
of  the  bill,  the  mandibles  being  in  contact  only  at 
the  base  and  tip,  with  a  wide  interval  between 
their  edges  in  the  middle.  They  frequent  the  sea- 
coast  and  rivers,  and  prey  on  fish  and  reptiles.  One 
species  is  well  known  in  India  as  the  Coromandel 
Heron. 

OPEN  DOORS,  Letters  of,  in  Scotch  Law, 
mean  a  writ  authorising  a  messenger  to  poind  or 
seize  goods  deposited  in  lockfast-places,  and  to 
break  open  the  locked  doors  in  order  to  effect  the 
seizure.    See  House. 

O'PERA,  a  musical  drama,  in  which  music  forms 
an  essential  part,  and  not  a  mere  accessory  accom- 
paniment. As  in  the  higher  drama,  poetry  super- 
sedes the  prose  of  ordinary  life,  so  in  the  opera,  with 
perhaps  as  great  artistic  right,  the  language  of 
music  is  introduced  at  a  considerable  sacrifice  of 
probability.     The  libretto    or  words    are,   in    tha 


OPERA. 


modern  opera,  a  peg  on  which  to  hang  the  music, 
rather  than  the  music  an  accessory  to  the  written 
drama.  The  component  parts  of  an  opera  are  recita- 
tives, duets,  trios,  quartetts,  choruses,  and  finales, 
accompanied  throughout  by  an  orchestra,  and  the 
whole  is  preceded  by  an  instrumental  Overture 
(q.  v.).  Recitative  is  declamation,  which,  in  its 
succession  of  musical  sounds  and  rhythm,  strives  to 
assimilate  itself  as  much  as  possible  to  the  accents 
of  speech,  and  therefore  does  not  entirely  conform  to 
musical  rhythm.  The  accessories  of  scenic  repre- 
sentation are  also  present,  and  a  Ballet  (q.  v.)  is  also 
frequently  introduced.  In  some  of  the  German 
operas,  and  in  the  French  opera  comique,  spoken 
dialogue  without  music  takes  the  place  of  recita- 
tive. Among  the  different  varieties  of  the  opera 
enumerated  are  the  great  opera  or  opera  seria,  of  a 
dignified  character ;  the  romantic  opera,  embracing 
an  admixture  of  the  grave  and  lively ;  the  comic 
opera,  or  opera  buffa  ;  as  well  as  many  intermediate 
varieties. 

The  idea  of  the  opera  may  in  part  have  arisen 
from  the  Greek  drama,  which  possessed,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  the  operatic  character  :  the  choral 
parts  were  sung,  and  the  dialogue  was  delivered  in  a 
sustained  key,  probably  resembling  operatic  recita- 
tive more  than  ordinary  speech.  The  earliest  extant 
example  of  any  composition  resembling  the  lyric 
drama  of  the  moderns  is  Adam  de  la  Hale's  comic 
opera  of  Li  gieus  (le  jeu)  de  Robin  et  de  Marian, 
composed  in  the  13th  c,  the  music  of  which  is 
wonderful  for  its  date.  The  next  appearance  of 
anything  like  opera  is  in  the  16th  century,  when 
various  musical  dramas  were  composed  in  the 
madrigalesque  style.  An  opera  composed  by  Zarlino 
is  said  to  have  been  performed  at  Venice  when 
Henry  III.  passed  through  that  city  on  his  way 
from  Poland  to  France.  About  the  same  time,  a 
pastoral  called  Dafne,  written  by  the  poet  Rinucci, 
was  set  to  music  by  Peri ;  and  the  same  poet  and 
musician  conjointly  produced  the  lyric  tragedy  of  La 
Morte  di  Euridice,  which  was  represented  at  the 
theatre  of  Florence  in  1600.  Claudio  Monte verde, 
one  of  a  society  of  amateurs,  known  as  the  '  Floren- 
tine Academy,'  who  devoted  themselves  avowedly 
to  the  study  and  revival  of  Greek  music,  soon  after- 
wards produced  his  Orfeo,  a  '  favola  di  musica,'  in 
whose  performance  an  orchestra  of  no  fewer  than 
36  performers  was  called  into  requisition,  most  of 
the  instruments  being,  however,  only  used  in  twos 
or  threes,  and  never  more  than  ten  at  a  time.  From 
these  beginnings,  the  opera  advanced  into  one  of  the 
permanent  institutions  of  Italy — a  development  of 
music  at  first  strongly  opposed  in  character  and 
style  to  the  music  of  the  church.  With  the  pro- 
gress of  music,  and  the  perfecting  of  the  musical 
instruments  which  went  to  form  the  orchestra,  the 
lyric  drama  began,  towards  the  middle  of  last 
century,  to  approach  its  present  character.  Of  the 
innumerable  Italian  operas  of  last  century,  only 
Cimarosa's  Matrimonio  Segreto  retains  its  place  on 
the  stage.  Cherubini,  the  first  of  the  more  modern 
school,  after  producing  his  Quinto  Fabio  at  Milan, 
became  naturalised  in  France  :  Rossini,  who  suc- 
ceeded him  in  Italy,  is  the  greatest  name  in  the 
Italian  opera.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  deliciously 
fresh  character  of  the  best  known  operas  of  this 
musician,  II  Barbiere  di  Siviglia,  Otello,  La  Gazza 
Ladra,  Hemiramide,  and  Guillaume  Tell.  Next 
to  them  rank  the  equally  well-known  works  of 
Bellini,  Norma,  La  Sonnambula,  and  I  Puritani; 
Lucia  di  Lammermoor,  Lucrezia  Borgia,  and 
L'Elisir  WAmore,  the  three  chefs-d?azuvre  of  Doni- 
zetti, alone  rivalling  them  in  public  estimation.  A 
newer  school  of  opera  has  recently  sprung  up  in 
Italy,  more  grand  if   less  fresh,  of  which  the  chief 


master  is  Verdi,  whose  Ernnni,  JSfdbucodonosor,  1 
Lombardi,  Otello,  Rigolctto,  II  Trovatore,  La  Tra~ 
viata,  and  others  have  attained  immense  popularity 
in  Italy,  and  wherever  the  Italian  opera  has  been  nat- 
uralised. 

From  Italy  the  opera  was  introduced  into 
Germany,  where,  more  scientific  and  less  sensuous 
than  in  Italy,  it  flourished  in  opposition  to  national 
as  well  as  ecclesiastical  music.  Germany  divides 
with  Italy  the  honour  of  perfecting  orchestral  music 
and  the  opera.  Gluck,  educated  in  Italy,  produced  his 
Orfeo  in  Vienna,  and  then  went  to  Paris,  where  the 
French  adopted  him  as  the  British  did  Handel.  Mo- 
zart was  the  first  composer  of  opera  for  the  modern 
orchestra;  Idomeneo,  II  Seraglio,  Le  Nozze  di  Figaro, 
Don  Giovanni,  and  Zauberflole  are  his  principal 
operatic  works,  unsurpassed  by  anything  that  has 
succeeded  them.  The  most  important  German 
operas  composed  since  their  date  are  Fidelio  by  Beet- 
hoven ;  Der  Freischiitz,  Euryanthe,  and  Oberon  by 
Weber ;  Faust  by  Spohr  ;  and  the  gorgeous  operas  of 
Meyerbeer,  Robert  le  Diable,  Les  Huguenots,  and 
Le  Prophete,  and  UEtoile  du  Nord.  Les  Huguenots, 
notwithstanding  its  involving  enormous  difficulties 
in  representation,  keeps  its  place  in  every  operatic 
theatre  in  Europe.  Wagner,  the  chief  exponent 
of  a  more  recent  school  arrogating  to  itself  the 
title  of  the  '  music  of  the  future,'  or  rather  '  work  of 
art  of  the  future,'  has  produced  the  opera  of  Tann- 
hauser,  which  enjoys  at  present  a  large  share  of 
public  favour  in  Germany. 

In  France,  the  earliest  operatic  representation  of 
which  we  have  any  record  was  in  1582.  About 
1669,  the  Abbot  Perrin  obtained  from  Louis  XIV. 
the  privilege  of  establishing  an  opera  in  the  French 
language  at  Paris,  and  in  1672  the  privilege  was 
transferred  to  Lulli,  who  may  be  considered  the 
founder  of  the  French  lyrical  drama.  Lulli's 
popularity  continued  during  a  long  period,  and  was 
only  put  an  end  to  by  the  rise  of  the  German  Gluck, 
who,  naturalised  in  Paris,  produced  there  his 
Iphigenie  in  Aulide  and  Alceste.  It  is  greatly 
through  Gliick's  influence  that  the  modern  French 
opera  has  become  what  it  is,  a  composite  work  com- 
bining French,  German,  and  Italian  elements.  Its 
best-known  productions  include  Mehul's  Joseph, 
Halevy's  Juive,  Auber's  Masaniello,  Fra  Diavolo, 
and  Diamans  de  la  Couronne,  and  Gounod's  Faust. 
The  Italian  opera,  introduced  in  Paris  in  1646  by 
Cardinal  Mazarin,  and  superseded  in  1670,  was  re- 
vived in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  and 
has  since  flourished  side  by  side  with  the  national 
opera  of  France. 

The  possibility  of  a  national  English  opera  seems 
first  to  have  been  shewn  by  Purcell,  who,  through 
Humphreys,  had  learned  much  from  Luli.  His 
music  to  Dryden's  King  Arthur  is  very  beautiful, 
though  kept  throughout  subordinate  to  the  business 
of  the  drama.  The  Beggar's  Opera,  as  set  to  music 
by  Dr  Pepusch,  was  a  selection  of  the  airs  most  popu- 
lar at  the  time.  It  has  retained  its  place  on  the 
stage,  as  also  has  Dr  Arne's  Artaxerxes,  a  translation 
from  Metastasio  adapted  to  music  rich  in  melody. 
The  importation  of  the  Italian  opera  put  a  stop,  for 
a  time  at  least,  to  the  further  development  of  an 
opera  in  England.  In  1706,  Arsino'e,  with  English 
words  adapted  to  Italian  airs,  was  performed  at 
Druiy  Lane.  In  1710,  Almahide,  wholly  in  Italian, 
was  performed  exclusively  by  Italian  singers  at  the 
Haymarket  Theatre;  and  a  succession  of  attempts 
of  the  kind  ended  in  the  permauent  establishment 
of  the  Italian  opera.  The  arrival  of  Handel  in 
England  decided  the  future  progress  of  the  opera. 
That  great  master  was  during  the  greater  part  of 
his  life  an  opera  composer  and  opera  manager.  He 
composed  for  the  London  stage  no  fewer  than  44 


OPERA— OPERA-GLASS. 


operas,  German,  Italian,  and  English.  These  now 
forgotten  operas  were  of  course  not  the  complex 
compositions  of  a  later  period,  which  could  not  have 
been  performed  in  the  then  imperfect  state  of 
orchestral  instruments.  A  recitative  was  Bet  to 
music  nearly  as  fast  as  the  composer  could  put 
notes  on  paper,  and  the  songs  were  accompanied  in 
general  by  only  one  violin  and  bass,  the  composer 
sitting  at  the  harpsichord,  and  supplying  what  was 
wanting.  From  Handel's  time  onwards,  the  opera 
flourished  as  an  exotic  in  Britain,  the  singers  being 
foreign,  and  the  works  performed  being  either 
Italian  or  occasionally  German  or  French.  Attempts 
crowned  with  some  measure  of  success  have  latterly 
been  made  to  establish  an  opera  of  a  national  char- 
acter in  England,  Balfe's  Bohemian  Girl  and  Rose 
of  Castib',  are  the  best  works  which  this  school 
has  produced,  and  have  attained  with  other  operas 
by  Balfe,  Wallace,  and  Macfarren,  a  considerable 
measure  of  popularity.  See  Hogarth's  Memoirs  of 
the  Opera  (London,  lb51). 

OPERA-GLASS  (If*  lorgnette,  Ger.  theater- 
perspecliv).  This  is  a  double  telescope,  which  is 
used  for  looking  at  objects  that  require  to  be  clearly 
seen  rather  than  greatly  magnified,  such  as  adjoin- 
ing scenery  and  buildings,  the  performers  of  a 
theatre  or  opera,  &c.  It  is  from  its  use  at  an  opera 
that  it  derives  its  name.  The  opera-glass  is  short 
and  light,  and  can  be  easily  managed  with  one 
hand.  Its  small  magnifying  power  (from  2  to  3 
at  the  most),  and  the  large  amount  of  light  admitted 
by  the  ample  object-glass,  enable  it  to  present  a 
bright  and  pleasing  picture,  so  that  the  eye  is  not 
strained  to  make  out  details,  as  in  telescopes  of 
greater  power,  which  generally  shew  a  highly  mag- 
nified but  faint  picture.  It  allows  the  use  of  both 
eyes,  which  gives  to  the  spectator  the  double  advan- 
tage, not  possessed  by  single  telescopes,  of  not 
requiring  to  keep  one  eye  shut,  a  somewhat  unna- 
tural way  of  looking,  and  of  seeing  things  stand  out 
stereoscopically  as  in  ordinary  vision.  The  opera- 
glass  is  in  consequence  the  most  popular  of  tele- 
scopes, and  requires  almost  no  art  in  its  use. 

The  opera-glass  is  the  same  in  principle  as  the 
telescope  invented  by  Galileo.  It  consists  of  two 
lenses,  an  object  lens,  and  an  eye-lens.  The  obj.ect- 
lens  is  convex,  and  the  eye-lens  concave.  They 
are  placed  nearly  at  the  distance  of  the  difference 
of  their  focal  lengths  from  one  another.  Fig.  1 
represents  the  action  of  the  telescope ;  o  is  the 
object-lens,  and  e  the  eye-lens,  and  oe  is  the  axis 
of  the  instrument.      The  object-lens  would  form 


Fig.  1. 

an  image,  cab,  of  the  object  looked  at  at  or  near 
its  focus,  but  the  eye-lens  intervening,  converts 
the  light  converging  to  cab  to  light  diverging 
apparently  from  an  object  in  front,  CAB.  _  To 
shew  more  clearly  the  changes  which  the  light 
undergoes,  the  course  of  a  pencil  of  rays  proceeding 
from  the  top  of  an  object  is  traced.  The  ray  pro- 
ceeding from  the  top  of  the  object  to  the  centre  of 
the  lens,  o,  makes  an  angle,  roA,  with  the  axis.   This 


is  the  snme  ns  the  angle  aob ;  and  either  of  these 
angles  gives  half  the  angle  under  which  the  object 
is  seen  to  the  anaided  eve.  The  three  extreme  riiys, 
?•,  r,  r.  of  the  pencil  appear  in  the  figure  nearly 
parallel,  although  they  come  from  a  point  The 
object  is  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  object- 
glass  or  eve,  so  that  it  is  not  possible  in  so  limited 
a  figure  to  show  their  divergence.  After  passing 
through  the  object-lens,  the  three  rays  proceed  to 
the  point  b,  in  the  image  which  the  object-lena 
would  form  at  cab,  if  no  eye-lens  were  there.  This 
image,  as  shown  in  the,  figure,  is  inverted,  and  would 
he  seen  as  such  if  the  eye  were  placed  nhout  ten 
inches  (the  distance  of  distinct  vision)  behind  it. 
The  three  rays  in  question  do  not  reach  the  point 
b  in  consequence  of  the  eye-lens  intervening,  and 
their  course  onwards  to  that  point,  niter  passing  the 
eye-lens,  is  shewn  by  dotted  lines.  The  actual 
course,  after  passing  the  second  lens,  is  shewn 
again  by  the  full  lines,  r,  r,  r,  which  to  the  eye 
placed  immediately  behind  the  eye-lens  appear 
to  proceed  from  the  point  B  in  front.  As  the  light 
comes  from  B  in  the  same  direction  as  it  comes 
from  the  actual  point  in  the  object,  the  image  is 
erect.  What  holds  for  the  point  B,  holds  for  every 
point  in  the  image  and  object.  To  find  the  mag- 
nifying power,  it  is  necessary  to  join  Be  and  (Je, 
and  produce  the  lines  thus  formed  to  b  and  c.  As 
the  eye  is  placed  immediately  behind  the  eye-lens, 
the  angle  under  which  the  magnified  object  is 
seen  is  the  angle  BeC,  which  is  equal  to  ceb. 
Now,  the  angle  under  which  the  object  itself  is  seen 
at  o  or  at  e — for  the  slight  difference  has  no  effect 
at  the  distance  at  which  objects  require  to  be  seen 
by  a  telescope — is  twice  the  angle  roA,  or  which 
is  the  same  thing,  the  angle  cob.  The  ratio  of  the 
angle  ceb  to  the  angle  cob,  which  is  the  magnifying 
power,  is  easily  seen  to  be  the  same  as  that  of  the 
line  oa  to  the  line  ae.  But  oa  is  the  focal  length 
of  the  object-glass,  and  ae  is  the  focal  length  of 
the  eye-glass,  so  that  the  magnifying  power  of  the 
instrument  is  the  number  of  times  the  focal  length 
of  the  eye-glass  is  contained  in  that  of  the  object- 
glass.  The  longer,  therefore,  the  focal  length  of  the 
object-lens,  or  the  shorter  the  focal  length  of  the 
eye-lens,  the  greater  the  magnifying  power.  This 
may  be  practically  expressed  thus  :  the  flatter  the 
object-lens,  and  the  hollower  the  eye-lens,  the  more 
are  objects  magnified  by  the  glass.  The  magnifying 
power  may  be  found  with  sufficient  accuracy  by 
looking  at  an  object  with  one  eye  through  the 
tube  and  the  other  eye  unaided,  and  so  handling 
the  glass  that  the  magnified  image  seen  by  the 
one  eye  i3  superposed  on  the  object  seen  by  the 
naked  eye,  when  a  comparison  of  their  relative 
sizes  can  be  easily  made.  For  great  magnification, 
the  instrument  requires  to  be  greatly  lengthened 
— a  condition  inconsistent  with  its  use  as  an  opera- 
glass.  In  addition,  a  high  magnifying  power  is 
attended  with  the  disadvantage  that  the  field  of 
view,  or  amount  of  object  or  objects  seen,  becomes 
too  limited.  On  screwing  out  the  instrument, 
it  will  be  seen  that  objects  increase  in  size  as 
the  instrument  is  lengthened,  but  that  the  picture 
becomes  more  and  more  limited,  shewing  that  a 
large  power  and  a  large  field  are  incompatible. 
The  opera-glass  need  not  be  set  to  the  same  precise 
point  as  is  necessary  with  ordinary  terrestrial 
telescopes,  as  the  lengthening  or  shortening  of  the 
instrument  does  not  produce  so  decided  an  effect  on 
the  divergence  of  the  light;  the  change  of  diver- 
gence, caused  by  screwing  the  opera-glass  out  or 
in,  is  so  slight  as  not  much  to  overstep  the  power  of 
adjustment  to  the  eye,  so  that  an  object  does  not 
lose  all  its  distinctness  at  any  point  within  the 
range  of    the    instrument.      There    is,   however,   a 


OPERCULUM— OPHIOGLOSSE^). 


Particular  point  at  which,  an  object  at  a  certain 
istance  is  best  seen. 

Fig.  2  gives  a  section  of  the  opera-glass,  which 
is  sufficiently  simple  to  require  no  further  descrip- 
tion.  The  two  telescopes  are  identical  in  construction, 


Fig.  2. 

and  are  placed  parallel  to  each  other.  The  blend- 
ing of  the  two  images  is  easily  effected  by  the 
eyes,  as  in  ordinary  vision.  Opera-glasses  have 
now  come  into  such  demand,  that  they  form  an 
important  article  of  mamifacture,  of  which  Paris 
is  the  great  seat.  So  largely  and  cheaply  are  they 
produced  in  Paris,  that  it  has  nearly  a  monopoly  of 
the  trade.  They  may  be  had  from  2s.  6d.  to  £6  or 
£7.  The  cheapest  opera-glasses  consist  of  single 
lenses,  those  of  the  better  class  have  compound 
achromatic  lens.  A  very  ordinary  construction 
for  a  medium  price  is  to  have  an  achromatic  object- 
lens,  consisting  of  two  lenses  and  a  single  eye-lens. 
In  the  finest  class  of  opera-glasses,  which  are 
called  field-glasses,  both  eye-lenses  and  object- 
lenses  are  achromatic.  Plbssl's  celebrated  field- 
glasses  (Ger.  Feldstecher)  have  twelve  lenses,  each 
object-lens  and  eye-lens  being  composed  of  three 
separate  lenses. 

OPERCULUM  (Lat.  a  lid),  a  term  used  in 
botany  chiefly  to  designate  the  lid  or  covering  of 
the  mouth  of  the  urn  or  capsule  (theca)  which  con- 
tains the  spores  of  mosses.  Before  the  ripening  of 
the  spores,  the  operculum  is  generally  concealed  by 
the  calyptra  ;  but  after  the  calyptra  has  been  thrown 
off,  the  operculum  itself  also  generally  falls  off, 
leaving  the  peristome  visible,  and  the  mouth  of  the 
urn  open.  In  some  cases  the  opercidum  does  not 
fall  off,  and  the  urn  opens  by  valves. 

In  Zoology,  the  term  operculum  is  chiefly  employed 
to  denote  the  covering  which  many  gasteropod 
molluscs  form  for  the  mouth  of  their  shell.  It  is 
attached  to  the  back  of  the  foot  of  the  mollusc.  In 
some  it  is  calcareous,  forming  a  shelly  plate ;  in  some 
it  is  horny ;  whilst  gasteropods  very  nearly  allied 
to  those  which  possess  it,  are  destitute  of  it  alto- 
gether. The  operculum  increases  in  various  ways, 
so  as  to  present  in  different  genera  great  diversity 
of  structure,  concentric,  spiral,  unguiculate,  &c. 

OPHICE'PHALUS,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
family  Anabantida  (q.  v.),  sometimes  regarded  as 
constituting  a  distinct  family  OpMcephalidce,  because 
there  is  a  mere  cavity  for  retaining  water  to  supply 
the  gills,  and  no  pharyngeal  laminae,  and  because  of 
the  long  eel-like  form  and  the  flattened  head,  which 
is  covered  with  large  scales.  Some  of  them  are 
common  in  the  fresh  waters  of  the  East  Indies,  are 
80 


Ophicleide. 


often  found  among  wet  grass,  often  travel  from  one 

pool  to  another,  and  are  capable  of  subsisting  for  a 

long    time    in    half-dried     mud, 

descending  into  it  when  the  pools 

dry     up.       The     Cora-mota     or 

Gachua  of  India  (0.  gachua)  is 

much  used  for  food  by  the  natives, 

although    generally    rejected    by 

Europeans  on  account  of  its  very 

snake-like  appearance.     It  is  very 

tenacious  of  life,  and  is  not  only 

brought   to   the   Indian  markets 

alive,  but  is  cut  to  pieces  whilst 

still  living  for  the  convenience  of 

buyers. 

O'PHICLEIDE  (Gr.  ophis, 

serpent,  and  kleis,  key),  a  musical 

wind-instrument      of     brass      or 

copper,  invented  to  supersede  the 

Serpent    (q.  v.)    in  the   orchestra 

and  military  bands.      It  consists 

of  a  conical  tube,  terminating  in 

a  bell  like  that  of  the  horn,  with 

a  mouthpiece  similar  to  that  of 

the  serpent,  and  ten  ventages  or 

holes,   all   stopped   by   keys  like 

those  of  the  bassoon,  but  of  larger 

size.    Ophicleides  are  of  two  kinds, 

the  bass  and  the  alto.     The  bass 

ophicleide    offers    great  resources 

for  maintaining  the  low  part  of 

masses   of    harmony.     Music  for 

it   is  written   in   the  bass   clef,  and   the   compass 

of  the  instrument  is  from  B,  the  third  space  below 

the  bass  staff,  to  C,  the  fifth  added  space  above 

it,  _p_      including  all  the  intervening  chrom- 

iz  atic  intervals.  The  alto  ophicleide  ia 
^      an  instrument  of  very  inferior  quality, 

O*         ,  and  less  used.     Its  compass  is  also 

,       —    three   octaves   and   one    note.      The 

3  music  for  it  is  written  in  the  treble 

cleff,    and    an    octave    higher    than 

it  is  played.    Double  bass  or  monster  ophicleidea 

have  sometimes  been  used  in  large  orchestras,  but 

the    amount     of    breath 

which  is  required  to  play 

them  has  prevented  their 

coming  into  general  use. 

OPHI'DIA.    See  Ser- 
pents. 

OPHIOGLO'SSE^E,  a 

suborder  of  Filices  or  Ferns 
(q.  v.),  consisting  of  a  few 
rather  elegant  little  plants 
with  an  erect  or  pendul- 
ous stem,  which  has  a 
cavity  instead  of  pith, 
leaves  with  netted  veins, 
and  the  spore-cases  (thecce) 
collected  into  a  spike 
formed  at  the  edges  of 
an  altered  leaf,  2-valved, 
and  without  any  trace 
of  an  elastic  ring.  They 
are  found  in  warm  and 
temperate  countries,  but 
abound  most  of  all  in 
the  islands  of  tropical 
Asia.  Several  species  are 
European,  and  two  are 
British,  the  Botrychium 
(q.  v.)  lunaria,  or  Moon- 
wort,  and  the  Common 
Adder's  -  tongue  ( Ophio- 
glossum  vulgatum),  which  was  at  one  time  supposed 


Adder's-Tongue  (Ophifr 
glossum  vulgatum). 


OPIITR— OPHTHALMIA. 


to  possess  magical  virtues,  and  was  also  used  as  a 
vulnerary,  although  it  seems  to  possess  only  a  mucil- 
aginous quality ;  on  account  of  which  some  of  the 
other  species  have  been  employed  in  broths.  It  is 
a  very  common  plant  in  England,  its  abundance  in 
some  places  much  injuring  pastures. 

O'PHIR,  a  region  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament,  and  from  which  the  ships  of  Solo- 
mon, fitted  out  in  the  harbours  of  Edom,  brought 
gold,  precious  stones,  sandal-wood,  &c.  The  voyage 
occupied  three  years.  Where  Ophir  was  situated, 
has  been  a  much,  in  fact,  a  superfluously  disputed 
question.  It  was  probably  either  on  the  east  coast 
of  Africa  about  Sofala,  or  in  Arabia,  or  in  India,  but 
in  which  of  the  three  countries  is  doubtful.  Huet, 
Bruce  (the  traveller),  the  historian  Robertson,  M. 
Quatremere,  &c,  are  in  favour  of  Africa  ;  Michaelis, 
Niebuhr  (the  traveller),  Gosellin,  Vincent,  Winer, 
Fiirst,  Knobel,  Forster,  Crawfurd,  and  Kalisch,  of 
Arabia  ;  Vitringa,  Reland,  Lassen,  Hitter,  Bertheau, 
and  Ewald,  of  India.  Josephus,  however,  it  should 
be  said,  placed  0.  in  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  and 
his  very  respectable  opinion  has  been  adopted  by  Sir 
J.  Emerson  Tennent  in  his  work  on  Ceylon.  For 
a  complete  discussion  of  the  point,  see  Karl  Bitter's 
Erdknnde  (vol.  xiv.  1848),  SO  octavo  pages  of  which 
are  devoted  to  Ophir.  According  to  Hitter,  who 
accepts  the  view  of  Lassen,  0.  was  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Indus. 

OPHIR,  called  by  the  Malays,  Gunong  Pasaman, 
a  volcanic  mountain  in  the  highlands  of  Padang,  island 
of  Sumatra,  lies  in  0°  4'  5S"  N.  lat.,  and  99°  55'  E. 
long. ;  the  eastern  peak,  called  Telaman,  attains  the 
height  of  9939  feet  above  the  sea.  The  western 
peak  is  called  Pasaman.  The  numerous  inhabitants 
have  cleared  off  forest  and  brought  under  cultivation 
large  tracts  of  land  on  the  slopes  of  0.,  and  its  base 
is  studded  with  villages.  The  O.  districts  are  most 
beautiful,  and  the  lofty  waterfalls,  contrasting  with 
the  bright-green  foliage  of  the  mountain,  highly 
picturesque. 

OPHISU'RUS.    See  Snake-eel. 

O'PHITES  (Gr.  ophitai, '  serpent-brethren,'  from 
ephis,  a  serpent),  a  sect  of  Gnostics  (q.  v.),  who 
while  they  shared  the  general  belief  of  dualism,  the 
conflict  of  matter  and  spirit,  the  emanations,  the 
Demiurgos,  and  other  notions  common  to  the  many 
subdivisions  of  this  extraordinary  school,  were  dis- 
tinguished from  all  by  their  pecidiar  docti-iue  and 
worship  connected  with  their  ophis  or  serpent.  The 
O.,  like  most  other  Gnostics,  regarded  the  Demi- 
urgos, or  the  Jehovah  of  the  Old  Testament,  with 
great  abhorrence,  but  they  pursued  this  notion  into 
a  very  curious  development.  Regarding  the  eman- 
cipation of  man  from  the  power  and  control  of  the 
Demiurgos  as  a  most  important  end,  they  consi- 
dered the  serpent  who  tempted  Eve,  and  introduced 
into  the  world  'knowledge'  and  revolt  against 
Jehovah,  to  have  been  the  great  benefactor  of 
the  human  race.  Hence  their  worship  of  the 
serpent.  Some  of  the  details  of  their  system  were 
very  strange.  We  may  instance  their  singular 
attempt  to  engraft '  Ophism '  on  Christianity  ;  their 
seeking,  as  it  were,  to  impart  to  the  Christian 
Eucharist  an  Ophite  character,  by  causing  the  bread 
designed  for  the  Eucharistic  sacrifice  to  be  licked 
by  a  serpent,  which  was  kept  in  a  cave  for  the 
purpose,  and  which  the  communicants  kissed 
after  receiving  the  Eucharist  (Epiph.  Hor.  37, 
s.  5).  Our  information,  however,  regarding  them  is 
very  meagre,  and  comes  chiefly  from  antagonistic 
sources.  The  0.  originated  in  Egypt,  probably  from 
some  relation  to  the  Egyptian  serpent-worship, 
and  spread  thence  into  Syria  and  Asia  Minor. 
318 


Offshoots  of  this  sect  are  the  Cainites.     See  Cath 

and  .Sktiiites. 

OPHTHALMIA  (derived  from  the  Greek  word 
ophthatmos,  the  eye)  was  originally  and  still  is 
sometimes  Jsed  to  denote  inflammation  of  the  eye 
generally,  but  it  is  at  the  present  time  u-ually 
restricted  to  designate  inflammatory  affections  of  the 
mucous  coat  of  the  eye,  termed  the  conjunct 

There  are  several  important  and  distinct  varieties 
of  ophthalmia  (in  the  restricted  sense  of  the  word) 
which  require  special  notice. 

Catarrhal  Ophthalmia. — Its  leading  symptoms  are 
redness  of  the  surface  of  the  eye  (the  redness  being 
superficial,  of  a  bright  scarlet  colour,  and  usually 
diffused  in  patches),  sensations  of  uneasiness,  stiff- 
ness and  dryness,  with  slight  pain,  especially  when 
the  eye  is  exposed  to  the  light ;  an  increased 
discharge,  not  of  tears,  except  at  the  beginning  of 
the  attack,  but  of  mucus,  which  at  first  is  thin,  but 
soon  becomes  opaque,  yellow,  and  thicker;  pus  (or 
matter,  as  it  is  popularly  termed)  being  seen  at  the 
corner  of  the  eye,  or  between  the  eyelashes  along 
the  edges  of  the  lids,  which  it  glues  together  during 
the  night.  The  disease  results  in  most  cases  from 
exposure  to  cold  and  damp,  and  is  very  apt  to  be 
excited  by  exposure  to  a  draught  of  air,  especially 
during  sleep.  It  is  popularly  known  as  a  cold  or  a 
blight  in  the  eye.  With  regard  to  treatment,  the 
patient  should  remain  in  rooms  of  a  uniform  tempera- 
ture, and  should  at  once  take  about  five  grains  of 
calomel,  followed  by  a  black  draught.  The  eye 
shoidd  be  frequently  bathed  with  poppy  decoction, 
lukewarm  or  cold  as  the  patient  prefers.  If  the 
affection  does  not  readily  yield  to  these  measures,  a 
drop  of  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  (four  grains  of 
the  nitrate  to  an  ounce  of  distilled  water)  should  bo 
let  fall  into  the  eye  twice  or  thrice  a  day.  It 
usually  causes  a  smarting  sensation  for  about  ten 
minutes,  after  which  the  eye  feels  much  easier  than 
it  did  before  the  drop  was  applied.  The  adhesion 
of  the  eyelids  in  the  morning  may  be  avoided  by 
smearing  their  edges  at  bedtime  with  a  little 
spermaceti  ointment. 

Purulent  ophthalmia  differs  from  catarrhal 
ophthalmia  in  the  severity  of  its  symptoms,  and 
in  its  exciting  causes.  It  is  a  violent  form  of 
inflammation  of  the  conjunctiva ;  is  accompanied 
with  a  thick  purulent  discharge  on  the  first  or 
second  day  of  its  commencement,  and  is  very  apt 
to  occasion  loss  of  vision.  There  are  three  remark- 
able varieties  of  this  affection,  called  respectively 
(1)  purulent  ophthalmia  of  adults,  or  Egyptian 
ophthalmia,  or  contagious  ophthalmia ;  (2)  gon- 
orrheal ophthalmia;  and  (3)  purulent  ophthalmia  of 
newly-born  children.  (1)  Purulent  ophthalmia  of 
adults  begins  with  the  same  symptoms  as  catarrhal 
ophthalmia,  but  in  a  very  exaggerated  form.  The 
conjunctiva  rapidly  becomes  intensely  red,  and  soon 
appears  raised  from  the  sclerotic  by  the  effusion  of 
serum  between  them,  projecting  around  the  cornea, 
which  remains  buried,  as  it  were,  in  a  pit.  Similar 
effusion  takes  place  beneath  the  mucous  membrane 
lining  the  eyelids,  causing  them  to  project  forwards 
in  large  livid  convex  masses,  which  often  entirely 
conceal  the  globe  of  the  eye.  These  symptoms  are 
accompanied  by  severe  burning  pain,  great  head- 
ache, fever,  and  prostration.  When  the  disease  is 
unchecked,  it  is  liable  to  produce  ulceration  or 
sloughing  of  the  cornea,  with  the  escape  of  the  aqueous 
humour  and  protrusion  of  the  iris  ;  and  even  when 
these  results  do  not  follow,  vision  is  often  destroyed 
by  permanent  opacity  of  the  cornea.  It  is  a  common 
disease  in  India,  Persia,  and  Egypt ;  and  in  conse- 
quence of  its  having  been  imported  from  the  last- 
named  country  into  England  by  our  troops  in  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  it  got  the  name  of 

U 


OPHT  H  ALMI  A-  OPIE. 


Egyptian  ophthalmia.  Some  idea  of  its  prevalence 
and  of  its  danger  may  be  formed  from  the  facts  (1) 
that  two-thirds  of  the  French  army  in  Egypt  were 
labouring  under  it  at  the  same  time,  and  (2)  that  in 
the  military  hospitals  at  Chelsea  and  Kilmainham 
there  were,  in  December  1810,  no  fewer  than  2317 
soldiers  who  had  lost  the  sight  of  both  eye3  from  this 
disease.  Until  after  the  war  in  Egypt,  the  disease 
was  unknown  in  Europe.  Since  that  time  it  has 
not  unfrequently  broken  out  in  this  country — not 
only  among  troops,  but  in  schools,  asylums,  &c. 
The  disease  is  unquestionably  contagious,  but  there 
are  good  reasons  for  believing  that  it  often  arises, 
independently  of  contagion,  from  severe  catarrhal 
ophthalmia  under  unfavourable  atmospheric  and 
other  conditions ;  and  that  having  so  originated, 
it  possesses  contagious  properties.  Gonorrheal 
op.it/ialmut  arises  from  the  application  of  gonorrheal 
discharge  or  matter  to  the  surface  of  the  eye ;  and 
hence  is  most  common  in  persons  suffering  from  the 
disease  from  which  this  variety  obtains  its  specific 
name.  It  is,  moreover,  not  unfrequently  occasioned 
by  the  common  but  disgusting  practice,  adopted  by 
the  poorer  classes,  of  bathing  the  eyes  in  human 
urine,  under  the  idea  that  by  this  procedure  they 
streii.c^hen  the  sight.  In  its  symptoms,  it  is  almost 
identical  with  ordinary  purulent  ophthalmia.  The 
purulent  ophthalmia  of  children  usually  begins  to 
appear  about  the  third  day  after  birth.  It  is  a  very 
common  affection,  and  its  importance  is  apt  to  be 
overlooked  until  it  has  made  considerable  progress. 
If  the  edges  of  the  lids  appear  red  and  glued 
together,  and  if  the  eye,  wht-n  the  lids  are  separated, 
shews  redness  and  swelling  of  the  conjunctiva,  there 
is  no  doubt  of  the  nature  of  the  disease,  which,  if 
not  checked,  progresses  in  much  the  same  way  as 
in  adults.  It  is,  however,  much  more  amenable  to 
treatment,  and  with  proper  care  the  sense  of  sight 
is  seldom  impaired,  provided  the  disease  has  not 
extended  to  the  cornea  before  medical  aid  is  sought. 
Of  the  treatment  of  purulent  ophthalmia  in  these 
various  forms,  we  shall  say  nothing  more  than  that 
it  must  be  left  exclusively  to  the  medical  practi- 
tioner, whose  advice  shoidd  be  sought  as  soon  as 
there  is  the  slightest  suspicion  of  the  nature  of  the 
jase. 

There  is  one  more  form  of  this  disease  which  is 
jf  very  common  occurrence,  and  has  received  the 
various  names  of  strumous  (or  scrofulous),  pustular,  and 
phlyctenular  ophthalmia.  It  is  intimatelj  connected 
with  the  scrofulous  constitution,  and  is  most  pre- 
valent in  children  from  four  to  ten  or  twelve  years 
of  ar.re.  The  most  prominent  symptom  is  extreme 
intolerance  of  light,  the  lids  being  kept  spasmodic- 
ally closed.  When  they  are  forcibly  sepaiated,  a 
slight  vascularity,  usually  stopping  at  the  fcdge  of 
the  cornea,  is  observed,  and  at  or  about  the  line  of 
separation  between  the  cornea  and  sclerotic  bmall 
opaque  pimples  or  pustules  appear.  The  treatment 
consists  (1)  in  improving  the  general  health  by  due 
attention  to  the  secretions,  and  the  subsequent  admi- 
nistration of  tonics  (such  as  quinia  and  cod-liver 
oil),  and  change  of  air  ;  and  (2)  in  local  applications, 
such  as  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  or  wine  of 
opium,  dropped  into  the  eye,  or  stimulating  oint- 
ments (such  as  dilute  citrine  ointment)  smeared  over 
the  edges  of  the  lids  at  bedtime.  This  form  of 
disease,  being  dependent  on  constitutional  causes,  is 
often  very  obstinate,  and  is  always  liable  to  recur. 
It  is  not  unfrequently  attended  with  the  annoying 
complication  of  a  skin  disease,  knorm  as  crusta 
lactea,  on  the  cheeks,  in  consequence  of  the  irrita- 
tion caused  by  the  flow  of  scalding  tears.  The 
crusts  or  scabs  are  easily  removed  by  a  poultice  or 
warm-water  dressing,  after  which  the  part  must 
be  bathed  by  a  lotion,  consisting  of  a  drachm  of 
82 


oxide  of  zinc  in  four  ounces  of  either  pump  or  row 
water. 

OPHTHALMOSCOPE,  The,  is  an  instrument 
recently  invented  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the 
deep-seated  structures  of  the  eye,  and  for  detecting 
disease  in  them.  In  its  simplest  form,  it  is  merely 
a  concave  circular  mirror,  of  about  ten  inches  focus, 
made  of  silvered  glass  or  polished  steel,  and  having 
a  hole  in  the  centre;  and  with  it  there  is  supplied, 
as  a  separate  piece  of  apparatus,  a  convex  lens  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  with  a  focal  length  of 
about  two  and  a  half  inches,  set  in  a  common  eye- 
glass frame,  with  a  handle  three  inches  long.  The 
patient  (his  pupil  having  been  previously  dilated  by 
the  application  of  a  drop  of  solution  of  atropine)  is 
made  to  sit  by  a  table  in  a  dark  room,  with  a  sliding 
argand  lamp  placed  by  the  side  of  his  head,  with 
the  flame  on  a  level  with  the  eye,  from  which  it  ia 
screened  by  a  little  flat  plate  of  metal  attached  to 
the  burner.  The  following  description  of  the  mode 
of  using  the  instrument,  and  of  the  parts  brought 
into  view  by  it,  is  borrowed  from  the  article  on  this 
subject  contributed  by  Mr  Haynes  Walton  to  the 
last  edition  of  Druit's  Surgeon's  Vade  Mecum : '  The 
operator  sits  directly  in  front,  and  holding  the 
instrument  close  to  his  eye,  and  a  little  obliquely 
to  catch  the  light  from  the  lamp,  he  commences,  at 
the  distance  of  about  18  inches  from  the  patient,  to 
direct  the  reflection  on  the  eye.  When  this  is  got, 
the  convex  lens  must  be  held  at  a  distance  of  two 
and  a  half  inches  from  the  eye,  and  the  focusing 
commenced  by  moving  it  slowly  backwards  and 
forwards.  When  the  light  fairly  enters  the  eye,  a 
reddish  glare  appears ;  and  as  it  is  focused,  an 
orange-red  or  orange-yellow  is  seen  ;  then  the  blood- 
vessels of  the  retina  come  into  view.  The  retina 
itself  presents  a  whitish  aspect,  through  which  the 
choroid  is  more  or  less  discernible.  The  entrance  of 
the  optic  nerve  should  now  be  sought.  The  way  to 
discern  it  is  to  make  the  patient  look  inward.  It 
appears  as  a  white  circular  spot,  in  the  centre  of 
which  are  the  central  vein  and  artery  of  the  retina, 
giving  off  six  or  eight  branches.'  This  optic  disc  is 
the  most  important  part  to  be  observed ;  but  a 
thorough  ophthalmoscopic  examination  will  reveal 
structural  differences,  not  only  in  it,  but  in  the 
retina,  choroid,  and  vitreous  humour,  and  will  reveal 
cataract  in  its  early  stage.  In  short,  the  ophthalmo- 
scope is  now  as  essential  in  the  diagnosis  of  diseases 
of  the  deep-seated  parts  of  the  eye  as  the  stethoscope 
is  in  the  diagnosis  of  thoracic  diseases. 

OPIE,  John,  R.A.,  was  born  at  the  village  of  St 
Agnes,  seven  miles  from  Truro,  Cornwall,  in  May 
1761.  His  father,  a  master-carpenter,  vvished  him 
to  follow  the  same  trade,  but  his  bias  for  art  was 
strong ;  and  his  attempts  at  portrait-painting  having 
attracted  the  notice  of  Dr  Wolcott,  afterwards 
celebrated  as  Peter  Pindar,  he  had  the  advantage  of 
his  advice  in  the  practice  of  the  art,  and  his  exer- 
tions in  procuring  him  employment.  And  at 
length,  in  1780,  he  was  taken  to  London  by  Dr 
Wolcott ;  and  immediately  came  to  be  acknowledged 
by  the  fashionable  world  as  the  '  Cornish  Wonder.' 
This  tide  of  good-fortune  soon  ebbed,  but  not  before 
0.  had  realised  a  moderate  competency.  The  loss 
of  popular  favour,  however,  only  served  to  bring  out 
more  strongly  those  points  in  O.'s  character  on 
which  his  reputation  mainly  rests,  viz.,  manly 
independence  and  strong  love  of  art.  He  stooped 
to  no  device  to  retain  fashionable  patronage,  but 
calmly  and  unremittingly  entered  on  that  depart- 
ment of  painting  which,  according  to  the  notions  of 
his  time,  was  the  only  style  of  high  art,  viz.,  historical 
or  scriptural  subjects,  executed  on  a  large  scale.  Hia 
pencil  was  employed  by  Boydell  in  his  well-meant 


OPINICUS-OPH  M. 


and  magnificent  scheme  to  elevate  British  art; 
he  also  i>ainted  a  number  of  works  in  the  illustra- 
tion of  Bowyer's  English  History,  Macklin's  Poets 
and  Biblical  Gallery,  ami  other  similar  undertakings. 

}lis  pictures  of  the  ■  Murder  of  James  I.  of  Scotland,' 
'The  Slaughter  of  Rizzio,1  '  Jephtha'a  Vow,'  '  Pre- 
■entation  m  the  Temple,'  'Arthur  and  Hubert,' 
'  Belisarius  and  Juliet  in  the  Garden,'  are  his  most 
noted  works.  0.  was  elected  an  Associate  of  the 
Royal  Academy  in  178G,  and  Academician  in  the 
following  year.  He  devoted  part  of  his  time  to 
various  literary  efforts  tending  to  the  illustration  of 
art:  these  were  chielly  the  'Life  of  Reynolds'  in 
I)r  Wolcott's  edition  of  Pilkington's  Dictionary  of 
Painters  ;  a  letter  in  the  North  Briton,  recommend- 
ing the  formation  of  a  National  Gallery,  reprinted  as 
An  Inquiry  into  the  Requisite  Cultivation  of  Uk  Fine 
Arte  in  Britain;  lectures  on  art,  delivered  at  the 
Koyal  Institution,  which,  though  listened  to  with 
great  attention  by  a  select  and  fashionable  audience, 
do  not  seem  to  have  been  satisfactory  to  himself,  as 
he  declined  to  continue  them.  When  Fuseli,  on 
being  appointed  keeper,  resigned  the  professorship 
of  painting,  0.  was  appointed  to  that  office;  and 
the  four  lectures  which  he  delivered — he  died  before 
completing  the  course — bear  the  stamp  of  practical 
experience  and  shrewd  observation.  0.  was  twice 
married.  He  obtained  a  divorce  from  his  first  wife  ; 
but  his  second,  well  known  as  one  of  the  most 
popular  novelists  of  the  day,  appreciated  his  high 
character,  which  she  set  forth,  after  his  death,  in  a 
memoir  published  along  with  his  lectures.  He  died 
somewhat  suddenly  in  his  house,  St  Bernard  Street, 
Oxford  Street,  April  9,  1807,  and  was  buried  in  the 
crypt  of  St  Paul's,  near  the  grave  of  Reynolds. 

OPI'NICUS,  one  of  the  fabulous  creatures  known 
in  Heraldry,  with  the  head  and  neck  of  an  eagle, 
the  body  of  a  lion,  wings,  and  a  short  tail  like  that 
of  a  camel.  Such  a  monster,  with  wings  endorsed 
or,  was  the  crest  of  the  company  of  barber-surgeons 
of  London. 

OPINION  OF  COUNSEL  is  the  technical 
name  for  the  advice  given  by  a  barrister  or  advo- 
cate. The  attorney  or  solicitor  writes  a  statement 
of  facts,  called  'a  case '  in  England,  and  'a  memorial' 
in  Scotland,  which  ends  by  asking  certain  queries, 
and  the  answer  written  by  the  counsel  is  his 
opinion.  A  counsel  is  not  liable  for  any  damages 
caused  by  his  giving  a  wrong  opinion  though  the 
result  of  gross  ignorance,  this  being  one  of  the 
privileges  of  counsel. 

OPITZ,  Martin,  a  famous  German  poet,  was 
born  December  23,  1597,  at  Bunzlau,  in  Silesia.  He 
received  an  education  of  the  highest  kind ;  and 
after  some  time  spent  at  the  court  of  the  Duke 
of  Liegnitz,  he  accepted,  in  1622,  an  invitation 
by  Bethlen  Gabor,  Prince  of  Transylvania,  to  teach 
Philosophy  aud  the  Humaniora  at  Weissenburg;  but 
disliking  the  rudeness  of  the  country,  he  soon 
returned  to  the  court  of  the  Duke  of  Liegnitz.  In 
1624,  his  first  poems  were  published,  and  in  the 
same  year  his  work  Von  der  deutschen  Poeterei,  in 
which  he  laid  the  foundation  of  a  system  of  German 
poetics.  In  1625,  he  went  to  Vienna,  where,  on 
account  of  an  elegy  on  the  death  of  an  archduke,  he 
received  a  laurel  crown  from  the  hands  of  the 
emperor,  Ferdinand  n.  In  1626,  he  became  secre- 
tary, although  a  Protestant,  to  the  Burggraf 
Karl  Hannibal  of  Dohna,  a  distinguished  Roman 
Catholic  and  imperialist,  and  was  employed  in 
various  transactions  with  foreign  courts.  In  1629, 
the  emperor  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  nobility. 
After  the  death  of  the  Burggraf  of  Dohna,  in  1633, 
ae  returned  to  the  courts  of  Leignitz  and  Brieg. 
About    this    time    he    published    Vesuv,    a    didactic 


poem,  and  his  Troetgedicht  in  Widerw&rligkeil  del 
Kriega,  the  best  of  his  poems,  which  were  followed 
by  an  opera  called  Judith,  a  translation  of  the 
Antigone  of  Sophocles,  and  a  translation  of  tte 
Psalms,  in  163)3,  be  was  appointed  Secretary  and 
Historiographer  to  Ladislaus  I  V.  of  Poland.     But  in 

the  midst  of  his  days,  and  when  he   had  attain,  d  to 

fame  and  prosperity,  he  was  cut  off  by  the  i 
at  Dantzic,  August  20,  1639.  0.  was  more  honoured 
by  his  contemporaries  than  almost  any  other  poet 
ever  was.  German  poetry,  which  had  been 
neglected  and  despised,  began  again  to  be  esteem,  d 
and  cultivated.  The  popularity  of  0.,  and  his  rela- 
tions with  the  chiefs  of  the  Roman  Catholic  party, 
led  to  the  adoption,  throughout  the  whole  01  Ger« 
many,  of  the  form  given  to  the  German  langua 
Luther,  which  had  previously  obtained  general 
acceptance  only  in  the  Protestant  states.  His 
poetry  is  characterised  by  careful  attention  to 
language  and  metre,  and  by  reflection  rather  than 
by  brilliant  fancy  or  deep  feeling.  There  are  several 
complete  editions  of  his  works  (3  vols.  Breslau, 
1690;  3  vols.  Amst.  1646;  and  3  vols.  Frankfurt 
and  Leipsie,  1724). 

O'PIUM,  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  medicines, 
is  the  dried  juice  of  the  unripe  capsules  of  a  species 
of  Poppy  (q.  v.),  Palaver  somniferum,  sometimes 
called  the  Common  Poppy,  and  sometimes  the  White 
Poppy,  although  the  latter  name  is  really  appro- 
priate only  to  one  of  its  varieties.  The  plaut  is 
probably  a  native  of  some  of  the  warmer  parts  of 
Asia,  although  it  is  now  common  in  cultivated  and 
waste  grounds  throughout  all  the  south  and  middle 
of  Europe,  and  is  occasionally  found  in  Britain.  It 
is  an  annual,  varying  in  height  from  one  to  six  feet, 
erect,  branched,  of  a  glaucous  green  colour,  with 
ovate-oblong  sessile  leaves,  the  stem  and  leaves 
generally  smooth,  the  branches  terminated  by  large 
flowers  on  long  stalks,  the  capsules  globose  or 
roundish-ovate  and  smooth.  There  are  two  prin- 
cipal varieties  cultivated  for  the  opium  which  they 
yield,  which  have  been  regarded  by  some  botauists 
as  distinct  species  ;  the  one  (Pcparer  somniferum) 
having  generally  red  or  violet-coloured  flowers, 
numerous  flower-stalks  rising  together,  globose 
capsules  opening  by  a  circle  of  pores  under  the 
persistent  stigma,  and  black  seeds ;  the  other  (P. 
officinale)  having  white  flowers,  solitary  flower- 
stalks,  the  capsules  somewhat  ovate,  the  circle  of 
pores  almost  wanting,  the  seeds  white.  The  former 
variety  is  generally  cultivated  in  the  mountainous 
parts  of  the  north  of  India,  the  latter  in  the  plain 
of  Bengal,  where  the  poppy-fields  are  described  by 
Dr  Hooker  as  resembling  green  lakes  studded  with 
white  water-lilies.  The  cultivation  of  the  poppy 
for  the  sake  of  opium  is  carried  on  in  many  parts  of 
India,  although  the  chief  opium  district  is  a  large 
tract  on  the  Ganges,  about  600  miles  in- length  and 
200  miles  in  breadth,  which  has  been  divided  by  the 
East  India  Company  into  two  agencies,  that  of 
Behar  and  that  of  Benares,  the  central  factory  of 
the  former  being  at  Patna,  and  that  of  the  latter  at 
Ghazeepore.  The  poppy  is  also  extensively  culti- 
vated for  opium  in  the  Asiatic  provinces  of  Turkey, 
in  Egypt,  and  in  Persia.  Opium  of  very  good  quality 
is  also  produced,  although  not  to  any  considerable 
amount,  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  and  even  in 
Britain.  It  is  sometimes  alleged  that  a  much 
warmer  climate  than  that  of  Britain  is  requisite  for 
the  profitable  production  of  opium,  but  the  chief 
fault  of  the  climate  seems  rather  to  be  the  fre- 
quency of  wet  weather.  Very  fine  specimens  of 
opium  have  been  produced,  and  the  produce  pel 
acre  has  been  found  amply  remunerative;  but  s 
great  difficulty  is  experienced  in  obtaining  laboui 
at  a  moderate  rate  for  a  few  days  only  at  a  tune 


OPIUM. 


and  when  the  experiment  is  conducted  on  a  small 
scale,  only  for  a  few  hours  daily.  This  difficulty 
was  much  felt  in  an  experiment,  otherwise  most 
successful,  which  was  made  at  Edinburgh,  by  Mr 
Young,  a  surgeon,  who  about  the  year  1830  obtained 
56  lbs.  of  opium  from  one  acre  of  poppies,  and  sold  it 
at  36s.  a  lb.  It  was  of  excellent  quality.  His  mode 
of  cultivation  was  similar  to  that  usual  in  India. 
The  seed  being  sown  in  spring  on  a  rich  soil,  the 
plants  were  kept  clear  of  weeds,  and  when  they  had 
flowered  and  produced  capsules,  incisions  were 
made  in  the  capsules,  and  the  exuded  juice  collected 
as  described  below.  The  capsules  vary  from  the 
size  of  a  hen's  egg  to  that  of  the  fist.  In  India,  the 
poppy  flowers  in  the  end  of  January  and  beginning 
of  February. 

The  poppy  requires  for  its  profitable  cultivation  a 
rich  soil,  and  in  India  is  generally  sown  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  villages  where  manure  can  be 
easily  obtained.  The  soil  ought  to  be  fine  and 
loose  when  the  seed  is  sown.  The  subsequent 
cultivation  consists  chiefly  in  thinning  and  weeding. 
Irrigation  is  practised.  Mild  moist  weather,  with 
night-dews,  is  deemed  most  favourable  during  the 
time  of  the  collection  of  the  opium.  Very  dry 
weather  diminishes  the  flow  of  the  juice,  and  much 
rain  is  injurious. 

The  opium  poppy  is  cultivated  for  other  purposes 
besides  the  production  of  opium,  concerning  which 
see  Poppy. 

Opium,  as  a  commercial  article,  is  of  great  import- 
ance, exceeding  indeed  that  of  any  other  drug 
in  use,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  opium  poppy 
(Papaver  somniftrum)  in  British  India  forms  a 
most  extensive  branch  of  agriculture,  and  the  collec- 
tion and  preparation  of  the  drug  itself  employs  a 
large  number  of  persons  in  the  Patna,  Malwa,  and 
Benares  districts  of  Bengal.  Indeed  during  the 
whole  existence  of  the  East  India  Company,  the 
production  of  this  drug  was  of  the  first  importance  ; 
its  employment  as  a  habitual  narcotic,  as  well  as  a 
medicine  amongst  all  the  eastern  nations,  demands 
an  enormous  supply.     The  seed  is  sown  in  India  in 


Fig.  1. 

the  beginning  of  November ;  it  flowers  in  the  end  of 
January,  or  a  little  later ;  and  in  three  or  four  weeks 
after,  the  capsules  or  poppy-heads  are  about  the  size 
of  hens'  eggs,  and  are  ready 
for  operating  upon.  When 
this  is  the  case,  the  collectors 
each  take  a  little  iron  in- 
strument, called   a  nushtur 

i "  ((I      Wi  \  ^g*  *)»  ** is  ma(^e  °* tnree 

L     I  '  'l|||||y  I  M     or  four  small  plates  of  iron, 

1  narrow  at  one  end  and  wider 
at  the  other,  which  is  also 
notched  like  a  saw;  with 
these  instruments  they 
wound  each  full-grown 
poppy-head  (fig.  2)  as  they 
make  their  way  through  the 
plants  in  the  field  (fig.  3). 
This  is  always  done  early  in 
the  morning,  before  the  heat 
of  the  sun  is  felt ;  during 
the  day  the  milky  juice  of 
the  plant  oozes  out,  and 
early  on  the  following  morn- 
ing it  is  collected  by  scraping 
it  off  with  a  kind  of  scoop,  called  a  sittooha,  and 
transferred  to  an  earthen  vessel,  called  a  kurrace, 
M 


hanging  at  the  side  of  the  collector.  When  this 
is  full,  it  is  carried  home  and  transferred  to  a 
shallow  open  brass  dish,  called  a  thalkc   and  left 


Fig.  3. 

for  a  time  tilted  on  its  side,  so  that  any  watery 
fluid  may  drain  out ;  this  watery  fluid  is  called 
pusseeivah,  and  is  very  detrimental  to  the  opium 
unless  removed.  It  now  requires  daily  attendance, 
and  has  to  be  turned  frequently,  so  that  the  air 
may  dry  it  equally,  until  it  acquires  a  tolerable 
consistency,  which  requires  three  or  four  weeks  ;  it 
is  then  packed  in  small  earthen  jars,  and  taken  to 
the  godowns  or  factories  ;  here  the  contents  of  each 
jar  are  turned  out  and  carefully  weighed,  tested, 
valued,,  and  credited  to  the  cultivator.  The  opium 
is  then  thrown  into  vast  vats,  which  hold  the  accu- 
mulations of  whole  districts,  and  the  mass  being 
kneaded,  is  again  taken  out  and  made  into  balls 
or  cakes  for  the  market. 

This  is  a  very  important  operation,  and  is  con- 
ducted in  long  rooms,  the  workmen  sitting  in  rows, 
carefully  watched  by  the  overseers  to  insure  the  work 
being  carefully  performed.  Before  each  workman 
(fig.  4)  is  a  tray,  and  within  easy  reach  is  placed  th« 


Fig.  4. 

tagar,  a  tin  vessel  for  holding  as  much  opium  as  will 
make  three  or  five  balls.  On  the  tray  is  anothei 
basin  containing  water,  and  a  smaller  tray ;  on  this 
tray  stands  a  brass  cup,  into  which  the  ball  or  cake 
is  moulded,  also  a  supply  of  thin  layers  of  poppy 
petals,  formed  by  laying  them  out  overlapping  each 
other,  and  pressing  them  upon  one  another ;  these  are 
prepared  by  women  in  the  poppy-fields,  and  with 
these  is  a  cup  filled  with  a  sticky  fluid  called  lewah, 
made  from  opium  of  inferior  quality.     The  operatoi 


OPIUM. 


begins  his  work  by  taking  the  brass  cup  and  placing 
on  its  bottom  one  of  the  cakes  of  poppy  petals,  which 
he  smears  over  with  the  lewah;  then  adds  otb«r 
cakes  of  petals  to  overlap  and  adhere  to  the  tirst, 
until  the  cup  is  lined  and  a  coat  of  petals  is  *hus 
formed  for  the  opium,  of  which  he  takes  the  exact 
quantity  as  near  as  he  can  guess,  works  it  into  a  ball, 
and  places  it  in  the  basin,  so  that  the  lining  of  petals 
encloses  it  and  sticks  to  it,  in  consequence  of  the 
lewah  smeared  on  the  inner  side  of  the  thin  cakes 
of  petals.  Other  petals  are  put  on  the  upper  part  of 
the  ball,  and  the  whole  gathered  roum1  it,  forming 
a  caa-3  about  as  thick  as  a  bank-note.  Each  man's 
work  for  the  day  is  kept  by  itself,  and  after  having 
been  duly  registered,  is  taken  to  a  vast  drying-room 
(tig-  5),  where  the  balk  are  placed  in  tiers  on  lattice- 


Fig.  5. 

work  racks,  and  are  continually  turned  and  exam- 
ined by  boys,  to  keep  them  from  insects  and  other 
Injuries.  After  being  fully  dried,  these  balls  are 
packed  in  chests  for  the  market. 

The  manufacture  of  opium  is  carried  on  to  the 
greatest  extent  in  India,  but  large  quantities  are  also 
made  in  Turkey,  and  this  latter  is  considered  the 
best  in  quality.  It  is  also  made  at  Trebizond  in 
Persia,  and  in  Egypt ;  occasionally  it  has  been  pro- 
duced in  Germany,  France,  and  England.  Of  the 
Indian  opium  there  are  several  qualities,  as  Bengal, 
Patna  or  Benares  opium,  Garden  Patna,  Malwa, 
line  Malwa,  Cutch,  and  Kandeish  opium. 

The  net  opium  revenue  for  India  in  1871 — 1872  was 
£7,657.213;  the  gross  receipts  being  higher  than  in 
any  year  since  1855.  The  number  of  chests  sold  was 
49,695,  at  £139  per  chest,  or  £26  higher  than  the  pre- 
vious year's  average.  The  net  profit  was  £90  per 
ch«st.  The  area  under  cultivation  in  Bengal  and 
Bombay  was  560,608  acres.  Next  to  China,  the 
largest  consumption  of  Indian  opium  is  by  the  Bur- 
mese and  the  natives  of  the  Malacca  Straits,  who 
take  annually  to  the  value  of  nearly  a  million  ster- 
ling. 


In  Europe,  with   very  slight  exceptions,  opium  if 
used  for  medicinal  purposes  only,  and  i 
titi.s  of  it  undergo  a  still  further  stage  of  manu- 
facture, in   order  to  separate  from   it 
principles  morphine,  narcotine,  Ac.  In  Great  1 
the  chief  manufacture  of   these   salts  of   oprtlB  is 
carried  on  in  Edinburgh,  where  two  firms,  Mi    in 
T.  and  II.  Smith,  and  J.  p.  Macfarlane  &  Co. 
attained  great  reputation,  and  manufacture 
products  upon  an  immense  scale,  supplying  probably 
a  fifth  of  the  whole  quantity  manufactured. 

Chemical  ami  Medicinal  Properties.—  The  only 
variety  recognised  in  the  British  pharmacopoeia  is 
the  Turkey  opium.  The  chemical  composition  cf 
opium  has  been  studied  by  various  chemists,  amongst 
whom  must  be  especially  mentioned  Professor 
Mulder  of  Utrecht,  and  Professor  Anderson  of 
Glasgow.  The  following  constituents  occur  in  most 
kinds  of  opium : 

Meconic  Acid,.         (VUG;,  from  4  to    S  per  cent. 
Morphine,     .      CitHbNO*,  from  4  to  13    "     " 
Codeine.    C18II21XO3  +  H2G,  less  than    1     "      " 


Thebaine, 

Papaverine, 

Narcotine, 

Narceine, 

Meconine, 

Resinous  Matter, 

Caoutchouc, 


CuHaNOj, 

C»HnNO«,     '•      "      " 

CaHaNOr,  from  6  to  10 

C23H29XO9,  from  6  to  13 

C10H10O4,  less   than    1 

from  2  to    4 

from  4  to    6 


from  40  to  50 


Mucilage,  Gum,  and  Ex- 
tractive Matters,     . 

In  addition  to  the  six  alkaloids  named  in  this  table, 
a  seventh,  named  opianine,  has  been  found  in 
Egyptian  opium,  but  in  no  other  varieties. 

Some  of  the  most  important  and  characteristic  of 
these  constituents,  as  meconic  acid,  morphia,  and 
narcotine,  are  noticed  in  special  articles.  The  only 
isolated  constituents  of  opium  which  are  now  used 
in  medicine  are  Codeia  (so  called  from  the  Greek 
word  kodeia,  a  poppy-head),  which  has  been  asserted 
by  Mai;endie  and  others  to  act  in  the  same  manuer 
as,  although  less  powerfully  than,  morphia,  but 
which  is  now  seldom  prescribed,  as  it  is  not  a 
pharmacopceial  preparation ;  and  Morphia,  which 
has  already  been  described. 

The  only  test  given  in  the  British  pharmacopoeia 
for  the  purity  of  opium  is  the  determination  of  its 
percentage  of  morphia,  which  is  a  process  requiring 
a  considerable  amount  of  chemical  skill. 

Following  the  arrangement  adopted  by  Pereira 
{Elements  of  Materia  Medica,  4th  ecL),  we  have  just 
quoted,  we  shall  consider  (1)  the  effects  of  one  or  a 
few  doses  of  opium  employed  medicinally  or  as  a 
poison ;  (2)  the  effects  of  the  habitual  employment 
of  opium,  either  by  chewing  or  smoking  it ;  and  (3) 
its  good  and  bad  effects  on  the  different  systems  of 
organs. 

1.  In  small  doses,  as  from  a  quarter  of  a  grain  to 
a  grain,  it  acts  as  an  agreeable  stimulant,  this  effect 
being  followed  by  a  desire  to  sleep,  accompanied  by 
dryness  of  the  mouth  and  throat,  thirst,  and  slight 
constipation.  When  it  is  given  in  a  full  medicinal 
dose  (as  from  two  to  four  grains),  the  stage  of  excite- 
ment is  soon  followed  by  well-marked  depression  of 
torpor,  both  of  the  bodily  and  mental  organs,  and 
an  almost  irresistible  sleepiness  ,  these  effects  being 
usually  succeeded  by  constipation,  nausea,  furred 
tongue,  headache,  and  listlessness.  When  it  is 
administered  in  a  dangerous  or  poisonous  dose,  tha 
symptoms,  as  summed  up  by  Dr  Christison  in  his 
work  On  Poisons,  begin  with  giddiness  and  stupor, 
generally  without  any  previous  stimulus.  The  stupor 
rapidly  increasing,  the  person  becomes  motionless, 
and  insensible  to  external  impressions  ;  he  breathes 
very  slowly,  generally  lies  quite  still,  with  his  eyes 
shut  and  the  pupils  contracted ;  and   the   whole 

85 


OPIUM. 


expression  of  the  countenance  is  that  of  deep  and 
perfect  repose.  As  the  poisoning  advances,  the 
features  become  ghastly,  the  pulse  feeble  and 
Imperceptible,  the  muscles  exceedingly  relaxed,  and, 
unless  assistance  is  speedily  procured,  death  ensues, 
If  the  person  recovers,  the  insensibility  is  suc- 
ceeded by  prolonged  sleep,  which  commonly  ends 
in  twenty-four  or  thirty-six  hours,  and  is  followed 
by  nausea,  vomiting,  giddiness,  and  loathing  of 
food. 

2.  The  habitual  use  of  opium,  whetlier  tbe  drug 
be  eaten  or  smoked,  is  undoubtedly  in  most  cases 
injurious  to  the  constitution,  although  probably  not 
to  the  extent  that  some  eastern  travellers  assert. 
Dr  Christison,  and  other  physicians  of  eminence,  have 
shewn  that  in  numerous  cases  very  large  quantities 
of  this  drug  may  be  regularly  taken  with  impunity ; 
and  Dr  Chapman  (Elements  of  Therapeutics,  voL  ii. 
p.  199)  relates  two  remarkable  cases  of  this  kind — 
one  in  which  a  wineglassful  of  laudanum  was  taken 
several  times  in  the  twenty-four  hours,  and  another 
(a  case  of  cancer  of  the  uterus)  in  which  the 
quantity  of  laudanum  was  gradually  increased  to 
three  pints  daily,  a  considerable  quantity  of  solid 
opium  being  also  taken  in  the  same  period. 

Opium-smoking  is  a  habit  that  is  chiefly  confined 
to  China  and  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago. 
An  extract,  called  chandoo,  is  made  into  pills  about 
the  size  of  a  pjea.  The  following  is  the  account 
given  by  Marsden,  in  his  History  of  Sumatra,  of  the 
process  employed:  'One  of  these  pills  being  put 
into  the  small  tube  that  projects  from  the  side  of 
the  opium  pipe,  that  tube  is  applied  to  a  lamp,  and 
the  pill  being  lighted  is  consumed  at  one  whiff  or 
inflation  of  the  lungs,  attended  with  a  whistling 
noise.  The  smoke  is  never  emitted  by  the  mouth, 
but  usually  receives  vent  through  the  nostrils.' 
Although  the  immoderate  practice  of  opium-smoking 
is  most  destructive  to  those  who  live  in  poverty  and 
distress,  yet  from  the  evidence  of  Mr  Smith,  a 
surgeon  resident  at  Pulo  Penang,  and  of  Dr  Eatwell, 
who  passed  three  years  in  China,  it  does  not  appear 
that  the  Chinese  in  easy  circumstances,  and  who 
have  the  comforts  of  life  about  them,  are  materially 
affected  in  respect  to  longevity  by  addiction  to  this 
habit. 

3.  As  the  discussion  of  the  physiological  action 
of  opium  on  the  different  organs  would,  in  its  most 
condensed  form,  occupy  too  much  space,  we  shall 
confine  our  remarks  to  the  practical  conclusions  at 
which  physiologists  and  physicians  have  arrived 
respecting  the  utility  and  the  danger  of  prescribing 
this  drug  in  various  conditions  of  the  principal  vital 
organs. 

a.  Cerebrospinal  System. — Under  proper  regulations 
it  is  a  remedy  which  may  be  used  to  stimulate  the 
circulation  within  the  cranium,  to  promote  sleep,  to 
diminish  abnormal  or  increased  sensibility,  and  to 
allay  pain  generally;  while  it  is  contra-indicated  in 
apoplexy,  cerebral  inflammation,  paralysis,  and 
hysteria.  Dr  Pereira  relates  a  case  in  which  one 
grain  of  opium,  administered  to  an  hysterical  young 
woman,  proved  fatal. 

b.  Digestive  System. — 'Under  proper  regulations,' 
Bays  Pereira,  'opium  is  an  admissible  remedy  for 
the  following  purposes :  to  diminish  excessive 
hunger ;  to  allay  pain,  when  unaccompanied  by 
inflammation ;  to  diminish  the  sensibility  of  the 
digestive  organs  in  cases  of  acrid  poisoning,  and  in 
the  passage  of  biliary  calculi ;  to  produce  relaxation 
of  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  alimentary  canal  in 
colic,  and  of  the  gall-ducts  in  the  passage  of  calculi, 
and  to  diminish  excessive  secretion  from  the 
intestinal  canal  in  diarrhoea;'  while  it  is  contra- 
indicated  '  in  diminished  secretion  from  the  gastro- 
intestinal membrane,  in  extreme  thirst,  in  loss  of 

86 


appetite  and  weak  digestion,  in  obstinate  costivcness, 
and  in  diminished  excretion  of  bile.' 

c.  Vascular  System. — In  vascular  excitement  with 
great  diminution  of  power,  as  after  hemorrhage, 
opium  is  often  serviceable ;  but  when  the  pulse  is 
strong  as  well  as  quick,  or  when  there  is  simul- 
taneously a  tendency  to  abnormal  sleepiness,  it  ia 
contra-indicated. 

d.  Respiratory  System. — '  Opium,  under  proper 
regulations,  may  be  useful  to  diminish  the  contrac- 
tility of  the  muscles  of  respiration,  or  of  the 
muscular  fibres  of  the  air-tubes,  as  in  spasmodic 
asthma ;  to  diminish  the  sensibility  of  the  bronchia 
in  the  second  stage  of  catarrh,  and  thereby  to  allay 
cough  by  lessening  the  influence  of  the  cold  air; 
and,  lastly,  to  counteract  excessive  bronchial  secre- 
tion;' while  it  is  contra-indicated  in  difficulty  of 
breathing,  arising  from  a  deficient  supply  of  nervous 
energy,  as  in  apoplectic  cases  ;  in  cases  in  which  tbe 
venous  is  imperfectly  converted  into  arterial  blood ; 
and  in  the  first  stage  of  catarrh  and  pneumonia, 
both  from  its  checking  secretion,  and  from  its 
tendency  to  impede  the  due  arterialisation  of  the 
blood. 

e.  Urinary  System. — Opium  is  a  valuable  remedy 
to  allay  the  pain  in  the  kidney  and  adjacent  parts 
in  cases  of  renal  calculi,  and  also  to  produce 
relaxation  of  the  ureters  when  the  calculi  are  passing 
along  these  tubes ;  it  is  also  of  great  service  in 
certain  forms  of  irritable  bladder. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  essential  and 
primary  operation  of  opium  is  on  the  nervous 
system,  the  other  effects  being  for  the  most  part 
secondary. 

Opium  is  undoubtedly  the  most  valuable  remedy 
of  the  whole  materia  niedica.  '  For  other  medicines,' 
says  Dr  Pereira,  '  we  have  one  or  more  substitutes  ; 
but  for  opium,  none — at  least  in  the  large  majority 
of  cases  in  which  its  peculiar  and  beneficial  influence 
is  required.'  We  not  only  exhibit  it  to  mitigate 
pain,  to  allay  spasm,  to  promote  sleep,  to  relieve 
nervous  restlessness,  to  produce  perspiration,  and  to 
check  profuse  discharges  from  the  bronchial  tubes 
and  intestinal  canal ;  but  we  also  find  it  capable  of 
relieving  some  diseases  in  which  none  of  the  above 
indications  can  be  always  distinctly  perceived  In 
combination  with  tartar  emetic,  it  has  been  strongly 
recommended  in  fever  with  much  cerebral  dis- 
turbance ;  in  association  with  calomel,  it  is  the 
most  trustworthy  remedy  in  cases  of  inflammation 
of  membranous  parts ;  in  insanity,  its  value  cannot 
be  overestimated ;  it  is  the  remedy  chiefly  trusted 
to  in  delirium  tremens  ;  it  is  more  serviceable  than 
any  other  medicine  in  diabetes ;  and  to  conclude 
with  a  more  common  and  less  serious  affection,  its 
efficiency,  when  administered  in  small  doses  (as  ten 
or  fifteen  drops  of  laudanum  three  times  a  day),  in 
promoting  the  healing  of  ulcers  in  which  granulation 
proceeds  too  slowly  is  very  marked. 

In  addition  to  the  solution  of  Muriate  of  Morphia 
(q.  v.),  which,  on  the  whole,  is  the  best  preparation  of 
opium  for  internal  use  in  the  majority  of  cases,  the 
British  pharmapopceia  contains  an  opium  pill  (contain- 
ing one  part  of  opium  in  five  of  the  pill) ;  a  pill  of  lead 
and  opium  (chiefly  used  in  pulmonary  hemorrhage) ; 
an  aromatic  powder  of  chalk  and  opium  (containing 
one  part  of  opium  in  forty  of  the  powder) ;  powder 
of  ipecacuan  and  opium  (or  Dover's  Powder  [q.  v.], 
containing  one  part  of  opium  in  ten  of  the  powder) ; 
powder  of  kino  and  opium  (containing  one  part  of 
opium  in  twenty  of  the  powder,  and,  like-  the 
aromatic  powder,  chiefly  used  in  diarrhoea) ;  tincture 
(see  Laudanum),  and  camphorated  tincture  of 
opium  (commonly  known  as  Paregoric  Elixir,  and 
much  used  in  chronic  cough — containing  two  grains 
of  opium  in  the  fluid  ounce) ;  in  addition  to  an  enema 


OPOBALSAMUM— OPOSSI  \i. 


a  wine  (used  chiefly  as  a  local  application  to  the 
eye  in  cases  of  ophthalmia] ;  an  ointment  of  galls  and 
opium  (used  as  an  external  application  to  piles) ;  and 
a  liniment  and  a  plaster,  which  are  applied  to  remove 
local  superficial  pains. 

In  a  case  of  poisoning  by  opium,  the  first  and 
most  essential  point  is  the  evacuation  of  the  contents 
of  the  stomach.  The  stomach-pump,  if  it  can  be 
procured,  should  be  employed,  and  strong  coffee 
ahould  then  he  pumped  into  the  stomach  after  the 
removal  of  its  contents.  The  next  best  remedy  is 
au  emetic  of  sulphate  of  zinc  (about  a  scruple),  and 
if  this  is  not  at  hand,  a  dessert-spoonful  of  flour  of 
mustard,  stirred  up  in  a  tumbler  of  warm  water, 
will  usually  produce  the  desired  effect.  The  patient 
must,  if  possible,  be  prevented  from  falling  asleep, 
and  for  this  purpose  he  should  be  kept  constantly 
walking   between  two   strong   men,   while  a  third 

Eerson  in  the  rear  should,  at  short  intervals,  flick 
im  sharply  with  a  rough  wet  towel,  or  (if  pro- 
curable) a  good  birch  rod.  Cold  water  should  also 
be  occasionally  dashed  over  the  head  and  chest.  In 
a  few  apparently  hopeless  cases,  death  has  been 
averted  by  artificial  respiration,  and  by  the  applica- 
tion of  electro-magnetism. 

OPOBA'LSAMUM.     See  Balsam  and  Gum. 

OPODE'LDOC  is  a  popular  synonyme  for  Soap 
Liniment  (q.  v.).  The  origin  of  the  term,  which 
was  apparently  applied  by  Paracelsus  to  various 
forms  of  liniments  or  local  applications,  is  not 
known.  The  opo  is  the  same  as  the  opo  of 
opoponax,  opobahsamum,  &c,  and  is  doubtless  derived 
from  the  Greek  opos,  juice.  It  has  been  suggested 
by  an  eminent  Anglo-Saxon  scholar  that  the 
original  word  was  opod'dla,  and  that  doc  or  dock 
was  added  merely  as  a  gloss  to  dil/a — a  view  that 
is  confirmed  by  the  fact,  that  in  ^Elfric's  Glossary, 
dill  (dilla)  is  Englished  by  dock. 

OPO'PONAX,  a  gum  resin  obtained  by  punc- 
turing the  roots  of  a  species  of  parsnip  (Pastlnaca 
Opoponax).  The  chief  interest  in  this  material  is 
the  great  importance  which  the  ancient  physicians 
attached  to  it  as  an  antispasmodic  medicine.  It 
was  employed  by  Hippocrates,  Theophrastus,  and 
Dioscorides,  who  have  each  left  descriptions  of  it. 
The  plant  grows  generally  throughout  Southern 
Europe,  and  the  gum  is  still  collected,  but  is  not 
much  used. 

OPO'RTO  (Portug.  0  Porto,  the  port),  a  city  of 
Portugal,  and,  after  Lisbon,  the  most  important  sea- 
port of  the  country,  in  the  province  of  Minho,  on 
the  right  bank,  and  two  miles  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Douro,  in  lat.  41°  9'  N.,  long.  8°  37'  W. ; 
and  is  195  miles  north-north-east  of  Lisbon. 
Though  possessing  few  imposing  edifices,  the  town, 
Been  from  a  distance  with  its  irregular  outline 
marked  with  many  towers,  its  whitewashed  houses 
gleaming  among  trees  and  terraced  gardens,  has  a 
tine  picturesque  effect.  Its  picturesqueness,  how- 
ever, has  been  secured  at  the  cost  to  a  great  extent 
of  comfort,  as  many  of  its  streets  are  narrow,  dirty, 
and  so  steep  as  to  be  impassable  for  carriages. 
Of  the  old  walls  that  surrounded  the  ancient 
town,  remains  are  still  to  be  seen.  The  principal 
street  is  the  Rua  Nova  dos  Inrjlezes,  a  spacious, 
handsome,  modern  thoroughfare,  from  which  a 
good  view  of  the  Bishop's  Palace,  which  seems 
to  be  hung  high  in  the  air,  is  obtained.  Here 
is  situated  one  of  the  finest  edifices  in  O.,  the 
English  Factory  House,  a  budding  of  white  granite 
with  a  beautiful  facade,  and  comprising  on  a  magni- 
ficent scale  all  the  appurtenances  of  a  club-house, 
as  ball-room,  library,  refreshment-room,  &c.  The 
houses  in  the  Rua  Nova  de  S.  Joio,  the  most  regular 
Street   in  the  city,  are  lofty    and  are  faced  with 


gaily  painted  and  gilt  balconies.  Of  the  1 1  squares, 
the  greatest  is  the  Praga  de  S.  Ovidi<>  on  a  1  •  igbt. 
the  appearance  of  which  is  enhanced  by  beautiful 
buildings   and  a  terrace,  with  a  fii  view, 

planted  with  trees.  On  tbc  high  rocks,  on  the 
southern  bank  of  the  river,  Btands  the  convenl  of  d<i 
Serra,  which  at  one  time  was  extraordinarily  rich. 
The  most  beantifnl  of  the  convents  was  that  of  />' 
BentOj  now  converted  into  barracks.  The  cathedral, 
which  must  originally  have  been  a  noble  edifice,  but 
has  been  infamously  modernised,  stands  near  the 
Bishop's  Palace.     The  Torre  dos  C  Cower  of 

the  Clergy),  said  to  be  the  highest  in  Portugal,  was 
budt  in  1748.  Formerly,  there  were  in  all  80 
convents  and  chapels  in  the  city.  Of  < 
institutions,  there  are  four  hospitals,  and  numerous 
educational  and  benevolent  establishments.  < ».  ia 
the  principal  industrial  seat  in  the  country.  It  carries 
on  manufactures  of  linen,  silk,  cotton,  and  woollen 
fabrics,  cloth  of  gold,  silk  and  cotton  hosiery,  lace, 
buttons,  gold  and  silver  wire,  cutlery  and  hardware, 
excellent  furniture,  pottery,  glass,  leather,  paper, 
hats,  sails,  and  the  articles  required  on  ship- board. 
Royal  tobacco  and  soap-works,  two  iron-foundries, 
and  several  sugar-refineries  are  also  in  operation. 
The  entrance  to  the  Douro  is  rendered  highly 
dangerous  by  a  shifting  bar  of  sand ;  but  yet  tho 
commercial  traffic  on  the  river  is  considerable.  The 
export  of  Port  wine  in  1871  was  31,956  pipes,  of  115 
gallons  each.  The  total  import  of  British  cotton 
manufactures  for-  the  same  year  amounted  in  value  to 
£329,488.  There  was  also  a  large  increase  in  the 
woollen  goods  imported.  The  value  of  this  article  in 
1870  was  £42,375,  whereas  the  following  year  it  was 
£69,413 — the  largest  amount  of  British  woollen  goods 
ever  purchased  by  Oporto.     Pop.  about  90,000. 

In  ancient  times,  the  site  of  O.  was  occupied  by 
the  harbour-town  Portus  Cole,  afterwards  Porto 
Cale,  from  which  has  been  derived  the  name  of  the 
kingdom,  Portugal.  It  was  an  important  city 
during  the  supremacy  of  the  Moors,  was  destroyed 
in  820  by  Almansor  of  Cordova,  but  was  restored 
and  peopled  by  a  colony  of  Gascons  and  French 
in  999.  It  was  famous  for  the  strength  of  its  forti- 
fications during  the  middle  age3,  its  walls  being 
.3000  paces  in  circumference,  30  feet  in  height, 
and  flanked  with  towers.  From  the  17th  to  the 
present  century,  O.  has  been  the  scene  of  an  unusual 
number  of  popidar  insurrections.  In  18US,  it  was 
taken  by  the  French  ;  but  in  the  following  year  it 
was  retaken  by  an  Anglo-Portuguese  force  under 
Wellington.  In  1832,  I)om  Pedro,  the  ex-emperor 
of  BrazU,  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  for  a  year  in 
this  city  by  the  forces  of  Dom  Miguel. 

OPO'SSUM  (Didelphis),  a  genus  of  Marsupiata, 
having  ten  cutting  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  eight 
in  the  lower,  one  canine  tooth  on  each  side  in  each 
jaw,  three  compressed  prasmolars,  and  four  sharply- 
tuberculated  molars  on  each  side — fifty  teeth  in  all ; 
the  tongue  bristly ;  the  tad  long,  prehensile,  and 
in  part  scaly  ;  the  feet  plantigrade  ;  five  toes  on 
each  foot,  their  claws  long  and  sharp  ;  but  the  inner 
toe  of  the  right  foot  converted  into  a  thumb,  desti- 
tute of  a  claw,  and  opposable  to  the  other  digits ; 
the  muzzle  long  and  pointed,  the  mouth  very  wide, 
the  ears  large  and  destitute  of  hair.  The  unwebbed 
feet  and  non-aquatic  habits  distinguish  this  genua 
from  Cheironectes  (q.  v.),  also  belonging  to  the 
famfiy  Didelphidce.  But  the  genus  Diddpfcs  itself 
is  divided  by  some  naturalists  into  several  genera  ; 
and  there  are  differences  not  unimportant,  particu- 
larly in  the  well- developed  pouch  of  some  species, 
and  the  merely  rudimentary  pouch  or  abdominal 
folds  of  others.  All  the  existing  species  are  Ameri- 
can, but  fossil  species  are  found  in  other  parts  of 
the  world.     The  opossums  were  the  first  marsupjil 

87 


OPOSSUM— OPTICAL  ILLUSION. 


animals  known,  and  are  noticed  as  very  wonderful 
creatures  by  some  of  the  earliest  writers  on  America. 
Some  of  the  smaller  species  much  resemble  rats  and 
mice,  except  in  their  long  and  pointed  muzzle ; 
others  greatly  resemble  shrews  ;  the  largest  known 
species  are  scarcely  equal  in  size  to  a  large  cat.  It 
is  in  some  of  the  smaller  species  that  the  pouch  is 
rudimentary ;  all  the  larger  species  have  a  well- 
developed  pouch,  in  which  the  young  are  carried, 
and  to  which,  even  after  beginning  to  venture  forth 
from  it,  they  retreat  on  the  approach  of  danger. 
The  young  of  the  species  which  have  a  merely 
rudimentary  pouch,  also  remain  attached  to  tbe 
nipple  of  the  mother  for  a  time ;  and  afterwards 
for  a  time  are  carried  on  her  back,  intwining 
their  prehensile  tails  with  hers,  and  clinging  to 
the  fur  of  her  back. — The  Virginian  0.  (D. 
Virginiana)  is  one  of  the  largest  species.  It 
abounds  ia  the  warmer  parts  of  North  America,  and 


Virginian  Opossum  (Didelphis  Virginiana). 

its  range  extends  considerably  to  the  north  of 
Virginia.  Its  form  is  robust,  its  head  very  large, 
its  colour  dull  white  ;  its  fur  long,  fine,  and  woolly, 
thickly  interspersed  with  longer  coarse  white  hairs, 
except  on  the  head  and  some  of  the  upper  parts, 
where  the  hair  is  short  and  close.  The  tail  is  not 
qiute  so  long  as  the  body.  The  Virginian  0.  lives 
much  in  forests  and  among  the  branches  of  trees,  to 
which  it  usually  retreats  to  devour  its  prey,  twining 
its  tail  around  a  branch  for  security.  Its  food  con- 
sists of  small  quadrupeds  and  reptiles,  birds'  eggs, 
and  insects ;  also  in  part  of  fruits  and  the  juicy 
stalks  of  plants.  It  often  visits  poultry-yards,  and 
displays  much  cunning  in  its  stealthy  quest  of  prey ; 
although  otherwise  it  seems,  like  the  other  Mar- 
eupiata,  to  be  very  low  in  the  scale  of  intelligence. 
It  seeks  to  escape  from  enemies  by  running  to  the 
woods  and  ascending  a  tree ;  but  if  escape  is  im- 
possible, it  feigns  death,  and  maintains  the  impos- 
ture in  very  trying  circumstances,  however  it 
may  be  kicked  and  beaten ;  but  the  true  state  of 
the  case  may  be  ascertained  by  throwing  it 
into  water.  The  American  word  'possuming  makes 
a  figurative  application  of  this  part  of  the 
natural  history  of  the  opossum.  The  female  some- 
times produces  sixteen  young  at  a  birth ;  the  young 
when  born  are  blind,  naked,  and  shapeless,  and 
weigl  scarcely  more  than  a  grain  each  ;  they  do  not 
begin  to  leave  the  pouch  until  they  have  attained 
about  tbe  size  of  a  mouse.  The  female  O.  shews  a 
very  strong  attachment  to  her  young.  The  0.  ia 
very  easily  tamed,  but  its  strong  odour  makes  it  an 
unpleasant  pet.  The  flesh  of  the  O.  is  said  to  be 
good.  The  hair  is  woven  into  garters  and  girdles 
by  the  Indian  women.— Other  species  of  0.  are 
found  in  the  more  southern  parts  of  America.  Of 
these,  one  of  the  largest  is  the  Crab-eating  0. 
{D.  cancrivora)  of  Guiana  and  Brazil ;  which  is 
nearly  as  large  as  the  Virginian  0.,  lives  chiefly  in 
88 


marshy  places,  and  feeds  much  on  crabs.  The  smaller 
species  are  numerous  in  the  tropical  parts  of  America. 
— The  name  O.  is  often  given  in  Australia  to  the  Pha- 
langers  (q.  v.). 

O'PPELN,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  capital  of 
the  government  district  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
Oder,  51  miles  south-east  of  Breslau.  Since  1816, 
when  it  was  erected  into  an  especial  seat  of  govern- 
ment for  Upper  Silesia,  the  town  has  been  much 
beautified  both  with  new  edifices  and  with  parks 
and  gardens.  It  contains  four  churches — one  of 
which,  Adelbert's  Church,  was  founded  in  995  —  au 
old  castle  on  the  island  Pascheke  in  the  channel  of 
the  Oder,  a  town-house,  and  theatre.  Pop.  11,330, 
who  carry  on  a  considerable  transit-trade  in  timber, 
zinc,  lead,  hardware,  cattle,  and  wines  ;  and  manu- 
facture ribbons,  linen  goods,  leather,  and  pottery. 

OPPOSFTION,  the  party  in  either  House  of  the 
British  parliament  who  are  opposed  to  the  existing 
government,  and  who  would  probably  come  into 
power  on  its  displacement.  The  existence  of  a  fair 
and  teuqterate  opposition,  keeping  a  watch  over  the 
acts  of  the  ministry,  is  undeniably  conducive  to 
good  government;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
conduct  of  public  affairs  may  be  seriously  embar- 
rassed by  an  opposition  whose  proceedings  are 
conducted  in  a  factious  or  obstructive  spirit.  The 
name  Opposition  is  not  generally  applied  to  a  party, 
merely  because  opposed  to  the  existing  administra- 
tion, if  there  is  no  likelihood  of  their  succeeding  to 
power  on  a  change  of  government. 

OPTIC  NERVE.    See  Eye. 

O'PTICAL  ILLUSION.  Of  all  the  senses  none 
is  more  deceptive  than  the  sense  of  sight ;  it  often 
deceives  us  as  to  the  distance,  size,  shape,  and 
colour  of  objects  ;  it  frequently  makes  them  appear 
as  if  in  situations  where  their  existence  is  impossible ; 
and  often  makes  us  think  them  movable  when  they 
are  not  so,  and  vice  versd.  An  object  appears  to  ua 
as  large  or  small,  near  or  distant,  according  as  the 
rays  from  its  opposite  borders  meeting  at  the  eye 
form  a  large  or  a  small  angle  :  when  the  angle  ia 
large,  the  object  is  either  large  or  near ;  when  small, 
the  object  must  be  small  or  distant.  Practice  alone 
enables  us  to  decide  whether  an  object  of  large 
apparent  size  is  so  on  account  of  its  real  size,  or  of 
its  proximity  ;  and  our  decision  is  arrived  at  by  a 
comparison  of  the  object  in  position,  with  other  com- 
mon objects,  such  as  trees,  houses,  &c,  which  may 
chance  to  be  near  it,  and  of  which  we  have  by 
experience  come  to  form  a  correct  idea.  The  same 
is,  of  course,  true  of  apparently  small  objects.  But 
when  all  means  for  comparison  are  removed,  as 
when  we  see  a  distant  object  floating  on  an  exten- 
sive sheet  of  wTater,  or  erect  in  an  apparently  bound- 
less sandy  plain,  where  no  other  object  meets  the 
eye,  then  our  judgment  is  completely  at  fault. 
Imperfection  in  the  acquired  perceptions  of  sight,  as 
it  is  called,  produces  many  other  illusions  ;  it  leads 
us  to  consider  spherical  solids  at  a  distance  a.? 
flat  discs,  and  deceives  us  regarding  the  size  of 
objects,  by  their  colour;  the  sun  appears  larger 
than  he  would  if  illumined  by  a  fainter  light,  and  a 
man  in  a  white  habit  seems  larger  than  he  would 
if  he  wore  a  dark  dress.  Illusions  are  also 
produced  by  external  causes  ;  and  instances  of  this 
sort  are  given  under  Mirage,  Reflection,  and 
Refraction. 

The  property  which  the  eye  possesses  of  retaining 
an  impression  for  a  very  brief,  though  sensible, 
period  of  time  (about  one-quarter  of  a  second),  after 
the  object  which  produced  the  impression  has  been 
removed,  produces  a  third  class  of  illusions.  Com- 
mon examples  of  this  are  the  illuminated  circle 
formed  by  the  rapid  revolution  of  an  ignited  carbon 


OPTICS-OPTIMISM. 


point,  piece  of  red-hot  iron,  or  other  luminous  body, 
and  the  fiery  curve  produced  by  a  red-hot  shot 
projected  from  a  cannon. 

Another  form  of  illusion  is  produced  to  a  person 
who  is  seated  in  a  vehicle  in  motion,  and  it  is  very 
deceptive  when  the  motion  is  so  equable  as  not  to 
be  felt  by  the  person  himself.  The  illusion  is  most 
complete  when  the  attention  is  riveted  on  an 
object  several  yards  off ;  this  object  then  appears 
as  a  centre  round  which  all  the  other  objects  seem 
to  revolve,  those  between  the  observer  and  the 
object  moving  backwards,  and  those  beyond  the 
object  moving  forwards.  This  illusion  occurs  on  a 
large  scale  in  the  apparent  motion  of  the  heavenly 
bodies. 

Other  illusions  arise  from  a  disordered  state  of 
the  organs  of  vision  ;  such  are  the  seeing  of  things 
double  or  movable  (if  they  are  not  so),  or  of  a 
colour  different  from  the  true  one  ;  the  appear- 
ance as  of  insects  crawling  over  a  body  at  which  the 
eye  is  directed,  &c. 

O'PTICS  is  the  science  whose  object  is  the 
investigation  of  the  laws  that  regulate  the  pheno- 
mena of  light  and  vision.  The  nature  of  light  will 
be  found  treated  of  under  Light,  and  its  various 
properties  under  Chromatics,  Diffraction,  In- 
terference, Lens,  Polarisation,  Reflection, 
Refraction,  Spectrum,  &c.  ;  and  we  shall  confine 
ourselves  in  this  article  to  a  historical  sketch  of  the 
rise  and  progress  of  the  science. 

Optics,  as  a  science,  is  entirely  of  modern  growth, 
for  though  the  Greeks  and  their  disciples  the  Arabs 
had  made  some  progress  in  mathematical  optics, 
their  knowledge  was  conHned  to  the  law  of  reflection 
and  its  more  immediate  consequences.  Euclid, 
Aristotle,  Archimedes,  Hero,  and  Ptolemy  were 
acquainted  with  the  fact  that  light  is  transmitted 
in  straight  lines,  but  with  the  important  exception 
of  Aristotle,  and  some  of  his  followers,  the  ancient 
philosophers  believed  that  rays  proceeded  from  the 
eye  to  the  object,  instead  of  in  the  contrary  direc- 
tion. Ptolemy  was  well  acquainted  with  atmo- 
spheric refraction.  Alhacen  (1070)  and  Vitellio  the 
Pole  (1260)  were  almost  the  only  cultivators  of  this 
science  during  the  middle  ages,  and  their  additions 
to  it  were  unimportant.  The  lens,  though  known 
from  earl}'  antiquity,  was  not  applied  as  an  aid  to 
defective  eyesight,  till  after  the  time  of  Roger 
Bacon.  Jansen,  Metius,  and  Galileo  separately 
invented  the  telescope  about  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  c. ;  and  the  last-mentioned  philosopher,  by 
its  means,  made  various  important  astronomical 
discoveries.  Kepler,  a  short  time  after,  gave  the 
true  theory  of  the  telescope,  explained  the  method 
of  finding  the  focal  length  of  lenses,  and  applied  it 
to  find  the  magnifying  power  of  the  telescope, 
besides  pointing  out  the  mode  of  constructing  an 
instrument  better  adapted  for  astronomical  pur- 
poses than  that  of  Galileo;  he  also  made  some 
nseful  experiments  on  the  nature  of  colours,  and 
shewed  that  images  formed  on  the  retina  of  the 
eye  are  inverted,  a  fact  previously  discovered  by 
Maurolyeus  of  Messina.  From  this  period  the 
science  of  optics  steadily  advanced,  and  its  treasury 
of  facts  received  numerous  additions  through  the 
iaoum  s  of  De  Dominis,  Snell  (the  discoverer  of  the 
law  of  refraction  in  1621),  Descartes,  Fermat, 
Barrow,  Mariotte,  and  Boyle.  Up  to  the  time  of 
Newton  it  was  generally  believed  that  colour  was 
produced  by  refraction,  but  that  philosopher  shewed 
by  a  beautiful  series  of  experiments  that  refraction 
only  separates  the  colours  already  existing  in  white 
light.  In  his  hands  the  theory  and  construction 
of  the  telescope  underwent  many  valuable  improve- 
ments, and  in  1672  the  description  of  his  reflecting 
telescope    was    submitted    to    the    Royal    Society. 


Gregory  had  constructed  an  instrument  on  similar 
principles    some    years    before.      About   the    same 
time,  Grimaldi  made  his  interesting  series  of  e 
ments  on  the  effects  of  diffraction,  and  noticed  the 
remarkable  fact  of  the  interference  of  one  pencil  of 
light  with   the  action  of   another.      The  complete 
theory  of  the  rainbow,  with  an  elegant  analysis  cf 
the  colours  of  thin  plates,  and  the  hypothesis  con- 
cerning the  nature  and  propagation  of  light,  now 
known    as    the    'corpuscular'    theory,    completed 
Newton's  contributions  to  the  science.    The  import- 
ant services  of  the  ingenious  but  eccentric  Efookt 
cannot  be  easily  stated  in  such  a  brief  abstract,  a 
he    discovered  a  little   of    everything,    completed 
nothing,  and  occupied  himself  to  a  largo  extent  in 
combating  faulty  points  in  the  theories  of  his  con- 
temporaries.    It  must  not,  however,  be   forgotten 
that  he  has  as  much  right  as  Huyghens  to  the  credit 
of  originating  the  undulatory  theory,  which  is  the 
favourite  one  at  present.     The  double  refraction 
of  Iceland  spar  was  discovered  (1669)  by  Bartholin, 
and    fully   explained    in    1690   by  Huyghens,   the 
propouuder    of   the    undulatory  theory,   who   also 
aided   the   progress   of    mathematical    optics   to   a 
considerable    extent.      The   velocity   of  light   was 
discovered    by   Riimer    (1675),    and    in    1720    the 
aberration  of   the   fixed  stars  and  its  cause  were 
made  known  by  Bradley,  who  likewise  determined 
with  accuracy  the  amount  of  atmospheric  refrac- 
tion.     Bouguer,   Porterfield,   Euler,   and   Lambert 
rendered   essential  service  to  physical  optics ;    the 
same  was   done    for   the   mathematical  theory  by 
Dollond  (the  inventor  of  the  achromatic  telescope), 
Clairaut,  Dalembert,  Boscovich,  &c. ;  while  in  later 
times  the  experiments  of  Delaval  on   the   colours 
produced  by  reflection  and  refraction ;  the  discus- 
sion of  the  phenomena  arising  from  unusual  reflec- 
tion or  refraction,  carried  on  by  Vince,  Wollaston, 
Biot,  Monge,  and  others  ;  the  discovery  of  polarisa- 
tion of  light  by  Malus  (18U8),  and  its  investigation 
by  Brewster,  Biot,  and  Seebeck ;  of  depolarisation 
by  Arago   (1811),  and  of  the  optical  properties  as 
connected  with  the    axes   of    crystals    (1818)    by 
Brewster;  and  the  explanation  of  these  and  other 
optical  phenomena,  hi  accordance  with  the  undula- 
tory hypothesis  by  Young — the  discoverer  of  the 
Interference  (q.  v.)  of  rays — and  Fresnel,  went  far 
to    give    optics    a  width   of  scope   and   symmetry 
which   is  possessed  by  few  other  sciences.      The 
development  of  the  undulatory  theory  and  of  optical 
science  generally  has  been  carried  on  in  the  present 
century  by  Lloyd,  Airy,  Cauchy,  and  others ;  and 
more  recently  important  discoveries  in  connection 
svith     the     physical    modifications     and    chemical 
properties   of    light    have    been    made    (the    latter 
chiefly,  as  far  as  the  spectrum   is   concerned,  by 
Kirchhoff),  for  a  notice  of   which,  and  other  dis- 
coveries, see  Photography,  Spectrum,  and  other 
articles. 

O'PTIMISM  (Lat.  optimus,  best),  the  name 
given  to  the  doctrine  of  those  philosophers  and 
divines  who  hold  that  the  existing  order  of  things, 
whatever  may  be  its  seeming  imperfections  of 
detail,  is  nevertheless,  as  a  whole,  the  most  perfect 
or  the  best  which  could  have  been  created  or 
which  it  is  possible  to  conceive.  Some  of  the 
advocates  of  optimism  content  themselves  with 
maintaining  the  absolute  position,  that  although 
God  was  not  by  any  means  bound  to  create  the 
most  perfect  order  of  things,  yet  the  existing  order 
is  de  facto  the  best ;  others  contend,  in  addition, 
that  the  perfection  and  wisdom  of  Almighty  God 
necessarily  require  that  His  creation  should  be  the 
most  perfect  which  it  is  possible  to  conceive.  The 
philosophical  discussions  of  which  this  controversy 
is  the  development  are  as  old  as  philosophy  itself, 

89 


OPUNTIA— ORACHE. 


and  form  the  groundwork  of  all  the  systems,  physi- 
cal as  well  as  moral,  whether  of  the  Oriental  or  of 
the  Greek  philosophy;  of  Dualism,  Parsism,  and  of 
the  Christian  Gnosticism  and  Manicheism  in  the 
east ;  and  in  the  west,  of  the  Ionian,  the  Eleatic, 
the  Atomistic ;  no  less  than  of  the  later  and  more 
familiar,  Stoic,  Peripatetic,  and  Platoni3tic  Schools. 
In  the  philosophical  writings  of  the  fathers,  of 
Origen,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  above  all  of 
Augustine,  the  problem  of  the  seeming  mixture 
of  good  and  evil  in  the  world  is  the  great  subject 
of  inquiry,  and  through  all  the  subtleties  of  the 
medieval  schools  it  continued  to  hold  an  important 
and  prominent  place.  But  the  full  development 
of  the  optimistic  theory  as  a  philosophical  system 
was  reserved  for  the  celebrated  Leibnitz  (q.  v.). 
It  forms  the  subject  of  his  most  elaborate  work, 
entitled  Theodicea,  the  main  thesis  of  which  may  be 
briefly  stated  to  be — that  among  all  the  systems 
which  presented  themselves  to  the  infinite  intelli- 
gence of  God,  as  possible,  God  selected  and  created, 
in  the  existing  universe,  the  best  and  most  perfect, 
physically  as  well  as  morally.  The  Theodicea, 
published  in  1700,  was  designed  to  meet  the 
sceptical  theories  of  Bayle,  by  shewing  not  only 
that  the  existence  of  evil,  moral  and  physical,  is 
not  incompatible  with  the  general  perfection  of  the 
created  universe,  but  that  God,  as  all-wise,  all- 
powerful,  and  all-perfect,  has  chosen  out  of  all 
possible  creations  the  best  and  most  perfect;  that 
had  another  more  perfect  creation  been  present  to 
the  divine  intelligence,  God's  wisdom  would  have 
required  of  Him  to  select  it ;  and  that  if  another, 
even  equally  perfect,  had  been  possible,  there  would 
not  have  been  any  sufficient  determining  motive  for 
the  creation  of  the  present  world.  The  details  of 
the  controversial  part  of  the  system  would  be  out 
of  place  in  this  work.  It  will  be  enough  to  say 
that  the  existence  of  evil,  both  moral  and  physical, 
is  explained  as  a  necessary  consequence  of  the 
finiteness  of  created  beings  ;  and  it  is  contended 
that  in  the  balance  of  good  and  evil  in  the  existing 
constitution  of  things,  the  preponderance  of  the 
former  is  greater  than  in  any  other  conceivable 
creation.  The  great  argument  of  the  optimists  is 
the  following:  If  the  present  universe  be  not  the 
best  that  is  possible,  it  must  be  either  because  God 
did  not  know  of  the  (supposed)  better  universe,  or 
because  God  was  not  able  to  create  that  better  one, 
or  was  not  willing  to  create  it.  Now  every  one  of 
these  hypotheses  is  irreconcilable  with  the  attri- 
butes of  God :  the  first,  with  His  omniscience ;  the 
second,  with  His  omnipotence ;  and  the  third,  with 
His  goodness.  See  Leibnitz,  Theodicea;  Bau- 
meister's  Historia  de  Mundo  Optimo  (Corletei,  1741) ; 
Wolfurt,  Controversies  de  Mundo  Optimo  (Jense, 
1743) ;  Creuzer,  Leibnitii  Doctrina  de  Mundo 
Optimo  sub  Examine  denuo  Revocata  (Leipsiae,  1795). 

OPU'NTIA.    See  Prickly  Pear. 

O'PUS  OPERA'NTIS  (Lat.  literally  « the  work 
of  the  worker'),  a  well-known  theological  phrase, 
intended  to  convey  that  the  effect  of  a  particular 
ministration  or  rite  is  primarily  and  directly  due, 
not  to  the  rite  itself  (opus),  but  to  the  dispositions 
of  the  recipient  (operans).  Thus,  in  the  act  of 
kissing  or  praying  before  a  crucifix,  of  sprinkling 
one's  self  with  holy  water,  of  telling  the  prayers  of 
the  rosary  upon  blessed  beads,  the  fervour  and 
personal  piety  of  the  supplicant,  and  not  the 
material  object  of  the  religious  use,  is  held  to  be 
the  efficient  cause  of  the  grace  which  is  thereby 
imparted.  The  term  is  used  chiefly  by  writers  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  schools,  in  whose  system,  how- 
ever, the  sacramental  rites  are  held  to  differ  from 
all  others  in  this  respect.    See  Opus  Operatum. 

90 


OPUS  OPERATUM  (Lat.  literally  '  the  work 
wrought')  is  the  phrase  employed  in  the  Catholic 
theological  schools  to  describe  the  manner  of  the 
supposed  operation  of  the  sacramental  rites  in  the 
production  of  Grace  (q.  v.).  It  is  intended  to  imply 
that  the  ministration  of  the  rite  (opus)  is  in  itself, 
through  the  institution  of  Christ,  an  efficient  cause 
of  grace,  and  that,  although  its  operation  is  not 
infallible,  but  requires  and  presupposes  certain 
dispositions  on  the  part  of  the  recipient,  yet  these 
dispositions  are  but  conditiones  sine  qua  non,  and  do 
not  of  themselves  produce  the  grace ;  and  hence, 
when  the  sacraments  are  administered  to  dying 
persons  in  a  state  of  apparent  insensibility,  this  is 
done  in  the  hope  and  on  the  presumption  that  the 
dying  person  may,  though  seemingly  unconscious, 
be  nevertheless  really  disposed  to  receive  the  sacra- 
ment ;  but  it  is  by  no  means  held  that  if  these 
dispositions  be  wanting,  the  sacrament  will  itself 
justify  him.  It  is  a  mistake,  therefore,  to  suppose, 
as  is  often  done  in  popular  controversy,  that 
Catholics  ascribe  to  the  sacramental  rites  such 
magical  or  talismanic  power  that  they  can  sanctify 
even  an  unrepentant  sinner.  Their  efficacious 
operation  presupposes  as  conditions 
the  repentance  and  other  moral 
dispositions  of  the  recipient, 
although  the  grace  which  they 
give  is  due,  not  to  these  disposi- 
tions, but  to  tlve  sacraments  as 
received  with  the  dispositions. 

OR,  in  Heraldry,  the  metal 
gold,  represented  in  heraldic  en- 
gravings by  an  unlimited  number 
of  dots. 

O'RACHE  (Atriplex),  a  genus  of  plants  of  tha 
natural  order  Chenopodiacea>,  having  male,  female, 
and  hermaphrodite  flowers  ;  the  male  and  herma- 
phrodite flowers  with  a  3— 5-partite  calyx,  and 
3—5  stamens;  the  female  flowers  with  a  compressed 
and  2-lobed  or  2-partite  calyx.  The  species  are 
numerous.  Some  of  them  are  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  waste  places,  and  as  weeds  in  gardens  in  Britain 
and  throughout  Europe.  Garden  0.  (A.  hortensis), 
also  called  Mountain  Spinach,  was  formerly  much 


Orache  patula. 

cultivated  in  England,  and  is  still  cultivated  in 
some  parts  of  Europe  as  a  substitute  for  spinach. 
It  is  a  native  of  Tartary,  an  annual,  with  a  stem 
about  three  feet  high,  and  cordate-triangular 
leaves,  which  are  thick  and  glaucous,  and  have  a 


ORACLE— ORAN. 


•lightly  acid   flavour.      Alrtpkx  host, da  or  Orachc 
abounds  in  salt  marshes  or  brackish  river-banks  on 

the  Atlantic  mast,  and  salt  marshes  from  Virginia  to 
Maine.— The   leaves  of   the  Sea  ().  (A.  littoralU) 

a  native  of   the  British   coasts,  are    used    in    the   same 

manner,   and  (hose  of    the  common  garden-weeds, 

"'a  and  A.  angvattfoHa,  are  excellent  suIh 
statutes  for  spinach.— It  is  mentioned  in  Remy  and 
Breuchley's  Journey  t<>  <;,-cat  Salt  Labt  City,  that 
an  -radio,  with  pale  pink  leaves  and  a  salt  taste,  is 
cultivated  by  the  Indians  on  the  Ilmnl.oldt  Kivcr 
for  its  seed,  which  resembles  that  of  Quinoa 
(M-  v->,  and  is  used  like  it  for  making  porridge  and 
bre*.  1. 

ORACLE,  the  response  delivered  by  a  deity  or 
supernatural  being  to  a  worshipper  or  inquirer ; 
also  the  place  where  the  response  was  delivered. 
These  responses  were  supposed  to  be  given  by  a 
certain  divine  afflatus,  either  through  means  of 
mankind,  as  in  the  orgasms  of  the  Pythia,  and  the 
dreams  of  the  worshipper  in  the  temples  ;  or  by 
its  effect  on  certain  objects,  as  the  tinkling  of  the 
caldrons  at  Dodona,  the  rustling  of  the  sacred 
laurel,  the  murmuring  of  the  streams;  or  by  the 
actions  of  sacred  animals,  as  exemplified  in  the  Apis 
or  sacred  bull  of  Memphis,  and  the  feeding  of  holy 
chickens  of  the  Romans.  This  arose,  in  fact,  from 
the  idea  that  the  deity  signified  his  intentions  to 
men  by  signs  or  inspirations,  which,  however,  had 
always  to  be  interpreted  to  the  inquirer  by  the 
priesthood.  Such  responses  were,  however,  closely 
allied  to  augury,  which  differed  in  this  respect  that 
auguries  could  be  taken  auywhere,  while  the 
oracular  spots  were  defined  and  limited.  Oracle 
dates  from  the  highest  antiquity,  and  flourished  in 
the  most  remote  ages,  and  gradually  declined  with 
the  increasing  knowledge  of  mankind.  Among  the 
Egyptians  all  the  temples  were  probably  oracular, 
although  only  a  few  are  mentioned  by  Herodotus, 
as  the  oracle  of  Latona,  in  the  city  of  Buto  ;  those 
of  Hercules,  Mars,  Thebes,  and  Meroe.  In  the 
hieroglyphic  texts  the  gods  speak  constantly  in  an 
oracular  manner,  and  their  consultation  by  the  Pha- 
raohs is  occasionally  mentioned.  In  later  days  the 
most  renowned  of  these  oracles  was  that  of  Amnion, 
in  the  Oasis  (q.  v.),  where  oracular  responses  were 
rendered  either  by  the  shaking  of  the  statue  of  the 
god,  or  by  his  appearance  in  a  certain  manner. 
Oracles  were  also  used  by  the  Hebrews,  as  in  the 
consultation  of  the  Urim  and  Thummim  by  the  high 
priest,  and  the  unlawful  use  of  Teraphims,  and 
consultations  of  the  gods  of  Phoenicia  and  Samaria. 
The  Hebrew  oracles  were  by  word  of  mouth,  as  the 
speech  of  God  to  Moses,  dreams,  visions,  and  pro- 
phetical denunciations  ;  besides  which,  there  were 
oracles  in  Phoenicia,  as  that  of  Belzebub  and  others 
of  the  Baalim.  They  were  also  in  use  throughout 
Babylonia  and  Chaldaea,  where  the  responses  were 
delivered  by  dreams  given  to  the  priestesses,  who 
slept  alone  in  the  temples  as  concubines  of  the 
gods.  So  numerous  were  they  in  the  ancient  world, 
that  300  are  said  to  have  been  in  existence. 

The  most  celebrated  oracles  of  Asia  Minor  were 
fchose  of  Telmissus  in  Caria  or  Lycia,  which  gave 
responses  by  dreams,  and  that  of  Apollo  at  Patara  ; 
but  the  Grecian  oracles  enjoyed  the  highest  reputa- 
tion far  truthfulness,  and  the  most  celebrated  of  these 
were  the  Dodoneau,  the  Delphic,  and  that  of  Tropho- 
nius  and  Amphiaraus.  The  Dodonean  (see  Dodona) 
was  the  only  oracle  in  Greece  which  was  given  by 
Jupiter ;  the  others  were  either  those  of  Apollo,  or 
of  certain  soothsayers,  to  whom  that  god  had 
imparted  the  gift  of  prophecy,  or  of  other  gods. 
The  most  renowned  of  all  was  the  Delphic  oracle 
(see  Delphi),  and  was  Panhellenic  or  open  to  all 
Greece,  consulted  for  public  purposes,  and  occupying 


a  position  Msembling  in  son,.  that  of   the 

papacy  in  the  middle   ages  in  Kuro]  e.     Ti,e   name  of 
the  first  priestess  who  gave  oracles  was  PhemoDCB, 

Thc'   ' nutations   were    generally   in    the    Delphic 

month,  Bytioa  or  April,  and  once  a  day  on  other 
months  ;  and  the  precedence  of  consulting  the  oraclg 
was  determined  by  lot,  but  rich  presents  obtained  for 
CrCBeus  and  the  Lydians  the  privilege  of  first  con- 
sultation. Sacrifices  were  offered  by  the  inquirer*, 
who  walked  with  laurel  crowns  on  their  heads,  and 
delivered  in  sealed  questions;  the  response  was 
deemed  infallible,  and  was  usually  dictated  by 
justice,  sound  sense,  and  reason,  till  the  growing 
political  importance  of  the  shrine  renderei I  tin-  guar- 
dians of  it  fearfid  to  offend,  when  they  framea  the 
answers  in  ambiguous  terms,  or  allowed  the  influ- 
ence of  gold  and  presents  to  corrupt  the  in- 
spirations. The  other  oracles  of  Apollo  were 
at  Aba  in  Phocis  ;  at  Ptoon,  where  a  man  pro- 
phesied, which  was  destroyed  in  the  days  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great ;  and  at  Ismenus,  south  of  Thebes, 
Hysia,  Tegyra,  and  Eutressis.  In  Asia  Minor  the 
most  celebrated  was  that  of  Branchidte,  close  to 
Miletus,  celebrated  in  Egypt,  Gryneum,  and  Delos. 
Besides  that  of  Dodona,  Zeus  had  another  at  Olym- 
pia ;  and  those  of  various  other  deities  existed  else- 
where. A  secondary  class  of  oracles  of  heroic  or 
prophetic  persons  existed  in  Greece,  the  two  most 
celebrated  of  which  were  those  of  Amphiaraus  and 
Trophonius.  The  first  mentioned  was  one  of  the 
five  great  oracles  in  the  days  of  Crcesus,  and  was 
situate  at  Oropus,  in  Attica,  being  the  shrine  of  a 
deified  magician,  or  interpreter  of  dreams,  having 
a  fountain  close  to  it.  Those  who  consulted  it,  fasted 
a  whole  day,  abstained  from  wine,  sacrificed  a  ram 
to  Amphiaraus,  and  slept  on  the  skin  in  the  temple, 
where  their  destiny  was  revealed  by  dreams.  That 
of  Trophonius  was  at  Lebadea,  in  Bceotia,  and 
owed  its  origin  to  a  deified  seer.  It  was  given 
in  a  cave,  into  which  the  votary  descended, 
bathed,  and  anointed,  holding  a  honeyed  cake.  He 
obtained  a  knowledge  of  futurity  by  what  he 
saw  or  heard,  and  returned  dejected  from  the 
cavern.  Then,  seated  upon  the  seat  of  Mnemosyne, 
he  gave  an  account  of  what  he  had  heard,  and 
conducted  to  the  chapel  of  Good  Fortune  or  Good 
Genius,  recovered  his  tisual  composure.  There  were 
some  other  oracles  of  minor  importance.  Besides 
these  oracles,  written  ones  existed  of  the  prophecies 
of  celebrated  seers,  as  Bacis  and  Musseus,  which 
were  collected  by  the  Pisistratidae,  and  kept  in  the 
Acropolis  of  Athens.  Those  of  the  Euclus,  Panol- 
mus,  and  Lycus  were  also  celebrated.  Others  of 
the  Sibyls  or  prophetic  women,  daughters  of  Zeus 
and  Lamia,  were  popular,  and  at  a  later  period 
(see  Sibyls),  Athenais  and  others,  prophesied  in 
the  days  of  the  Seleucidae.  Amongst  the  oriental 
nations,  as  the  Arabs  and  others,  divination  was 
and  is  extensively  practised,  but  there  are  no 
set  oracles.  The  Celtic  Druids  are  said  to  have 
delivered  responses,  and  the  oracle  of  the  Celtic  god 
Belenus  or  Abelio,  in  the  Isle  de  Sein,  was  celebrated. 
Herodot.  Hist.  v.  89,  viii.  82  ;  Curtius,  iv.  7  ;  Hare, 
Ancient  Greeks,  (12ino,  Lond.  1S36,  p.  141)  ;  Bos, 
Antiquities  of  Greece  (1823,  p.  31). 

ORA'N  (Arab.  Waran),  a  thriving  municipal 
town  and  seaport  of  Algeria,  capital  of  the  province 
of  the  same  name,  stands  at  the  inner  extremity  of 
the  Gulf  of  Oran,  220  miles  west-south-west  of 
Algiers.  The  province  of  Oran,  sometimes  called 
the  province  of  the  West,  from  the  fact  of  its  forming 
the  western  frontier  of  the  country,  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  E.  by  the  pro- 
vince of  Algiers,  on  the  W.  by  the  empire  of  Morocco, 
and  on  the  S.  by  the  desert.  Area,  39,384  square 
miles,  of  which  13,514  belong  to  the  Tell  (q.  v.), 

91 


ORAN-ORANG. 


and  25,870  to  the  Sahara.  Pop.  670,697.  Of  the 
inhabitants,  66,223  were  immigrants,  32,055  being 
French,-  and  604,474  were  natives,  592,923  being 
Moslems,  and  11,551  Jews.  The  town  of  O.  is  the 
seat  of  the  government  offices — the  prefecture, 
She  civil,  criminal,  commercial  tribunals,  &c.  It 
also  contains  a  college,  primary  and  native  schools, 
Protestant  and  other  churches  ;  synagogues ; 
mosques ;  a  branch  of  the  bank  of  Algeria ; 
exchequer,  post,  and  telegraph  offices  ;  three  great 
barracks,  Saint-Philippe,  le  Ch&teau-Neuf,  and  le 
Chateau-Vieux ;  a  military  hospital,  with  accom- 
modation for  1400  beds  (an  immense  new  building, 
which  overtops  all  surrounding  edifices),  and 
various  splendidly  appointed  magazines  and  govern- 
ment stores.  The  town,  which  is  girt  by  walls,  and 
defended  by  strongly  armed  forts,  is  seated  at  the 
foot  of  a  high  mountain,  crowned  by  the  forts  Santa- 
Cruz  and  Saint-Gregoire.  The  port  does  not  offer 
safe  anchorage  ;  although  it  has  been  much 
improved  within  recent  years,  and  made  accessible 
for  large  vessels.  In  1864,  vessels  had  no  other 
shelter  than  the  roadstead  of  Mers-el-Kebir.  The 
streets  and  promenades  of  O.  are  generally  spacious, 
the  houses  elegant  and  airy.  The  principal  edifices 
are  the  Chateau-Neuf,  the  residence  of  the  general 
of  division  ;  the  Hotel  de  la  Prefecture  ;  the  great 
mosque  de  la  Rue  Philippe ;  the  Catholic  church ;  and 
the  barracks.  Pop.  of  commune,  comprising  the 
three  suburbs,  Mers-el-Kebir,  La  Senia,  and  Aiu-el- 
Turk,  34,109.  The  country  in  the  vicinity  is  bare 
and  arid,  although  the  land  is  not  sterile.  To  the 
south  of  the  town,  the  country  is  uncultivated ;  but 
towards  the  south-east,  highly  cultivated  lands  are 
seen.  In  the  vicinity  there  are  a  great  many  farms, 
cultivated  with  the  greatest  care,  and  most  of  them 
furnished  with  buildings  necessary  to  their  efficiency. 
Cattle  are  reared,  and  grain,  tobacco,  and  cotton 
are  grown.  The  vine  already  covers  large  tracts 
of  land,  and  its  cultivation  is  annually  extending. 
It  is  cultivated  with  the  most  complete  success,  and 
the  wines  are  of  good  quality. 

Besides  the  commune  of  O.,  there  are  in  the  pro- 
vince the  communes  of  Sidi-bel-Abbes  (q.  v.),  of 
Mostaganem  (pop.  11,950),  of  Mascara  (pop.  8629), 
and  of  Tlemeen  (q.  v.). 

The  town  of  O.  was  built  by  the  Moors.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  1509,  by  the  Turks  in 
1708,  and  again  by  the  Spaniards  in  1732.  In  1791, 
it  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  and  shortly 
after  it  was  altogether  abandoned  by  the  Spaniards. 
O.  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1831,  has  since 
remained  in  their  hands,  and  has  by  them  been 
developed  into  a  large  and  prosperous  town.  Vessels 
»f  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  65,000  tons  enter  and 
clear  the  ports  yearly.  The  annual  imports  amount 
to  about  £1.500,000  sterling,  and  the  exports  to 
£275,000  sterling. 

ORA'NG,  or  ORA'NG-OUTA'NG  (Simla  satyrus, 
or  Pithecus  satyrus,  or  P.  Abelii),  a  species  of  ape 
found  in  the  forests  of  Malacca,  Cochin-China,  and 
Borne  of  the  islands  of  that  part  of  the  world-  The 
name  is  sometimes  extended  in  signification,  so  as 
to  include  all  the  species  of  the  restricted  genus 
Simia  or  Pithecus,  a  genus  which  exists  only  in  the 
south-east  of  Asia  and  the  Eastern  Archipelago ; 
and  was  also  till  of  late  extended  even  to  the 
African  apes  now  forming  the  genus  Troglodytes, 
the  species  which  is  the  subject  of  this  article  being 
distinctively  called  the  Red  O.,  when  it  and  the 
Chimpanzee  were  the  only  anthropoid  apes  known. 
The  name  oraug  is  Malayan,  and  signifies  man  or 
rational  being  ;  outang  signifies  ivild,  or  of  the  woods. 
The  genus  Simia  or  Pithecus  differs  from  Troglodytes 
(the  Chimpanzee  and  Gorilla)  in  the  more  lengthened 
muzzle — the  lower  part  of  the  face  projecting 
92 


suddenly  and  remarkably  ;  in  the  very  large  canine 
teeth ;  in  the  great  breadth  of  the  central  incisors  ; 
and  in  the  great  length  of  the  arms,  which  are  so 
long  that  the  fingers  can  touch  the  ground  when 
the  animal  stands  erect.  The  ears  are  also  small, 
and  lie  close  to  the  head.  The  eyes  are  close 
together ;  the  nose  is  little  elevated ;  the  lips  are 
scarcely  visible  when  the  mouth  is  shut.  The  apes 
of  this  genus  are  arboreal  in  their  habits,  and  not 


Orang-Outang  (Simia  satyrus). 

gregarious.  They  are  ill  adapted  for  walking  on  the 
ground,  and  in  a  wild  state  probably  almost  never 
assume  an  erect  posture,  and  although  they  can  be 
taught  to  do  it  in  confinement,  they  maintain  it 
with  difficulty,  and  only  when  standing  still ;  even 
then  often  seeking  to  adjust  the  balance  of  the  body 
by  raising  the  arms  above  and  behind  the  head.  In 
climbing  and  swinging  among  the  branches  of  trees, 
the  hands  of  the  hinder  extremities  are  used  as 
readily  as  those  of  the  anterior,  and  the  great  length 
of  the  arms  is  useful  in  enabling  them  to  take  hold 
of  distant  branches.  The  fingers  of  all  the  extremi- 
ties are  very  long. 

Some  of  the  most  important  distinctions  between 
the  anatomy  of  the  anthropoid  apes  and  that  of 
man,  are  noticed  in  the  article  Chisipanzee. 
The  O.  and  its  congeners  are  regarded  as  differ- 
ing more  widely  from  man  in  their  anatomical 
characters  than  the  chimpanzee  and  gorilla ; 
although  the  number  of  ribs  is  the  same  as  in  man, 
and  there  are  a  few  other  particulars  in  which 
the  O.  more  nearly  resembles  a  human  being  than 
any  of  the  African  apes  do.  The  projecting 
muzzle  is  much  less  notable  in  the  young  than  in 
the  adult  O.,  and  the  aspect  of  the  adult  males  is 
further  rendered  hideous  by  great  callosities  on  the 
cheeks.  In  the  adult  state,  the  ridges  of  the  skull 
also  greatly  increase  in  thickness  and  prominence. 

The  species  of  this  genus  exhibit  in  a  much 
greater  degree  than  those  of  Troglodytes  an  ana- 
tomical character  common  also  to  many  other  apes 
and  monkeys,  a  pouch  in  the  throat,  opening  from 
the  windpipe,  and  capable  of  being  dilated  with  air 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  animal.  In  the  O.,  it  branches 
into  several  subordinate  pouches,  which  are  situated 
among  the  muscles  of  the  throat.  The  use  of  this 
organ  is  not  known.  It  does  not  appear  to  have 
any  connection  with  the  voice ;  and  has  been 
supposed,  not  very  probably,  to  be  of  some  service  in 
leaping,  by  diminishing  the  specific  gravity  of  the  ani- 
mal. 


ORANGE. 


There  are  at  least  two  other  species  of  the  genus 
besides  that  best  known  as  the  0.,  one  of  these 
being  the  great  Fongo  (q.  v.)  of  Borneo  (S.  or  P. 
Wormbii),  and  tho  other  (S.  or  P.  viorio),  also  a 
native  of  Borneo,  of  comparatively  small  size.  The 
natural  history  of  these  apes  has  not  been  thoroughly 
investigated;  and,  until  recently,  it  was  supposed 
that  the  species  first  known  might  be  identical  with 
the  great  ape  believed  to  exist  in  the  woods,  and 
that  the  differences  of  size  and  other  characters 
might  depend  merely  on  age.  The  O.  is  about  three 
feet  in  length  from  the  heel  to  the  crown  of  the 
head.  It  is  covered  with  brownish-red  hair,  which, 
on  the  back  and  arms,  is  live  or  six  inches  long,  but 
very  short  on  the  backs  of  the  hands  and  feet. 
There  is  little  hair  on  the  face,  and  none  on  the 
palms  of  the  hands.  When  taken  young,  it  is  easily 
lamed,  and  becomes  sufficiently  familiar.  It  displays 
considerable  sagacity,  and  some  playfulness  and 
love  of  mischief,  but  is  not  so  frolicsome  as  many  of 
the  monkey  tribe.  Young  specimens  have  some- 
times been  brought  to  Europe,  but  none  have  lived 
long.  The  temper  is  believed  to  change  very  much 
to  the  worse,  when  the  animal  reaches  maturity. 

ORANGE,  the  name  of  one  or  more  species  of 
Citrus  (q.  v.),  of  which  the  fruit  is  much  prized. 
Botanists  generally  regard  all  the  oranges  as  of  one 
species,  Citrus  aurantium,  but  some  follow  Risso  in 
making  the  Sweet  0.,  the  Bitter  0.,  the  Bergamot 
O.,  &c.,  distinct  species.  The  wild  state  of  the  0.  is 
not  certainly  known,  although  its  characters  may  be 
pretty  confidently  inferred  from  the  degeneration  of 
cultivated  varieties;  and  no  cultivated  plant  shews 
a  greater  liability  to  degenerate,  so  that  seedliug 
oranges  are  almost  always  worthless.  Nor  is  its 
native  country  more  certain,  although  there  is  much 
reason  to  believe  that  all  the  kinds  have  spread  over 
the  world  from  the  warmer  central  and  eastern  parts 
of  Asia.  It  has  been  alleged  that  the  O.  is  a  native 
of  North  America,  near  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  but  the 
probability  rather  seems  to  be  that  it  has  been 
introduced,  and  has  become  naturalised. 

The  Common  0.,  or  Sweet  0.  (Citrus  aurantium 
of  Risso),  is  an  evergreen  tree  of  moderate  size,  with 
greenish-brown  bark ;  the  leaves  oblong,  ac\ite, 
sometimes  minutely  serrated,  the  leaf-stalks  more  or 
less  winged,  the  flowers  white,  the  fruit  roundish, 
the  oil-cysts  of  the  rind  convex,  the  juice  sweet 
and  acid.  It  is  cultivated  in  almost  every  part  of 
the  world  of  which  the  climate  is  warm  enough,  but 
succeeds  best  in  the  warmer  temperate  or  sub- 
tropical climates,  as  in  the  south  of  Europe,  where  it 
is  very  extensively  cultivated,  as  far  north  as  the 
south  of  France.  The  0.  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
known  to  the  Greeks  or  Romans,  but  was  probably 
brought  to  Europe  by  the  Moors,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  introduced  into  Italy  so  recently  as  the 
14th  c,  fully  1000  years  after  the  citron.  In  the 
north  of  Italy,  oranges  are  sometimes  grown  in  con- 
servatories, but  often  in  the  open  air,  except  during 
winter,  when  they  are  covered  with  temporary 
houses  of  boards.  In  the  south  of  England,  they  are 
sometimes  in  like  manner  grown  in  the  open  air, 
•with  a  shelter  of  boards  or  matting  in  winter,  but 
trained  against  a  south  wall ;  attaining  a  large  size, 
and  yielding  good  fruit.  The  abundant  importation 
of  the  fruit,  however,  renders  the  cultivation  of  the 
O.  in  Britain  unnecessary ;  and,  in  general,  only 
small  plants  are  to  be  seen  in  green-houses  or  con- 
servatories, as  mere  objects  of  interest.  In  former 
times,  when  the  evergreen  shrubs  in  cultivation 
were  much  fewer  than  now,  0.  trees  were  very 
commonly  cultivated  in  pots,  both  in  green-houses 
and  in  windows  of  apartments  in  Britain,  as  is  still 
the  case  in  the  northern  parts  of  Germany.  The  0. 
loves  a  rich  soil,  and  succeeds  well  in  a  strong  clay. 


There  we  many  varieties  in  cultivation,  which  i 
petuated  by  grafting  upon  seedling  0.     ocks,  and  \>y 

layers. 

of  the  varieties  ,,f  the  Sweet  0.,  perhaps  the  most 
deserving  of  notice  are  the  PORTUGAL  or  LlSB 
the  most  common  of  all,  having  the  fruit  generally 

round  or  nearly  so,  ami  a  thick  rind :   the  China  ().', 
said  to  have  been  brought  by  the  Portuguese  from 

China,  and  now  limeli  cultivated  in  the  south  of  Eu- 
rope, having  a  smooth  thin  rind  and  very  abundant 
juice;  the  Maltese  or  Blood  0.,  remarkable  foi 
the  blood-red  colour  of  its  pulp;  the  K<:<;  <  >.,  having 
fruit  of  an  oval  shape;  and  the  TANGERINE  <  >.,  hav- 
ing a  small  Hat  fruit,  with  a  pleasant  odour  and  finely 
flavoured  pulp.  The  St  Michael's  0.  appeal 
a  Bubvariety  of  the  China  ( (range,  The  Majorca  <  >. 
is  seedless,  resembling  in  this  certain  cultivated  variii 
ties  of  other  fruits. 

The  Bitter  ().,  Seville  O.,  or  BlGARADE  (CUrua 
vulgaris,  or  C.  bigaradia),  is  distinguished  from  tho 
Sweet  O.  by  the  more  truly  elliptical  have  j,  the 
acid  and  hitter  juice  of  the  fruit,  and  the  concave 
oil-cysts  of  its  rind.  Its  branches  are  also  spiny, 
which  is  rarely  the  case  with  the  Sweet  Orange.  The 
varieties  in  cultivation  are  numerous.  The  Bitter 
0.  was  extensively  cultivated  by  the  Moors  in  Spain, 
probably  for  medicinal  purposes.  The  rind  is  more 
bitter  than  that  of  the  Sweet  0.,  and  is  used  as  a 
stomachic  and  tonic.  Its  chief  use,  however,  is  for 
flavouring  puddings,  cakes,  &c,  and  for  making 
marmalade. 

The  Bergamot  0.  (C.  Bergamia)  is  noticed  in  a 
separate  article. 

The  Mandarin  0.,  or  Clove  0.  (C.  nobilis), 
recently  introduced  from  China,  has  fruit  much 
broader  than  long,  with  a  thick  rind,  very  loosely 
attached  to  the  flesh,  so  that  there  is  often  a  space 
between  them.  The  leaves  are  smaller  than  those 
of  any  other  kind  of  orange. 

0.  leaves  are  feebly  bitter,  and  contain  a  fragrant 
volatile  oil,  which  is  obtained  by  distilling  them 
with  water,  and  is  known  in  the  shops  as  Essence  dt 
Petit  Grain.  0.  flowers  yield,  when  distilled  with 
water,  a  fragrant  volatile  oil,  called  Oil  of  Neroli, 
which  is  used  in  making  Eau  de  Cologne,  and  for 
other  purposes  of  perfumery.  The  flowers  both  of 
the  Sweet  0.  and  of  the  Bitter  0.  yield  it,  but  those 
of  the  Bitter  0.  are  preferred.  Dried  0.  flowers,  to 
be  distilled  for  this  oil,  are  an  article  of  export  from 
the  south  of  Europe.  They  are  packed  in  barrels, 
and  mixed  with  salt.  The  dried  flowers  have  a 
yellowish  colour;  the  fresh  flowers  are  white  and 
very  fragrant.  The  use  of  them  as  an  ornament 
in  the  head-dress  of  brides  is  common  through- 
out great  part  of  the  world.  — The  small  green 
oranges,  from  the  size  of  a  pea  to  the  size  of  a 
cherry,  which  fall  from  the  trees,  both  of  the  Sweet 
0.  and  the  Bitter  0.,  when  the  crop  is  too  great  to 
be  brought  to  maturity,  are  carefully  gathered  and 
dried,  and  are  the  0.  berries  of  the  shops.  They 
are  used  in  making  Curaeoa.  They  also  yield  a 
fragrant  oil  on  distillation,  the  original  essence  de 
petit  grain;  and  they  are  smoothed  in  a  turning- 
lathe,  and  employed  as  issue  pease ;  not  readily 
acquiring  a  fetid  odour,  as  pease  do  when  employed 
for  this  purpose. — The  dried  and  candied  rind  of  the 
ripe  Bitter  0.,  well  known  as  Orange-peel,  is  used  as  a 
stomachic,  and  very  largely  for  flavouring  puddings 
and  articles  of  confectionery.  The  rind  of  the  Sweet 
0.  is  sometimes  employed  in  the  same  way,  but  is 
inferior.  A  fragrant  essential  oil  is  obtained  from  the 
rind  of  the  0.  by  distillation  with  water,  and  is  sold 
by  perfumers  as  Oil  of  Sweet  0.,  or  Oil  of  Bitter  0., 
according  as  it  is  obtained  from  the  one  or  the  other, 
although  the  two  kinds  of  oil  are  very  similar.  Tho 
rind  of  the  0.  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  a  fir  £ 

93 


ORANGE— ORANGE  RIVER  FREE  STATE. 


liqueur  called  0.  JRosor/lio,  which  is  an  article  of 
export  from  some  parts  of  Italy.  Besides  the  use 
of  the  Sweet  0.  as  a  dessert  fruit,  and  as  a  refrige- 
rant in  cases  of  sickness,  its  juice  is  extensively  used 
as  a  refrigerant  beverage,  and  is  particularly  valuable 
in  febrde  and  inflammatory  complaints. 

0.  trees  are  often  extremely  fruitful,  so  that  a 
tree  twenty  feet  high,  and  occupying  a  space  of 
little  more  than  twelve  feet  in  diameter,  sometimes 
yields  from  3000  to  4000  oranges  in  a  year.  The  O. 
tree  attains  an  age  of  at  least  100  to  150  years. 
Young  trees  are  less  productive  than  old  ones,  and 
the  fruit  is  also  less  juicy,  has  a  thicker  rind,  and 
more  numerous  seeds. 

The  wood  of  the  O.  tree  is  yellowish  white 
and  close-grained.  It  is  used  for  inlaying  and  for 
turnery. 

The  fruit  of  the  0.  tree  is  of  great  com- 
mercial importance,  for  not  only  is  it  one  of  the 
most  delicious  and  wholesome  of  fruits,  but  for- 
tunately it  is  also  the  most  easily  kept  and  carried 
from  place  to  place.  No  fresh  fruit  possesses  in 
the  same  degree  as  the  0.,  and  its  congeners, 
the  lemon,  citron,  lime,  &c,  the  property  of  being 
easily  packed  in  boxes,  when  nearly  ripe,  and  being 
in  that  state  able  to  stand  the  close  confine- 
ment of  a  ship's  hold  during  a  voyage  of  two  or 
three  weeks.  The  0.  is  much  cultivated  in  the 
Azores,  Malta,  Sicily,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  and  it  is 
from  these  localities  that  Britain  receives  its  supply. 
Those  from  St  Michael's,  one  of  the  Azores,  and 
from  Malta,  are  the  best  varieties  in  our  markets  ; 
but  the  Mandarin  0.  of  China  and  the  Navel 
O.  of  South  America  are  much  superior.  The 
latter  occasionally  reach  this  country  in  small 
quantities  from  Brazil ;  they  are  nearly  double  the 
size  of  the  ordinary  0.,  and  have  a  peculiar  navel- 
like formation  on  the  top  of  the  fruit,  which 
is  somewhat  oval  in  shape.  The  very  small  0., 
now  often  seen  in  our  shops,  with  an  extremely 
aromatic  rind,  is  the  Tangerine  0.,  of  which  there 
are  two  varieties — the  greater  and  lesser.  The 
latter  is  hardly  an  inch  in  diameter,  but  the  flesh  ia 
sweet,  and  the  rind  deliciously  fragrant.  The  larger 
variety  is  about  half  the  size  of  a  common  0.,  and 
is  the  one  generally  seen. 

The  Bitter  0.  is  called  the  Seville  0.  in  conse- 
quence of  large  plantations,  which  the  Moors 
planted  round  the  city  of  Seville,  having  for  a  long 
time  furnished  the  chief  part  of  those  used  in  this 
country;  but  it  also  has  several  varieties,  which  are 
all  remai-kable  for  the  bitterness  of  the  rind,  and 
the  not  very  pleasant  sharpness  of  the  juice.  Their 
chief  use  is  for  making  the  well-known  confection 
called  Orange  Marmalade,  and  for  this  the  true 
Large-fruited  variety  is  the  best,  but  it  is  now 
somewhat  scarce. 

Oranges,  when  gathered  for  export,  must  not  be 
quite  ripe  ;  those  fully  formed,  and  with  the  colour 
just  turning  from  green  to  yellow,  are  chosen.  Each 
is  wrapped  in  a  piece  of  paper,  or  in  the  husk  of 
Indian  corn,  and  they  are  packed  in  boxes  and  half- 
boxes,  chests  and  half-chests — the  former  are  the 
Sicilian  packages,  the  latter  are  St  Michael's,  Spanish, 
and  Portuguese.  A  box  contains  about  250,  a 
chest  about  1000  oranges  ;  and  the  price  ranges  from 
15«.  to  30s.  per  box,  and  from  30s.  to  50s.  a  chest. 
The  crop  begins  to  arrive  early  in  November,  and 
the  ships  continue  to  bring  them  until  the  spring. 
The  quantity  consumed  in  Great  Britain  alone  is 
enormous  ;  and  since  the  duty  was  removed,  has 
reached  nearly  one  million  of  bushels  annually. 

Orange-peel,  or  the  rind  of  the  0.,  is  used  both 
in  medicine  and  in  confectionery — for  the  former 
purpose,  it  is  merely  cut  into  long  strips,  and  dried ; 
for  the  latter,  it  is  carefully  separated,  either  in 


halves  or  quarters,  from  the  fruit,  and  after  lying 
in  salt-water  for  a  time,  is  washed  in  clear  water, 
and  then  boiled  in  syrup  of  sugar,  or  candied,  and 
is  sold  extensively  as  candied  peel.  The  rinds  of  the 
citron  and  lemon  are  treated  in  the  same  manner. 

ORANGE  (the  ancient  Arausio),  an  ill-built, 
decaying,  and  dirty,  but  also  an  interesting  town 
of  France,  in  the  department  of  Vaucluse,  stands 
in  a  beautiful  plain  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Aigue, 
16  miles  by  railway  north  of  Aviguon.  Its  chief 
manufactures  are  silks,  muslins,  serges,  &c. ;  and 
there  are  numerous  oilworks,  dyeworks,  and  tan- 
neries. It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  wine, 
spirits,  oils,  truffles,  saffron,  honey,  madder,  and 
essences.      Pop.  (1872)  6290. 

0.  was  the  capital  of  a  small  independent  prhv 
cipality  of  the  same  name  (now  comprised  in  the 
department  of  Vaucluse),  which  was  ruled  by  its 
own  sovereigns  from  the  11th  to  the  16th  century. 
The  last  of  these  sovereigns,  Philibert  de  Chalons, 
died  in  1531,  without  issue.  His  sister,  however, 
had  married  a  Count  of  Nassau,  and  to  that 
House  the  estates  and  titles  passed.  The  Count  of 
Nassau  who  obtained  the  principality  of  0.  was 
William,  the  father  of  William  I.,  the  Stadtholder 
of  the  United  Provinces.  William  III.,  Prince 
of  Orange  and  king  of  England,  having  died  in 
1702  without  issue,  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia,  in  virtue 
of  the  will  of  his  maternal  grandfather,  Prince 
Henry  Frederick  of  Orange,  claimed  succession. 
The  princes  of  Nassau-Siegen  also  advanced  their 
claims  ;  but  the  discussion  was  closed  at  the  peace 
of  Utrecht  (1713),  when  the  king  of  Prussia  finally 
made  over  the  principality  of  Orange,  for  certain 
equivalents,  to  the  king  of  France.  The  House 
of  Nassau-Dietz  retains,  among  other  titles,  that 
of  the  Prince  of  Orange. 

In  the  vicinity  of  0.  are  several  notable  Roman 
remains.  The  triumphal  arch,  60  feet  high,  with 
one  central  arcade  and  two  lateral  ones,  is  celebrated 
for  the  beauty  of  its  architecture,  and  for  its  richly 
sculptured  bassi-rilievi.  Of  the  theatre,  the  remains, 
though  stripped  of  all  ornamentation,  are  sufficiently 
entire  to  give  a  good  idea  of  the  arrangements  of 
this  institution  as  it  existed  among  the  Romans. 
The  colossal  wall  which  foimedthe  xcena,  the  chord 
of  the  semicircle,  is  121  feet  high,  334  feet  long,  and 
13  feet  thick. 

O'RANGE,  n  city  of  Essex  co.,  New  Jersey,  on  the 
Morris  and  Ess^x  Railroad,  13  miles  W.  of  New  York 
City  and  3  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Newark.  It  contains 
16  churches,  a  high-school,  numerous  other  puhlie  and 
select  schools,  several  hanks,  many  elegant  residences, 
4  newspaper-offices,  and  manufactures  of  hats,  car- 
riages, shoes,  &c.  Horse-cars  connect  this  citv  with 
Newark.     Pop.  in  1870,  9348;   in  1880,  13,206. 

ORANGE  COLOURS,  for  painters'  use,  are 
various  shades  of  alteration  produced  on  chrome 
yellow  (see  Yellow),  by  acting  on  it  either  with 
diacetate  of  lead  or  a  weak  alkaline  lye,  both  of 
which  redden  the  otherwise  pure  yellow,  aud  give 
it  an  orange  tint. — For  dyers,  a  beautiful  orange  red 
is  obtained  from  safflower ;  and  orange  yellows  arc 
made  by  mixing,  in  proper  proportions,  any  of  the 
red  with  the  yellow  dyes. 

ORANGE  RIVER.     See  Gariep. 

ORANGE  RIVER  FREE  STATE.  The  Orange 
River  Free  State  is  the  name  assumed  by  the  re- 
puhlic  of  Dutch  boers,  who,  after  retiring  from 
Natal  when  declared  a  British  colony,  established 
themselves  in  the  country  lying  between  the  two 
great  branches  of  the  Orange  River,  the  Ky  Gariep 
and  the  Gariep,  known  to  the  colonists  as  the  Vaal 
and  Orange   Rivers,  and   separated   from  the   coast 


ORANGE  RIVER  FREE  STATE- ORANGEMAN. 


region   by   the    great   chain    of   the    Quathlamba, 
Malttti,  and  Drachenberg  mountains. 

The  Orange  River  Free  State  forms  a  sort  of 
connecting-link  between  the  Cape  Colony,  the 
Transvaal  Republic,  and  Natal.  It  consists  chiefly 
of  vast  undulating  plains,  which  slope  down  from 
the  Maluti  Mountains  to  the  Vaal  River,  dotted 
over  here  and  there  with  rocky  hills,  locally  called 
•Kopjies,'  although  in  the  northern  part  hundreds 
of  square  miles  are  found  with  hardly  a  break  on 
the  horizon.  It  comprises  an  area  of  about  50,000 
square  miles. 

When  the  emigrant  Dutch  boers  took  possession 
of  this  country,  it  was  inhabited  by  different  tribes 
of  Betjouanas  and  Corannas,  all  whom  have  been 
dispersed  except  the  powerful  Basuto  tribe,  under 
the  chief  Moshesh,  who  still  maintain  themselves 
in  the  fastnesses  of  the  Maluti  Mountains,  anil  a 
few  Batclapi  and  other  Betjouanas,  who  dwell 
round  the  Wesleyan  mission  station  of  Thab'  Unchu 
and  Merametsu. 

All  the  rivers  of  this  region  are  affluents  of  either 
of  the  brandies  of  the  Gariep ;  amongst  them  may 
be  named  the  Modder,  Valsch,  Great  and  Little  Vet, 
which  run  into  the  Ky  Gariep  or  Vaal  River,  and 
the  Caledon,  a  considerable  stream,  which  joins  the 
Orange  River  after  draining  the  Basutu  country. 

This  region  is  a  vast  plateau,  rising  from  3000  to 
5000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  with  very  little  wood, 
except  along  the  lines  of  the  water- courses  that 
traverse  it.  Travellers  crossing  this  state  from  the 
Cape  Colony  to  Natal  arrive  at  the  top  of  the  passes 
leading  to  the  latter  colony  without  a  mountain 
being  in  sight,  and  then  find  themselves  suddenly 
on  the  edge  of  an  immense  mountain-chain,  with 
the  coast  region  several  thousand  feet  below  them, 
extending  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  Immense  herds  of 
the  larger  antelopes  formerly  tenanted  these  vast 
plains,  and  are  vividly  described  by  Captain  Harris, 
Gordon  Cumming,  and  others ;  they  are  now  fast 
disappearing,  and  their  places  are  supplied  by  more 
valuable  herds  of  horned  cattle  and  flocks  of  wool- 
bearing  sheep. 

The  Free  State  is  divided  into  the  following 
districts :  Bloem  Fontein  (chief  towns,  Bloem 
Fontein  the  capital,  Boshof) ;  Winburg  (chief  towns, 
Winburg,  Cronstadt) ;  Smithfield  (chief  town,  Smith- 
field)  ;  Harrismith  (chief  town,  Harrismith) ;  Faure- 
smith  (chief  town,  Fauresmith).  The  chief  town 
Bloem  Fontein  is  situated  about  150  miles  north- 
west of  Colesberg,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Modder 
River,  in  lat.  29°  S'  S.  It  contains  about  250  houses ; 
a  Dutch,  Episcopal,  and  Roman  Catholic  Church ; 
has  two  local  banks,  and  is  the  seat  of  an  Episcopal 
see  of  the  Church  of  England.  It  is  distant  about 
800  miles  overland  from  Cape  Town,  and  has  a  post 
twice  a  week  with  it.  The  other  villages  or  small 
towns  are  all  increasing  and  flourishing,  but  do  not 
present  anything  remarkable. 

By  the  latest  returns  (1868),  the  population  of  the 
Free  State  was  37,000  whites,  of  whom  about  2000 
were  English.  In  March,  1870,  the  revenue,  princi- 
pally derived  from  local  taxation  and  quit-rents  of 
farms,  was  £59,802. 

The  history  of  the  country  forming  the  Free 
State  may  be  summed  up  in  a  few  words.  Captain 
Harris  describes  it,  before  1836,  as  a  howling  wilder- 
ness, inhabited  by  wandering  hordes  of  Bushmen 
and  broken  tribes  of  Betjouana  and  Zulu  refugees 
from  the  armies  of  the  great  Zulu  tyrants,  Chaka, 
Dingaan,  and  Maselikutse.  After  the  Kaffir  war 
of  1835 — 1836,  a  spirit  of  dissatisfaction  arising  in 
the  minds  of  many  of  the  frontier  boers,  an  extensive 
emigration  took  place  along  the  north-east  frontier 
of  the  Cape  Colony;  the  majority  of  the  emigrants, 
however,    having    Natal    as    their   ultimate    goal. 


However,  after  the  British  government  had  declared 
it  an  English  colony  in  1848,  the  been  again  fell 
back  on  this  region,  and  by  degrees  declaring  their 
independence  of  the  British  crown,  and  forming  a 

sort  of  Alsatia  on  our  very  borders,  after  some 
opposition,  and  one  or  two  conflicts  with  our  I 
the  country  was  annexed  by  Sir  II.  Smith  to  the 
British  empire,  under  the  name  of  the  Orange  River 
Sovereignty;  and  continued  so  until  1864,  when 
Sir  G.  Clerk  formally  gave  it  up,  and  allowed  the 
inhabitants  to  form  a  government  according  to  tln-ir 
own  wishes.  The  government  is  now  in  the  hands 
of  a  president,  freely  elected  by  the  landrost  and 
heemraden  in  the  several  districts ;  while  the 
volksrand,  or  people's  council,  exercise  legislative 
functions.  The  Orange  River  Free  State  labours 
under  the  very  serious  disadvantage  of  being,  like  the 
kingdom  of  Bohemia,  entirely  inland,  and  has  no  port 
on  the  ocean  at  which  customs  dues  can  be  collected; 
thus  throwing  the  whole  of  the  expense  of  government 
on  local  taxation. 

About  the  year  1862  a  large  number  of  Griquas— a 
tribe  of  Bastard  Hottentots,  who  inhabited  the  south 
part  of  the  state,  and  were  independent — sold  their 
farms  to  the  Free  State  government,  and  migrated 
in  a  body  to  the  coast  side  of  the  mountains  in 
Independent  Kaffraria,  occupying  a  large  tract  of 
country,  there  known  by  the  name  of  No  Man's  Land, 
on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Umsimvoboo  River. 

In  1866  a  treaty  was  concluded  with  Moshesh,  chief 
of  the  Basutos,  by  which  a  portion  of  the  territory 
known  as  Basuto  Land  was  ceded  to  the  Orange  River 
Free  State.  The  boundaries  agreed  upon  by  this 
treaty  were  somewhat  modified  by  a  treaty  with  the 
Governor  of  Cape  Colony  in  1869." 

The  Dutch  boers  profess  the  Dutch  Reformed  faith, 
and  speak  a  dialect  of  Dutch,  corrupted  with  Hotten 
tot  and  English  words.  They  marry  young,  and 
keep  up,  to  some  extent,  nomadic  habits.  The  roads 
and  internal  communication  are  good.  Lime  and  tim- 
ber are  rather  scarce,  but  building  stone  and  thatch 
abundant.  Woolled  sheep  have  increased  amazingly 
within  the  last  few  years ;  and  farms  that  twenty  years 
ago  would  hardly  fetch  £50,  now  sell  freely  at  "from 
£2000  to  £3000.— Harris;   Cumming;  Blue-books. 

O'RANGEMAN,  one  of  the  unhappy  party 
designations  which  contributed  for  nearly  a  century 
to  create  and  keep  alive  religious  and  political  divi- 
sions of  the  worst  character  throughout  the  British 
empire,  but  especially  in  Ireland.  The  Orange 
organisation  had  its  origin  in  the  animosities  which 
had  subsisted  between  Protestants  and  Catholics  in 
Ireland  from  the  Reformation  downwards,  but 
which  reached  their  full  development  after  the 
Revolution  of  16S8,  aud  the  wholesale  confiscations 
of  Catholic  property  by  which  that  event  was 
followed.  From  that  time,  the  Catholics  of  Ireland 
may  be  said  legally  to  have  lost  all  social,  political, 
and  religious  status  in  Ireland.  Some  attempts 
which  were  made  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  c.  to 
ameliorate  their  condition,  excited,  especially  in  the 
north,  the  alarm  of  the  Protestant  party,  wh» 
regarded  the  traditionary  'Protestant  ascendency' 
as  endangered  Acts  of  violence  became  of  frequent 
occurrence ;  and,  as  commonly  happens,  combina- 
tions for  aggressive  and  defensive  purposes  were 
formed,  not  alone  by  the  Protestants,  but  also  by 
their  Catholic  antagonists.  The  members  of  the 
Protestant  associations  appear  at  first  to  have  been 
known  by  the  name  of  '  Peep-of-day  Boys,'  from  the 
time  at  which  their  violences  were  commonly  perpe- 
trated ;  the  Catholics  who  associated  together  for  self- 
defence  being  called  '  Defenders.'  Collisions  between 
armed  bodies  of  these  parties  became  of  frequent 
occurrence.  In  1785,  a  pitched  battle,  attended 
with  much  bloodshed,  was  fought  in  the  county  of 

96 


ORANGEMAN— ORATORIO. 


Armagh.  The  steps  taken  to  repress  these  dis- 
orders were  at  once  insufficient  in  themselves  to 
prevent  open  violence,  and  had  the  effect  of 
diverting  the  current  into  the  still  more  dangerous 
channel  of  secret  associations.  The  rude  and  illiterate 
mob  of  Peep-of-day  Boys  made  way  for  the  rich  and 
influential  organisation  of  the  Orange  Society,  which, 
having  its  first  origin  in  the  same  obscure  district 
which  had  so  long  been  the  scene  of  agrarian 
violence,  by  degrees  extended  its  ramifications  into 
every  portion  of  the  British  empire,  and  into  every 
grade  of  society  from  the  hovel  to  the  very  steps  of 
the  throne.  The  name  of  the  Orange  association  is 
taken  from  that  of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  William 
III.,  and  was  assumed  in  honour  of  that  prince,  who, 
in  Ireland,  has  been  popularly  identified  with  the 
establishment  of  that  Protestant  ascendency  which 
it  was  the  object  of  the  Orange  association  to  sustain. 
The  first  '  Orange  Lodge '  was  founded  in  the  village 
of  Loughgall,  county  Armagh,  September  21,  1795. 
The  immediate  occasion  of  the  crisis  was  a  series  of 
outrages  by  which  Catholics  were  forcibly  ejected 
from  their  houses  and  farms,  12  or  14  houses  being 
sometimes,  according  to  a  disinterested  witness, 
wrecked  in  a  single  night ;  terminating,  September 
1795,  in  an  engagement,  called  from  the  place  where 
it  occurred,  the  Battle  of  the  Diamond  The 
association  which  began  among  the  ignorant  peas- 
antry soon  worked  its  way  upwards.  The  general 
disaffection  towards  English  rule,  which  at  that 
time  pervaded  Ireland,  and  in  which  the  Catholics, 
as  a  natural  consequence  of  their  oppressed  condition, 
largely  participated,  tended  much  to  identify  in  the 
mind  of  Protestants  the  cause  of  disloyalty  with 
that  of  popery ;  and  the  rebellion  of  1798  inseparably 
combined  the  religious  with  the  political  antipathies. 
In  November  of  that  year,  the  Orange  Society  had 
already  reached  the  dignity  of  a  grand  lodge  of  Ire- 
land, with  a  grand  master,  a  grand  secretary,  and 
a  formal  establishment  in  the  metropolis ;  and  in 
the  following  yeare,  the  organisation  extended 
over  the  entire  province  of  Ulster,  and  had  its  rami- 
fications in  all  the  centres  of  Protestantism  in  the 
other  provinces  of  Ireland.  In  1808,  it  extended  to 
England.  A  grand  lodge  was  founded  at  Manchester, 
from  which  warrants  were  issued  for  the  entire 
kingdom.  The  seat  of  the  grand  lodge  was  trans- 
ferred to  London  in  1821.  The  subject  more  than 
once  was  brought  under  the  notice  of  parliament, 
especially  in  1813 ;  and,  in  consequence,  the  grand 
lodge  of  Ireland  was  dissolved ;  but  its  functions  in 
issuing  warrants,  &c,  were  discharged  vicariously 
through  the  English  lodge.  The  most  memorable 
crisis,  however,  in  the  history  of  the  Orange  Society 
was  the  election  of  a  royal  duke  (Cumberland)  in 
1827  as  grand  master  for  England ;  and  on  the 
re-establishment  of  the  Irish  grand  lodge  in  1828, 
as  imperial  grand  master.  The  Catholic  Relief 
Act  of  the  following  year  stirred  up  all  the  slumber- 
ing antipathies  of  creed  and  race,  and  the  Orange 
association  was  propagated  more  vigorously  than 
ever.  Emissaries  were  sent  out  for  the  purpose  of 
organising  lodges,  not  alone  in  Wales  and  Scotland, 
but  also  in  Canada,  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  in 
the  other  colonies.  But  the  most  formidable  part 
of  this  zealous  propagandism  was  its  introduction 
into  the  army.  As  early  as  1824,  traces  of  this  are 
discoverable,  and  again  in  1S26.  No  fewer  than  32 
regiments  were  proved  to  have  received  warrants  for 
holding  lodges  in  Ireland,  and  the  English  grand 
lodge  had  issued  37  warrants  for  the  same  purpose. 

The  organisation  of  this  strange  association  was 
most  complete  and  most  extensive.  Subject  to  the 
central  grand  lodge,  were  three  classes — county, 
district,  and  private  lodges — each  of  which  corres- 
ponded, and  made  returns  and  contributions  to 
M 


its  own  immediate  superior,  by  whom  they  were 
transmitted  to  the  grand  lodge.  Each  lodge  had 
a  master,  deputy-master,  secretary,  committee, 
and  chaplain.  The  only  condition  of  membership 
was,  that  the  party  should  be  Protestant,  and  18 
years  of  age.  The  election  of  members  was  by 
ballot,  and  each  lodge  also  annually  elected  its  own 
officers  and  committee.  The  general  government 
of  the  association  was  vested  in  the  grand  lodge, 
which  consisted  of  all  the  great  dignitaries,  the 
grand  masters  of  counties,  and  the  members  of 
another  body  called  the  grand  committee.  Thia 
lodge  met  twice  each  year,  in  May  and  on 
November  5 — the  day  pregnant  with  associations 
calculated  to  keep  alive  the  Protestant  antipathies 
of  the  body.  All  the  dignitaries  of  the  society,  aa 
well  as  its  various  committees  and  executive  bodies, 
were  subject  to  annual  re-election.  In  1S35,  the 
association  numbered  20  grand  lodges,  80  district 
lodges,  1500  private  lodges,  and  from  200,000  to 
220,000  members.  The  worst  result  of  the  Orange 
association  was  the  constant  incentive  which  it 
supplied  to  party  animosities  and  deeds  of  violence. 
In  the  north  of  Ireland,  the  party  displays  ■  and 
processions  were  a  perpetually  recurring  source  of 
disorder,  and  even  of  bloodshed ;  and  the  spirit  of 
fraternity  which  pervaded  its  members  was  a  stand- 
ing obstacle  to  the  administration  of  the  law.  It 
was  known  or  believed  that  an  Orange  cidprit  waa 
perfectly  safe  in  the  hands  of  an  Orange  jury  ;  and 
all  confidence  in  the  local  administration  of  justice 
by  magistrates  was  destroyed.  These  facts,  as  well 
as  an  allegation  which  was  publicly  made,  of  the 
existence  of  a  conspiracy  to  alter  the  succession  to 
the  crown  in  favour  of  the  Duke  of  Cumberland, 
led  to  a  protracted  parliamentary  inquiry  in  1835 ; 
and  the  results  of  this  inquiry,  as  well  as  a  very 
shocking  outrage  perpetrated  soon  afterwards  by  an 
armed  body  of  Orangemen  on  occasion  of  a  proces- 
sion in  Ireland,  tended  so  much  to  discredit  tho 
association,  and  to  awaken  the  public  mind  to  a 
sense  of  the  folly  and  wickedness  of  such  associations, 
that  its  respectability  has  since  that  time  gradually 
diminished.  So  great  was  the  popular  distrust  of 
the  administration  of  justice  in  party  questions, 
that  for  several  years  the  Lord  Chancellor  laid 
down  a  rule,  by  which  no  member  of  the  Orange 
association  was  admitted  to  the  commission  of  the 
peace  ;  and  although  the  association  still  subsists,  it 
is  comparatively  without  influence,  except  among  the 
very  lowest  classes  in  the  north  of  Ireland.  Of  the 
colonial  offshoots  of  the  Orange  Association,  those 
of  Canada  have  at  all  times  been  the  most  active 
and  the  most  flourishing.  The  Canadian  Orange- 
men being,  for  the  most  part,  Irish  emigrants,  car- 
ried with  them  all  the  bitterness  of  the  domestic 
feud  with  the  Roman  Catholics.  Outrages  directed 
against  Catholic  churches,  convents,  and  other 
institutions  were  of  not  unfrequent  occurrence 
until  recently;  and  on  occasion  of  the  visit  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales  to  Canada  in  I860,  an  attempt  was 
made  to  force  from  his  Royal  Highness  a  recog- 
nition of  the  Association,  which  was  only  defeated 
by  his  own  firmness,  and  by  the  judicious  and 
moderate  counsels  of  his  advisers. — See  Reports  on 
the  Orange  Association,  presented  to  parliament  in 
1835,  from  which  the  history  of  the  society,  down 
to  that  year,  is  for  the  most  part  taken. 

ORATO'RIO  (ItaL  oratorio,  chapel  or  oratory, 
the  place  where  these  compositions  were  first  per- 
formed), a  kind  of  sacred  musical  composition,  either 
purely  dramatic  or  partaking  both  of  the  drama  and 
the  epic,  in  which  the  text  is  illustrative  of  some 
religious  subject,  sometimes  taken  directly  from 
Scripture ;  and  the  music  consists  of  recitatives,  airs, 
duets,  trios,  quartetts,  choruses,  accompanied  by  an 


ORATORIO-ORATORY. 


orchestra,  sometimes  also  by  an  organ,  ami  intro- 
duced by  an  instrumental  overture.  The  oratorio 
is  not  intended  for  scenic  representation. 

St  Pilippo  Neri,  born  in  1516)  has  been  considered 
the  founder  of  the  oratorio,  lie  engaged  poets  and 
composers  to  produce  dialoguea,  on  subjects  from 
scriptural  and  legendary  history,  in  verse,  and  set 
to  music,  which  were  performed  in  his  chapel  or 
oratory  on  Sundays  and  church  festivals.  The 
subjects  were  Job  and  his  Friends,  The  Prodigal 
Son,  The  Angel  Gabriel  tritk  the  Virgin,  and  Lite 
Mystery  of  the  I  nan-nut  inn.  Stradella  composed 
various  oratorios,  of  which  8cm  Giovanni  Battiaict, 
produced  in  167<>,  is  praised  by  Dr  Burney.  A 
number  of  oratorios,  or  azioiii  sacre,  by  Apostolo 
Zeno  and  Metastasio,  were  set  to  music  by  Caldara 
in  the  beginning  of  last  century.  Sebastian  Bach's 
Passions-Mus:k  was  a  species  of  oratorio,  originally 
performed  during  the  service  of  the  church,  the 
congregation  joining  in  the  chorales.  Its  form  arose 
out  of  the  practice  prevalent  in  the  Lutheran  Church, 
of  having  the  gospels  for  the  day  repeated  on  Good 
Friday,  and  some  other  festivals,  by  different  persons 
in  a  recitative  and  dialogue  style.  By  far  the 
greatest  master  of  oratorio  was  Handel,  who  per- 
fected that  species  of  composition,  and  was  the  first 
to  introduce  it  into  England.  At  the  age  of  20, 
when  on  a  visit  to  Italy,  he  produced  bis  oratorio  of 
La  Besurrezione  at  Rome.  Esther,  the  first  oratorio 
written  by  him  in  England,  was  composed  for  the 
chapel  of  his  patron,  the  Duke  of  Chandos,  in  17-0, 
the  words  altered  from  Racine.  It  was  performed 
privately  at  Cannons  in  the  same  year,  but  laid 
aside,  and  not  produced  in  public  till  1732.  Au 
oratorio  was  then  so  complete  a  novelty  in  England, 
that  it  was  deemed  necessary  to  give  the  following 
explanation  in  advertising  it:  'By  His  Majesty's 
command,  at  the  King's  Theatre  in  the  Haymarket, 
on  Tuesday  the  2d  May,  will  be  performed  the 
sacred  Story  of  Esther,  an  oratoiio  in  English,  com- 
posed by  Mr  Handel,  and  to  be  performed  by  a 
great  number  of  voices  and  instruments. — X.B. 
There  wdl  be  no  acting  on  the  stage,  but  the  house 
will  be  fitted  up  in  a  decent  manner  for  the  audi- 
ence.' For  many  years  after  the  appearance  of 
Esther,  no  more  oratorios  were  produced  by  Handel, 
who  devoted  himself  to  operas  and  other  secular 
music  ;  and  it  was  only  after  the  temporary  fadure 
of  bis  health,  that  at  the  ripe  age  of  53  he  resumed 
the  composition  of  oratorios.  The  great  oratorios 
which    have   made   bis    name  immortal  were  all 

Eroduced  in  the  decline  of  fife,  some  of  them  after 
e  was  afflicted  with  blindness,  and  they  were 
performed  for  the  most  part  in  the  Old  Haymarket 
Theatre.  Dehor  ah  was  first  performed  in  1733 ; 
Athaliah,  in  1734;  Israel  in  Egypt,  in  1738;  The 
Messiah,  in  1741 ;  Samson,  in  1742 ;  Judas  Macca- 
bceus,  in  1746;  Joshua,  in  1747  ;  Solomon,  in  1749  ; 
and  Jephtha,  in  1751.  The  two  crowning  works 
were  Israel  in  Egypt  and  The  Messiah — the  former 
ranks  highest  of  all  compositions  of  the  oratorio 
class.  The  Messiah — which,  in  consequence  of  its 
text  being  taken  entirely  from  Scripture,  was 
called  by  Handel  Tlie  Sacred  Oratorio — ranks  very 
near  it  in  point  of  musical  merit,  and  has  attained 
an  even  more  universal  popularity ;  from  the  time 
when  it  was  first  brought  out,  down  to  the  present 
day,  it  has  been  performed  for  the  benefit  of  nearly 
every  important  charitable  institution  in  Britain. 
Judas  Maccabceus  is  perhaps  best  known  from  the 
flowing  and  martial  grace  of  that  unrivalled  mditary 
march,  '  See  the  Conquering  Hero  Comes  ; '  and 
Saul  is  associated  in  every  one's  mind  with  the 
most  solemn  of  all  funeral  marches.  The  orchestra 
was  but  imperfectly  developed  in  Handel's  time, 
and  his  oratorios  had  therefore  originally  but 
319 


B  instrumental    accompaniments  ;    they    have 

rinoe    been    generally    performed   with 
accompanimenta  written  by  Mozart    From  Handera 

time  downwards,  it  was  the  praci 

have  oratorios  performed  twice  a  week  durii 

in  the  various  theatres,  which  were  only  ^i \ .  n  up 
on  the  institution  of   the  oratorio  • 
Exeter  Hail.     Haydn  composed  three  oratorios— 
■'///•/(  of  Tobku,  The  Seven  Lad  Wore         I 
The  'notion.     Tht  work  mil  of 

sweetness  and  of  energy,  hardly  answers  to  ti 
mon  conditions  of  an  oratorio  ;  it  is  rather  a  series 
of  symphonies,  intended  to  follow  as  many  short 
sermons  on  the  sentences  uttered  by  our  Lord  on 
the  cross,  the  text  being  a  subsequent  addition 
by  the  composer's  brother,  Michael  Haydn.  The 
Creation  originated  in  a  visit  of  Haydn  to  London 
in  1701,  when  he  heard  for  the  fust  time  some 
of  the  works  of  Handel,  none  of  which  were  then 
known  in  Germany.  Though  less  grand  than  the 
oratorios  of  Handel,  it  is  full  of  fresh  lovely  songs, 
bright  choruses,  picturesque  recitatives,  and  exqui- 
site instrumentation.  Beethoven's  sole  oratorio,  The 
Mount  of  Olives,  is  a  pure  drama,  rather  than  the 
mixed  composition  generally  known  under  the 
name.  Spoil's  Lad  Judgment,  produced  in  1825, 
contains  sou-  .grand  music,  particularly  in  the  cho- 
ruses. Costa's  Eli  deserves  mention  among  modern 
oratorios.  But  since  the  time  of  Handel  no  other 
writer  of  oratorios  has  approached  Mend.. 
The  greatest  works  of  that  composer  are  his  c  iratorioa 
of  St  Paul  and  Elijah  ;  the  former  was  first  pro- 
duced at  Dusseldorf  in  1836,  the  latter  at  Birming- 
ham in  1846 ;  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  he  was 
engaged  in  a  third  oratorio,  called  Ghristus,  which 
he  expected  would  be  his  greatest,  and  of  which  but 
a  few  fragments  have  been  published.  The  oratorios 
of  Mendelssohn  have  tended  greatly  to  revive  the 
popularity  of  this  kind  of  composition  in  Britain. 
At  Exeter  Hall  in  London,  and  at  the  musical 
festivals  tlrroughout  England,  oratorios  are  per- 
formed on  a  large  scale,  and  with  a  power,  a  pre- 
cision, and  a  perfection  unknown  elsewhere.  The 
choruses  at  the  provincial  festivals  are,  for  the 
most  part,  supplied  by  Birmingham,  Mane 
Leeds,  and  the  other  large  towns.  The  greatest 
oratorio  performances  are  now  those  of  the  Triennial 
Festivals  at  the  Sydenham  Crystal  Palace.  At  the 
festival  of  1SG2,  the  chorus  amounted  to  3120  voices, 
and  there  was  an  orchestra  of  5U5  performers. 

ORATCRITJM  (Lat.  '  oratory,'  called  in  Greek, 
eukterion  or  proseukterion),  as  contra  distinguished 
from  ecclesia,  '  a  church,'  is  the  name  given  to  an 
apartment  or  building  designed  for  worship  of  a 
private  or  domestic  character.  From  the  earliest 
times,  the  use  of  oratoria  is  traceable  in  the  history 
of  the  church ;  and  before  the  regular  organisation 
of  parishes,  they  had  probably  a  considerable  place 
in  the  common,  although  not  in  the  public  worship. 
At  a  later  period,  oratoria  became  a  common 
appendage  of  the  castles  and  residences  of  the 
nobility,  and  were  of  two  kinds  ;  the  first,  simply 
for  private  or  family  prayer  and  other  devotion  ; 
the  second,  for  the  celebration  of  mass.  The  latter 
fell  properly  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  or 
the  parochial  clergy,  and  many  jealousies  and  dis- 
putes grew  out  of  their  establishment  or  direction. 
The  Councd  of  Trent  (Sess.  xxii.,  De  B-formnlione) 
placed  them  under  very  stringent  regulations, 
which  have  been  enforced  and  developed  by  later 
popes,  especially  by  Benedict  XIV. 

O'RATORY,  Congregation  of  the.  The  origin 
of  this  learned  Congregation,  and  its  early  history, 
have  been  detailed  under  the  head  of  St  Philip 
Neri  (q.  v.).     It  is  remarkable,  however,  that  this 


ORBIS  PICTUS— ORBIT. 


extraordinary  man,  unlike  most  other  founders  of 
religions  bodies  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  had 
never  committed  to  writing  any  definite  body  of 
rules  for  the  government  and  direction  of  the 
brethren.  Even  his  scattered  papers,  from  which 
his  plans  and  intentions  might  have  been  collected, 
had  been  burned  by  his  orders  a  short  time  before 
his  death.  Soon  after  that  event,  the  Fathers,  at 
the  instance  of  Baronius,  compiled  from  the  existing 
practices  and  from  memory  a  rule  for  the  Congre- 
gation, framed  so  as  to  embody  the  spirit  of  St 
Philip.  This  ride  was  approved  of  by  Paul  V.  on 
February  21, 1612.  The  Fathers  of  the  Congregation 
are  a  body  of  priests  living  in  community,  but 
without  vows,  and  under  a  constitution  of  a  highly 
democratical  character.  They  are  at  liberty  to 
withdraw  at  any  time,  and  to  resume  possession  of 
the  property  which  they  had  brought  with  them  at 
entrance ;  and  even  during  their  association,  each 
member  manages  his  own  financial  concerns,  only 
contributing  a  fixed  sum  to  the  common  expenses  of 
the  community.  There  is  no  superior-general,  as  in 
other  orders.  Each  house  is  distinct  and  inde- 
pendent. In  each,  the  superior  is  elected  only  for 
three  years,  and  his  position  does  not  give  him  any 
personal  pre-eminence  whatever.  The  members  take 
their  places  according  to  seniority,  not  according  to 
official  rank,  and  the  superior  is  compelled  to  take 
his  turn  in  all  the  duties,  even  down  to  the  semi- 
menial  office  of  serving  in  the  refectory.  The  main 
occupations  of  the  Fathers,  beyond  those  of  attending 
to  the  public  service  of  the  church,  and  the  duties 
of  the  pulpit  and  the  confessional,  lie  in  the  culti- 
vation of  theological  and  other  sacred  studies,  of 
which  '  conferences '  for  the  discussion,  in  common, 
of  theological  questions,  form  a  principal  feature. 
The  Congregation  has  produced  many  men  of  great 
eminence  in  sacred  science,  among  whom  have  been 
already  named  the  great  church  historian,  Cardinal 
Baronius,  and  his  continuators.  To  these  may  be 
added  the  celebrated  explorers  of  the  Roman  cata- 
combs, Bosio,  Severani,  and  Aringhi ;  and  the  no 
less  eminent  patristical  scholar,  Gallaudi.  The 
houses  of  the  Oratory  in  Italy  before  the  Revolu- 
tion were  numerous,  and  in  high  repute.  Few 
towns  of  any  importance  were  without  a  house  of 
the  Oratory.  The  Congregation  was  early  estab- 
lished in  France  by  the  celebrated  Pierre  (after- 
wards Cardinal)  de  Berulle,  in  common  with  two 
Italian  Fathers,  and  from  France  it  extended  to  the 
Low  Countries.  One  important  difference,  however, 
is  noticeable  between  the  French  Oratory  and  the 
Roman  original.  In  the  former,  all  the  houses  of 
the  country  are  subject  to  a  single  superior-general. 
In  France,  also,  the  Oratorians  took  charge  of 
seminaries  and  of  theological  teaching.  The  French 
Oratory,  as  well  as  the  Italian,  reckons  many  illus- 
trious members ;  but  the  fame  and  utility  of  the 
French  Congregation  were  much  marred  by  the 
unhappy  controversy  about  Jansenism.  In  the 
year  1847,  this  Congregation  was  introduced  into 
England  by  Dr  John  Henry  Newman  (q.  v.).  Soon 
after  his  secession  from  Anglicanism,  he  established 
a  house,  the  members  of  which  were  for  the  most 
part  ex-Anglicans  like  himself,  near,  and  finally 
at  Birmingham ;  and  soon  afterwards,  a  second  at 
London,  which  has  since  been  transferred  to 
Brompton. 

O'RBIS  PI'CTUS  (the  Pictured  World),  the  title 
of  the  first  picture-book  or  illustrated  manual  of 
instruction  for  the  young,  by  the  celebrated  educa- 
tionist, Comenius,  published  at  Niirnberg  in  1657. 
It  was  long  a  great  favourite  with  the  youth  of 
Germany,  and  continued  to  be  reprinted,  in 
various  modified  forms,  down  to  recent  times. 
Comenius,  with  the  instinct  of  a  great  teacher,  felt 
98 


that  to  give  words  without  things  to  the  pupil 
was  not  simply  to  retard  his  progress,  but  to  lay  the 
foundation  of  vague  and  inaccurate  conceptions. 
Hence  his  introduction  of  the  pictures  of  things  into 
the  work  above  named,  which,  among  other  tilings, 
was  intended  for  those  beginning  the  study  of 
Latin,  the  connecting  of  the  word  with  the  picture 
tending  to  give  the  pupil  a  firmer  hold  or  a  quicker 
perception  of  both  word  and  thing.  The  great 
and  distinguishing  merit  of  Coinenius's  book  is,  that 
it  brought  distinctly  into  notice  the  necessity  of 
giving  children  in  the  earliest  stages  of  their  educa- 
tion, not  simply  a  word,  but  the  form  of  the  thing 
of  which  the  word  was  the  symbol.  A  further 
advance  on  this  idea  was  made  by  Pestalozzi,  who 
aimed  at  presenting  to  the  eye  of  the  chdd  the  thing 
itself,  whenever  it  was  practicable  to  do  so ;  and  he 
regarded  this  as  essential  to  the  right  education  of 
the  human  faculties  in  their  infancy.  From  this, 
again,  flowed  the  excellent  custom  of  giving  Object 
Lessons  in  Infant  Schools. 

O'RBIT,  in  Astronomy,  is  the  path  described  in 
space  by  a  heavenly  body  in  its  revolution  round 
its  primary.*  The  path  so  described  is  of  an  elliptic 
form,  and  would  be  accurately  an  ellipse,  were  it 
not  for  the  disturbing  influence  of  the  other 
heavenly  bodies.  See  Perturbations.  The  com- 
plete determination  of  a  planet's  orbit  is  of  the  last 
importance  to  astronomers,  as  it  enables  them  to 
predict  the  planet's  place  iu  the  heavens  at  any 
period,  and  thus  determine  the  exact  date  of 
eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon,  of  transits  and  occul- 
tations  of  the  planets,  and  of  the  appearances  and 
disappearances  of  comets.  For  the  determination 
of  a  planet's  orbit,  it  is  necessary  to  know  three 
things  :  1.  The  situation  of  the  plane  of  the  orbit  in 
space ;  2.  The  position  of  the  orbit  in  this  plane ; 
and  3.  The  situation  at  a  given  epoch,  and  rate  of 
motion,  of  the  planet  in  its  orbit.  Since  the  plane 
of  the  ecliptic  is  for  convenience  taken  as  the  refer- 
ence plane,  the  position  of  the  plane  of  a  planet's 
orbit  is  known  when  its  inclination  to  the  plane 
of  the  ecliptic  (1),  and  the  line  of  intersection  of 
the  two  planes  (2),  are  known.  Since  the  sun, 
which  is  the  focus  of  the  planetary  orbits,  lies  in 
this  line  of  intersection,  the  orbit  cannot  lie  wholly 
above  or  below  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  but  must 
cut  it  in  two  points,  called  Nodes  (q.  v.),  and  the 
position  of  the  line  of  intersection,  or  line  of  nodes,  is 
generally  given  in  terms  of  the  longitude  (or  angular 
distance)  of  the  ascending  node,  reckoning  from  the 
equinox.  The  situation  of  a  planet's  orbit  in  its 
plane  is  determined  when  we  know  its  form  (3), 
size  (4),  and  the  position  of  its  major  axis  or  line  of 
apsides  (5).  The  size  and  form  of  the  orbit  depend 
upon  the  length  of  its  major  and  minor  axes,  but 
astronomers  prefer  to  employ  the  major  axis  and 
eccentricity  (see  Ellipse)  ;  and  the  position  of  the 
major  axis  is  known  by  determining  the  heliocentric 
longitude  of  its  perihelion  (i.  e.,  the  extremity  of 
it  which  is  nearest  the  sun).  To  complete  our 
knowledge  of  a  planet's  motion,  all  we  now  require 
are  the  epoch  of  its  appearance  at  some  determinate 
point  of  its  orbit,  say,  at  the  perihelion  (6),  and  the 
velocity  of  its  motion  in  its  orbit  (7),  for  when  this 
last  is  known,  the  law  of  areas,  as  given  in  Kepler's 
second  law,  enables  us  to  determine  the  position  of 
the  planet  in  its  orbit  at  any  future  period.  These 
seven  facts,  the  possession  of  which  gives  us  a  com- 
plete clue  to  a  planet's  motion,  are  called  the  seven 
'  elements  of  a  planet's  orbit.'  What  has  b*en  here 
stated  concerning  the  planetary  orbits,  is  equally 

*  The  sun  is  the  primary  of  the  planets  and  comets 
and  each  planet  is  the  primary  of  its  satellites  (second' 
ary  planets). 


ORCHARD-ORCHESTRA. 


true  of  the  orbits  of  the  comets  and  satellites, 
though,  in  the  case  of  the  latter,  the  effect  of  dis- 
turbing forces  is  so  great  as  to  produce  a  consider- 
able change  of  the  elements  in  one  revolution. 

OUC HARD  (Goth,  amrHgarda,  Middle  High 
Ger.  icurzf/arte,  Ang.-Sax.  vyrdjeard,  ortgeard,  a 
yard  or  garden  for  worts  or  vegetables),  a  piece  of 
ground  specially  devoted  to  the  growth  of  fruit- 
trees,  and  in  which  these  are  planted  as  near  to 
each  other  as  their  profitable  cultivation  will  admit 
of,  no  space  being  left  for  culinary  vegetables,  as  in 
the  fruit-garden.  The  introduction  of  such  crops  to 
any  considerable  extent  is  injurious  to  the  trees  of 
nn  orchard,  by  exhausting  the  soil,  and  the  vegetables 
produced  are  not  good.  In  some  English  orchard?, 
the  soil  is  regularly  digged,  and  manure  pretty 
freely  supplied,  the  trees  being  dwarf  standards, 
trained  to  a  low  and  bushy  form,  in  rows  about 
twelve  feet  apart,  with  rows  of  gooseberries, 
currants,  or  raspberries  between  them.  Such 
orchards  are  often  very  productive,  and  are  not 
liable  to  suffer  much  from  winds,  whilst  the  trees 
also  protect  each  other  from  frosts  in  spring.  Other 
orchards  are  formed  in  old  pastures,  the  turf  being 
replaced  when  the  trees  are  planted,  or,  if  they  are 
formed  on  land  that  has  been  under  the  plough,  it 
is  sown  down  with  grass.  In  these,  also,  manure  is 
occasionally  given.  In  many  cases,  the  grass  of 
orchards  is  employed  for  pasturing  cattle  or  sheep, 
the  trees  being  stan  lards  or  half-standards,  with 
stems  so  tall  that  their  branches  are  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  animals,  and  in  this  way  the  grass 
produced  by  the  soil  is  returned  to  it  in  the  form  of 
manure.  In  forming  orchards  of  this  kind,  it  is  not 
unusual  to  plant  the  stocks,  upon  which  the  proper 
grafts  or  buds  are  afterwards  inserted.  Great 
orchards  of  this  kind  exist  in  Devonshire,  Hereford- 
shire, and  some  other  southern  counties  of  England, 
devoted  to  the  growth  of  apples  for  the  production 
of  cider,  and  to  a  smaller  extent,  of  pears  for  the 
production  of  perry.  Orchards  are  not  so  common 
in  Scotland  as  in  England,  where  they  are  not  only  ; 
frequent  appendages  of  the  manor-house,  but  even 
of  the  farm-house.  Apples,  pears,  plums,  and 
cherries,  not  of  the  finest  kinds,  are  the  fruits 
chiefly  produced  in  British  orchards,  although  seme 
in  England  also  yield  walnuts,  chestnuts,  medlars, 
mulberries,  quinces,  &c,  and  there  are  even  a  few 
small  fig-orchards  in  the  most  southern  parts.  Fig 
and  peach  orchards  are  very  common  in  the  more 
southern  parts  of  Europe ;  and  oranges,  lemons,  &c, 
on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 

The  soil  for  fruit  trees  in  the  Northern  U.  States 
should  be  of  good  quality,  and  such  as  will  produce  a 
vigorous  growth  of  corn  or  potatoes  is  most  esteemed. 
It  should  be  dry,  firm,  mellow,  and  fertile.  Peaty 
and  springy  soils  are  unfitted  for  tender  fruits,  such 
as  peaches.  Hardy  trees,  such  as  the  apple,  on  a 
suitable  soil  succeed  in  almost  any  situation  if  pro- 
perly screened,  but  a  moderate  elevation  above  the 
bottom  of  a  valley  is  preferable  for  the  tender  kind. 
Large  bodies  of  unfreezing  water  often  afford  protec- 
tion against  late  frosts  in  spring,  and  thus  enable 
districts  otherwise  unfavourable  to  produce  regular 
crops  of  peaches,  apples,  &c.  Screens  of  evergreen 
trees  on  the  north-west  and  north-east  sides  arc  be- 
lieved by  many  to  afford  a  valuable  protection  and 
shelter  from  sweeping  winds,  and  are  in  all  cases  highly 
beneficial.  The  productiveness  of  American  orchards, 
especially  in  the  eastern  states  on  the  Atlantic  slope, 
has  been  materially  affected  by  the  removal  of  the 
forests,  and  the  districts  now  relied  upon  for  the  annual 
apple  ci*op  are  those  which  adjoin  the  southern  shores  of 
Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie,  and  in  the  interior  of  the  state 
of  Michigan.  The  peach  is  now  grown  -with  success 
in  the  northern  states  in  those  regions  only  that  are 


protected  from  late  spring  frorti  by  the  influence 
of  hikes  and  bays.  Bee  Downing,  Fruit  and  Fruit 
Trea  of  An,, run;  j.  J.  Thomas,  Frutt 

Culturiit,  1867;  J.  A.  Warder,  American  Po- 
mology, 

The  districts  of  Scotland  most  celebrated  f<>r  their 
orchards  are  a  portion  of  Clydesdale  (Lanarkshire) 
and  the  Carse  of  Gowrie  (Perthshire),  in  both  of 
which  the  apple-orchards  are  of  rery  considerable 
economical  importance, 

ORCHARD -HOUSE,    a    Btrnctnre    adapted    to 

the  cultivation  of  fruits,  of  finer  kinds  than  can  be 
produced  in  the  open  air,  or  in  greater  perfection, 
without  the  aid  of  artificial  heat.  It  is  the  inven- 
tion of  Mr  Rivers  of  London,  and  is  a  '  glass-roofed 
shed,'  the  front  of  which  is  lower  than  the  back,  so 
that  the  roof  slopes  towards  the  sun.  The  merit  of 
the  invention,  however,  consists  not  so  much  in  the 
structure  itself,  or  in  the  protecting  of  fruit-trees 
and  admitting  of  the  sun's  rays  by  glass,  as  in  the 
mode  of  their  treatment,  by  which  a  limited  space 
can  be  made  to  produce  a  prodigious  quantity  of 
fine  fruit.  The  trees  are  planted  in  pots,  are  never 
allowed  to  attain  a  considerable  size,  and  are  so 
trained  and  pruned  as  to  have  the  greatest  possible 
amount  of  fruitful  wood  within  the  smallest  possible 
compass.  The  pots  have  a  large  hole  in  the  bottom, 
through  which  the  roots  may  pass  ;  and  are  placed 
upon  a  border  carefully  prepared  for  them,  of  loose 
and  open  materials,  such  as  cinders,  lime-rubbish, 
and  broken  bricks,  enriched  by  manure.  After  the 
fruit  is  gathered,  the  roots  are  cut  through  at  the 
bottom  of  the  pot,  and  the  trees  are  set  aside  to 
rest  for  the  winter ;  and  this  treatment  is  repeated 
from  year  to  3*ear.  The  orchard-house  is  generally 
a  very  low  structure,  so  that  the  foliage  and  fruit 
are  very  near  the  glass ;  its  back  being  only  7  feet 
high,  and  its  front  only  2A  feet,  for  a  width  of  12 
feet.  A  path  is  excavated  as  a  trench  of  2  feet 
deep,  and  2£  feet  wide,  through  the  middle  of  it. 
For  details  as  to  glazing,  ventilation,  &c,  we  refer 
to  Mr  Rivers's  pamphlet,  The  Orchard-hous°,  and  to 
Chambers's  Information  for  the  People,  i.  pp.  575,  576. 
Plants  for  orchard-houses  may  now  be  purchased  in 
nurseries.  In  Rivers'  Mininture  Fruit  Garden  in- 
structions will  be  found  as  to  the  training  and  treat- 
ment of  different  kinds  of  trees. 

O'RCHESTRA  (Gr.  orchestra,  from  orcheomai,  I 
dance),  in  the  Greek  theatres,  the  place  allotted 
to  the  chorus  of  dancers  ;  ia  modern  theatres,  the 
part  of  the  budding  assigned  to  the  instrumentalists ; 
and  in  the  modern  concert-room,  the  place  occupied 
by  the  instrumental  and  vocal  performers.  The 
word  orchestra  is  also  used  to  denote  the  musicians 
collectively. 

A  complete  orchestra  consists  of  stringed  and 
wind  instruments,  and  instruments  of  percussion. 
The  employment  of  stringed  and  wind  instruments 
together  was  long  deemed  a  barbarism.  Gliick  was 
among  the  first  composers  who  shewed  that  they 
could  be  effectively  combined,  and  his  ideas  were 
more  fully  developed  by  succeeding  composers. 
The  perfecting  of  the  old  instruments,  and  the 
introduction  of  new  ones,  formerly  confined  to 
mfiitary  bands,  have  added  immensely  to  the  power 
and  resources  of  the  modern  orchestra,  whose 
capacities,  however,  have  sometimes  been  misused. 

The  proper  strength  of  an  orchestra  must  depend 
on  considerations  connected  with  the  locality.  The 
stringed  instruments  should  in  all  cases  greatly 
outnumber  the  wind  instruments  ;  and  those  latter, 
the  instruments  of  percussion.  The  stringed  instru- 
ments in  general  use  are  the  viobln,  viola,  violoncello, 
and  double-bass,  and  their  force  often  amounts  to 
as  many  as  fifty,  while  even  in  a  large  orchestra 

99 


ORCHESTRA— ORCHIDE.E. 


there  are  seldom  more  flutes,  hautboys,  or  bassoons 
than  two  of  each.  The  horn,  trumpet,  and  ophi- 
cleide  or  serpent,  the  other  wind  instruments 
admitted  into  the  orchestra,  are  used  as  sparingly  ; 
and  of  instruments  of  percussion,  a  pair  of  kettle- 
drums is  often  considered  sufficient,  though  cymbals 
and  triangles  are  occasionally  added.  In  a  small 
orchestra,  trumpets,  trombones,  the  serpent,  and 
the  kettle-drum  shoidd  be  avoided  as  being  too 
noisy.  By  far  the  greatest  part  of  the  work  falls 
to  the  share  of  the  stringed  instruments,  the  parts 
for  which  form  a  complete  quartett  for  first  violin, 
second  violin,  viola,  and  violoncello,  which  should 
be  perfect  within  itself,  independently  of  the  parts 
for  the  wind  instruments.  The  object  of  the  double- 
bass  is  to  enforce  the  violoncello  part.  This  full 
quartett  is  occasionally  interrupted  by  harmony 
in  two  or  three  parts,  or  passages  in  unisons  or 
octaves.  The  success  of  the  combination  of  wind 
and  stringed  instruments  depends  on  the  skill  and 
judgment  of  the  composer.  The  bassoon,  horn,  or 
flute  may  double  any  given  part  of  the  stringed 
instrument  quartett,  so  as  to  produce  an  effect  of 
reinforcement,  or  it  may  have  its  own  distinctive 
melody.  An  occasional  variety  is  produced  by  the 
entire  cessation  of  sti-inged  instruments  for  a  short 
period,  letting  the  wind  instruments  be  heard 
alone. 

The  orchestra  of  a  concert-room  should  be  so 
arranged  that  the  front  is  about  five  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  floor,  and  it  should  rise  gradually  in 
steps  towards  the  end  wall,  whose  angles  ought  to 
be  rounded  off  so  as  to  enable  the  whole  body  of 
sound  to  be  reflected.  Reverberation  is  essential 
to  the  proper  effect  of  mus-ic.  From  the  exigencies 
of  dramatic  representation,  a  theatrical  orchestra 
must  necessarily  be  much  inferior  to  a  concert 
orchestra ;  the  instrumentalists,  brought  together 
in  the  lowest  part  of  a  theatre  on  a  horizontal  plane 
between  the  spectators  and  the  stage,  are  deprived 
of  most  of  the  advantages  arising  from  a  proper 
arrangement. 

ORCHI'DE^],  or  ORCHID A'CEiE,  often  popu- 
larly called  Orchids,  a  natural  order  of  endogen- 
ous plants,  remarkable  for  the  structure  of  their 
flowers,  which  are  also  of  great  beauty  and  exquisite 
fragrance.  The  perianth  sometimes  exhibits  much 
variety  of  forms,  even  in  the  same  species  ;  but  is 
always  irregular,  its  segments  differing  much  from 
each  other.  There  are  usually  six  segments, 
arranged  in  two  rows  (calyx  and  corolla) ;  although 
some  of  the  most  extraordinary  forms  of  orchideous 
flowers  are  produced  by  the  combination  of  cer- 
tain segments  into  one  piece.  Spurs  and  other 
appendages  of  some  of  the  segments  are  also  com- 
mon. The  inner  segments  are  often  beautifully 
coloured.  The  inferior  segment  of  the  corolla  is 
called  the  hp  (labellum),  and  is  often  lobed,  spurred, 
or  furnished  with  curious  appendages  of  different 
kinds.  The  stamens  are  united  with  the  style  into 
*  single  central  column  ;  the  distinctive  character 
of  the  Linnaean  class  Gynandria,  of  which  the  0. 
form  the  chief  part.  There  is  usually  only  one 
aEther,  with  a  tubercle  on  each  side  of  it,  the 
tubercles  being  abortive  anthers  ;  but  sometimes 
the  two  lateral  anthers  are  perfect,  and  the  central 
one  is  abortive  ;  and  very  rarely  all  the  three 
anthers  are  perfect.  The  anthers  are  usually  two- 
celled  ;  the  grains  of  pollen  cohering  in  two  or 
more  masses.  The  ovary  is  inferior,  one-celled ;  the 
stigma  usually  a  mere  hollow  in  front  of  the 
column.  The  fruit  is  usually  a  capsule,  openiug 
with  six  valves,  three  of  which  have  placentae  ;  the 
seeds  numerous  and  very  small.  In  a  few  cases, 
the  fruit  is  fleshy.  The  0.  are  generally  herbaceous 
perennials ;  but  some  of  those  found  in  warm 
100 


climates  are  shrubs,  and  some  of  these,  as  Vanilla, 
are  climbers.  The  root  is  usually  composed  of 
simple,  cylindrical  fibres,  which  are  often  accom- 
panied with  one  or  two  fleshy  tubercles,  a  tubercle 
dying  and  a    new  one  being   produced   annually. 


Orchis  mono : 
a,  parts  of  the  flowers. 

The  leaves  are  always  simple,  alternate,  often 
sheathing  at  the  base,  often  leathery,  sometimes 
arising,  in  tropical  species,  not  directly  from  the 
stem,  but  from  fleshy  bulb-like  excrescences  of  it. 
— The  species  of  O.  are  very  numerous,  about  3000 
having  been  described.  They  are  found  in  all  parts 
of  the  world,  except  the  coldest  and  the  most  arid 
regions;  but  are  most  numerous  in  the  humid 
forests  of  the  torrid  zone,  and  particularly  in 
America.  Many  of  them  are  epiphytes,  adorning 
the  boughs  of  trees  with  splendid  flowers.  This  is 
chiefly  the  case  with  tropical  species,  those  of  colder 
climates  mostly  growing  on  the  ground.  Only 
about  thirty-eight  species  are  reckoned  in  the 
British  flora. — Salep  (q.  v.),  a  delicate  and  nutri- 
tious article  of  food,  is  obtained  from  the  root- 
tubercles  of  a  number  of  species.  The  only  other 
product  of  the  order,  which  is  of  any  commercial 
importance,  is  Vanilla  (q.  v.).  The  fragrant  Faam 
(q.  v.)  leaves  are  the  leaves  of  an  orchid.  Several 
species  are  known  to  possess  tonic,  stimulant,  and 
antispasmodic  properties,  but  none  are  of  much  im- 
portance in  medicine. 

Orchids  have  of  late  been  much  cultivated  on 
account  of  their  flowers,  and  many  tropical  species 
are  amongst  our  most  esteemed  hothouse  plants; 
houses  being  sometimes  specially  devoted  to  them. 
Many  of  the  epiphytal  kinds  may  be  planted  in 
pots  filled  with  loose  fibrous  peat,  the  roots  of 
others  are  placed  in  baskets,  or  are  fastened  to 
blocks  of  wood,  with  a  little  moss  or  some  such 
thing  around  them,  to  keep  them  from  becoming 
too  dry,  and  are  thus  placed  on  the  shelves,  or 
suspended  from  the  roof  of  the  house.  Careful 
attention  to  temperature  is  necessary,  and  also  to 
ventilation;  and  although  much  heat  and  moisture 
are  requisite,  the  atmosphere  must  not  be  constantly 
very  hot  and  humid,  but  seasons  of  rest  must  be 
given  to  the  plants,  which  in  their  native  climates 
have  generally  a  wet  and  a  dry  season,  the  latter 
being  to  them  in  many  respects  what  the  winter  is  to 
plants  of  temperate  regions. 


ORCHIL  AND  ORCHELLA  WEED— ORDEAL. 


For  the  carious  agoncyof  insects  in  the  fecundation 
of  orchids,  Bee  Darwin's  Fertilization  of  Orchids. 

ORCHIL    and    ORCHE'LLA    WEED.      See 

Archil. 

O'RCHIS  is  a  genua  of  Orchidece,  to  which,  as 
now  restricted,  eleven  of  the  British  species  are 
referred.  Some  of  them  are  among  the  most  com- 
mon of  British  Orchidece,  adorning  meadows  and 
pastures  with  then-  flowers  in  summer.      The  roots 


Orchis  mascula : 
a,  the  lip  of  the  perianth. 

of  some  of  the  species  yield  salep.  The  lip  of  the 
flower  in  this  genus  has  a  spur.  The  flowers  of  the 
Early  Purple  0.  (0.  mascida),  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon species,  are  sometimes  fragrant ;  hut  those  of 
the  Lizard  0.  (0.  hircina),  found  in  the  south  of  Eng- 
land, have  a  lizard-like  smell.  Orchis  spectabilis  is 
not  infrequent  from  New  England  to  Kentucky. 

ORCHO'MEXOS,  a  famous  and  very  ancient 
city  of  Bceotia,  the  capital  of  the  once  independent 
kingdom  of  the  Minyse,  and  hence  called  Minyean 
0.,  to  distinguish  it  from  another  0.  in  Arcadia. 
It  was  situated  northward  from  the  Lake  Copals, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cephissus,  and  extended 
from  the  marshy  edges  of  the  lake  up  the  face  of  a 
steep  rocky  hill,  on  which  stood  the  Acropolis.  In 
the  earliest  times,  its  dominions  extended  to  the  sea. 
Homer  compares  its  treasures  to  those  of  Egyptian 
Thebes,  and  tells  us  that  it  sent  30  ships  to  the 
Trojan  war.  Some  time  after  this  event,  it  became 
a  member  of  the  Boeotian  confederacy.  During  the 
Persian  war,  like  the  other  towns  of  Bceotia,  it 
abandoned  the  national  cause.  Its  government  was 
thoroughly  aristocratic,  and  after  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  when  Thebes  became  a  democracy,  0.  took 
part  with  Sparta,  and  shared  in  its  first  triumph 
over  Thebes  ;  but  the  victory  of  Epaminondas 
at  Leuotra  (371  B.C.)  placed  0.  at  the  mercy  of  the 
Theban3,  who  soon  after  destroyed  it  by  fire,  and 
6old  its  inhabitants  as  slaves,  ft  was  again  rebuilt 
during  the  Phocian  war,  but  a  second  time  destroyed 
in  the  reign  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  who,  however, 
once  more  rebuilt  it;  but  it  never  again  became 
prominent  in  history.  0.  was  famous  for  its  great 
musical  festival  in  honour  of  the  Graces,  when  poets 
and  musicians  assembled  from  all  quarters  to  com- 
pete for  prizes.  The  ruins  of  0.  are  still  to  be  seen 
near  the  modern  village   of    Skripu. — See  K.   0. 


Mullcr'  .,  ,,„,/ ,/,-,.  Mimj,,-.  Leake's  Xorth- 

ern  Greece^  and  Mure'a  Tour  In  <■, 

<>'i;ci\  ami  ORCEIN  are  colouring  -matter* 
obtained  from  lichen*.  Orcin  (CfHgOj)  may  be  ob- 
tained by  boiling  certain  species  of  TtoeeeUti  or  Leca* 

nnra  with   lime  for  some  hours,  removing  the   lime, 

by  a  current  of  carbonic  acid,  evaporating  and  ex- 
tracting with  boiling  alcohol,  from  which  the  orcin 

separates  in  red  crystals.    With  chloride  of  [hue,  it 
gives  a  purple  red  colour,  which  quickly  chang 

deep  yellow.     ( Ircin  is  the  true  colonr-producil 
stance  or  ohromojren  of  these  lichens.     In  the  prea 
ence  of  ammonia,  it  absorbs  oxygen,  and 
into  orcein  (CYHtNOs),  a  nitrogenous  comported  cf 
Btrong  tinctorial  power.      When  isolated,  orcein  forms 
n  red  flocculcnt  powder,  which  is  freely  soluble  in 
alcohol,  forming  a  scarlet  fluid.      PotaSfa  and  ammo- 
nia   dissolve    it   readily,    forming   a    splendid    pnrple 
colour,  which  is   the   basis  of  the  ordinary  archil  of 
commerce.     With  metallic  salts,  its  alkaline  solutions 
yield  beautiful  purple  lakes. 

ORDEAL  (Anglo-Saxon,  ordaal;  from  or,  primi- 
tive, and  daal,  judgment;  Ger.  Urtheil,  judgment),  a 
practice  which  has  prevailed  largely  among  various 
widely-separated  nations,  of  referring  disputed  ques- 
tions, particularly  such  as  relate  to  the  guilt  or 
innocence  of  an  individual,  to  the  judgment  of  <  rod, 
determined  either  by  lot,  or  by  the  success  of  certain 
experiments.  Of  its  existence  among  the  ancient 
Jews,  we  have  an  instance  in  Numbers  v.,  where  a 
Hebrew  woman,  accused  of  adultery,  is  required  to 
drink  the  waters  of  jealousy  as  a  test  of  innocence  ; 
a  similar  ordeal  for  incontinence  is  in  use  among 
the  natives  of  the  Gold  Coast  of  Africa.  Compur- 
gation of  accused  persons  by  fire,  as  existing  among 
the  Greeks,  is  referred  to  in  Sophocles's  Anly/one. 
Among  the  Hindus,  the  ordeal  has  been  in  use  to  be 
practised  in  nine  different  ways — by  the  balance, 
by  fire,  by  water,  by  poison,  by  the  cosha  or 
chinking  water,  in  which  images  of  the  sun  and 
other  deities  had  been  washed,  by  chewing-rice,  by 
hot  od,  bjr  red-hot  iron,  and  by  drawing  two  images 
out  of  a  jar  into  which  they  have  been  thrown. 
(Asiatic  Researches,  voL  L  p.  3S9.) 

The  ordeal  seems  to  be  prevalent  throughout 
Africa.  '  When  a  man,'  says  Dr  Livingstone, 
'  suspects  that  any  of  his  wives  have  bewitched  him, 
he  sends  for  the  witch-doctor,  and  all  the  wives  go 
forth  into  the  field,  and  remain  fasting  till  that 
person  has  made  an  infusion  of  the  plant  (called 
"gbho").  They  all  drink  it,  each  one  holding  up 
her  hand  to  heaven  in  attestation  of  her  innocency. 
Those  who  vomit  it  are  considered  innocent,  while 
those  whom  it  purges  are  pronounced  guilty,  and 
put  to  death  by  burning.  The  innocent  return  to 
their  homes,  and  slaughter  a  cock  as  a  thank-offer- 
ing to  then-  guardian  spirits.  The  practice  of  ordeal 
is  common  among  all  the  negro  nations  north  of  the 
Zambesi.'  The  women  themselves  eagerly  desire 
the  test  on  the  slightest  provocation ;  each  is  cc  a- 
scious  of  her  own  innocence,  and  has  the  f idlest 
faith  in  the  muavi  (the  ordeal)  clearing  all  but  tho 
guilty.  There  are  varieties  of  procedure  arr  ong 
the  different  tribes.  The  Barotse  pour  the  nedi. 
cine  down  the  throat  of  a  cock  or  dog,  and  judge 
of  the  innocence  or  guilt  of  the  person  accused  by 
the  vomiting  or  purging  of  the  animal. 

Throughout  Europe  in  the  dark  ages  the  ordeal 
existed  under  the  sanction  of  law,  and  of  the 
clergy.  The  most  prevalent  kinds  of  ordeal  were 
those  of  fire,  water,  and  the  wager  of  battle. 
Fire  ordeal  was  only  allowed  to  persons  of  higb, 
rank.  The  accused  had  to  carry  a  piece  of  red- 
hot  iron  for  some  distance  in  his  hand,  or  to 
walk    nine    feet    barefoot    and    blindfolded    ovet 

101 


ORDEAL— ORDER. 


red-hot  ploughshares.  The  hand  or  foot  was  bound 
up  and  inspected  three  days  afterwards :  if  the 
accused  had  escaped  unhurt,  he  was  pronounced 
innocent ;  if  otherwise,  guilty.  Under  such  a 
judicial  system,  there  were  probably  few  acquit- 
tals ;  but  it  is  believed  that  in  the  severer  kinds  of 
ordeal,  precautions  were  sometimes  taken  by  the 
clergy  to  protect  those  whom  they  wished  to  clear 
from  suspicion.  Queen  Emma,  mother  of  Edward 
the  Confessor,  when  suspected  of  a  criminal  intrigue 
with  Alwyn,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  is  said  to  have 
triumphantly  vindicated  her  character  by  walking 
unhurt  over  red-hot  ploughshares.  Water  ordeal 
was  the  usual  mode  of  trial  allowed  to  bondsmen 
and  rustics,  and  was  of  two  kinds— the  ordeal  of 
boiling  water,  and  of  cold  water.  The  ordeal  of 
boiling  water,  according  to  the  laws  of  Athelstane, 
consisted  in  taking  a  stone  out  of  boding  water, 
where  the  hand  had  to  be  inserted  as  deep  as  the 
wrist ;  what  was  called  the  triple  ordeal,  deepened 
the  water  to  the  elbow.  The  person  allowed  the 
ordeal  of  cold  water  (the  usual  mode  of  trial  for 
witchcraft),  was  flung  into  a  river  or  pond  ;  if  he 
floated  without  any  appearance  of  swimming,  he 
was  judged  guilty — whde  if  he  sank,  he  was 
acquitted. 

The  wager  of  battle  was  a  natural  accompani- 
ment of  a  state  of  society  which  allowed  men  to 
take  the  law  into  their  own  hands.  The  challenger 
faced  the  west,  the  challenged  person  the  east ;  the 
defeated  party,  if  he  craved  his  life,  was  allowed  to 
live  as  a  'recreant ; '  that  is,  on  retracting  the  perjury 
which  he  had  sworn  to.     See  Battel,  Trial  by. 

Other  kinds  of  ordeal  were  practised  in  particular 
circumstances  in  different  parts  of  Europe.  In  the 
ordeal  of  the  bier,  a  supposed  murderer  was 
required  to  touch  the  body  of  the  murdered  person, 
and  pronounced  guilty  if  the  blood  flowed  from  his 
wounds.  The  ordeal  of  the  Eucharist  was  in  use 
among  the  clergy  :  the  accused  party  took  the 
sacrament  in  attestation  of  innocence,  it  being 
believed  that,  if  gudty,  he  would  be  immediately 
visited  with  divine  punishment  for  the  sacrilege. 
A  somewhat  simdar  ordeal  was  that  of  the  corsned, 
or  consecrated  bread  and  cheese  :  if  the  accused 
swallowed  it  freely,  he  was  pronounced  innocent ;  if 
it  stuck  in  his  throat,  he  was  presumed  to  be  guilty. 
Godwin,  Earl  of  Kent,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  the 
Confessor,  when  accused  of  the  murder  of  the  king's 
brother,  is  said  to  have  appealed  to  the  ordeal  of 
the  corsned,  and  been  choked  by  it.  An  early  form 
of  ordeal,  abolished  by  Louis  le  Debonnaire  in  816, 
was  that  of  the  cross:  the  accuser  and  accused 
stood  upright  before  a  cross,  and  he  who  first  fell, 
or  shifted  his  position,  was  pronounced  guilty.  It 
was  done  away  with,  as  being  irreverent  towards 
the  mystery  of  the  cross.  Besides  these,  there  was 
the  ordeal  by  lot,  dependent  on  the  throw  of  a 
pair  of  dice,  one  marked  with  a  cross,  the  other 
plain. 

Trial  by  ordeal  at  first  carried  with  it  the 
sanction  of  the  priests,  as  well  as  of  the  civd  power, 
though  the  clergy  in  the  course  of  time  came  to 
discountenance  it.  In  England  it  seen.s  to  have 
been  continued  till  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  On  the  continent  it  was,  generally  speak- 
ing, abolished  rather  earlier,  although  as  late  as 
149S  we  find  the  truth  of  Savonarola's  doctrine 
put  to  the  test,  by  a  challenge  between  one  of  his 
disciples  and  a  Franciscan  friar,  to  walk  through  a 
burning  pile.  In  Scotland,  in  11S0,  we  find  David  I. 
enacting,  in  one  of  the  assemblies  of  the  frank 
tenantry  of  the  kingdom,  which  were  the  germ  of 
parliaments,  that  no  one  was  to  hold  an  ordinary 
court  of  justice,  or  a  court  of  ordeal,  whether  of 
battle,  iron,  or  water,  except  in  presence  of  the 
102 


sheriff  or  one  of  his  sergeants ;  though  if  that 
official  failed  to  attend  after  being  duly  summoned, 
the  court  might  be  held  in  his  absence.  The  first 
step  towards  the  abolition  of  this  form  of  trial  in 
Saxon  and  Celtic  countries,  seems  to  have  been  the 
substitution  of  compurgation  by  witnesses  for  com- 
purgation by  ordeal.  The  near  relatives  of  an 
accused  party  were  expected  to  ccme  forward  to 
swear  to  his  innocence.  The  number  of  compur- 
gators varied,  according  to  the  importance  of  the 
case ;  and  judgment  went  against  the  party  whose 
kin  refused  to  come  forward,  or  who  failed  to 
obtain  the  necessary  number  of  compurgators.  To 
repel  an  accusation,  it  was  often  held  necessary  to 
have  double  the  number  of  compurgators  who  sup- 
ported it,  tiU  at  length  the  most  numerous  body  of 
compurgators  carried  the  day. 

ORDER.  In  Classic  Architecture,  the  Order  or 
ordonnance  comprises  the  column  with  its  base  aud 
capital  and  the  entablature.  There  are  five  orders  : 
(1)  Tuscan,  (2)  Doric,  (3)  Ionic,  (4)  Corinthian, 
(5)  Composite.  The  first  and  fifth  are  Roman 
orders,  and  are  simply  modifications  of  the  others. 
The  remaining  three  are  the  Greek  orders.  See 
Column,  Greek  Architecture,  Roman  Architec- 
ture. 

ORDER,  in  Natural  History,  a  group  constituted 
for  the  purpose  of  classification,  inferior  to  class  and 
sub-class,  but  superior  to  family,  tribe,  genus,  &c. 
The  term  Natural  Order  is  used  in  botany  to 
designate  an  order  belonging  to  the  natural  system 
of  classification,  in  contradistinction  to  one  of  an 
artificial  system  devised  for  mere  convenience  of 
the  student,  and  signifies  that  the  limits  of  the 
order  agree  with  the  truth  of  nature,  and  that  it 
thus  exhibits  affinities  really  existing.  In  all 
branches  of  natural  history,  classification  now 
proceeds  on  this  principle. 

ORDER.  This  word  is  applied  to  an  aggregate 
of  conventual  communities  comprehended  under  one 
rule,  or  to  the  societies,  half  military  half  religious, 
out  of  which  the  institution  of  knighthood  sprang. 
Religious  orders  are  generally  classified  as  monastic, 
military,  and  mendicant. 

The  earliest  comprehension  of  monastic  societies 
under  one  rule  was  effected  by  St  Basil,  A  rchbishop 
of  Csesarea,  who  united  the  hermits  and  coenobites 
in  his  diocese,  and  prescribed  for  them  a  uniform 
constitution,  recommending  at  the  same  time  a  vow 
of  celibacy.  The  Basdian  rule  subsists  to  the 
present  day  in  the  Eastern  Church.  Next  in  order 
of  time  was  the  Benedictine  order,  founded  by  St 
Benedict  of  Nursia,  who  considered  a  mdd  discipline 
preferable  to  excessive  austerity.  The  offshoots 
from  the  Benedictine  order  include  some  of  the 
most  important  orders  in  ecclesiastical  history, 
among  others  the  Carthusians,  Cistercians,  and  Pra> 
monstrants.  The  order  of  Augustinians  professed  to 
draw  their  rule  from  the  writings  of  StAngnstine; 
they  were  the  first  order  who  were  not  entirely  com- 
posed of  laymen,  but  of  ordained  priests,  or  persons 
destined  to  the  clerical  profession. 

The  military  orders,  of  which  the  members  united 
the  military  with  the  religious  profession,  arose 
from  the  necessity  under  which  the  monks  lay  of 
defending  the  possessions  Avhich  they  had  accumu- 
lated, and  the  supposed  duty  of  recovering  Pales- 
tine from  the  Saracens,  and  retaining  pos0e.*sion  of 
it.  The  most  famous  orders  of  this  kind  were  the 
Hospitallers  or  Knights  of  St  John  of  Jerusalem, 
the  Knights  Templars,  and  the  Teutonic  order. 
Many  other  military  orders  existed,  and  noi  a  few 
continue  to  exist,  particularly  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 
The  phraseology  of  the  old  military  orders  is 
preserved  in  the  orders  of  knighJhood  of  modern 


ORDERICUS -ORDERS  IN  COUNCIL. 


times,  into  which  individuals  are  admitted  in  reward 
for  merit  of  different  kinds,  military  and  civil. 

The  three  mendicant  orders  of  Franciscans, 
Dominicans,  and  Carmelites  were  instituted  in 
the  13th  century.  Their  principal  purpose  was 
to  put  down  the  opposition  to  the  church,  which 
had  begun  to  shew  itself,  and  also  to  reform  the 
church  by  example  and  precept.  At  a  later  period 
the  order  of  the  Jesuits  was  founded,  with  the 
object  of  increasing  the  power  of  the  church,  and 
putting  down  heresy. — Notices  of  the  more  import- 
ant orders,  monastic,  military,  and  mendicant,  will 
be  found  under  separate  articles.  See  also  Knights 
and  Monaciiism. 

ORDE'RICUS,  Vitalts,  a  medieval  historian, 
born  at  Atcham,  near  Shrewsbury,  in  1075,  was 
taken  to  France  at  the  age  of  live,  and  educated  for 
the  monastic  life  in  the  abbey  of  Ouche,  at  Lisieux. 
He  became  a  priest  in  1107,  and  died,  it  is  thought, 
about  1143.  0.  is  the  author  of  a  so-called  Church 
History  (Histories  Ecclesiasticce),  in  13  vols.  It  is 
a  chronicle  of  events  from  the  birth  of  Christ  down 
to  his  own  time.  Books  3 — 6  give  an  account  of  the 
Norman  wars  in  England,  France,  aud  Apulia  down 
to  the  death  of  William  the  Conqueror.  The  last 
half  of  the  book  is  the  most  valuable,  being  a  record 
of  the  history  of  the  author's  own  times.  The  first 
edition  of  the  Historic  Ecclesiasticoe  was  published 
by  Duchesne,  in  his  Hist.  Norm.  Scrip.  (1619).  It 
has  also  been  printed  by  the  French  Historical 
Society  (2  vols.  1S40),  and  was  translated  into 
French  by  Dubois  (4  vols.  1825—1827). 

O'RDERLIES  are  soldiers  or  sergeants  appointed 
to  wait  upon  general  and  other  commanding  officers, 
to  communicate  their  orders,  and  to  carry  messages. 
The  Orderly  Officer,  or  officer  of  the  day,  is  the 
officer  of  a  corps  or  regiment,  whose  turn  it  is  to 
superintend  its  interior  economy,  as  cleanliness,  the 
goodness  of  the  food,  &c.  Orderly  Non-commissioned 
Officers  are  the  sergeants  in  each  company  who  are 
'  orderly,'  or  on  duty  for  the  week.  On  the  drum 
beating  for  orders,  they  proceed  to  the  Orderly 
Room,  take  down  the  general  or  regimental  orders 
affecting  their  respective  companies,  shew  them  to 
the  company  officers,  and  warn  the  necessary  men 
for  any  duties  sjiecified  in  those  orders.  An  Orderly 
Book  is  provided  by  the  captain  of  each  troop  or 
company  in  a  regiment  for  the  insertion  of  general 
or  regimental  orders  from  time  to  time  issued. 

ORDERS,  ABMY,  are  general,  divisional,  brigade, 
or  regimentaL  General  orders  are  issued  by  the 
commander-in-chief  of  an  army,  and  affect  the 
whole  of  his  force.  The  others  emanate  from 
generals  of  division  or  brigade,  or  from  officers 
commanding  regiments,  and  severally  affect  their 
respective  commands. 

ORDERS  IN  COUNCIL,  orders  by  the  sove- 
reign with  the  advice  of  the  privy  council.  The 
Iirivy  council  of  Great  Britain  has  no  power  to 
egislate,  except  so  far  as  authorized  to  do  so 
by  parliament;  but  in  periods  of  emergency,  it 
has  nevertheless  occasionally  issued  and  enforced 
orders  of  a  legislative  kind;  those  who  were 
concerned  in  passing,  promulgating,  or  enforcing 
the  orders,  trusting  to  parliamentary  protection, 
and  taking  on  themselves  the  personal  responsi- 
bility of  the  proceeding.  In  such  cases,  an  act  of 
indemnity  afterwards  passed  has  relieved  from  lia- 
bility those  who  advised  the  order  or  acted  under  it, 
and  given  compensation  to  all  who  suffered  by  its 
enforcement.  This  course  was  adopted  in  1766 
with  regard  to  an  embargo  on  the  exportation  of 
corn,  issued  in  consequence  of  a  deficient  harvest 
and  prospect  of  famine.  An  important  constitu- 
tional question   was    raised  by  the  famous   Orders 


in  Council   issued   by  Great  Britain   in    1807  and 
1809,  in  reprisal  for  Napoleon's  Berlin  and   Milan 
decrees.    Tin:   Berlin  decree,  issued  on  the  21st  of 
November  180G,  declared  the  whole  of  tin-  British 
islands  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  all  v< 
trading  to  them  to  be  liable  to  capture  by  French 
ships.      It  also  shut  out  all  British  vesHels  and 
produce  both  from  France  and  from  all   tin-  othflr 
countries  which  gave  obedience  to  the  French.     A 
subsequent  decree,  issued  soon  afterwards,  obliged 
all  neutral  vessels  to  carry  letters  or  certificates  of 
origin  —that  is,  attestations  by  the  French  consuls 
of  the  ports  from  which  they  had  sailed,  that  no 
part  of  the  cargo  was  British.     In  retaliation  for 
the  Berlin  decree,  the  British  government  issued, 
on   the   7th  January  1SI»7,  an   Order   in   Council., 
subjecting    to    seizure   all   neutral   vessels   trading 
from  one  hostile  port  in  Europe  to  another  with 
property  belonging  to  an  enemy.     This  order  was 
at  first  extensively  evaded,  while  the  French  made 
vigorous  efforts  to  enforce  the  Berlin  decree  ;  the 
result  was,  that  new  Orders  were   issued   by  the 
British  government  on  the  11th  and  21st  of  Novem- 
ber 1807,  declaring  France  and  all  states  subject 
to  the  French  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  all 
vessels  liable  to  seizure  which  were  found  to  have 
certificates   of  origin   on    board,  or  which    should 
attempt  to  trade  with  any  of  the  ports  of  the  world 
thus    blockaded.      Neutral    vessels    intended    for 
France,  or  any  other  hostile  country,  were  ordered, 
in  all  cases,  to  touch  first  at  some  British  port,  and 
to  pay  custom-house  dues  there,  after  which  they 
were  in  certain  cases  to  be  allowed  to  depart  for 
their  destination ;  and  vessels  clearing  from  a  hostile 
country    were    similarly   to    touch    at    a    British 
port  before  proceeding  on  their  voyage.      On  the 
27th  of  December  1807,  Napoleon's  Milan  decree 
was    issued,   which    declared    the    whole    British 
dominions  to  be  in  a  state  of   blockade,  and  all 
countries  were  prohibited  from  trading  with  each 
other  in  any  articles  of  British  produce  or  manu- 
facture.   The  Americans,  and  those  of  the  public  of 
Great  Britain  who  were  interested  in  the  export 
trade,  exclaimed  loudly  against  the  edicts  of  both 
powers,  and  the  legality  as  well  as  the  expediency 
of  the  Orders  in  Council  were  called  in  question  in 
parliament.     The  result  was,  that  an  inquiry  was 
instituted  into  the  effect  of  the  orders,  from  which 
no  direct  result  followed.     But,  in  the  meantime, 
on  the  26th  April  1808,  a  new  Order  in  Council 
was  issued,  limiting  the  blockade  to  France,  Hol- 
land, a  part  of  Germany,  and  the  north  of  Italy, 
and  the  order  which  condemned  vessels  which  had 
certificates    of    origin    on    board    was    rescinded. 
Subsequent  orders  introduced  a  system  of  furnish- 
ing licences  to  vessels  to  proceed  to  hostile  ports 
after  having  first  touched  and  paid  custom-house 
clues  at  a  British  port ;    no  fewer  than   16,000  of 
these  licences  are  said  to  have  been  granted.     The 
legality  of  these  Orders  has  been  called  in  question, 
on   the  ground  that  they  were   more   of   a  legis- 
lative than  an  executive  character,  in  so  far  as  a 
fictitious   blockade,  where  there   is  no  blockading 
force   present,  is  contrary  to  the  law  of  nations  ; 
it  has  been   defended   on   the  ground   that  they 
were    issued    in    execution    of  the   royal   preroga- 
tive of  declaring  and  conducting  war.     They  are 
generally  believed   to   have  added  to  the  general 
distress,  and  the  check  on  the  progress  of  manu- 
factures produced  by  Napoleon's  decrees ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  has  been  maintained  that  they 
were  essential  to  the  effective  prosecution  of  the 
war. 

There  are  various  matters  connected  with  trade 
and  the  revenue  as  to  which  Orders  in  Council 
have  been  authorised  by  statute:   parliament,  in 

103 


ORDERS-ORDINAL. 


fact,  delegating  its  legislative  authority  to  the 
Queen  in  Council.  For  example,  the  International 
Copyright  Act,  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  12,  contains  a 
provision  for  empowering  the  crown,  by  Order  in 
Council,  to  extend  the  privileges  of  British  copy- 
right to  works  first  published  in  any  state  which 
gives  a  like  privilege  to  the  productions  of  this 
"ountry. 

ORDERS,  Holy,  an  institution  regarded  in  the 
Greek  aud  Roman  churches  as  a  sacrament,  by 
which  ministers  are  specially  set  apai*t  for  the 
service  of  religion,  and  are  regarded  as  receiving 
a  certain  religious  consecration,  or,  at  least,  desig- 
nation for  their  office.  While  some  of  the  reformed 
churches  altogether  deny  the  distinction  of  ranks 
in  the  ministry,  none  of  them  admits  more  than 
three  ranks,  of  bishop,  priest,  and  deacon.  But  in 
the  Roman  and  Greek  churches,  a  further  classi- 
fication exists.  In  the  Roman  Church,  a  distinction 
is  made  between  the  major  (or  holy)  orders  and 
the  minor  orders.  Of  the  major  orders,  three  have 
been  described  in  general  terms,  under  the  head 
Hierarchy  (q.  v.),  viz.,  the  classes  of  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons.  A  fourth  rank  of  sub-deacons 
is  generally  regarded  as  one  of  the  major  orders,  but 
its  functions  closely  resemble  in  their  nature  and 
their  degree  those  of  the  deacon.  The  minor  orders 
in  the  Roman  Church  are  four  in  number— those  of 
door-keeper,  reader,  exorcist,  and  acotyte.  To  none 
of  these  orders  is  any  vow  of  celibacy  annexed. 
Some  of  their  functions  had  their  origin  in  the 
peculiar  religious  condition  of  the  early  church.  The 
duties  of  door-keeper  arose  chiefly  out  of  the  disci- 
pline in  regard  to  the  penitents  and  catechumens  ; 
but  although  these  functions  find  no  room  in  the 
modern  discipline  of  the  Roman  Church,  the  door- 
keeper of  the  modern  church  is  held  to  succeed  to 
other  functions  of  his  ancient  prototype  in  relation 
to  the  catechetical  instruction  of  children  and  of  the 
poor  and  ignorant.  Preparatory  to  the  receiving  of 
these  orders,  candidates  are  initiated  in  what  is 
called  the  Tonsure,  which  consists  in  the  cutting  off 
of  the  hair,  as  a  symbol  of  separation  from  the  world 
and  its  vanities — a  rite  which  appears  also  as  one  of 
the  ceremonies  of  the  religious  profession.  Tonsure, 
however,  is  not  reckoned  as  an  order ;  it  is  but  a 
distinguishing  characteristic  of  a  class.  In  the 
Roman  Church,  the  sacrament  of  orders  is  held  to 
produce  an  indelible  character,  and  therefore  to  be 
incapable  of  being  forfeited  and  of  being  validly 
repeated.  This,  however,  applies  only  to  the  holy 
orders.  The  Greek  Church  has  the  distinction  of 
major  and  minor  orders,  in  common  with  the  Roman. 
But  the  Greeks  commonly  exclude  sub-deaconship 
from  the  major  orders,  and  all  the  functions  of  the 
four  minor  orders  of  the  Roman  Church  are  united 
by  the  Greeks  in  one  single  order,  that  of  reader 
(anagnostes). 

In  the  Anglican  and  other  Reformed  Episcopal 
Churches,  the  three  higher  orders  of  bishop,  priest, 
and  deacon  are  alone  retained.  Au  Anglican 
clergyman  may  be  deprived  of  his  benefice,  or 
suspended  by  his  bishop  for  various  ecclesiastical 
offences ;  and  the  right  of  the  Court  of  Arches  to 
pronounce  sentence  of  deprivation  has  also  been 
recognised.  But  in  the  usual  case  of  deprivation, 
the  clergyman  does  not  forfeit  his  status  of  priest 
or  deacon,  which  can  only  be  lost  by  deposition  or 
degradation.  Statute  23,  Hen.  VIII.,  c.  1.  s.  6, 
reserves  to  the  ordinary  the  power  of  degrading 
clerks  convicted  of  treason,  petit  treason,  murder, 
and  certain  other  felonies  before  judgment.  A 
bishop  may  be  deprived  of  his  see  by  his  metro- 
politan, with  or  without  the  co-operation  of  a 
synod  of  the  bishops  of  the  province,  but  it  has 
been    questioned    whether    ht    can    be    lawfully 


deprived  of  his  orders  as  bishop.  A  clergyman  of 
the  Church  of  England  and  Ireland  cannot  become 
a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons.  In  the 
Presbyterian  and  other  non-episcopal  churches,  the 
ceremony  of  ordination  is  not  held  to  impart  any 
indelible  character.  A  minister  found  guilty  of 
heresy  or  immorality,  is  deprived  of  his  office  by 
deposition,  by  which  his  clerical  status  is  forfeited. 
His  removal  from  his  charge,  however,  in  any  other 
way,  does  not  affect  his  office  as  a  minister ;  and  a 
minister  removed  from  one  charge  to  another,  or, 
after  a  time,  inducted  into  a  new  charge,  is  not 
re-ordained.  A  minister  having  no  charge  or  flock, 
may  yet  dispeuse  the  sacraments,  if  duly  called 
upon.  A  minister  deposed  ceases  altogether  to  be  a 
minister,  and  is  no  more  capable  of  any  of  the 
functions  of  the  office,  than  if  he  had  never  been 
ordained. 

The  ceremony  of  imposition  of  hands  is  used  in 
almost  all  Protestant  churches  in  the  ordination  of 
ministers,  the  ordaining  bishop  or  presbyters  placing 
the  right  hand  on  the  head  of  the  person  ordained ; 
and  is  always  accompanied  with  prayer.  It  is 
deemed  a  proper  and  Scriptural  form  (1  Tim.  iv.  14), 
but  not  essential. 

In  the  Church  of  Scotland  and  other  Presbyterian, 
churches,  when  an  already  ordained  minister  is 
inducted  into  a  new  charge,  no  imposition  of  hands 
takes  place.  In  the  Scottish  and  American  Presby- 
terian churches,  candidates  for  the  ministry  are 
licensed  to  preach  the  gospel  before  being  called  to 
any  particular  charge,  and  are  then  styled  licentiates 
or  probationers.  They  are  licensed,  according  to  an 
old  phrase,  'for  trial  of  their  gifts,'  but  are  not 
entitled  to  dispense  the  sacraments. 

There  is  nothing  to  prevent  a  minister  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  or  any  Presbyterian  or  Inde- 
pendent church,  from  being  a  member  of  the  British 
House  of  Commons. 

O'RDIN  AL,  the  service  used  in  Episcopal  churches 
for  the  ordination  of  ministers.  The  English  ordinal 
was  drawn  up  by  a  commission  appointed  in  the 
third  year  of  Edward  VI.  (1550),  and  added  to  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer.  It  was  slightly  modified 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  was  again  revised  by 
the  Convocation  of  1661.  The  English  ordinal,  in 
its  general  structure,  resembles  the  ancient  services 
used  for  that  purpose,  but  possesses  much  greater 
simplicity,  and  has  some  features — e.  g.,  the  numer- 
ous questions  addressed  to  the  candidates — peculiar 
to  itself.  There  are  separate  services  for  the  '  mak- 
ing of  deacons'  and  the  'ordering  of  priests,'  but 
these  are  practically  joined  in  one,  and  used  on  the 
same  day.  The  service  for  the  consecration  of 
bishops  is  altogether  distinct. 

The  ordination  takes  place  at  one  of  the  Ember 
seasons,  and  during  the  public  service,  after  morning 
prayer  and  a  sermon  on  the  subject,  and  begins 
with  the  presentation  of  the  candidates  by  the  arch- 
deacon. The  bishop  inquires  as  to  their  fitness,  and 
commends  them  to  the  jirayers  of  the  congregation. 
The  litany  is  then  said  with  special  petitions  for  the 
candidates  for  each  order,  and  the  commuuioa 
service  commences  with  a  special  Collect,  epistle, 
and  gospel.  Between  the  epistle  and  gospel,  the 
oath  of  supremacy  is  administered,  and  the  candi- 
dates for  deacons'  orders  are  questioned  by  the 
bishop  and  ordained.  The  gospel  is  read  by  one  of 
the  newly-ordained  deacons.  The  candidates  for 
priests'  orders  are  then  solemnly  exhorted  and 
interrogated,  and  the  prayers  of  all  present  are 
asked  for  the  divine  blessing  upon  them.  For  this 
purpose  a  pause  is  made  in  the  service  for  silent; 
prayer.  After  this  the  hymn,  Veni  Creator  Suiritua 
(Come,  Holy  Ghost,  our  Souls  Inspire) — a  composi- 
tion of  great  antiquity,  supposed  to  be  as  old  as  the 


ORDINARIES— ORDINATION. 


4th  c. — is  sung,  ami  tlie  candidates  kneeling  before 
the  bishop,  he  and  the  assistant  presbyters  lay 
their  hands  upon  the  head  of  each,  with  the  words, 
'Receive  the  Holy  Ghost  Eot  the  office  and  work  of 
a  priest  in  the  Church  of  God,'  &c. 

The  only  other  ceremony  is  the  presentation  of 
each  candidate  with  the  Bible  in  token  of  authority 
to  preach ;  as  the  deacons  had  been  before  presented 
with  the  New  Testament  with  authority  to  read 
the  gospel.  The  service  concludes  with  the  admin- 
istration of  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 

The  consecration  of  bishops  is  performed  by 
an  archbishop,  or  some  bishop  appointed  in  his 
place,  and  two  or  more  of  his  suffragans,  and 
may  take  place  on  any  Sunday  or  holy  day.  The 
service  is  very  similar  to  that  for  the  ordination  of 
priests. 

O'RDIN  ARIES,  or  HONOURABLE  ORDI- 
NARIES, in  Heraldry,  certain  charges  composed  of 
Straight  lines,  and  in  very  common  use,  to  which 
writers  on  heraldry  had  assigned  abstruse  symboli- 
cal meanings,  but  whose  real  chief  peculiarity  seems 
to  be  that  they  originally  represented  the  wooden 
or  metal  fastenings  of  the  shields  in  use  in  actual 
warfare.  The  ordinaries  are  usually  accounted  nine 
— the  Chief,  Pale,  Fess,  Bar,  Bend,  Bend  Sinister, 
Cheveron,  Saltire,  aud  Cross.  Heralds  vary  a  little 
in  their  enumeration,  some  taking  in  the  Pile  in 
place  of  the  Bar.  Each  is  noticed  under  a  separate 
article, 

ORDINARY,  a  term  used  in  the  British  navy 
in  two  senses.  First,  as  regards  ships,  vessels  in 
ordinary  are  those  out  of  actual  use,  commonly 
dismasted,  and  occasionally  roofed  over,  to  protect 
them  from  the  weather.  They  are  congregated  near 
the  several  dockyards,  where  their  masts  and  gear 
lie  ready  for  their  immediate  fitting  for  sea  when 
required.  A  few  men  have  charge  of  each  vessel ; 
a  certain  number  of  vessels  constitute  a  division, 
with  a  lieutenant  in  command  ;  aud  a  line-of-battle- 
ship,  called  a  'guard-ship  of  ordiuary,'  is  responsible 
for  the  different  divisions  at  each  port.  The  skips 
are  moored  in  safe  places,  as  up  the  Medway,  in  the 
recesses  of  Portsmouth  aud  Plymouth  harbours,  &c. 

As  regards  men,  au  ordinary  seaman  is  one  capable 
of  the  commoner  duties,  but  who  nas  not  served 
long  enough  at  sea  to  be  rated  as  an  able  seaman 
(q.v.).  His  pay  is  £1,  lis.  per  month  on  entering, 
and  £1,  18s.  dd.  a  month  on  promotion  to  the  first- 
class. 

ORDINARY  (Lat.  ordinarhis)  is  the  name  com- 
monly given  to  a  person,  who,  in  virtue  of  his  office, 
and  in  his  own  consequent  right,  is  competent  to  do 
certain  acts  or  to  decide  certain  causes.  In  this  sense, 
there  are  many  functionaries  who  may  be  called  by 
the  name  ordinary.  But  the  word  in  canon  law, 
when  used  without  other  additions,  is  understood  to 
mean  the  bishop,  who  is  the  ordiuary  of  his  own 
diocese,  and  is  competent  of  himself  to  do  every  act 
necessary  for  its  government,  and  for  the  ordering 
of  the  spiritual  concerns  of  his  flock.  The  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  ordinary  is  called  by  that  name,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  '  extra-ordinary  jurisdiction,'  which 
arises  from  some  abnormal  circumstances,  and  from 
'delegated'  jurisdiction,  which  is  imparted  by  the 
ordinary  to  another  person  to  be  exercised  vica- 
riously. 

In  English  Law,  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction 
which  was  formerly  vested  in  bishops  and  their 
officers  relating  to  wills  and  marriages,  was  recently 
abolished,  and  transferred  to  a  new  judge,  called 
the  Judge  Ordinary,  who  is  entirely  disconnected 
with  the  church.  The  bishops  still  retain  their 
jurisdiction  in  matters  of  discipline  as  regards  the 
clergy. — In  Scotland,  the  Judge  Ordinary  generally 


means    the   sheriff  depute  or   substitute,  who  has 
ordinary  jurisdiction  iu  the  county.    Lord  Ordinal) 

is  the  name  given   to  certain  judges  of  the  Outei 
House  in  the  Court  of  Session. 

ORDINARY  OF  ARMS,  in  Heraldry,  an  index 
or  dictionary  of  armorial  coats,  arranged,  not  acC0rd< 
ing  to  names,  like  an  armory,  but  according  to  the 
leading  charges  iu  the  respective  .shields,  so  as  to 
enable  any  one  conversant  with  heraldic  language, 
on  seeing  a  shield  of  arms,  to  tell  to  whom  it 
belonged  A  very  imperfect  ordinary  for  Eg  gland 
is  appended  to  Edmonson's  Heraldry:  a  far  more 
complete  and  elaborate  work  of  the  same  kind, 
called  Papworth's  Ordinary  of  British  Armorials, 
is  now  in  course  of  publication. 

ORDINA'TION,  the  rite  or  ceremony  by  which 
ministers  of  the  Christian  Church  are  dedicated  to 
their  sacred  office.  The  use  of  a  ceremonial  for  such 
purposes  is  traceable  among  the  Jews  (Exod.  xxix. 
24,  Levit.  xxi.  10,  Num.  iii.  3)  ;  and  the  New 
Testament  contains  frequent  reference  to  the  specific 
ceremonial  of  ' imposition  of  hands'  (Acts  vi.  1 — 7, 
xiii.  1—4,  xiv.  23;  1  Tim.  iv.  14,  v.  22 ;  2  Tim.  i.  6). 
In  the  Roman,  the  Greek,  and  the  other  Eastern 
Churches,  this  rite  of  ordination  is  held  to  be  sacra- 
mental, and  it  is  reserved,  at  least  as  regards  the 
major  orders  (see  Orders,  Holy),  exclusively  to 
bishops.  In  extraordinary  cases,  it  was  permitted  to 
cardinals  and  to  certain  abbots  to  confer  the  minor 
orders.  Considerable  controversy  exists  among 
Catholic  writers  as  to  what  are  the  essential  portions 
(Materia  Sacramenti)  of  the  rite  of  ordination.  Some 
place  it  in  the  'imposition  of  hands,'  some  in  the 
'  presentation  of  the  instruments '  symbolical  of  each 
order.  The  controversy  derives  some  importance 
from  the  diversity  which  exists  between  the  Greek 
and  Soman  ceremonial ;  but  on  this  bead  Roman 
Catholics  maintain  that  the  essential  rites  are  con- 
tained alike  in  both  ceremonials.  As  regards  the 
validity  of  the  rite  of  ordination,  the  mere  fact  of 
its  being  conferred  by  a  bishop  suffices  ;  but  there  is 
not  any  part  of  the  Roman  discipline  which  is  more 
jealously  guarded  by  laws  than  the  administration  of 
orders.  The  candidate  can  only  be  lawfully  ordained 
by  'his  own  bishop'  (proprius  episcopvs),  or  with 
the  authority  of  his  own  bishop,  which  must  be 
communicated  to  the  ordaining  bishop  by  what  are 
called  dimissorial  letters.  The  candidate  may  be 
claimed  by  a  bishop  as  by  '  his  own  bishop ' 
tinder  any  of  four  titles — of  birth,  of  domicile,  of 
benefice,  or  of  connection  by  personal  service  ;  and 
if  an  ordination  be  attempted  without  some  one 
of  these  titles,  heavy  ecclesiastical  penalties  are 
incurred  as  well  by  the  ordain er  as  by  the  ordained. 
On  the  part  of  the  candidate  himself,  certain  quali- 
fications are  required  ;  and  certain  disqualifications 
created  or  propounded  by  the  canon  law,  called 
irregularities,  are  held  to  render  an  ordination  in 
some  cases  invalid,  and  in  all  unlawful. 

In  the  Church  of  England  and  other  Reformed 
Episcopal  churches,  the  rules  of  the  ancient  canon- 
law  are  retained,  by  which  no  one  could  be  ordained 
without  previous  examination  of  his  fitness,  or  wha 
was  disqualified  by  bodily  infirmity,  illegitimacy 
immorality,  or  simony,  or  who  was  unprovided  with 
a  title  (i.e.,  an  appointment  to  serve  in  some  church) 
which  should  provide  him  with  a  maintenance  ;  or 
who,  being  a  candidate  for  deacon's  orders,  was 
under  20,  and  for  priest's,  under  24  years  of  age_; 
but  the  age  for  admission  to  deacon's  orders  is 
changed  to  23.  A  college  Fellowship  is  admitted 
as  a  title.  (For  the  ceremony  of  Ordination  see 
Ordinal.)  A  person  can  only  be  ordained  by  the 
bishop  in  whose  diocese  he  is  to  serve,  except  t»n 
letters  dimmory  from  that  bishop  to  another. 


ORDNANCE— ORDNANCE  SURVEY. 


In  other  Reformed  churches  ordination  is  per- 
formed by  the  presbytery,  or  by  one  or  more 
ordinary  ministers.  Some  small  Protestant  deno- 
minations have  no  ceremony  of  ordination  whatever. 

O'RDNANCE  (ordinance,  primarily,  any  dis- 
position, arrangement,  or  equipment ;  and  then 
applied  incidentally  to  a  particular  part  of  the 
equipment  or  apparatus  of  war),  a  name  applied  to 
the  guns  and  munitions  of  an  army  generally,  and 
in  particular  to  the  great  guns.  Descriptions  of  the 
various  sorts  of  ordnance  will  be  found  under 
Cannon,  Firearms,  Gun,  Howitzer,  Mortar, 
Rifled  Ordnance. 

ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT,  one  of  the 
oldest  departments  under  the  crown,  was  abolished 
by  an  Order  in  Council  of  the  25th  May  1855,  after 
an  existence  of  at  least  400  years.  Its  constitution, 
its  important  functions,  and  the  causes  which  led  to 
its  dissolution,  will  be  found  under  Board  of  Ord- 
nance. The  early  history  of  the  department  is 
lost  in  the  middle  ages ;  but  it  appears  to  have  risen 
gradually  under  the  Lancastrian  kings,  the  first 
chiefs  having  been  the  commandants  of  the  king's 
artdlery.  A  Master  of  the  Ordnance  is  mentioned 
in  the  time  of  Richard  III. ;  but  we  read  of  John 
Louth  being  Clerk  of  the  Ordnance  as  early  as  1418. 
Henry  VIII.  constituted  the  Board,  adding  a  Lieu- 
tenant, a  Surveyor,  and  a  Storekeeper,  to  whom  a 
Clerk  of  the  Cheque  was  subsequently  joined.  With 
the  exception  of  the  last,  whose  office  was  abolished 
in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  this  organi- 
sation was  maintained  until  the  abolition  of  the 
whole.  In  1604,  James  I.  dignified  the  Master  and 
Lieutenant  with  the  respective  titles  of  Master- 
general  and  Lieutenant-general.  The  history  of  the 
Ordnance  Office  is  of  importance  in  British  history, 
as  in  all  wars  it  has  been  responsible  not  only  for  the 
management  of  the  materiel  of  the  armies,  but  also 
for  the  direction  of  the  personnel  of  the  artillery  and 
engineers. 

ORDNANCE  SELECT  COMMITTEE  is  a 
committee  composed  of  scientific  officers,  and 
advises  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War  on  all  inven- 
tions in  war  materiel  It  has  its  offices  at  Wool- 
wich, in  the  midst  of  the  manufactories  of  the 
Royal  Arsenal,  and  near  the  head-quarters  of  the 
royal  artdlery,  by  whom  most  of  the  designs  have 
to  be  practically  tested.  The  president  of  the 
committee  is  usually  a  general  officer  of  artillery ; 
and  a  captain  in  the  royal  navy  serves  as  vice- 
president.  The  members  comprise  two  artdlery 
officers,  one  officer  of  engineers,  and  one  of  the 
line.  The  secretary  and  assistant-secretary  are 
likewise  artillerists.  With  an  establishment  of 
clerks,  printers,  &c,  the  cost  of  the  committee 
amounted  for  1864  to  £6607,  exclusive  of  the  larger 
sum  involved  for  their  expensive  experiments. 

O'RDNANCE  SU'RVEY.  By  this  term  is 
understood  the  various  operations  undertaken  by 
the  Ordnance  department  of  the  British  govern- 
ment for  preparing  maps  and  plans  of  the  whole 
kingdom  and  its  parts.  The  idea  of  a  general 
map  of  the  country  to  be  executed  by  the  govern- 
ment was  first  proposed  after  the  rebellion  in 
1745,  when  the  want  of  any  reliable  map  of  the 
northern  parts  of  Scotland  was  much  felt  by  the 
officers  in  command  of  the  royal  troops.  Its  execu- 
tion was  intrusted  to  Lieutenant-general  Watson, 
the  deputy  quarter-master  of  North  Britain ; 
but  it  was  mostly  carried  out  by  Major-general 
Roy,  an  officer  of  engineers.  The  drawing,  on  a 
scale  of  one  inch  and  three-fourths  to  the  mile, 
was  completed  in  1755 ;  but  in  consequence  of  the 
war  which  broke  out  in  that  year,  was  never 
published.  In  1763  it  was  proposed  to  extend  the 
lUG 


survey  to  the  whole  kingdom ;  but  the  first  steps  to 
effect  this  were  taken  only  in  1784,  when  Major« 
general  Roy  commenced  measuring  a  base-line  on 
Hounslow  Heath,  near  London.  This  principal 
triangulation  was  designed  partly  for  astronomical 
purposes,  and  partly  as  a  basis  for  a  map  on  a 
small  scale.  The  base-line  was  remeasured  with 
great  care  in  1791 ;  and  detail  plans  were  com- 
menced by  officers  of  the  Royal  Engineers,  partly 
for  practising  them  in  military  drawing,  and  partly 
for  the  purpose  of  forming  plans  of  some  portions  of 
Kent  for  the  use  of  the  Ordnance.  The  principal 
object  was,  however,  the  instruction  of  a  corps  of 
military  surveyors  and  draughtsmen,  the  plans 
themselves  being  regarded  as  of  secondary  import- 
ance. In  1794,  the  survey  for  the  one-inch  map  was 
begun,  and  some  sheets  were  published  in  1796.  As 
the  series  of  principal  triangles  were  extended 
westwards  towards  the  Land's  End,  it  was  thought 
right  to  measure  another  base,  for  verification,  on 
Salisbury  Plain  in  1794 ;  and  two  other  base-lines 
were  subsequently  measured — one  in  1S01  at 
Misterton  Carr,  and  the  other  in  1806  on  Ruddlan 
Marsh.  Though  first  intended  chiefly  as  a  military 
map,  the  publication  of  the  survey  soon  created  a 
desire  on  the  part  of  the  public  for  better  maps, 
and  surveyors  were  then  hired  to  hasten  its  pro- 
gress. This,  however,  was  very  slow,  the  map  being 
at  one  time  entirely  suspended  during  the  war  in 
the  beginning  of  this  century,  and  even  the  parts 
which  were  executed,  having  been  done  by  contract, 
were  found  very  inaccurate.  In  this  condition  the 
survey  of  England  continued  during  the  first  quar- 
ter of  the  present  century,  sometimes  delayed  by 
the  government  from  motives  of  economy,  at  other 
times  urged  on  by  the  county  gentlemen,  who 
wished  the  map  either  as  a  hunting-map  or  for 
local  improvements. 

In  Scotland,  the  principal  triangulation  waa 
begun  in  1809,  but  was  discontinued  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  to  enable  the  persons  who  had  been 
employed  there  to  carry  forward  the  subordinate 
triangulation  required  for  constructing  the  detail 
maps  in  England.  In  1813  it  was  resumed,  and 
continued  steaddy  up  to  1819 ;  a  new  base-line  having 
been  measured  on  Belhelvie  Links,  near  Aberdeen, 
in  1817,  and  the  great  sector  used  at  various 
stations,  both  on  the  mainland  and  in  the  islands. 
In  1820  it  was  again  suspended,  was  resumed  in 
1821  and  1822,  and  anew  broken  off  in  1S23,  the 
large  theodolite  being  wanted  in  order  to  proceed 
with  the  principal  triangulation  in  South  Britain. 
In  1824  the  survey  of  Ireland  was  begun,  and 
nothing  more  was  done  in  Scotland  till  1838,  except 
that  some  detail  surveying  for  a  one-inch  map  was 
continued  for  a  few  years  in  the  southern  counties. 
The  chief  strength  of  the  surveying  corps  was  now 
transferred  to  Ireland.  A  map  of  that  country  was 
required  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  valuation 
which  should  form  the  basis  of  certain  fiscal  arrange- 
ments and  other  improvements  which  the  social 
evils  and  anomalies  of  Ireland  urgently  demanded. 
For  this  map  a  scale  of  six  inches  to  the  mile  was 
adopted,  as  best  suited  for  the  purposes  in  view. 
On  this  scale  the  whole  map  was  completed,  and 
published  in  1845,  though  the  first  portions  were  in 
an  imperfect  form,  and  needing  revision,  which  is 
now  going  on. 

In  1838  the  triangulation  of  Scotland  was 
resumed ;  and  the  survey  of  Ireland  having  been 
finished  in  1840,  surveys  for  a  six-inch  map  were 
begun  for  the  northern  portions  of  England  which 
had  not  been  mapped  on  the  one-inch  scale.  Ib 
connection  with  this  map,  the  base-line  on  Salisbury 
Plain  was  remeasured  with  great  accuracy  in  1849, 
and  its  length  found  36577*8581  feet.    In  1841.  some 


ORDNANCE  SURVEY. 


secondary  operations  for  a  map  of  Scotland,  also  on 
a  six-inch  scale,  were  begun ;  but  proceeded  so  slowly, 
that  in  1850  only  the  map  of  Wigtownshire  and  some 
parts  of  Lewis  were  completed.  Much  dissatisfac- 
tion having  been  expressed  in  Scotland  by  the  press 
and  public  bodies,  as  to  the  slow  progress  of  the 
map  and  the  six-inch  scale  on  which  only  it  was 
published,  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons 
(Lord  Elcho's)  recommended  the  six-inch  maps  to 
be  stopped,  and  the  one-inch  maji  completed  as 
speedily  as  possible.  This  change  produced  much 
discussion  as  to  the  relative  value  of  the  one-inch 
»nd  six-inch  scales  then  in  use,  and  the  expediency 
of  adopting  a  still  larger  scale  as  more  valuable  to 
the  public.  Circulars  were  issued,  asking  the  opinion 
of  various  public  bodies,  and  of  scientific  and  practical 
men,  as  to  the  proper  scale  for  a  great  national  survey. 
The  great  preponderance  of  opinion  was  in  favour 
of  a  scale  of  1-2500  of  nature,  or  nearly  one  inch  to 
the  acre.  This  scale  was  therefore  ordered  by  a 
treasury  minute  of  ISth  May  1855  (Lord  Palmer- 
Bton's),  and  though  subsequently  stopped,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  motion  by  Sir  Denham  Norreys  in  the 
House  of  Commons  in  June  1857,  was  again  recom- 
mended by  a  royal  commission  (December  1S57), 
and  ordered  to  be  resumed  by  another  treasury 
minute  (11th  September  1S5S).  Iu  1861  a  select 
committee  was  again  appointed,  and  reported  that  it 
is  desirable  that  the  cadastral  survey  on  the  scales 
directed  by  the  treasury  minute  of  the  ISth  May 
1855  be  extended  t.»  those  portions  of  the  United 
Kingdom  that  have  been  surveyed  on  the  scale  of 
one-inch  to  the  mile  only.  This  recommendation 
has  now  been  adopted  by  the  government,  and  the 
survey  is  at  present  proceeding  on  the  following 
scales  :  Towns  having  4000  or  more  inhabitants  are 
surveyed  on  a  scale  of  1-500  of  the  linear  measure- 
ment, which  is  equivalent  to  12672  inches  to  a  mile, 
or  41  §  feet  to  an  inch  ;  Parishes  (in  cultivated  dis- 
tricts) 1-2500  of  the  linear  measurement,  equal  to 
25344  inches  to  a  mile,  or  one  square  inch  to  an 
acre  ;  Counties  on  a  scale  of  six  inches  to  a  mile  ; 
Kingdom,  a  general  map  one  inch  to  a  mile. 

The  sheets  of  the  one-inch  map  join  together,  so 
as  to  form  a  complete  map  of  the  whole  kingdom. 
This  is  true  also  of  the  sheets  of  each  county  on  the 
six-inch  scale,  and  of  each  parish  on  the  1-2500 
scale,  but  the  sheets  of  different  counties  and 
parishes  are  not  connected.  The  1-2500  scale  also 
applies  only  to  cultivated,  popidous  and  mineral 
districts ;  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  other 
extensive  moorland  and  uncultivated  tracts,  being 
only  surveyed  on  the  six-inch  scale,  and  published 
on  the  one-inch  scale. 

The  state  of  the  survey,  at  the  commencement  of 
1873,  in  the  three  kingdoms,  was  as  follows  (Reports 
1872—1873): 

In  England — Durham,  Westmoreland,  Northum- 
berland, Cumberland,  Middlesex,  Surrey,  Isle  of  Man, 
with  portions  of  other  counties,  had  been  surveyed  on 
the  1-2500  scale,  and  maps  on  this  and  the  six-inch 
scale  were  being  published.  The  revision  and  publica- 
tion of  the  map  on  the  same  scale  had  begun  in  the 
southern  counties.  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  were 
published  on  the  six-inch  scale  only.  The  whole  king- 
dom on  the  one-inch  scale  was  published. 

In  Scotland,  the  whole  mainland,  except  part  of 
Sutherland,  Ross,  and  Cromarty,  had  been  surveyed 
and  drawn  on  the  25  and  6  inch  scales.  On  the  six- 
inch  scale,  17,086  square  miles  (including  the  isle  of 
Lewis)  had  been  published,  and  about  10,000  miles 
also  on  the  25-inch  plans.  Of  the  one-inch  map,  13,- 
098  square  miles  (including  most  of  the  counties  south 
of  Aberdeen)  had  been  completed  and  published  with 
hills. 

In  Ireland,  as  stated,  the  six-inch  maps  have  been 


long  published,  and  are  now  in  process  of  revision. 
A  one-inch  map  of  the  whole  in  outline  is  also 
published,  and  13,800  square  miles  completed  with 
hills.  The  engraving  of  hills  in  the  remainder  is 
also  being  proceeded  with. 

The  sketch  now  given  of  the  history  of  this  great 
national  undertaking  will  shew  that  it  hai 
conducted  at  different  tunes  on  different  scales  and 
plans,  and  that  the  system  now  pursued  was  only 
adopted  after  much  discussion  both  in  parliament 
and  out  of  doors.  In  some  respects  it  has  been  the 
mere  result  of  accident,  and  much  delay  and  great 
waste  of  public  money  have  residted  from  no  fixed 
and  well-matured  plan  having  been  adopted  in  the 
first  instance,  and  pursued  consistently  to  the  end. 
The  map  was  originally  begun  as  a  military  map, 
and  the  scale  of  one  inch  to  the  mile  chosen,  withe  ut 
considering  whether  some  other  scale  would  dot 
offer  greater  advantages.  Many  now  think  th«tt  a 
scale  a  little  larger,  and  an  aliquot  part  of  nature, 
such  as  1-50,000,  or  about  1J  inch  to  the  mde, 
would  have  been  preferable  for  the  small  map ;  in 
which  case  a  scale  of  1-10,000  of  nature,  or  about  6J 
inches,  might  have  been  chosen  for  the  intermediate, 
instead  of  the  six-inch  scale  selected  at  first  for 
mere  local  purposes  in  Ireland  Be  this  as  it  may, 
the  arguments  in  favour  of  the  one-inch  map  are, 
that  it  is  the  most  convenient  both  as  a  general  and 
travelling  map.  For  general  views  of  the  structure 
of  a  country,  the  distribution  and  relations  of  it3 
mountains,  plains,  valleys,  and  rivers,  the  one-inch 
is  admitted  to  be  superior  to  the  six-inch,  and  thus 
better  adapted  in  the  first  instance  for  laying  out 
roads,  railways,  or  other  extensive  public  works,  or 
for  the  publication  of  a  general  geological  survey. 
Such  a  map,  on  the  other  hand,  is  on  too  small  a 
scale  to  admit  of  correct  measurements  of  small  dis- 
tances ;  it  is  in  some  respects  a  generalised  picture, 
and  not  a  correct  plan.  The  six-inch  maps  were 
at  first  selected  in  Ireland  as  the  smallest  size  on 
which  correct  measurements  of  distances  and  areas 
could  be  made.  On  them  every  house  and  field, 
and  almost  every  tree  or  bush,  might  be  laid  down. 
Hence  they  are  superior  for  working  out  details, 
as  in  minute  surveys  of  railways  or  roads,  or 
the  complex  geological  structure  of  rich  mineral 
districts.  On  such  sheets,  too,  a  proprietor  or  farmer 
may  find  every  field  laid  down,  and  the  relative 
heights  indicated  by  contour  lines,  and  may  there- 
fore use  them  for  drainage  and  other  improvements. 
It  has  also  been  proposed  to  use  these  six-inch  maps 
as  a  record  of  sales  or  encumbrances  of  land,  thus 
lessening  the  cost  and  simplifying  the  transfer  of 
property.  On  the  other  hand,  their  size  unfits  them 
for  most  of  the  purposes  for  which  the  one-inch  map 
is  usefid,  and  the  contour  lines  give  a  far  less  vivid 
and  correct  impression  of  the  physical  feature  a  of  a 
country  than  the  hill  sketching  of  the  one-inch  map. 
Most  of  the  purposes  of  the  six-inch  p^s  are 
attained  in  a  still  more  perfect  manner  from  the 
25-inch  plans  or  cadastral  survey.  This  last  name 
is  taken  from  the  French  cadastre  (a  register  of 
lands),  and  is  defined  (in  the  Hecueil  des  Lois,  &c.) 
as  a  plan  from  which  the  area  of  land  may  be 
computed,  and  from  which  its  revenue  may  be 
valued.  The  purposes  to  which  these  large  plans 
may  be  applied  are,  as  estate  plans,  for  managing, 
draining,  and  otherwise  improving  land,  for  facili- 
tating its  transfer  by  registering  sales  or  encum- 
brances ;  and  as  public  maps,  according  to  which 
local  or  general  taxes  may  be  raised,  and  roads, 
railways,  canals,  and  other  public  works,  laid  out 
and  executed. 

Nearly  all  the  states  of  Europe  have  produced 
trigonometrical  surveys,  many  of  them  of  great 
excellence  as  scientific  works.     All  of  these  have 

107 


ORDNANCE  SURVEY-OREIDE. 


been  published,  or  arc  in  course  of  publication,  on 
convenient  scales;  generally  smaller  than  one  inch  to 
a  statute  mile. 

The  most  important  of  these  are : 

Austria  and  Northern  Italy,  scale  •g-jr.'jTnr  or  Ttns  0I  an  *ncn  to 

a  mile. 
Bavaria,   Baden,    Wurtpmberg-,   and    the    Hessen    territories 

TIT  WC  or  T1'18  ol  ar!  'ncn  t0  a  mile. 
Belgium,  -^^^  or  £' ns  <)f  an  inch  to  a  mile 
Denmark,  survey  map  in  preparation. 

--,  Iceland,  surveyed  and  published  on  different  scales. 

France,  To'.'iJ'O'T  or -5-1  hs  of  an  inch  to  a  mile;  and  a  reduction  to 

•jmrvjnny  or  5  miles  to  an  inch. 
Great  Britain,  1  inch,  6  inches,  and,  in  the  lowland  districts, 

25  inches  to  a  mile;    and  the   coast  survey,  general  chart-, 

2£  milos  to  an  inch  ;  harbours  and  bays,  from  2  inches  to  12 

inches  to  a  mil". 
Hanover  and  East  Prussia,  ny^innr  or  -j^rths  of  an  inch  to  a 

mile. 
Italy   (see   Sardinia,  Tuscany,  &c),   survey  maps  of   Naples, 

Rome,  &c,  in  progress. 
Greece  (French  survey)  uire.-innv  or  irr  miles  to  an  inch. 
Netherlands,  ToVSTTo"  01'  Itt  inches  to  a  mile. 
Prussia,  rOTT.'innr  or  -xjlhs  of  an  inch  to  a  mile,  and  many 

smaller. 
Russia,  survey  map  in  progress. 
S.irdinia,  TFnvtnnj-  or  ^th  of  an  inch  to  a  mile. 
Saxony,  st.-^oo  or  l£  inches  to  a  mile. 

Switzerland,  XuTsIfOTT  or  TTt,ls  of  an  inen  to  a  m^e- 
Spain  and  Po  tugal,  surveys  commenced. 
Sweden  and  N.irway,  surveys  in  progress. 
Tuscany  ^truyuxnr  or  about  3  miles  to  an  inch. 

The  greatest  extra  European  work  of  the  kind  is 
the  TrigonorrietriCal  Survey  of  India,  which  has 
'been  conducted  with  great  ability,  and  is  now  draw- 
ing to  a  close.  The  maps  are  published  on  a.  scale  of 
JToJfoo"  or  Jth  of  an  inch  to  a  mile. 

In  America,  the  Coast  Survey  of  the  United  States, 
a  map  of  great  accuracy  and  minute  detail,  has 
been  going  on  for  many  years.  The  geueral  charts 
are  published  on  a  scale  of  -g^-j—tf  or  -fths  of 
an  inch  to  a  mile ;  the  harbours  and  ports  -ju.-innr 
or  3|th  of  an  inch  to  a  mile.  No  systematic  survey 
has  yet  been  undertaken  for  the  interior  of  the 
country. 

No  portion  of  South  America  has  been  trigono- 
metrically  surveyed,  except  the  republics  of  Peru 
and  Chili,  which  are  in  progress. 

The  Geological  Survey,  though  under  a  different 
department  of  government  (Science  and  Art),  may 
be  shortly  noticed  here.  The  English  survey  was 
begun  in  June  1S35,  by  Sir  Henry  de  la  Beche,  and 
the  first  Report  on  the  Geology  of  Cornwall,  Devon, 
and  West  Somerset  was  published  in  1839.  The 
Irish  survey  was  begun  in  1S40,  but  was  subse- 
quently suspended  till  1845.  In  1854,  the  survey 
was  extended  to  Scotland.  The  surveys  are  made  on 
the  six-inch  maps  in  the  parts  of  the  country  where 
these  exist,  but  the  results  are  published  on  the 
one-inch  scale  only,  except  some  of  the  coal-fields, 
which  are  issued  also  on  the  six-inch  scale.  Besides 
the  maps,  sheets  of  sections,  horizontal  and  vertical, 
with  valuable  memoirs,  are  also  published.  The 
-geological  survey  of  England  began  in  the  west,  and 
how  extends  north  to  Lancashire,  and  east  to  the 
vicinity  of  London  and  Kent.  The  Irish  survey 
commenced  in  the  south,  and  is  now  published  to 
beyond  Dublin  on  the  east  coast,  and  the  vicinity 
of  Gal  way  on  the  west.  In  Scotland,  it  has  as  yet 
been  principally  confined  to  the  Lothians,  Fife,  and 
some  portions  of  the  neighbouring  counties,  of  which 
several  sheets  are  published. 

O'REGON,  one  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
in  lat.  42°— 46°  N,  long.  116°  40'— 124°  25'  W., 
bounded  N.  by  Washington,  from  which  it  is  chiefly 
separated  by  Columbia  lliver ;  E.  by  Idaho,  the  Lewis 
or  Snake  River  intervening;  S.  by  Nevada  and  Cali- 
fornia; and  W.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean;  being  350  miles 
108 


from  east  to  west,  by  275  from  north  to  south,  with 
an  area  of  95,274  square  miles.  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  Columbia,  and  its  branches — the  "Willamette, 
Deschute,  Snake  River,  and  the  Owyhee.  The 
Columbia  is  a  large  river,  navigable  106  miles  to  the 
Cascade  Mountains,  through  which  it  passes,  but  the 
entrance  is  difficult.  The  Willamette  drains  a  large 
and  fertile  valley  between  the  mountains  and  the 
ocean.  The  Cascade  Mountains,  which  have  extinct 
volcanic  peaks  from  4000  to  1 0,000  feet  high,  run  north 
and.  south,  dividing  the  state  into  two  unequal 
regions.  The  western  third  of  the  state,  bordering 
the  Pacific,  has  a  mild,  equable,  and  moist  climate, 
with  valleys  of  great  fertility,  where  pines  grow  from 
250  to  300  feet  high,  and  firs  from  4  to  10  feet  in 
diameter.  The  rainfall  at  Astoria  is  86  inches.  East 
of  the  mountains,  the  climate  is  dry  and  variable,  and 
the  soil  less  fertile.  Gold  is  found  near  the  Cascade 
Mountains,  in  the  S.  W.,  and  on  the  slopes  of  the 
Blue  Mountains,  in  the  N.  E.,  and  iron  on  the  Willa- 
mette River.  Superior  coal  has  been  discovered  in 
many  localities.  The  chief  agricultural  productions  are 
wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  and  apples.  The  great  forests 
abound  with  the  grisly  and  black  hear,  panther,  wild- 
cat, elk,  deer,  antelope;  among  the  birds  are  the 
California  vulture,  golden  eagle,  American  swan, 
Canadian  goose,  &c. ;  while  the  rivers  swarm  with 
salmon.  There  were,  in  1870,  22  organised  counties. 
Most  of  the  settlements  are  on  the  Columbia  River 
and  in  the  Willamette  Valley.  The  chief  towns  are 
— Salem,  the  capital,  on  the  Willamette  River,  pop. 
4000;  Portland,  10,000;  and  Oregon  City,  2000. 
Within  the  state  are  about  10,000  Indians  and  2000 
Chinese.  4  colleges  have  been  founded,  1  medical 
school,  numerous  academies  and  common  schools, 
daily  and  weekly  papers,  and  churches  of  several  de- 
nominations. 0.  was  the  name  formerly  given  to  the 
whole  territory  north  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  claimed 
by  the  United  States,  as  far  north  as  lat.  54°  40'  N. 
This  claim  was  resisted  by  the  British  government, 
which  asserted  a  right  to  the  entire  territory,  and  in 
1818a  treaty  was  made,  and  renewed  in  1827,  giving 
joint  occupation,  which  was  terminated  in  1846  by 
notice  from  the  United  States  government,  and  the 
question  seemed  likely  to  involve  the  two  countries  in 
Avar,  when  a  compromise  was  offered  by  Lord  Aber- 
deen, on  the  part  of  the  British  government,  and 
accepted  by  that  of  the  United  States,  by  which  the 
boundary  was  settled  on  the  49th  parallel.  The 
northern  portion  is  now  Washington,  and  the  eastern, 
Idaho  Territory.  The  coast  was  discovered,  and  Co- 
lumbia River  entered  in  1792  by  Captain  Gray,  of 
Boston.  It  was  explored  in  1804  and  1805  by  Cap- 
tains Lewis  and  Clarke,  U.  S.  Army.  In  1811,  John 
Jacob  Astor  founded  Astoria  as  a  trading-depot  of  the 
American  Fur  Company,  but  sold  out  afterwards  to 
the  North-west  Fur  Company.  The  growth  of  O.  has 
been  gradual  and  healthy,  for  while  it  possesses  great 
mineral  resources,  it  has  not  been  demoralised  by  great 
mining  excitements.  The  territorial  government  was 
organised  in  1848,  and  in  1859  it  was  admitted  as  a 
state.     Pop.  in  1860,  52,464;    1870,90,776. 

OREIDE,  a  new  alloy  lately  introduced  by  the 
French  as  a  substitute  for  ormolu,  which  it  excels  in 
its  gold-like  character.  There  are  two  formulas  for 
composing  it.  In  the  first  the  ingredients  are: 
copper,  100-0;  tin,  17'0;  magnesia,  6'0;  sal  ammo- 
niac, 3*6;  quicklime,  T80;  argols,  or  unrefined 
tartar,  9*0.  In  the  second,  zinc  is  substituted  for 
the  tin.  The  latter  does  not  possess  the  same  bril- 
liancy as  the  former.  The  metals  are  first  melted, 
and  the  other  ingredients,  after  being  thoroughly 
incorporated  together  by  powdering  and  mixing, 
are  slowly  added,  and  the  whole  is  kept  in  a  state  of 
fusion  for  about  an  hour,  and  the  scum  removed  from 
time  to  time. 


OREL-ORENBURG. 


OREL,  a  government  in  the  south-west  of  Central 
Russia,  bounded  on  the  W.  by  Little  Russia  and 
the  government  of  Smolensk.  Area,  17.3!).")  squaro 
miles;  pop.  (18671  1,578,018.  Bw  snrfaca  is  flat, 
with  rising  grounds  in  the  vicinity  of  the  towns  of 
Kromy  ami  Male-Arohangelsk,  from  which  the 
Oka  and  Soana  respectively  take  their  rise.  The 
government  is  drained  by  the  Desna  on  the  west,  an 
atlluent  of  the  Dnieper ;  the  Oka  on  the  north,  an 
affluent  of  the  Volga  ;  and  the  Sosna  on  the  east, 
an  affluent  of  the  Don.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  the 
climate  mild.  The  western  part  of  the  government 
abounds  in  woods.  In  the  district  of  JBriansk,  in 
the  north-west,  there  are  a  number  of  iron  mines. 
Agriculture  and  the  cultivation  and  preparation  of 
hemp  are  the  chief  employments  of  the  people. 
Corn  is  very  extensively  grown,  and  great  quan- 
tities are  sent  to  St  Petersburg,  Riga,  and  the 
Black  Sea  ports  for  export.  The  principal  article 
wf  export  is  wheat,  in  grain  and  in  flour.  Sail- 
cloth, rope  and  hemp-yarn  manufactures  are  carried 
on  ;  glass  and  iron  works  are  numerous.  The  hemp 
of  0.  is  reckoned  the  best  in  Russia ;  and  the  oil 
obtained  from  hemp-seed,  and  used  in  Russia  as  an 
article  of  food,  is  extracted  at  2000  mills.  The 
rearing  of  cattle  and  horses  is  much  attended 
to ;  almost  all  the  considerable  landowners  keep 
studs. 

ORE'L,  a  thriving  town  of  Great  Russia,  capital  of 
the  government  of  the  same  name,  stands  on  the  Oka, 
at  its  confluence  with  the  Orlik,  226  miles  south- 
south-west  of  Moscow,  and  678  miles  south-south- 
east of  St  Petersburg.  It  was  founded  in  1566,  as  a 
stronghold  in  defence  of  what  was  then  the  Russian 
frontier,  against  the  inroads  of  the  Tartar  tribes  of 
the  Crimea.  Its  importance  as  a  fortress  ceased 
after  the  annexation  of  Little  Russia,  and  it  then 
became  a  commercial  town.  The  town  owes  much 
to  its  advantageous  position  on  a  navigable  river  in 
the  midst  of  the  most  fertile  provinces  of  Russia. 
The  projected  railway  from  Moscow  to  Sebastopol 
will  pass  through  O.,  and  the  Witebsk  line  will 
afford  it  direct  railway  communication  with  the 
port  of  Riga,  and  thus  greatly  facilitate  its  export 
trade.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  contains 
numerous  churches;  its  houses  are  for  the  most 
part  constructed  of  wood  There  is  an  important 
ferry  here  over  the  Oka.  The  chief  manufacturing 
estabbshments  in  the  town  are  yarn  and  rope 
factories.  The  principal  articles  of  export  are 
cereals  and  hemp.  On  the  7th  June  1848,  O. 
suffered  severely  from  a  great  fire,  which  destroyed 
1237  houses,  four  bridges,  and  a  number  of  granaries. 
Pop.  43,500. 

ORELLI,  Johanx  Kaspar,  an  eminent  philo- 
logist and  critic,  was  born  at  Zurich,  13th  February 
1787.  His  father  was  long  the  Landvogt  of 
Wadenschweil.  He  studied  in  the  Carolinum  at 
Zurich,  and  betook  himself  enthusiastically  to  the 
study  both  of  the  ancient  and  of  modern  lan- 
gnag-s  and  literature.  In  1806,  he  was  ordained 
as  a  clergyman.  He  spent  some  years  as  a  tutor  at 
Bergamo  ;  and  while  there,  pubbshed,  in  1810,  two 
parts  of  a  work  entitled  Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  der 
Ital.  Poesie.  In  1813,  he  became  a  teacher  in  the 
cantonal  school  at  Chur ;  in  1819,  Professor  of 
Eloquence  and  Hermeneutics  in  Zurich ;  and  after 
the  foundation  of  the  Zurich  High  School,  in  which 
he  took  an  active  part,  he  was  one  of  its  chief  orna- 
ments. There  never  was  a  man  more  zealous  in  the 
cause  of  education  It  was  during  this  latter  and  most 
distinguished  period  of  his  career  that  he  produced 
most  of  his  learned  works,  and  trained  to  a  correct 
knowledge  of  antiquity  a  numerous  band  of  scholars. 
His  pohtical  sympathies   and  opinions  were   not, 


however,  confined  to  the  ancient  world  ;  ho  took 
the  liveliest  interest  in  the    I  .-co  for 

freedom,  and  in  the  political  reformation  of  hie 
native  oountry.  Ob  died  6th  January  Isl'.i.  O. 
edited  many  classical  authors  w  mono, 

teste,  and  acute  discrimination  ;    in    paiticu 
editions  of  Horace  (2  vols.  Zur.  1837     1  838/,  Tacitus 
(2  vols.  Ziir.  1846—1847),  and  C 
1826—1831)  deserve  mention;  also  an  Onon 
Tullianlanum  (3  vols.   Zur. 

in   association  with    Baiter,  and   an    /,  ■ 

Latinantm  Selectarum  C'ollectio  (2  vols  Ziir 
1828). 

O'RENBURG,  one  of  the  eastern  frontier  govern- 
ments of  European  Russia,  is  bounded  on  the  S.E. 
by  the  river  Ural,  and  extends  between  the  govern- 
ments of  Tobolsk  on  the  N.E.  and  Samara  on  the 
S.YV.  Aren,  of  the  government  proper,  5 
square  miles;  psp,  (1867)  840,704;  hut  the  so-called 
Orenburg  Country,  including  the  recently-organised 
government  of  Samara  (q.  v.),  the  lands  of  the 
Orenburg  and  Ural  Cossacks,  and  of  Khirghiz  tribes, 
under  different  names,  extends  over  an  area  of 
530,830  square  miles,  from  the  Volga  to  the  Sir- 
Daria  and  the  Amu-Daria,  and  has  2,370,275 
inhabitants.  The  populations,  the  surface,  soils, 
flora,  and  fauna  of  this  extensive  country  are  of 
the  most  various  kinds.  The  government  is  one  of 
the  most  elevated  in  the  empire ;  but  it  also  con- 
tains extensive  low-lying  tracts  and  steppes.  It  is 
traversed  by  numerous  navigable  rivers,  by  means 
of  which  and  by  canals  it  is  in  communication  with 
the  Caspian  and  Baltic  Seas,  and  with  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  The  main  streams  are  the  Kama,  a  branch 
of  the  Volga,  with  its  affluents  the  Bielaia  and 
Tchussovaia ;  the  Tobol,  a  branch  of  the  Obi  and 
the  Ural.  Forests  abound,  except  in  the  south  ;  the 
soil  is  fertile,  but  is  not  yet  much  cultivated ;  and 
other  natural  resources  are  rich,  but  in  great  part 
undeveloped  The  cbmate  is  in  general  healthy. 
The  government  is  divided  into  nine  districts ;  the 
centre  of  the  governor-generalship  is  at  Orenburg 
(q.  v.),  though  the  chief  town  is  Ufa.  The  inhabit- 
ants are  made  up  of  Russians,  Bashkir,  Tartar  and 
Khirghiz  tribes,  Kalmucks  and  certain  Finnish 
tribes.  The  trade  is  chiefly  with  Bokhara,  Khiva, 
Tashkent,  and  the  Khirghiz ;  the  exports  are  gold, 
silver,  and  other  metals,  corn,  skins,  and  manu- 
factured goods ;  the  imports,  cattle,  cotton— the 
demand  for  and  supply  of  which  have  greatly 
increased  since  the  commencement  of  the  American 
war — and  the  other  articles  of  Asiatic  trade.  The 
imports  are  either  disposed  of  to  Russian  merchants 
in  the  custom-house  on  the  .frontier,  or  are  carried 
by  Asiatic  traders  into  Russia,  and  sold  at  the  great 
national  market  of  Nijni-Novgorod  In  1862,  the 
value  of  the  imports,  as  checked  by  custom-bouse 
inspection,  was  £900,000,  and  the  value  of  the 
exports  £485,000.  The  actual  amount,  however,  of 
the  exports  and  imports  of  this  government  is  much 
greater  than  that  represented  by  the  figures  given, 
as,  owing  to  the  border-bne  being  so  extensive  and 
sparsely  peopled,  smuggling  is  largely  carried  on. 
There  are  in  the  province  numerous  iron  and  copper 
works,  as  well  as  valuable  gold  diggings,  both 
belonging  to  the  crown  and  to  private  individuals. 
In  1861,  the  crown  gold-mines  yielded  33  puds 
(a  pud  =  36  lbs.  Avor.,  nearly;  of  gold,  and  the 
private  gold-mines  64£  puds.  There  are  also 
many  small  arms  and  other  factories,  and  valuable 
salt-mines.  The  Bashkir  tribes  are  the  chief 
traders ;  cattle-breeding  and  fishing  are  carried 
on  by  the  Ural  Kossacks.  The  principal  fair  in 
the  government  is  that  of  the  district  town  of 
Mensebnsk,  where  about  £170,000  worth  of  goods 
is  sold  annually. 

109 


ORENBURG— ORFILA. 


ORENBURG,  a  town  on  the  eastern  frontier  of 
European  Russia,  in  the  government  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  river  Ural,  1393  miles  south-east  of  St 
Petersburg,  lat.  51°  45'  N.,  long.  88°  6'  E.  The 
foundation  of  the  fortress  and  town  were  laid  here 
in  1742.  Pop.  33,400.  It  is  the  centre  of  the 
governor-generalship  of  the  government  of  the  same 
name,  has  an  excellent  custom-house,  and  carries  on 
an  extensive  trade  with  Khirghiz  and  other  Asiatic 
tribes.  It  imports  cotton,  silk-stuffs,  and  shawls 
from  Bokhara,  Khiva,  and  Tashkent;  tea  (brought 
mostly  on  camels)  from  China ;  and  sheep  and  cattle 
from  the  Kossacks  and  Khirghiz.  The  sheep  are 
killed  in  autumn  for  the  fat  and  skins,  which  are 
purchased  by  Russian  merchants.  Corn,  skins,  and 
metals  are  the  principal  exports.  The  imports 
amount  annually  to  about  £500,000,  and  the  exports 
to  about  £250,000. 

OREODA'PHNE,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Lauracece,  sometimes  called  Mountain 
Laurel.  The  fruit  is  succulent,  partly  immersed 
in  a  deep  thick  cup  formed  of  the  tube  of  the  calyx. 
O.  opifera  is  a  native  of  the  countries  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  Amazon.  A  volatile  oil  obtained  from 
the  bark  is  used  as  a  liniment,  and  when  kept  for  a 
Bhort  time  deposits  a  great  quantity  of  camphor. — 
O.  cupularis  is  a  very  large  tree  with  strong-scented 
wood,  the  bark  of  which  yields  the  cinnamon  of 
Mauritius.  It  grows  also  in  Bourbon  and  Mada- 
gascar.— O.  fcetens,  a  native  of  the  Canaries,  has 
wood  {Til-wood)  of  a  most  disagreeable  odour.  O. 
bullata,  found  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  is  also 
remarkable  for  the  disagreeable  odour  of  its  wood, 
the  Stink-wood  of  the  colonists  ;  but  it  is  hard, 
durable,  beautiful,  takes  an  excellent  polish,  and  is 
used  in  ship-building. 

ORES.  Any  mineral  or  combination  of  minerals 
containing  as  much  metal  as  to  be  profitably 
extracted,  i?  reckoned  by  miners  an  ore.  The 
proportion  necessary  for  this  purpose  is,  of  course, 
very  various,  according  to  the  value  of  the  par- 
ticular metal  and  the  facility  or  difficulty  of  reducing 
the  ore.  A  rock  containing  only  1  per  cent,  of 
iron  is  never  called  an  ore  ;  one  containing  the  same 
proportion  of  gold  is  a  very  rich  ore.  Metals  rarely 
exist  in  ores  in  a  pure  or  native  state ;  they  are 
almost  always  chemically  combined  with  oxygen, 
sulphur,  or  other  elements. 

Ores  present  themselves  in  a  multiplicity  of  forms 
and  positions  in  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth.  Some- 
times they  are  sprinkled  through  the  whole  mass 
of  the  rocks  in  which  they  occur,  as  is  often  the 
case  with  gold,  tin  ore,  and  magnetic  iron  ore. 
Sometimes  they  are  deposited  in  regular  parallel 
beds  between  the  strata  of  other  rocks,  as  in  the 
case  of  many  iron-stones  and  of  cupreous  schist. 
At  other  times,  they  occur  in  irregular  lumps  or 
concretions;  or  they  fill  up  the  fissures  of  other 
rocks,  forming  veins,  particularly  silver,  copper,  and 
lead  ores ;  or  lastly,  they  are  found  in  detritus, 
gravel,  sand,  and  other  alluvial  deposits.  This 
fast  form  is  evidently  the  result  of  disturbance  and 
transport  from  some  of  the  other  positions  above 
specified.  And  as  the  metallic  parts  of  the  mineral 
masses  or  rocks  so  disturbed  and  transported  are 
the  heaviest,  and  are  insoluble  in  water,  they  are 
more  concentrated  in  these  deposits  than  in  their 
original  position,  and  can  therefore  be  extracted 
with  greater  advantage.  Such  deposits  are  called 
washings,  from  the  metal  being  separated  from  the 
other  debris  by  the  process  of  washing.  Gold  and 
platinum  are  mostly  got  in  this  way  in  the  Ural 
and  Altai  Mountains,  and  gold  in  Guiana,  Cali- 
fornia, and  Australia.  Tin  ore  is  also  found  in 
alluvial  deposits  in  Cornwall  and  India.  The 
110 


reduction  of  ores  is  treated  of  under  Metallurgy 
and  the  names  of  the  several  metals. 

ORFILA,  Mateo  Jos^  Bonaventura,  a  cele- 
brated physician  and  chemist,  and  the  recognised 
founder  of  the  science  of  toxicology,  was  born  at 
Mahon  in  Minorca,  24th  April  1787.  His  father, 
who  was  a  merchant,  intended  that  his  son  should 
follow  the  same  pursuit ;  but  young  O.  shewed  so 
strong  a  predilection  for  the  study  of  medicine,  that 
all  thoughts  of  a  mercantile  career  for  him  were 
dismissed,  and  he  was  sent  to  the  medical  schoola 
of  Valencia  and  Barcelona.  In  the  latter  of  these 
seminaries,  he  so  distinguished  himself,  that  the 
junta  of  the  province  resolved  to  defray  the  expense 
of  his  further  education  in  Paris,  on  condition  of 
his  returning  to  Barcelona  to  fill  one  of  the  chairs 
in  their  medical  school ;  and  accordingly  O.  departed 
for  Paris  in  1807.  The  junta  were  prevented  from 
fulfilling  the  agreement  by  the  outbreak  of  war  with 
France ;  but  O.,  who  had  now  made  many  friends 
in  Paris,  was  enabled  to  continue  his  studies.  In 
October  1811,  he  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Medicine,  and  immediately  commenced  a  private 
course  of  lectures  on  chemistry,  botany,  and 
anatomy,  which  was  largely  attended,  and,  along 
with  his  successful  practice,  soon  rendered  him 
famous.  In  1813  appeared  the  first  edition  of 
his  celebrated  work  on  poisons,  entitled  Traite" 
des  Poisons  (ires  des  Regnes  Mineral,  Vegetal,  et 
Animal,  or  Toxicologic  Generate  (Paris).  The  work 
was  commended  by  the  Institute,  and  rapidly  passed 
through  a  number  of  editions.  In  1816,  on  the 
occasion  of  a  short  visit  to  Minorca,  he  met  with  an 
enthusiastic  reception ;  and  on  his  return  to  Paris, 
became  court  physician.  In  1819,  he  was  created  a 
citizen  of  France,  and  became  professor  of  juris- 
prudence ;  and  in  1823,  was  transferred  to  the  chair 
of  chemistry,  to  which,  in  1831,  was  added  the  dean- 
ship  of  the  faculty.  His  prosperity  was  now  at  the 
full ;  his  lectures  were  more  popular  than  ever ; 
his  works  were  reckoned  as  master-pieces ;  and  he 
himself,  by  the  geniality  of  his  disposition  and  his 
many  accomplishments,  was  a  universal  favourite 
in  society.  In  all  cases  of  suspected  poisoning,  he 
was  a  most  important  witness.  From  1S34,  he 
was  a  member  of  the  council  of  public  instruction, 
and  procured  the  passing  of  many  useful  measures, 
such  as  the  creation  of  secondary  medical  schools, 
and  the  multiplication  of  means  of  instruction  and 
observation.  He  also  organised  the  clinical  hospital, 
founded  a  new  botanic  garden,  and  a  museum  of  com- 
parative anatomy,  which  is  now  known  by  his  name. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  of  1848,  he  Was 
deprived  of  his  place  in  the  medical  faculty  on 
account  of  his  conservative  opinions,  but  retained 
his  professorship.  He  died  at  Paris,  March  12, 
1S53.  His  great  work  on  toxicology  has  gained 
for  him  undying  fame  ;  it  is  a  vast  mine  of 
information,  the  result  of  the  author's  solitary 
indefatigable  researches  ;  and  includeo  symptoms  of 
poisoning  of  all  kinds,  the  appearancen  in  the  body 
to  which  poisons  give  rise,  their  action,  and  the 
means  for  their  detection.  It  is  well  written,  and 
exhibits  the  accuracy  of  language  equally  with  the 
sound  judgment  of  its  author.  His  other  works 
are  not  nearly  so  famous,  partaking  more  of  the 
character  of  compilations  ;  the  chief  of  them  are — 
ElCmens  de  Chimie  appliques  &  la  Medecine  (Paris, 
1817  ;  8th  edition,  1851) ;  Traite  de  Medecine  Legale 
(1823—1825 ;  4th  edition,  1847) ;  Memoires  sur 
Plusieurs  Questions  Medico-legales  (Paris,  1839) ; 
and  Recherches  sur  V empoisonnement  par  VAcide 
Arsenieux,  &c.  (Paris,  1841).  He  also  contributed 
largely  to  various  journals,  dictionaries,  encyclo- 
paedias, and  other  periodicals.  He  has  left  a  number 
of  Memoirs,  which  have  not  yet  been  published. 


ORGAN. 


ORGAN*  (Gr.  organon,  a  contrivance  requiring 
skill  on  the  part  of  the  user  of  it),  a  munoaJ 
instrument  played  by  tinker  keys,  ami  in  general 
partly  also  by  foot- keys,  and  consisting  of  a  large 
number  of  pipes  of  metal  and  wood  made  to  sound 
by  a  magazine  of  wind  accumulated  by  bellows,  and 
admitted  at  will  by  the  player.  The  following 
description  i3  necessarily  restricted  to  the  most 
fundamental  arrangements  of  this  very  complicated 
instrument.  As  met  with  in  cathedrals  and  large 
churches,  the  organ  comprises  four  departments, 
each  in  most  respects  a  separate  instrument  with  its 
own  mechanism,  called  respectively  the  great-organ, 
the  choir-organ,  the  sicell-organ,  and  the  pedal- 
organ.  Each  has  its  own  clavier  or  keyboard,  but 
the  different  claviers  are  brought  into  juxtaposition, 
bo  as  to  be  under  the  control  of  one  performer. 
Claviers  played  by  the  hands  are  called  manuals  ; 
by  the  feet,  pedals.  Three  manuals,  belonging  to 
the  choir,  great,  and  swell  organs  respectively,  rise 
above  each  other  like  steps,  in  front  of  where  the 
performer  sits ;  while  the  pedal-board  by  which  the 
pedal-organ  is  played  is  placed  on  a  level  with  his 
feet.  The  condensed  air  supplied  by  the  bellows  is 
conveyed  through  wooden  tubes  or  trunks  to  boxes, 
called  wind-chests,  one  of  which  belongs  to  each 
department  of  the  organ.  Attached  to  the  upper 
part  of  each  wind-chest  is  a  sound-board,  an 
ingenious  contrivance  for  conveying  the  wind  at 
pleasure  to  any  individual  pipe,  or  pipes,  exclusively 
of  the  rest.  It  consists  of  two  parts,  an  upper 
board  and  an  under  board.  On  the  upper  board 
rest  the  pipes,  of  which  a  number  of  different 
quality,  ranged  behind  each  other,  belong  to  each 
note.  In  the  under  board  is  a  row  of  parallel 
grooves,  running  horizontally  backwards,  corres- 
ponding each  to  one  of  the  keys  of  the  clavier.  On 
any  of  the  keys  being  pressed  down,  a  valve  is 
opened  which  supplies  wind  to  the  groove  belonging 
to  it.  The  various  pipes  of  each  key  stand  in  a  line 
directly  above  its  groove,  and  the  upper  surface  of 
the  groove  is  perforated  with  holes  bored  upwards 
to  them.  Were  this  the  whole  mechanism  of  the 
sound-board,  the  wind,  on  entering  any  groove, 
would  permeate  all  the  pipes  of  that  groove  ;  there 
is,  however,  in  the  upper  board,  another  series  of. 
horizontal  grooves  at  right  angles  to  those  of  the 
lower  board,  supplied  with  sliders,  which  can,  to  a 
small  extent,  be  drawn  out  or  pushed  in  at  pleasure 
by  a  mechanism  worked  by  the  draw-stops  placed 
within  the  player's  reach.  Each  slider  is  perforated 
with  hoies,  which,  when  it  is  drawn  out,  complete 
the  communication  between  the  wind-chest  and  the 
pipes :  the  communication  with  the  pipes  imme- 
diately above  any  slider  being,  on  the  other  hand, 
closed  up  when  the  slider  is  pushed  in.  The  pipes 
above  each  slider  form  a  continuous  set  of  one 
particular  quality,  and  each  set  of  pipes  is  called  a 
stop.  Each  department  of  the  organ  is  supplied 
with  a  number  of  stops,  producing  sounds  of  different 
quality.  The  great-organ,  some  of  whose  pipes 
appear  as  show-pipes  in  front  of  the  instrument, 
contains  the  main  body  and  force  of  the  organ. 
Behind  it  stands  the  dwir-organ,  whose  tones  are 
less  powerful,  and  more  fitted  to  accompany  the 
voice.  Above  the  choir-organ  is  the  swell-organ, 
whose  pipes  are  enclosed  in  a  wooden  box  with  a 
front  of  louvre-boards  like  Venetian  bbinds,  which 
may  be  made  to  open  and  shut  by  a  pedal,  with  a 
view  of  producing  crescendo  and  diminuendo  effects. 
The  pedal-organ  is  sometimes  placed  in  an  entire 
6tate  behind  the  choir-organ,  and  sometimes  divided, 
and  a  part  arranged  on  each  side.  The  most  usual 
compass  of  the  manuals  is  from  C  on  the  second 
line  below  the  bass  staff,  to  D  on  the  third  space 
above  the  treble   staff;    and  the   compass  of  the 


? 


pedals  is  from  the  same  C  to  the  D  between  the 
bass  and  treble  staves.  The  real  compass  of  notes 
is,  as  will  be  seen,  much  greater. 

Organ-pipes  vary  much  in  form  and  material,  but 
belong  to  two  great  classes,  known  as  moulh-pipe* 
(or  flute-pipes)  and  reed-pipes.  A  section  of  one  of 
the  former  is  represented  in  the  figure.  Its 
essential  parts  are  the  foot  a,  the  body  b, 
and  a  flat  plate  c,  called  the  language, 
extending  nearly  across  the  pipe  at  the 
point  of  junction  of  foot  and  body.  There 
is  an  opening,  de,  in  the  pipe,  at  the  spot 
where  the  language  is  discontinuous.  The 
wind  admitted  into  the  foot  rushes  through 
the  narrow  slit  at  d,  and,  in  impinging 
against  e,  imparts  a  vibratory  motion  to 
the  column  of  air  in  the  pipe,  the  result 
of  which  is  a  musical  note,  dependent  for 
its  pitch  on  the  length  of  that  column 
of  air,  and  consequently  on  the  length  of 
the  body  of  the  pipe :  by  doubling  the 
length  of  the  pipe,  we  obtain  a  note  of  half  the 
pitch,  or  lower  by  an  octave.  Such  is  the  general 
principle  of  all  mouth-pipes,  whether  of  wood  or 
of  metal,  subject  to  considerable  diversities  of 
detail.  Metal  pipes  have  generally  a  cylindrical 
section  ;  wooden  pipes,  a  square  or  oblong  section. 
A  mouth-pipe  may  be  stopped  at  the  upper  end  by 
a  plug  called  a  tompion,  the  effect  of  which  is  to 
lower  the  pitch  an  octave,  the  vibrating  column  of 
air  being  doubled  in  length,  as  it  has  to  traverse  the 
pipe  twice  before  making  its  exit.  Pipes  are  some- 
times half-stopped,  having  a  kind  of  chimney  at  the 
top.  The  reed-pipe  consists  of  a  reed  placed  inside 
a  metallic,  or  occasionally  a  wooden  pipe.  This  reed 
is  a  tube  of  metal,  with  the  front  part  cut  away, 
and  a  tongue  or  spring  put  in  its  place.  The  lower 
end  of  the  spring  is  free,  the  upper  end  attached  to 
the  top  of  the  reed ;  by  the  admission  of  air  into  the 
pipe,  the  spring  is  made  to  vibrate,  and  in  striking 
either  the  edge  of  the  reed  or  the  air,  produces  a 
musical  note,  dependent  for  its  pitch  on  the  length 
of  the  spring,  its  quality  being  determined  to  a  great 
extent  by  the  length  and  form  of  the  pipe  or  bell 
within  which  the  reed  is  placed.  When  the  vibrat- 
ing spring  does  not  strike  the  edge  of  the  reed,  but 
the  air,  we  have  what  is  called  the  free  reed,  similar 
to  what  is  in  use  in  the  Harmonium  (q.  v.).  To 
describe  the  pitch  of  an  organ-pipe,  terms  are  used 
derived  from  the  standard  length  of  an  open  mouth- 
pipe  of  that  pitch.  The  largest  pipe  in  use  is  the 
32-feet  C,  which  is  an  octave  below  the  lowest  C  of 
the  modern  pianoforte,  or  two  octaves  below  the 
lowest  C  on  the  manuals  and  pedal  of  the  organ : 
any  pipe  producing  this  note  is  called  a  32-feet  C 
pipe,  whatever  its  actual  length  may  be.  By  a  32- 
feet  or  16-feet  stop,  we  mean  that  the  pipe  which 
speaks  on  the  lowest  C  on  which  that  stop  appears, 
has  a  32-feet  or  a  16-feet  tone. 

The  stops  of  an  organ  do  not  always  produce  the 
note  properly  belonging  to  the  key  struck ;  some- 
times they  give  a  note  an  octave,  or,  in  the  pedal- 
organ,  even  two  octaves  lower,  and  sometimes  one 
of  the  harmonics  higher  in  pitch.  Compound  or 
mixture  stops,  have  several  pipes  to  each  key,  corres- 
ponding to  the  different  harmonics  of  the  ground- 
tone.  There  is  an  endless  variety  in  the  number 
and  kinds  of  stops  in  different  organs ;  some  are, 
and  some  are  not  continued  through  the  whole 
range  of  manual  or  pedaL  Some  of  the  more 
important  stops  get  the  name  of  open  or  stopped 
diapason  (a  term  which  implies  that  they  extend 
throughout  the  whole  compass  of  the  clavier)  ;  they 
are  for  the  most  part  16-feet,  sometimes  32-feet 
stops  ;  the  open  diapason  chiefly  of  metal,  the  close 
chiefly  of  wxkL     The  duiciana  is  an  8 -feet  manual 


ORGAN,  ORGANIC,  ORGANISM— ORGANIC  ANALYSIS. 


stop,  of  small  diameter,  so  called  from  the  sweet- 
ness of  its  tone.  Among  the  reed-stops  are  the 
clarion,  oboe,  bassoon,  and  vox  humana,  deriving 
their  names  from  real  or  fancied  resembl-uces  to 
these  instruments  and  to  the  human  voice.  Of  the 
compound-stops,  the  most  prevalent  in  Britain  is 
the  sesquialtera,  consisting  of  four  or  five  ranks  of 
open  metal  pipes,  often  a  17th,  19th,  22d,  26th,  and 
29th  from  the  ground-tone.  The  resources  of  the 
organ  are  further  increased  by  appliances  called 
couplers,  by  which  a  second  clavier  and  its  stops  can 
be  brought  into  play,  or  the  same  clavier  can  be 
united  to  itself  in  the  octave  below  or  above. 

Organs  are  now  generally  tuned  on  the  equal 
temperament.  See  Temperament.  The  notation 
for  the  organ  is  the  same  as  for  the  pianoforte,  in 
two  staves  in  the  treble  and  bass  clefs  ;  but  in  old 
compositions,  the  soprano,  tenor,  and  alto  clefs  are 
used. 

Instruments  of  a  rude  description,  comprising 
more  or  less  of  the  principle  of  the  organ,  seem  to 
have  existed  early.  Vitruvius  makes  mention  of  a 
hydraulic  organ,  but  his  description  is  not  very 
intelligible.  The  organ  is  said  to  have  been  first 
introduced  into  church  music  by  Pope  Vitalian  I. 
in  666.  In  757,  a  great  organ  was  sent  as  a  present 
to  Pepin  by  the  Byzantine  emperor,  Constantine 
Copronymus,  and  placed  in  the  church  of  St  Corneille 
at  Compiegne.  Soon  after  Charlemagne's  time,  organs 
became  common.  In  the  11th  c,  a  monk  named 
Theophilus  wrote  a  curious  treatise  on  organ-building. 
But  it  was  not  till  the  15th  c.  that  the  organ  began 
to  be  anything  like  the  noble  instrument  which  it 
now  is.  The  family  of  the  Antignati,  in  Brescia,  had 
a  great  name  as  organ-builders  in  the  15th  and  16th 
centuries.  The  organs  of  England  were  also  in  high 
repute,  but  the  puritanism  of  the  civil  war  doomed 
most  of  them  to  destruction ;  and  when  they  had 
to  be  replaced  after  the  Restoration,  it  was  found 
that  there  was  no  longer  a  sufficiency  of  builders  in 
the  country.  Foreign  organ -builders  were  therefore 
invited  to  settle  in  England,  the  most  remarkable 
of  whom  were  Bernhard  Schmidt  (generally  called 
Father  Smith)  and  his  nephews,  and  Renatus  Harris. 
Christopher  Schreider,  Snetzler,  and  Bytield  suc- 
ceeded them ;  and  a&>  a  later  period,  Green  and 
Avery,  some  of  whose  organs  have  never  been 
surpassed  in  tone,  though  in  mechanism  those  of 
modern  builders  are  an  immense  advance  on  them. 
The  largest  English  organs  are  those  of  York 
Cathedral,  Birmingham  Town  Hall,  and  Christ 
Church,  London.  The  two  largest  organs  in  the 
world  are  at  Haarlem  and  Rotterdam ;  the  former, 
103  feet  high  and  50  broad,  was  built  in  1738  by 
Christian  Midler.  The  German  organs  are  remark- 
able for  preserving  the  balance  of  power  well  among 
the  various  masses,  but  in  mechanical  contrivances 
they  are  surpassed  by  those  of  England. 

For  a  full  account  of  the  structure  of  the  organ, 
see  Hopkins  and  Rimbaidt,  The  Organ,  its  History 
and  Construction  (Lond.  1S55).  Rink's  Praktische 
Orgelschule,  Leipzig,  v.  y.,  is  the  best  work  on  organ 
playing. 

O'RGAN,  ORGA'NIC,  ORGANISM.  The  word 
organ  is  derived  from  the  Greek  organon,  an  instru- 
ment, and  is  sometimes  employed  almost  in  its 
original  sense.  But  it  has  received  a  signification 
more  peculiarly  its  own,  and  with  which  alone  the 
word  organism  is  connected,  as  the  designation  of 
any  of  the  parts  or  members  of  a  living  body,  the 
organism  being  the  living  whole,  animal  or  vege- 
table, which  these  organs  compose.  The  idea  of  an 
organism  or  of  organisation  is  almost  as  much 
involved  in  obscurity  and  difficulty  as  that  of  life, 
with  which  it  is  so  closely  connected.  But  it  is 
observable  that  a  living  body  is  entirely  composed 
113 


of  organs,  and  these  themselves  of  other  organs, 
until  we  come  to  elementary  cells ;  and  also,  that 
all  the  parts  are  mutually  dependent  on  each  other ; 
and  therefore  an  organism  has  been  denned  as 
a  natural  whole,  in  which  all  the  parts  are 
mutually  to  each  other  means  and  end.  The  juice 
which  nourishes  a  plant  is  elaborated  by  the  plant"- 
itself,  although  the  supplies  are  drawn  from  without. 
The  leaves  or  a  plant  are  produced  by  the  stem,  but 
re-act  upon  the  stem  in  promoting  its  growth.  This 
mutual  dependence  of  parts  strongly  distinguishes 
an  organism  from  a  machine,  in  which  the  parts 
concur  for  a  common  end,  to  which  each  contributes 
in  its  own  way,  but  in  which  each  does  not  contri- 
bute to  the  support  of  all  or  any  of  the  rest.  In 
organisms,  moreover,  besides  this  support  and  main- 
tenance of  the  different  parts  or  organs,  there  is  a 
provision  for  the  production  of  new  organisms  of 
the  same  kind,  the  reproduction  or  propagation  of 
the  species,  to  which  there  is  nothing  analogous 
beyond  the  sphere  of  organic  life.  Amongst  organic 
beings,  as  we  ascend  in  the  scale  from  the  lowest 
kinds  of  plants  and  animals  to  the  highest,  we  observe 
an  increasing  number  of  organs  and  of  functions  of 
organs.  In  the  animal  kingdom,  organic  life  appears 
as  possessed  of  sensatiou  and  spontaneous  motion ; 
whilst  plants  are  limited  to  growth,  assimilation, 
and  propagation.  The  question  as  to  the  nature  of 
organic  processes  connects  itself  with  a  most  difficult 
question  as  to  the  relation  of  chemical  processes 
with  psychical  functions,  chemical  processes  being 
certainly  carried  on,  but  singularly  modified  or 
directed  by  the  living  powers  of  the  organic  being. — 
The  term  organic  is  frequently  applied  to  those 
things  in  which  an  analogy  is  traced  to  living 
creatures,  in  the  mutual  a  ^pendence  of  parts.  Such 
an  analogy  may  be  traced  in  social  life  and  in 
political  life ;  and  the  more  perfectly  this  relation 
of  mutual  dependence  or  mutual  usefulness  is  estab- 
lished, the  better  is  the  state  of  things,  social  or 
political.  It  is  also  the  highest  praise  of  a  work 
of  art,  that  it  suggests  this  idea  of  an  organio 
relation  of  its  parts  to  each  other,  and  to  the  whole. 
— Organic  Laws  are  those  which  are  fundamental  or 
most  essential  to  the  system  to  which  they  belong. 
.  ORGA'NIC  ANALYSIS.  AVhen  a  complex 
organic  substance  is  submitted  to  chemical  exami- 
nation, the  first  point  is  to  determine  its  proximate 
constituents,  or,  in  other  words,  the  several  definite 
compounds  of  which  it  is  made  up.  Opium,  for 
example,  is  thus  found  to  have  as  its  proximate  con- 
stituents meconic  acid,  morphia,  codeia,  and  some 
ten  or  twelve  other  substances.  The  modes  by 
which  these  proximate  constituents  are  separated 
are  various ;  the  chief  being  the  action  of  certain 
solvents,  such  as  ether,  alcohol,  and  water,  which 
extract  some  of  the  materials  and  leave  others  undis- 
solved. Thus  ether  is  the  special  solvent  of  fatty 
and  waxy  matters,  resins,  and  camphors  ;  alcohol 
dissolves  the  same  substances  with  less  facility,  but 
on  the  other  hand  takes  up  many  substances  which 
are  insoluble  in  ether ;  while  water,  which  scarcely 
acts  upon  the  above-named  matters,  dissolves 
saccharine,  gummy,  and  starchy  matters,  and  salts  of 
organic  acids.  The  proximate  constituents  being 
thus  determined,  the  next  point  is  to  determine 
their  qualitative  and  quantitative  (or  ultimate) 
composition  ;  and  it  is  to  these  processes — especially 
the  last — that  the  term  organic  analysis  is  for  the 
most  part  restricted. 

Qualitative  Analysis. — It  is  shewn  in  the  article 
Organic  Compounds,  that  the  ordinary  ingredients 
for  which  we  must  seek  are  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  sulphur.  Carbo?i  and  hydrogen 
may  be  simultaneously  detected  by  burning  the 
compound  (which  must  be  previously  well  dried)  in 


ORGANIC  ANALYSIS— ORGANIC  Bi 


a  glass-tube  in  contact  with  oxide  of  copper,  which 
readily  yields  up  its  oxygen.  The  carbon  is  thus 
converted  into  carbonic  acid,  which  if  passed  into 

baryta  water  forms  a  white  precipitate  of  carbonate 
of  baryta,  and  the  hydrogen  into  water,  which 
collects  in  drops  in  a  small  cooled  receiver  attached 
to  the  tube.  Carbon  may  also  be  usually  rec 
by  the  black  residue  which  almost  always  remains 
on  burning  an  organic  matter,  especially  in  a  narrow 
test-tube  in  which  there  is  little  air.  The  presence 
of  nitrogen  may  in  most  cases  be  readily  ascertained 
by  heating  a  portion  of  the  substance  in  a  test-tube 
with  an  excess  of  hydrate  of  potash,  when  a  distinct 
odour  of  ammonia  is  perceived.  Sulphur  is  detected 
by'  igniting  the  compound  with  hydrate  of  potash 
and  nitre,  whereby  sulphuric  acid  is  formed  ;  and 
phosphorus  and  arsenic  may  be  detected  by  the 
same  means.  The  presence  of  oxygen  cannot,  as  a 
general  rule,  be  directly  determined. 

Quantitative  A  noli/sis. — The  first  attempts  to 
determine  the  quantitative  composition  of  organic 
bodies  were  made,  scarcely  half  a  century  ago,  by 
Gay  Lussac  and  Thenard.     The  process  originally 

Eroposed  by  them  has  been  modified  and  improved 
y  various  chemists,  especially  by  Berzelius,  Prout, 
and  Liebig,  and  it  is  mainly  owing  to  the  great 
simplifications  introduced  by  the  last-named  chemist, 
and  to  the  consequently  increased  facility  of  conduct- 
ing an  ultimate  analysis,  that  our  knowledge  of  the 
composition  of  organic  bodies  has  so  vastly  enlarged 
during  the  last  twenty  years. 

The  operation  is  always  effected  by  causing  com- 

Elete  combustion  of  a  known  weight  of  the  body  to 
e  analysed,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  carbonic 
acid  and  water  which  are  formed  in  the  process 
shall  be  collected,  and  their  quantities  determined, 
from  which,  of  course,  the  carbon  and  hydrogen 
they  respectively  contain  may  be  readily  calculated. 
The  apparatuu  required  for  the  analysis  of  a  com- 
pound   containing  carbon,   hydrogen,   and  oxygen 


a,  b,  the  combustion  tube  ;  c,  the  central  portion,  in  which  the 
mixture  to  be  analysed  is  placed;  d,  the  bulb-tube,  containing 
chloride  of  calcium  ;  ee,  Liebig's  potash  apparatus  ;  /,  a  mov- 
able iron  screen  ;  gg,  bricks  supporting  hh,  the  furnace. 

only,  consists  of  (1)  a  combustion  tube,  composed  of 
hard  white  Bohemian  glass,  having  a  diameter  of 
half  an  inch  or  less,  and  a  length  of  from  14  to  18 
inches.  One  end  is  drawn  out  in  a  point  and  closed, 
while  the  edges  of  the  other  (or  open)  end  are  made 
smooth  by  fusion  in  the  blow-pipe  flame.  (2.)  A  thin 
sheet-iron  furnace,  in  which  the  tube  is  placed  and 
supported  during  combustion.  (3.)  A  small  light 
tube  (which  may  be  either  a  bulb-tube,  as  in  the 
figure,  or  a  U-tube),  which  is  filled  with  fragments 
of  spongy  chloride  of  calcium  to  absorb  the  Vatery 
vapour  that  is  driven  through  it ;  and  (4)  Liebig's 
bulb-apparatus,  containing  a  solution  of  potash  of 
specific  gravity  T27,  for  the  purpose  of  absorbing 
the  carbonic  acid.  The  chloride-of-calcium  tube  is 
connected  by  a  well- dried  perforated  cork  to  the 
open  extremity  of  the  combustion  tube,  and  by  a 
little  tube  of  flexible  caoutchouc,  secured  by  silk 
cord,  to  the  potash  apparatus. 

In  performing  an   analysis  a  little  freshly  pre- 
pared oxide  of  copper  is  first  introduced  into  the 
combustion  tube,  then  a  mixture  of  about  5  grains 
of  the  substance  to  be  analysed,  with  an  excess  of 
320 


Quantity  of  sugar  emp'oyed,            . 
Potash  apparatus,  after  experiment,    . 
ii                it        ,  before  experiment, 
Carbonic  acid 


the  oxide,  while  the  tube  is  lastly  Idled  to  within 
an  inch  of  its  open  mouth  With  the  oxide  alone. 
The  tube  is  then  placed  in  the  furnace,  which  may 
be  heated  with  charcoal  or  gas.  (Hofmann 
furnace,  in  which  is  a  peculiar  form  of  burn  i 
the  atmopyre,  i3  the  best.  It  is  described  in  vol  xi. 
of  The  Journal  of  the  Chun  - 

charcoal  is  now  placed  round  the  anterior  ; 
the  tube,  containing  the  pure  oxide  of  copper;  and 
when  this  is  red-hot,  the  fire  is  slowly  exi 
towards  the  further  extremity  by  shifting  the  mov- 
able screen  shewn  in  the  figure.  When  the  tube  has 
been  completely  heated  from  end  to  end,  and  no 
more  gas  is  disengaged,  the  charcoal  is  gradually 
removed  from  the  further  extremity  of  the  tube, 
and  the  point  of  the  latter  broken  off;  after  which 
a  little  air  is  drawn  through  the  whole  apparatus,  so 
as  to  secure  any  remaining  carbonic  acid  and  watery 
vapour.  The  parts  are  then  detached,  and  the 
increase  of  weight  of  the  chloride-of-calcium  tube 
and  potash  apparatus  is  determined  by  an  accurate 
balance.  The  following  account  of  an  actual  ana- 
lysis of  crystallised  cane-sugar  (borrowed  from 
Fownes's  Chemistry)  will  serve  to  illustrate  the 
preceding  remarks : 

Gralm. 

4-750 

781-13 

•    773-82 

7-31 

Chloride-of-calcium  tube,  after  experiment,   .     226*05 

ii  it  n         ,  belore  experiment,      22;,30_ 

Water 275 

7*31  grains  carbonic  acid  =  T994  grains  carbon; 
and  2-75  grains  water  =  03056  grains  hydrogen  : 
or  in  100  parts  of  sugar,  carbon,  41  98;  hydrogen, 
6  43  ;  oxygen  by  difference,  5L59. 

For  the  methods  of  determining  other  elements 
quantitatively,  such  as  nitrogen,  chlorine,  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  &c,  we  must  refer  to  the  various  works 
that  have  been  published  on  organic  analysis, 
amongst  which  those  of  Liebig,  Fresenius,  and  Kose 
deserve  special  mention. 

ORGANIC  BASES.  The  present  remarks  must 
be  regarded  as  supplementary  to  the  ai-ticle  Alka- 
loids. They  refer  (1)  to  the  classification  of  organic 
bases  and  (2)  to  their  formation. 

(1)  From  the  fact  that  nearly  all  artificial  organic 
bases  are  (as  will  be  afterwards  shewn)  actually 
constructed  from  ammonia,  and  that,  whether  artifi- 
cially or  naturally  formed,  they  exhibit  the  property 
of  basicity,  which  is  the  leading  characteristic  of 
ammonia,  chemists  have  been  led  to  refer  organic 
bases  generally  to  the  typical  body  ammonia,  and 
have  succeeded  in  demonstrating  that  they  are 
constructed  upon  or  derived  from  the  simple  type 
NH3.  Berzelius  believed  that  all  the  alkaloids 
actually  contained  ammonia  as  an  ingredient  of 
their  composition,  a  view  which  is  now  untenable ; 
and  it  is  to  Liebig  that  we  are  indebted  for  the  idea 
that  they  are  derivatives  of  ammonia,  or,  in  other 
words,  amidogen  bases  or  ammonia  in  which  an 
equivalent  of  hydrogen  is  replaced  by  an  organic 
radical.  The  subject  has  been  thoroughly  worked 
out  by  Dr  Hofmann,  who  originally  proposed  to 
classify  these  bodies  under  the  heads  of  amidogen, 
imidogen,  nitrile,  and  ammonium  bases ;  but  has 
since  adopted  the  terms  primary  amines,  secondary 
amines,  and  tertiary  amines,  in  preference  to  ami- 
dogen, imidogen,  and  nitrile  bases — the  word  amines 
being  applied  to  all  organic  bases  that  are  derived 
from  ammonia  (NH3).  The  amines  may  be  (1) 
monamines,  (2)  diamines,  (3)  triamines,  (4)  tetramines, 
or  (5)  pentamines,  according  as  they  be  con- 
structed upon  a  single,  double,  treble,  quadruple,  or 
quintuple  atom  of   NH«.      We  shall  confine  our 

113 


ORGANIC  COMPOUNDS— ORGANIC  RADICALS. 


illustrations  of  the  meaning  of  these  terms  to  the 
monamines,  both  because  they  form  the  most  im- 
portant group  and  because  they  are  much  more 
readily  elucidated  than  the  other  groups,  Avhich  are 
extremely  complicated  in  their  composition.  Mona- 
mines are  constructed  upon  the  single  atom  of  am- 
monia, H3N.  In  primary  monamines  one  of  the 
atoms  of  hydrogen  is  replaced  by  a  monatomic  base 
radical.  R;  and  hence  their  general  formula  is  N.R.H2. 
Ethyl-amine  or  Ethyl-ammonium,  N.C2H5.H2,  or 
C2II7N,  is  an  example.  In  secondary  monamines  two 
of  the  atoms  of  hydrogen  are  replaced  by  two  atoms  of 
eithsr  the  same  or  of  different  monatomic  base  radi- 
cals. Hence  their  general  formula  is  N.RR'.H,  where 
R  and  R'  may  be  the  same  or  different  radicals.  Di- 
ethylamine,  N.(CH3)2.H,  or  C4H11N,  and  methyl-ethyl- 
amine,  or  methyl-ethylia,  N.CH3.C2H5.H,  or  C3H9N, 
are  examples.  In  tertiary  monamines  the  three  atoms 
of  hydrogen  are  replaced  by  three  monatomic  radicals, 
Nitrile  bases;  their  foi-mula  therefore  is  N.R.R'.R". 
when  R,  R',  R"  may  or  may  not  differ  from  one  an- 
other. Trimethylamine  or  trimethylia,  N.(CH3)3,  or 
C3H9N,  and  methvl-ethyl-phenyl-amine  or  methyl- 
ethyl-aniline,  CH3.C2H5.C6H5.N,  or  C9H13N,  afford 
examples  of  the  radicals  being  all  the  same  and  of 
their  being  all  different.  This  last  example  affords  a 
good  illustration  of  the  fact,  that  although  the  modern 
nomenclature  of  organic  chemistry  includes  long  and 
apparently  complex  words,  these  words  to  a  great 
degree  represent  the  composition  of  the  substance 
they  are  used  to  indicate ;  methyl  (CsHj),  ethyl  (C2H5), 
and  phenyl  (C6H5),  mainly  contributing  to  form  me- 
thyl-ethyl-phenyl-amine. 

(2.)  Although  all  attempts  at  forming  in  the  labo- 
ratory those  alkaloids  that  naturally  exist  in  plants, 
such  as  morphia,  quinia,  and  strychnia,  have  hitherto 
failed,  a  large  number  of  organic  bases  have  been 
prepared  by  artificial  means,  such  as :  a.  By  the 
destructive  distillation  of  organic  bodies  containing 
nitrogen.  Thus,  in  the  preparation  of  coal-gas,  four 
at  least  of  these  compounds  are  obtained — viz.,  ani- 
line, picoline,  leucoline  (chinoline),  and  pyridine. 
b.  By  the  distillation  of  certain  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds with  caustic  potash.  In  this  way  aniline 
is  obtained  from  indigo,  c.  By  the  combination  of 
ammonia  with  the  aldehydes,  and  with  certain  vola- 
tile oils  which  possess  the  properties  of  aldehydes. 
Thus  acetic  aldehyde  yields  dimethyline,  and  oil  of 
mustard  yields  thyosinamine.  d.  By  the  substi- 
tution (by  the  action  of  strong  nitric  acid)  of  one 
atom  of  nitrous  acid  (HNO2)  for  one  atom  of  hydrogen 
in  certain  hydrocarbons.  e.  By  the  processes  of 
fermentation  and  putrefaction.  Thus  wheaten  flour 
yields  by  putrefaction  trimethyline,  ethyline,  and 
amyline. 

ORGANIC  COMPOUNDS.  It  was  formerly 
believed  that  the  compounds  to  which  the  term 
organic  is  applied  could  only  he  produced  by  a  vital 
force  acting  in  a  more  or  less  complex  animal  or 
vegetable  organism.  It  is,  however,  now  known 
that  this  view  is  altogether  untenable,  and  that 
many  substances  which  are  products  of  animal  or 
vegetable  organisms  may  also  be  formed  artificially 
in  the  laboratory.  Thus  urea,  the  chief  and  most 
characteristic  organic  constituent  of  urine,  may  be 
formed  by  merely  heating  ammoniac  carbonates  to  a 
point  just  below  that  at  which  urea  is  decomposed; 
and  glvcose  or  grape-sugar  may  he  artificially  pro- 
duced "from  starch,  woody  fibre,  paper,  linen,  &c. 
Although  such  cases  as  that  of  urea,  in  which  a 
complex  organic  product  (COH4N2)  is  produced  by 
the  direct  union  of  three  inorganic  substances  (and 
many  other  cases  of  the  same  nature  might  be  ad- 
duced), shew  that  there  is  no  definite  line  of  de- 
marcation between  organic  and  inorganic  products, 
it  is  useful  aT  a  matter  of  convenience,  to  classify 
114 


chemical  compounds  according  to  their  natural 
origin. 

The  following  are  the  leading  characteristics  of 
organic  compounds :  Those  which  occur  naturally 
rarely  consist  of  more  than  four  elements — viz., 
carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen  —  although 
a  few  contain  sulphur,  and  possibly  (but  this  ia 
doubtful)  phosphorus.  By  artificial  means,  how- 
ever, organic  compounds  can  be  formed  containing 
chlorine,  bromine,  iodine,  selenium,  tellurium,  and 
many  of  the  metals.  Carbon  is  universally  present 
both  in  natural  and  artificial  organic  compounds.  Tho 
number  of  equivalents  entering  into  the  composition 
of  organic  compounds  is  usually  higher  than  in  ths 
case  of  inorganic  compounds.  There  is  no  organic 
compound  into  which  less  than  two  equivalents  o£ 
carbon  enter,  and,  according  to  some  chemists,  both 
oxygen  and  sulphur  only  enter  these  compounds  in 
double  equivalents.  Melissic  acid,  for  example  (one 
of  the  constituents  of  wax),  is  represented  by  C30II60O2 ; 
that  is  to  say,  each  equivalent  of  the  acid  is  composed 
of  92  equivalents  of  the  elements  entering  into  its 
composition ;  and  each  equivalent  of  the  solid  fat, 
commonly  known  as  stearine,  contains  57  equivalents 
of  carbon,  110  of  hydrogen,  and  6  of  oxygen.  No 
instance  is  known  in  which  an  organic  compound  has 
been  formed  by  the  direct  union  of  its  elements  in  a 
free  state,  as  many  sulphides,  chlorides,  and  oxides 
(for  example)  are  formed  in  inorganic  chemistry. 
Their  extreme  readiness  to  decompose  under  the  influ- 
ence of  heat,  fermentation,  putrefaction,  &c,  is  an- 
other characteristic  of  organic  compounds,  although 
some  artificially  prepared  inorganic  compounds — as, 
for  example,  chloride  of  nitrogen  —  are  also  very 
unstable. 

The  following  scheme  may  serve  to  elucidate  the 
arrangement  of  the  elements  in  organic  compounds. 
Such  compounds  may  be  composed  of  carbon  and 
oxygen,  as  carbonic  oxide,  CO  ;  or  of  carbon  and  hy- 
drogen, as  oil  of  turpentine,  C10H16 ;  or  of  carbon  and 
nitrogen,  as  cyanogen,  CN;  or  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen,  as  grape-sugar,  C6H12O6;  or  of  carbon, 
nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  as  anhydrous  cyanic  acid, 
CNO ;  or  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen,  as  nico- 
tine, C10H14N2;  or  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  sulphur, 
as  oil  of  garlic,  CeHioS ;  or  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  as  caffeine,  C8H10N4O2;  or  of 
carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  sulphur,  as  oil  of 
mustard,  C4II5NS ;  or  finally,  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  oxygen,  and  sulphur,  as  taurine,  C2H7NO3S. 
Hence  organic  compounds  may  be  binary,  ternary, 
quaternary,  or  quinary  in  their  composition. 

ORGANIC  RADICALS.  Under  the  term  Organic 
or  Compound  Radicals  (or  Radicles,  as  some  chemists 
write  the  word)  are  included  a  number  of  groups  of 
elements,  of  which  carbon  is  always  one,  which  com- 
port themselves  chemically  like  simple  elementary 
bodies.  The  careful  study  of  organic  compounds  led 
chemists  to  perceive  that  many  of  these  contained  as 
a  proximate  constituent  a  more  or  less  completa 
atomic  group,  which  in  its  combining  relations  be- 
haves precisely  like  the  elementary  substances,  and 
which,  like  them,  may  be  transferred  from  one  com- 
pound to  another;  and  hence  the  inference  was  drawn, 
that  all  organic  compounds  were  combinations  of 
organic  radicals  with  oxygen,  sulphur,  hydrogen,  or 
other  elements,  or  of  one  organic  radical  with  an- 
other. In  accordance  with  this  view,  Liebig  defined 
organic  chemistry  as  The  Chemistry  of  Organic  Rad- 
icals. It  is  impossible,  however,  to  lay  down  any 
boundaries  between  organic  and  inorganic  chemistry. 
Gmelin  defines  organic  chemistry  as  the  'chemistry 
of  carbon-compounds  containing  more  than  one  atom 
of  carbon  (C  =  6),'  thus  excluding  the  simple  carbon- 
compounds,  CO,  CO2,  CSj,  which  are  usually  regarded 
as  inorganic.    It  is  impossible  to  draw  any  precise  line 


OROAXISTA— ORGEAT. 


of  Jemarcation,  with  regaid  to  propertiea  and  modes 
of  formation,  between  these  bodies  and  othei 
ns  acetylene  (C1H1),  which  this  definition  wonld 
inclnde  among  organic  compounds;  indeed  Gmelin 
has  suggested  that  all  bodies  containing  carbon  should 
bo  considereJ  as  organic.  To  this  conclusion,  it  is 
believed,  we  must  ultimately  arrive  respecting  the 
meaning  of  the  term  organic  chemistry — namely,  that 
it  is  the  chemistry  of  carbon  compounds;  and  in  this 
sense  it  is  employed  by  Gerhard!  and  Kekule*. 

The  idea  of  compound  radicals,  as  now  entertained, 
is  quite  independent  of  the  question  whether  they  can 
be  prepared  in  the  separate  state  or  not.  A  radical, 
in  modern  chemical  language,  is  simply  a  group  of 
elements  common  to  a  more  or  less  numerous  series  of 
allied  compounds,  and  remains  unaffected  by  the  pro- 
cesses whereby  these  compounds  are  transformed  into 
another.  It  is  essentially  correlative  with  the  idea  of 
molecular  types,  and  the  radical,  which  any  complex 
compound  is  regarded  as  containing,  must  depend 
upon  the  type  to  which  the  compound  is  referred. 
wliile  conversely  the  type  is  dependent  on  the  radical. 
Hydrochloric  acid  (HC1),  water  (H20),  ammonia 
(HgN),  and  marsh  gas  (II4C),  may  be  taken  as  typical 
of  all  compounds  of  the  simplest  order,  and  by  the 
assumption  of  compound  radicals,  substances  of  great 
complexity  may  also  be  compared  with  them.  If  we 
imagine  one  atom  of  hydrogen  (H)  to  he  removed 
from  each  of  those  substances,  it  is  plain  that  the  res- 
idues, CI,  HO,  HjN,  H3C,  will  each  be  able  to  com- 
bine with  an  atom  of  hydrogen  to  produce  the  organic 
compounds,  or  with  some  other  monatomic  atom, 
such  as  chlorine  or  potassium,  to  form  such  bodies  as 
KCLCICI;  KHO,ClHO;  KH2N;  KH3C,C1H3C,  &c; 
and  the  radicals  combine  with  one  another  according 
to  the  same  laws  that  are  followed  by  elementary  mon- 
atomic atoms,  e.g.  : 

01  +  H3C  =  CIH3C,  Chloride  of  methyl. 
HO  +  H3C  =  OH4C,    Methylic  alcohol. 
H2X  +  H3C  =  XH5C,   Methylamine. 
H3C  +  H3C  =  H6C2,    Free  methyl. 

Compound  radicals  are  those  groups  of  elements 
which  remain  unaltered  in  the  reaction  by  which  they 
are  transferred  into  another,  and  these  transformations 
are  essentially  similar  to  those  by  which  the  following 
compounds  are  changed  into  each  other : 

KH,  Hydride  of  Potas-  (C7H50)  H,  Hydride  of  ben- 

sium,  zoyl. 

KC1,  Chloride  of  Potas-  (C7H5O)  CI,  Chloride  of  ben- 
sium,  zovl. 

KHO,  Hydrate  of  Potas-  (C7H5O)  HO,Hydrate  of  ben- 
sium,  z°yl,    or    ben- 

zoic acid. 
KH2N,  Potassamine,  (C7H5O)  H20,  Benzamide. 

KCX,  Cyanide  of  Potas-  (C7H5O)  CX,  Cyanide  of  ben- 
sium,  zoyl. 

The  organic  radicals  are  either  binary  or  ternary  in 
their  composition.  Many  of  them — as,  for  example, 
ethyl — consist  of  carbon  and  hydrogen;  others,  as 
carbonyl  (or  carbonic  oxide),  of  carbon  and  oxygen; 
others,  as  cyanogen,  of  carbon  and  nitrogen;  and 
others  again,  like  benzoyl,  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
nitrogen.  Into  many  radicals  a  metallic  element 
enters;  these  are  termed  organo-metallic  radicals; 
and  cacodyl,  which  contains  arsenic,  and  is  repre- 
sented by  the  formula  As(CH3)2,  is  the  best  example 
of  this  class.  All  recent  works  on  organic  chemistry 
are  based  either  on  the  theory  of  organic  radicals  or 
on  the  more  complicated  theory  of  types,  which  will 
be  noticed  in  a  special  article, 

ORGAXI'STA,  the  common  name  of  a  number 
of  small  South  American  birds,  allied  to  wrens,  and 
remarkable  for  the  sweetness  of  their  song.  The 
Peruvian  O.  (Troglodytes  leucophrys  of  Tschudi)  has 
a  modest,  cinr-amon-brown  plumage,  with  head  and 


neck  of  dark  olive.     'The  tender,  melancholy  strains, 
and  the  singular  1  learness  of  the  innumerable  modu- 
charm  the  ear  of  the  astonished   traveller, 
who.  as  if  arrested  by  an  invisible  pow 
listen.1 — Tschudi's  Travels. 

CRGANO-META'LLIC   BODIES.     Under  this 
term  are  included  a  large  number  of  chemical 
pounds  in  which  organic   radicals.  methyl 

<  H  .  ethyl  (CsH»).  fta,  are  united  to  met 
the  same  way  as  chlorine  is  combined  with  zinc, 
forming  chloride  of  zinc.  If,  for  instai 
chloride  of  zinc  (ZnCl)  we  replace  the  chlorine  by 
ethyl,  we  produce  one  of  the  bodies  wlonging  to 
this  elass — viz.,  zinc-ethyl,  ZniT^IIs).  '1  hi-  sub- 
stance  (which  we  take  as  a  good  example 
class)  is  obtained  by  digesting  a  mixture  of  equal 
volumes  of  iodide  of  ethyl  and  ether  with  granulated 
zinc,  at  a  temperature  of  about  260°,  for  several 
hours.  Subsequent  distillation  gives  a  mixture  of 
zinc-ethyl  and  ether,  from  which  the  former  may  1*3 
obtained  pure  by  rectification,  in  the  form  of  a 
colourless,  transparent,  mobile  liquid,  which  refracts 
light  strongly,  has  a  powerful  but  not  disagreeable 
odour,  and  is  rather  heavier  than  water,  its  specific 
gravity  being  riS2  at  G4'J.  With  the  exception  of 
cacodyl,  As(CH3)2,  these  bodies  are  the  creation  of 
the  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years,  during  which  period 
numerous  compounds  of  organic  radicals  with  zinc, 
cadmium,  magnesium,  antimony,  arsenic,  bismuth, 
mercury,  lead,  sodium,  and  potassium  have  been 
discovered. 

For  further  information  on  this  subject,  the  reader 
is  referred  to  an  article  by  Dr  Frankland  (who  has 
most  successfully  devoted  his  attention  to  this  class 
of  compounds)  in  the  13th  volume  of  The  Quarterly 
Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society,  and  to  an  elaborate 
article  on  '  Organo-Metallic  Bodies'  (by  the  same 
chemist)  in  Watt's  Diet,  of  Chemistry. 

ORGAX-POIXT,  or  PEDAL-POIXT.  in  Music, 
a  bass  note  sustained  through  a  series  of  chords, 
with  only  the  first  and  last  of  which  it  is  in  harmony. 
The  sustained  note  may  be  the  dominant  or  tonic, 
and  sometimes  occupies  an  upper  part  instead  of  the 
bass. 

O'RGAXZTXE,  a  name  applied  to  silk  which, 
after  having  been  first  wound  off  from  the  cocoons 
into  hanks,  is  then  placed  on  a  winding  machine, 
which  reels  off  the  hanks  on  to  wooden  reels. 
These  are  then  placed  on  spindles,  and  the  fibres 
of  each  are  made  to  pass  through  a  minute 
orifice  and  small  brush,  which  together  clean  the 
thread  and  remove  any  knots  or  projections  from  it, 
throwing  it  at  the  same  time  into  hanks  again. 
Then  the  threads  of  two  hanks  are  taken,  and 
again  reeled  off,  this  time  on  to  one  hank,  being 
twisted  together  to  the  left;  then  two  of  these 
double  reels  are  taken,  and,  the  ends  being  laid 
together,  are  twisted  to  the  right.  These  operation?, 
consisting  of  ■winding,  cleaning,  throwing,  and  twice 
twisting  and  doubling,  constitute  organzine  silk. 
See  Silk. 

O'RGEAT,  a  kind  of  culinary  preparation,  which 
is  used  either  as  an  agreeable  syrup  to  mix  in 
certain  drinks,  or  medicinally  as  a  mild  demul- 
cent. It  is  prepared  by  making  an  emulsion  of 
almonds,  which  are  blanched  for  the  purpose,  and 
beaten  into  a  paste  in  a  mortar,  and  then  rubbed 
up     with     barley- water.       The     proportions     are — 

1  lb.  of  sweet  and  1  oz.  of  bitter  almonds,  to  a 
quart  of  barley-water.     To  this  emulsion  are  added 

2  lbs.  of  powdered  loaf-sugar,  and  a  quarter  of  a 
pint  of  orange-flower  water.  There  are  other  modes 
of  making  it,  but  this  is  the  simplest  and  best.  It 
is  much  used  in  France,  under  the  name  of  Strop 
oV  Orgeat, 

IIS 


ORGIES  -ORIGENES. 


O'RGIES  (probably  from  Gr.  crdo,  in  the  perfect, 
eor<ja,  to  sacrifice),  or  MYSTERIES,  secret  rites  or 
customs  connected  with  the  worship  of  some  of  the 
pagan  deities;  as  the  secret  worship  of  Ceres  (q.  v.), 
»nd  the  festival  of  Bacchus,  which  was  accompanied 
vith  mystical  customs  and  drunken  revelry.  The 
name  is  now  applied  to  scenes  of  drunkenness  and 
debauchery. 

ORGUES  an  3  thick,  long, -wooden  beams,  pointed 
acd  shod  with  iron,  hung  vertically  by  separate 
ropes  in  the  gateway  of,  and  over  the  entrance  to  a 
fortified  place.  They  answer  the  purpose  of  a 
portcullis  or  door,  and  are  dropped  into  position  by 
cutting  the  ropes  from  which  they  hang.  Their 
descent  is  inevitable,  in  which  they  possess  an 
advantage  over  the  portcullis,  which  may  be  held 
up  by  the  enemy  or  blown  in  by  petards,  whereas 
petards  have  little  effect  on  orgues,  for  if  one  beam 
be  destroyed,  another  can  be  dropped  to  fill  up  the 
gap- 

O'RIEL  COLLEGE.  In  1324,  Adam  de  Brom, 
almoner  of  Edward  II.,  procured  from  the  sovereign 
a  charter  of  incorporation  for  a  college,  under  the 
name  of  St  Mary's  House,  in  Oxford.  The  origin  of 
the  name  '  Oriel  College '  is  uncertain.  It  consisted 
originally  of  a  provost  and  10  fellows.  The  number 
of  fellows  was  by  subsequent  benefactions  raised  to 
18,  and  several  exhibitions  and  scholarships  were 
also  founded  at  various  times.  By  the  commis- 
sioners under  17  and  18  Vict.  c.  81,  all  the  fellow- 
ships are  thrown  open,  but  three  are  in  the  mean- 
time susjiended  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the 
number  and  value  of  the  scholarships,  and  of  aug- 
menting the  salary  of  the  professor  of  modern 
history.  By  the  same  authority  the  scholars  are 
placed  on  the  foundation  of  the  college,  a  position 
they  did  not  before  enjoy ;  the  scholarships  are 
made  ten  in  number,  tenable  for  five  years,  of  value 
£60  jjer  annum,  with  rooms  free.  This  college  was 
one  of  the  first  to  throw  open  such  of  its  fellowships 
as  it  could  to  competition,  and  hence  the  fellows  of 
Oriel  have  long  been  among  the  most  distinguished 
men  in  the  university.  For  several  years  back, 
however,  its  undergraduates  have  done  little  in  the 
schools.  The  fellows  divide  upwards  of  £200  a  year, 
in  addition  to  allowances ;  and  the  income  of  the 
provostship,  to  which  is  annexed  a  living  in  Essex 
and  a  canonry  in  Rochester  Cathedral,  is  estimated 
t  £2000  a  year.  There  are  thirteen  benefices  in 
the  gift  of  this  college. 

ORIEL  WINDOW,  a  projecting  window  having 
more  sides  than  one,  usually  three,  and»commonly 
divided  into  bays  by  mullions.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  picturesque  features  in  medieval  and  Eliza- 
bethan domestic  architecture,  and  adds  much  to  the 
convenience  of  the  interior.  The  word  oriel  (Mod. 
Lat.  oriolum,  probably  dim.  from  os,  oris,  as  if  a 
small  opining  or  recess)  formerly  meant  a  chamber 
or  apartment,  and  a  window  is  so  called  which 
makes  a  small  apartment,  as  it  were,  off  a  large 
room.  Oriels  are  also  called  Bay  or  Bow  Windows 
(q.v.). 

ORIENTA'TION.  As  Christians  from  an  early 
period  turned  their  faces  eastward  when  praying,  so 
Christian  churches  for  the  most  part  were  placed 
east  and  west,  in  order  that  the  worshippers,  as 
they  looked  towards  the  altar,  might  also  look 
towards  the  east.  Modern  observation,  however, 
has  found  that  few  churches  stand  exactly  east  and 
west,  the  great  majority  inclining  a  little  either  to 
the  north  or  to  the  south.  Thus,  of  three  ancient 
churches  in  Edinburgh,  it  was  ascertained  that  one 
(St  Margaret's  Chapel  in  the  Castle)  pointed  E.S.E.  ; 
another  (St  Giles's  Cathedral),  E.-by-S4S. ;  a  third 
(Trinity  College  Church,  now  destroyed),  E.^S. 
116 


This  deviation  from  the  true  east  has  received, 
among  English  ecclesiologists,  the  name  of  '  Orien- 
tation.' Its  origin  or  cause  has  not  been  satis- 
factorily explained.  Some  have  supposed  that  the 
church  was  turned  not  to  the  true  east,  but  to  the 
point  at  which  the  sun  rose  on  the  morning  of  the 
feast  of  the  patron  saint.  But,  unfortunately  for 
this  theory,  neighbouring  churches,  dedicated  in 
honour  of  the  same  saint,  have  different  orienta- 
tions. Thus,  All  Saints'  at  West  Beckham,  in 
Norfolk,  points  due  east ;  while  All  Saints'  at 
Thwraite,  also  in  Norfolk,  is  8°  to  the  north  of  east. 
There  are  instances,  too,  in  which  different  parts  of 
the  same  church  have  different  orientations ;  that 
is  to  say,  the  chancel  and  the  nave  have  not  been 
built  in  exactly  the  same  line.  This  is  the  case  in 
York  Minster  and  in  Lichfield  Cathedral.  Another 
theory  is,  that  orientation  'mystically  represents 
the  bowing  of  our  Saviour's  head  in  death,  which 
Catholic  tradition  asserts  to  have  been  to  the  right 
[or  north]  side.'  But  this  theory  is  gainsaid  by  the 
fact,  that  the  orientation  is  as  often  to  the  south 
as  to  the  north.  Until  some  better  explanation  is 
offered,  it  may,  perhaps,  be  allowed  to  hold,  that 
orientation  has  had  no  graver  origin  than  careless- 
ness, ignorance,  or  indifference. 

O'RIFLAMME,  or  AURIFLAMME  (Lat.  auri 
flamma,  flame  of  gold),  a  banner  which  originally 
belonged  to  the  Abbey  of  St  Denis,  and  was  borne 
by  the  Counts  of  Yexin,  patrons  of  that  church, 
but  which,  a'fter  the  county  of  Vexin  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  French  crown,  became  the  principal 
banner  of  the  kingdom.  It  was  charged  with  a 
saltire  wavy  or,  with  rays  issuing  from  the  centre 
crossways.  In  later  times  the  oriflaninie  became 
the  insignia  of  the  French  infantry.  The  name 
seems  also  to  have  been  given  to  other  flags  ;  accord- 
ing to  Sir  N.  H.  Nicolas,  the  oriflamme  borne  at 
Agincourt  was  an  oblong  red  flag  split  into  five 
parts. 

ORI'GENES  (Origen),  called  Adamantines  or 
Chalchentezos—  both  epithets  expressive  of  his  firm- 
ness of  purpose  and  iron  assiduity — one  of  the  most 
eminent  of  the  early  Christian  writers,  '  the  father 
of  biblical  criticism  and  exegesis  in  Christendom,' 
was  born  185  a.  d.,  at  Alexandria,  where  his  father, 
Leonidas,  seems  to  have  held  some  superior  office 
in  the  church.  O.  received  a  most  liberal  educa- 
tion. While,  on  the  one  hand,  he  was  initiated  at 
an  early  age  into  Hellenic  science  and  art,  the 
teachings  of  Christianity  were  instilled  into  his 
mind  by  men  like  Pantsenus  and  Clemens  of  Alex- 
andria. During  the  persecutions  against  the  Chris- 
tians, instituted  by  Sept.,  Severus,  his  father  died 
the  death  of  a  martyr,  and  O.,  then  17  yeare  of  age, 
would  have  shared  it  of  his  own  free  will,  had  not 
his  mother,  left  unsupported  with  six  children, 
prevented  him.  After  a  short  time  his  zeal  and 
erudition  procured  for  him  the  office  of  catechist 
in  the  Alexandrian  church;  but  no  salary  beinf 
affixed  to  it,  he  was  fain  to  dispose  of  his  much- 
loved  collection  of  classical  authors  for  a  daily  sti- 
pend of  four  oboli  (2d.)  for  several  years.  His  wants 
were  extremely  limited,  and  his  asceticism  led  him 
even  to  self-mutilation  (in  accordance  with  the 
view  he  took  of  Matt.  xix.  12);  an  act  for  which 
he  afterwards  expressed  the  deepest  sorrow,  and 
which  became  a  dangerous  weapon  in  the  hands 
of  his  antagonists.  Not  a  few  of  his  hearers 
being  masters  of  Greek  (Neoplatonic)  philosophy, 
O.,  in  order  to  ward  off  more  successfully  their 
attacks  upon  his  doctrines,  and  to  combat  them 
on  their  own  ground,  applied  himself  particularly 
to  this  science,  and  Ammouius  Saccas  himself 
is    said    to    have    been    his    teacher.      From    this 


ORIGENES— ORIGINAL  SIN. 


period  also  may  bo  dated  O.'s  transition  from 
unconscious  to  conscious  belief.  He  examined 
henceforth,  with  as  little  prejudice  as  possible,  all 

the  different  systems  of  human  speculations  that 
came  under  his  notice  during  the  many  journeys 
he  undertook,  proceeding  on  the  principle  'that  we 

are  not,  under  the  pretence  of  |>iety,  to  pin  our  faith 
on  that  which  is  beld  by  the  multitude,  and  which 
then  lore  alone  seems  to  stand  on  high  authority, 
but  on  that  which  results  through  examination  and 
logical  conclusions  from  established  and  admitted 
truths.'  This  liberality  of  his  mind  and  doctrines 
could  not  fail,  on  the  one  hand,  to  bring  about 
many  conversions  to  the  faith,  aa  he  taught  it, 
both  among  '  pagans  '  and  '  heretics,'  the  latter 
chiefly  of  the  Gnostic  sects ;  and  on  the  other  hand, 
to  raise  an  outcry  among  less  liberal  professors  and 
teachers  of  the  faith,  who  had  not  been  so  successful 
in  their  labours.  What  gave  the  greatest  offence  in 
his  teachings  was  his  way  of  explaining,  after  the 
manner  of  the  Midrash,  known  to  him  through 
the  Jewish  masters  (from  whom,  at  an  advanced 
age,  he  had  also  learned  Hebrew),  allegorically  and 
symbolically  that  which  in  the  Scripture  warred 
with  the  common  human  understanding,  or  seemed 
repugnant  in  manner  or  matter.  Furthermore,  while 
upholding  all  the  ethical  portions  of  the  Bible,  he 
rejected  a  great  deal  of  its  supposed  historical  and 
legal  contents  for  all  purposes,  save,  perhaps,  as 
starting-points  for  homiletics.  '  What  edification,' 
he  says,  '  could  we  find  in  literally  interpreting  the 
story  of  Abraham's  first  telling  Abimelech  a  lie, 
and  then,  with  Sarah's  consent,  handing  her  over 
to  him  and  prostituting  her?'  As  to  the  discre- 
pancies in  the  different  gospels  respecting  the  life 
of  Christ,  he  says :  '  One  of  two  only  is  possible. 
Either  these  things  are  true  in  a  spiritual  sense  only, 
or  as  long  as  the  discrepancies  are  not  satisfactorily 
explained  away,  we  cannot  believe  in  the  gospels 
being  dictated  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  redacted 
under  the  influence  of  his  inspiration.' 

In  211  he  went  to  Rome,  but  soon  afterwards, 
at  the  wish  of  Bishop  Demetrius,  he  returned  to 
Alexandria,  which,  however,  he  was  obliged  to  leave 
precipitately,  and  to  seek  refuge  from  certain 
popular  tumults  in  Palestine.  Here  the  bishops 
received  him  with  great  honours,  and  desired  him 
to  institute  public  lectures,  in  which  they  them- 
selves became  hearers.  Recalled  again  by  the 
Alexandrian  bishop,  he  was  sent  to  Achaia  to 
combat  certain  heresies  that  had  broken  out  there. 
The  wrath  that  had  silently  been  gathering  against 
him  found  its  first  vent  when,  in  22S,  the  bishops 
assembled  iu  Csesarea  in  Palestine  consecrated  him 
presbyter.  The  Bishop  of  Alexandria  took  umbrage 
at  this  outrage,  as  he  called  it,  on  his  authority. 
Two  councils  were  convoked,  and  in  232,  0.  was 
deprived  of  his  priestly  office,  and  excommunicated, 
the  principal  heresy  charged  against  him  being  his 
denial  of  eternal  punishment.  Yet  the  churches  of 
the  East  remained  faithful  to  him.  Palestine,  Arabia, 
Pha?mcia,  and  Achaia  remained  in  constant  com- 
munication with  him  ;  and  men  like  Gregory  Thau- 
maturgus  (q.  v.),  Athenodoros,  and  others  remained 
nr  became  his  faithful  disciples  ever  after,  while  the 
Bishop  of  Csesarea  allowed  him  openly  to  expound 
the  Scripture  in  his  church.  The  persecutions  under 
Maximums  again  forced  him  to  seek  refuge  for  two 
years  in  Cappadocia.  Returning  under  Gordianus,  he 
resumed  his  labours  and  journeys,  until,  when  Decius 
ascended  the  throne,  he  was  seized,  imprisoned, 
and  tortured  for  his  faith.  He  did  not  survive  his 
sufferings  long,  but  died,  in  254,  at  Tyre,  where  his 
tomb,  near  the  high-altar  of  the  cathedral,  was 
shewn  for  many  centuries,  untd  it  was  destroyed 
during  the  Crusades. 


The  number  of  his  works  is  stated  by  Epiphanius 
and  Eufinus  to  bare  •  cceeded  6000,  and  although 

this  is  probably  only  meant  as  an  exaggerated  round 
number,   yet    the    amount   of    writings   that 
from     his   always    busy    brain    ami    hands    cannot 
but  have  been  enormous.     Seven  secretarii  i 

seven  copyists,  aided  by  an  uncertain  number  ,,f 
young  girls,  are  by  Eusebius  reported  to  hav 
always  at  work  for  him.  The  great  bulk  of  his 
works  is  lost  ;  but  among  those  that  have  survived, 
the  most  important  by  far  arc  his  two  editions  of 
the  Old  Testament,  called  respectively  Teira,  la 
[fourfold)  and  llijupla  (sij.-fold).  See  Hkxapix. 
The  labour  bestowed  upon  this  work  must  have- 
been  immense,  and  no  less  than  twenty-eight  years 
is  0.  supposed  to  have  been  engaged  upon  it  On 
it3  importance  for  biblical  criticism  it  is  needless 
to  enlarge  here.  Fragments  only  have  com.;  down 
to  us,  the  original  having  been  lost  during  the  siege 
and  capture  of  Cffisarea  by  the  Arabs  ;  and  the 
Greek  as  well  as  the  Roraau  clergy  having  almost 
laid  an  interdict  upon  the  copying  of  any  of  O.'s 
much  suspected  writings.  Montfaucon  has  collected 
and  edited  these  fragments  (llexaplvrum  Origems 
quae  supersunt,  2  vols,  fob  Paris.  1714),  which 
were  re-edited  by  C.  F.  Bahrdf  (1769—1770).  Of 
his  other  partly  extant,  partly  lost  works,  the 
chief  are  his  books  '  On  the  Resurrection,'  '  On 
Martyrdom,'  '  Eight  Books  against  Celsus,'  '  On 
Prayer,'  besides  Epistles,  &c.  He  further  revised 
and  enlarged  PhuVs  Lexicon  of  Hebrew  Names 
(Hebraicorum  Nominum  S.  Scriptures  el  Menaur- 
arum  Inter pretatio),  whence  it  has  often,  together 
with  many  other  spurious  works,  been  ascribed  to 
him  exclusively.  Little  also  has  survived  of  his 
many  exegetical  writings,  commentaries,  brief  notes, 
and  homilies  on  both  Testaments.  The  best  ecbtions 
of  his  collected  works  are  by  De  la  Rue  (Rudens), 
(Paris,  1733-1759,4  vols,  fol.) ;  by  Oberthiir  (Wurz- 
burg,  1785 — 1794,  15  vols.) ;  and  by  Lommatzsch, 
which  is  critical  and  more  complete  (Beriin,  1831), 
&c. 

ORI'GINAL  SIN.  According  to  this  theological 
tenet,  when  stated  in  its  extremest  form,  men 
come  into  the  world  with  the  reason  and  will 
utterly  corrupt.  This  corruption  originated  in  the 
fall  of  Adam,  and  has  been  inherited  equally  by  all 
his  posterity,  so  that  the  natural  man  is  not  only 
incapable  of  knowing  and  loving  God  and  goodness, 
but  is  inclined  to  contemn  God  and  pursue  evil ;  on 
which  account  the  anger  of  God  has  subjected  him 
to  temporal  death,  and  destined  him  to  everlasting 
punishment  in  hell.  The  doctrine  is  founded  on  the 
account  of  the  fall  given  in  Genesis,  aud  on  some 
passages  in  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  and  in 
that  to  the  Romans ;  which  passages,  however,  are 
held  by  others  to  contain  no  such  doctrine ;  and 
indeed  nearly  every  point  in  the  history  of  the 
doctrine  is  the  subject  of  as  much  controversy  as 
the  details  of  the  doctrine  itself.  The  early  church, 
it  is  maintained  by  one  school,  was  unacquainted 
with  it ;  and  the  most  orthodox  admit  that  the 
doctrine  had  not  at  that  time  been  fully  developed. 
The  Christian  fathers,  Justin  Martyr,  Ok  mens 
Alexandrinus,  Irenams,  and  others,  ascribe  to  the 
natural  man  a  certain  ability  to  know  God  and 
choose  the  good,  they  are  said  to  reject  dis- 
tinctly all  propagation  of  sin  and  guilt,  and  even 
to  refer  human  mortality  not  to  Adam's  sin, 
but  solely  to  the  constitution  of  the  body.  Origen, 
on  the  other  haud,  in  opposition  to  the  Gnos- 
tics and  Manichees,  who  grounded  the  sinful- 
ness of  men  on  the  connection  of  the  soul  with 
a  material  body,  asserted  that  the  sinfulness  was 
in  existence  at  birth,  but  ascribed  the  develop- 
ment of   actual  sins  and  their  consequences   not 

117 


ORIGINAL  SIN. 


to  propagation,  but  to  the  moral  operation  of 
precept  and  example.  He  accordingly  found  the 
cause  of  sin  to  be  in  the  freedom  of  the  will,  the 
abuse  of  which  he  explained  partly  by  the  operation 
of  evil  powers,  partly  by  the  predominance  of  the 
sensuous  part  of  man's  nature  over  the  rational 
mind.  The  orthodox  teachers  of  the  Greek  Church, 
again,  held  that  Adam,  by  the  fall,  rendered  himself 
and  all  his  posterity  mortal,  but,  according  to  the 
less  rigid  schools,  they  looked,  for  the  origin  of  sin 
in  the  freedom  of  the  will  acted  upon  by  the  flesh, 
and.  by  demoniacal  influences,  and  ascribed  to  man 
the  power  of  resisting  every  evil  if  he  chose.  These 
views,  it  is  alleged,  continued  to  be  held,  in  sub- 
stance, by  the  Christian  teachers  in  the  east,  and 
were  fully  developed  by  Chrysostom ;  but  Catholic 
writers  maintain  that  in  all  this  Chrysostom  and 
the  other  Greek  Fathers  are  speaking  not  of  the 
natural  powers  of  the  will,  but  of  the  will  as  assisted 
by  divine  grace. 

The  doctrine  took  another  shape  in  the  Latin 
Church.  Tertullian,  following  up  his  dogma  of 
Traducianism,  according  to  which  the  child  derives 
not  only  its  body  but  its  soul  from  its  parents, 
maintained  that  sinfulness  had  been  propagated, 
along  with  mortality,  from  Adam  to  all  mankind ; 
he  thus  defended  an  originis  vitium,  without  con- 
ceiving it  as  actual  sin  and  denying  all  capacity  for 
good  in  man.  This  view  was  followed  by  Cyprian, 
Ambrose,  and  even  by  Augustine  in  his  earlier 
writings.  It  was  only  during  his  controversy  with 
Pelagius  and  Cselestius  that  Augustine  came  to 
develop  the  doctrine  of  original  sin  into  the  full 
form  given  above.  His  great  influence  in  the 
western  churches  procured  the  condemnation  of  his 
opponents,  the  Pelagians  (q.  v.),  as  heretics  at  the 
Councils  of  Carthage  (412,416,418),  although  the 
Councils  of  Jerusalem  and  Diospolis  (415)  decided 
in  their  favour.  Building  upon  the  foundation  of 
Traducianism,  Augustine  laid  down  that  every 
natural  man  is  in  the  power  of  the  devil,  and  upheld 
the  justice  of  this  as  a  punishment  for  the  share 
which  the  individual  had  in  Adam's  transgression  ; 
for  as  all  men  existed  in  the  loins  of  Adam,  all 
sinned  with  him.  Pelagius,  on  the  other  hand,  who 
rejected  the  Traducian  theory,  denied  that  sin  is 
propagated  physically,  or  that  the  fall  of  Adam  has 
exercised  any  prejudicial  influence  on  the  moral 
constitution  of  his  posterity  ;  and  maintained  that 
all  men  are  born  in  a  state  of  innocence,  possess  the 
power  of  freewill,  and  may  therefore  live  without 
sin.  He  and  his  followers  objected  to  Augustine, 
that  his  doctrine  was  in  direct  contradiction  to 
clear  passages  of  Scripture,  and  that  it  made  God 
the  originator  of  evil  and  an  unrighteous  judge. 

Great  as  was  the  respect  for  Augustine,  the  harsh- 
ness of  his  doctrine  was  too  shocking  to  the  natural 
sentiments  to  meet  with  lasting  acceptance.  In  the 
eastern  church  it  never  gained  a  footing,  and  even 
in  the  west  it  met  with  opposition.  In  Gaul,  John 
Cassian,  Fanstns,  Amobius,  and  others,  took  up  a 
view  midway  between  the  views  of  Augustine  and 
Pelagius,  from  which  they  were  called  Semi- 
pelagians.  They  attributed  to  man  a  capacity  for 
good  which  makes  it  possible  for  him,  not  indeed  to 
merit  the  favour  of  God,  but  to  make  himself 
capable  of  receiving  it;  and  maintained  that  it  is 
only  a  certain  inborn  weakness  that  men  inherit 
from  the  first  pair.  The  Semipelagian  doctrine 
found  acceptance  especially  among  the  monks  (in 
particular  among  the  Franciscans),  continued  to 
prevail  during  the  middle  ages,  and  among  the 
scholastics  found  partisans  in  the  Scotists.  Augus- 
tine's views  also  found  advocates  among  the  scho- 
lastic philosophers,  who,  however,  added  to  it  many 
limitations  and  explanations.  Regarding  the  way 
118 


in  which  original  sin  is  propagated,  many  held  by 
the  Traducian  theory,  while  others  conceived  it  to 
be  a  sort  of  infection  of  the  soul  by  the  defiled 
body,  or  an  imputation  of  guilt  to  all  partakers  of 
the  human  nature.  Petrus  Lombardus  adhered  to 
Augustine.  Anselm  of  Canterbury  conceived  original 
sin  to  be  a  want  of  requisite  righteousness,  and 
thought  that  this  want  was  imputed  to  all  the  pos- 
terity of  Adam,  although  not  in  the  same  degree  as 
if  they  had  themselves  sinned.  Anselm's  view  was 
adopted  by  Duns  Scotus,  while  Bonaventura  and 
Thomas  Aquinas  sought  to  combine  the  opinions  of 
Anselm  and  Augustine.  Anselm  had  thought  that 
his  theory  afforded  a  better  explanation  of  the 
sinless  birth  of  Christ ;  and  about  the  12th  c.  it 
began  to  be  maintained  that  Mary  also  was  con- 
ceived without  sin. 

The  reformers  of  the  16th  c.  everywhere  made 
original  sin  a  leading  doctrine,  and  thus  were 
enabled  to  combat  effectively  the  Roman  Catholic 
doctrine  of  the  merit  of  works  ;  while  the  Catholic 
Church,  in  the  fifth  session  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
stamped  what  the  Calvinist  school  would  call 
Semipelagianism  as  the  orthodox  doctrine.  The 
reformed  churches  agreed  with  the  Lutheran  on 
the  point  of  original  sin.  In  this  they  followed 
Calvin  rather  than  Zwingli,  who  looked  upon  it  as 
an  evil  or  disease,  and  as  becoming  sin  only  when  a 
commandment  is  transgressed.  The  Arminiaus  and 
Socinians,  on  the  other  hand,  denied  the  doctrine 
of  hereditary  sin  in  the  ecclesiastical  sense.  The 
MeDnonites  spoke  of  a  loss  of  the  divine  image  in 
consequence  of  the  fall  of  Adam,  but  still  asserted 
the  freewill  of  man.  The  Quakers  rejected  the 
name  of  original  sin  altogether ;  they  held  that  there 
is  a  germ  of  sin  iu  man,  from  which  imputable  sin 
springs,  and  that,  however  corrupt,  he  has  still  the 
susceptibility  of  being  awakened  to  the  inward 
light.  The  whole  Protestant  Church  held,  besides, 
that  Jesus  alone  was  free  from  sin,  both  original 
and  actual.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  ascribed 
this  attribute  also  to  Mary,  though  no  public  and 
distinct  declaration  on  the  point  was  given  by  the 
Council  of  Trent.     See  Immaculate  Conception. 

The  harshness  of  the  Augustinian  dogma  led,  at 
the  time  of  the  Reformation,  to  keen  controversies ; 
Erasmus  disputed  the  point  with  Luther,  and  would 
only  admit  a  weakness  of  the  freewill  arising  from 
original  sin,  and  by  no  means  a  complete  anni- 
hilation of  it.  From  that  time  the  doctrine  in 
Germany  continued  to  be  variously  attacked  and 
defended.  It  has  been  discussed  by  the  schools  of 
philosophy.  Kant  shewed  the  moral  signification 
of  the  dogma,  and  made  out  original  sin  to  be  a 
propensity  to  evil  inherent  in  man.  The  Schelling- 
Hegel  school,  again,  explained  it  as  the  finite  nature 
with  which  the  individual  is  born.  In  recent  times, 
the  theologians  of  the  old  Lutheran  and  strictly 
orthodox  tendencies,  such  as  Olshausen,  Tholuck, 
Hengstenberg,  and  others,  have  come  forward 
as  adherents  and  defenders  of  the  Augustinian 
doctrine;  while  the  more  liberal  theologians 
modify  it  in  various  ways,  not  admitting  any  moral 
inborn  corruption  arising  from  the  fall,  but  only  a 
weakness  in  man's  nature  for  the  knowledge  and 
performance  of  good.  How  far,  and  with  what 
differences,  the  extreme  Augustinian  view  is  held 
by  the  churches  of  England  and  Scotland,  will  be 
seen  from  the  following  extracts  from  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  and  the  Westminster  Confession  of 
Faith. 

From  Art.  ix.  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles:  'Ori- 
ginal sin  standeth  not  in  the  following  of  Adam 
(as  the  Pelagians  do  vainly  talk);  but  it  is  the 
fault  and  corruption  of  the  nature  of  every  man, 
that  naturally  is    engendered  of    the    offspring  of 


OTUTIUELA— OBION. 


Adam,  whereby  man  fa  very  far  gone  from  original 
righteousness,  and  is  of  his  own  nature  inclined  to 
evil,  so  that  the  flesh  lasteth  always  contrary  to  the 
spirit;  and  therefore  in  every  person  born  into  the 
world,  it  deserveth  God'a  wrath  and  damnation.1 

From  chap.  vi.  of  the  Westminster  Confession: 
•By  this  sin'  (i.e.,  the  eating  of  the  forbidden 
fruit),  '  they'  (i.  e.,  our  first  parents)  '  fell  from  their 
original  righteousness  and  communion  with  God, 
ami  so  became  dead  in  ,sin,  and  wholly  defied  in 
all  Ike  faculties  and  parts  of  soul  and  bod;/.  They 
being  the  root  of  all  mankind,  the  guilt  of  this 
aiu  was  imputed,  and  the  same  death  in  sin  and 
corrupted  nature  conveyed  to  all  their  posterity, 
descending  from  them  by  ordinary  generation. 
From  this  original  corruption,  whereby  we  are 
utterly  indisposed,  disabled,  and  made  opposite  to 
all  good,  and  wholly  inclined  to  all  evil,  do  proceed 
all  actual  transgressions.' 

ORIHUE'LA,  an  ancient  town  of  Spain  in  the 
modern  province  of  Alicante,  and  36  miles  south- 
west of  the  city  of  that  name,  stands  on  the  banks 
of  the  Segura,  in  a  plain  remarkable  alike  for  its 
beauty  and  its  fertility.  It  is  long  and  straggling, 
while  its  palm-trees,  square  towers,  and  domes  give 
it  an  oriental  appearance.  It  contains  a  cathedral, 
numerous  churches  and  convents,  barracks,  &c.  The 
manufactures  are  linen  goods  and  hats,  and  many 
corn  and  oil  mills  and  tanneries  are  in  operatiou. 
Olive  oil  is  very  extensively  made.  The  vegetation 
here  is  gigantic ;  the  oleanders  are  actual  trees.  O. 
has  been  possessed  by  Carthaginians,  Eomans,  Moors, 
and  Spaniards  in  turn.     Pop.  about  25,000. 

ORI'LLON,  in  Fortification,  and  especially  in 
the  earlier  systems,  is  a  semicircular  projection  at 
the  shoulder  of  a  bastion,  intended  to  cover  from 
the  observation  of  the 
enemy  the  guns  and 
defenders  on  the  flank, 
which,  with  such  a 
construction,  is  some- 
what retired  or  thrown 
back.  The  flank  thus 
protected  is  held  by 
many  distinguished 
engineers  to  be  most 
valuable  in  the  defence 
of  the  ditch,  in  clear- 
ing it  from  an  attack- 
ing party,  or  from 
hostile  miners.  The 
retired  flank  is  sometimes  straight,  at  others  curved, 
as  in  the  figure.  The  orillon  is  as  old  as  the  bastion, 
and  is  found  in  the  works  of  Pagan  and  Speckle. 

ORINO'CO,  a  river  of  S.  America,  which  rises  in 
Southern  Venezuela,  and  flowing  through  that  state, 
reaches  the  Atlantic  Ocean  south  of  Trinidad,  in  lat. 
8°  40'  N.  The  country  in  which  it  takes  its  rise  is 
inhabited  by  an  aboriginal  race  called  the  Guaicas, 
who  have  hitherto  prevented  all  access  by  foreigners 
to  its  sources;  but  it  is  known  to  rise  in  the  Sierra 
Parime,  one  of  the  chief  mountain  chains  of  Guiana, 
near  lat.  3°  40'  N.,  long.  60°  30'  W.  It  has  been 
explored  bv  Humboldt  to  the  village  of  Esmeraldas 
(lat,  3°  8'  N.,  long.  66°  5'  W.),  and  by  Schomburgk 
to  within  30  miles  of  its  source.  After  flowing 
west-south-west  20  miles  past  Esmeraldas  the  river 
bifurcates,  and  the  southern  branch,  the  Cassiquiari 
(q.  v.),  flowing  south-west,  joins  the  Rio  Negro,  an 
affluent  of  the  Amazon.  From  this  point  the  O. 
flows  north-west  to  its  junction  with  the  Guaviare, 
then  north-north-east  to  its  junction  with  the 
Apure,  after  which  it  flows  in  an  eastward  direction 
to  its  mouth.  Length  of  course,  1960  miles.  The 
head  of  uninterrupted  navigation  is  at  the  confluence 


Orillon : 
a,  a,  orillons;  6,  6,  retired  flanks 
(the    dotted    lines    shews    the 
original  bastion). 


of  the  (>.  with  the  Apure,  777  miles  from  th* 
mouth  of  the  river.  Above  this  point  the  © 
the  river  is  interrupted  by  'raudals'  or  oatarasta, 
of  which  those  of  .Maypures  and  Atures  are  the 
moat  celebrated.  Its  principal  affluents  from  the 
left  are  the  Guaviare,  the  Vichada,  the  Meta,  and 
the  Apure;  from  the  right,  the  Yentuare,  Cam*, 
and  OaronL  The  <>.,  which  is  joined  by  4.%  rivers, 
and  upwards  of  2000  streams,  drams  an  area 
(usually  stated  at  250,000  square  miles)  which, 
according  to  Wappan's  Republic  n  run  SUd-A  i 
may  be  estimated  at  650,000  square  miles,  it  I  i 
to  form  its  delta  130  miles  from  its  mouth,  by 
throwing  off  a  branch  which  flows  northward  into 
the  Atlantic.  Several  of  the  mouths  are  navigable, 
and  the  main  stream,  the  Boca  de  Navios,  is  divided 
by  a  line  of  islands  into  two  channels,  each  two 
miles  in  width.  Bolivar,  a  town  upwards  of  250 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  marks  the  head 
of  tide- water,  and  here  the  river  is  4  miles  wide  and 
390  feet  deep.  Below  the  junction  of  the  Apure  the 
character  of  the  scenery  seems  to  be  uniform-— 
forests  on  the  right  bank,  and  llanos  on  the  left. 

O'RIOLE  (Oriolus),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
Thrush  family  (Merulidoz  or  Turdidai),  having  an 

elongated  conical  beak,  broad  at  the  base  ;  the 
upper  mandible  ridged  above,  and  notched  at  the 
point ;  wings  of  moderate  size,  the  first  feather 
very  short,  the  third  the  longest  ;  the  tail  of 
moderate  length,  and  rounded  ;  the  tarsus  not 
longer  than  the  middle  toe  ;  the  outer  toe  joined 
at  its  base  to  the  middle  toe  ;  claws  strong  and 
curved.  The  species  are  numerous,  all  natives  of 
the  Old  World,  and  chiefly  of  the  warmer  parts 
of  it ;  the  adult  males  generally  of  much  brighter 
plumage  than  the  females  and  young  males,  the 
prevalent  colour  yellow.  Only  one  species  is  found 
in  Europe,  the  Golden  O.  (O.  galbula),  pretty  com- 
mon in  Italy  and  some  other  parts  of  Europe,  but 
a  rare  summer  visitant  of  England,  and  never  seen 
in  Scotland,  although  it  occasionally  breeds  in  the 
south  of  Sweden. — The  name  O.  is  still  very  com- 
monly given  to  the  Baltimore  Bird  (q.  v.)  and  other 
American  birds  of  the  Icterus  family,  the  chief 
resemblance  of  which  to  the  true  orioles  is  in 
colour. 

ORI'ON,  in  Greek  Mythology,  was  a  gigantic 
hunter,  and  reputed  the  handsomest  man  in  the 
world.  His  parentage  is  differently  given.  Ac- 
cording to  the  commonly  received  myth,  he 
was  the  son  of  Hyrieus  of  Hyria,  in  Bceotia, 
and  was  called  in  his  own  country  Kandaon. 
Another  account  makes  him  a  son  of  Posei- 
don and  Euryale,  while  some  state  that  he  was 
Autochthonos,  or  '  earth-born.'  So  immense 
was  his  size,  that  when  he  waded  through  the 
deepest  seas  he  was  stdl  a  head  and  shoulders 
above  the  water ;  and  when  he  walked  on  dry 
land,  his  stature  reached  the  clouds.  Once  on  a 
time  he  came  to  Chios,  in  the  ^gean  Sea,  where 
he  fell  in  love  with  ^Ero  or  Merope,  daughter  of 
ffinopion.  He  cleared  the  isle  of  wild  beasts,  and 
brought  their  skins  as  presents  to  his  sweetheart ; 
but  her  father  always  put  off  their  marriage ; 
whereupon  O.,  one  day  giving  way  to  passion 
(when  under  the  influence  of  wine),  sought  to 
take  the  maiden  by  force.  OEnopion  now  called 
upon  Dionysus  (Bacchus)  for  help,  who  put  out 
the  eyes  of  the  inebriate  lover.  O.,  however, 
recovered  his  sight  in  Lemnos,  by  following  the 
advice  of  an  oracle,  and  returned  to  Chios  to  take 
vengeance  on  (Enopion.  Not  finding  him,  he  went 
to  Crete,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  hunting 
in  company  with  Artemis  (Diana).  The  cause  and 
manner  of  his  death  are  differently  related.    Artemis, 

119 


ORION— OFJSSA. 


say  some,  slew  him  with  an  arrow,  because  Eos, 
inflamed  by  his  beauty,  had  carried  him  off  to 
Ortygia,  and  thereby  olfeuded  the  gods.  Others 
aver  that  Artemis,  virgin-goddess  though  she  was, 
cherished  an  affection  for  him,  that  made  her 
brother  Apollo  fiercely  indignant.  One  day,  pointing 
out  to  her  at  sea  a  black  object  floating  in  the 
water,  he  told  her  that  he  did  not  believe  she 
could  hit  it.  Artemis,  not  recognising  her  favourite, 
drew  her  bow,  and  pierced  him  through  the  head  ; 
a  third  myth  makes  him  find  his  death  from  the 
sting  of  a  scorpion.  Asklepios  (^Esculapius)  wished 
to  restore  him  to  life,  but  was  slain  by  a  bolt  of 
Zeus.  After  his  death,  0.  was  placed  with  his 
hound  among  the  stars,  where,  to  this  day,  the  most 
splendid  constellation  in  the  heavens  bears  his 
name. 

ORI'SSA,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  Hindustani 
the  authentic  history  of  which  goes  back  to  473  a.d., 
extended  from  Bengal— a  part  of  which  it  included 
— on  the  N.,  to  the  banks  of  the  Godavari  on  the  S., 
and  from  the  coast  on  the  E.  to  the  river  Gondwana 
on  the  W.  From  its  remains  of  sculptures,  inscrip- 
tions, &c,  we  may  infer  that  its  early  civilisation 
was  high.  The  temple  of  the  sun  at  Kanarek — 
erected  about  the  12th  c. — exhibits  carvings  repre- 
senting the  planets,  sculptured  figures  of  animals, 
&c,  which  shew  that  at  that  date  the  plastic  and 
mechanical  arts  were  in  a  more  advanced  state  in 
O.  than  they  were  in  England.  It  maintained  its 
position  as  an  independent  monarchy  till  155S, 
when,  its  royal  line  having  become  extinct,  it 
became  an  outlying  province  of  the  empire  of  the 
Great  Mogul.  On  the  breaking  up  of  this  empire, 
the  more  valuable  portions  of  0.  were  seized  by  the 
Nizam  of  Hydrabad  The  French,  who  had  taken 
possession  of  a  part  of  the  country  long  known  as 
the  Northern  Circars,  attempted  to  drive  the  Eng- 
lish (who  had  also  formed  commercial  settlements 
on  the  coast),  out  of  India.  The  result  of  the  contest 
for  supremacy  in  India  between  the  French  and 
English  i3  well  known.  The  Mahrattas,  who  had 
6eized  a  portion  of  0.  in  1740,  were  forced  to  sur- 
render it  to  the  English  in  1803.  The  soldiers  of 
the  East  India  Company  were  marched  into  0.  at 
the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  and  an 
engagement  was  subsequently  entered  into  between 
the  Company  and  the  native  chiefs  and  princes,  by 
which  the  former  bound  themselves  to  perform 
certain  services  for  the  country  (as  maintaining  the 
river-banks  in  good  repair),  while  the  latter  engaged 
to  pay  a  yearly  tribute.  Of  the  many  principalities 
into  which  0.  was  divided,  a  large  number  got  into 
arrears  with  the  government,  and  the  result  was 
that  numbers  of  the  estates  were  sold,  and  the 
government,  as  a  rule,  became  the  purchaser.  Much 
of  the  territory  originally  forming  a  portion  of  this 
kingdom  thus  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British. 
The  ancient  0.,  which  existed  as  an  independent 
monarchy  for  four  centuries,  and  nourished  as   a 

Erincipality  of  the  Mogul  empire  after  155S,  is  now 
ardly  to  be  recognised  in  the  British  dependency 
of  Cuttack  (q.  v.),  within  the  limits  of  which  it  is 
comprised.  The  country  is  traversed  by  a  branch 
of  the  Eastern  Ghauts  running  parallel  with  the 
coast.  The  hill-districts,  which  nowhere  present  an 
elevation  of  more  than  3000  feet,  are  inhabited  by 
the  Gonds,  the  Koles,  the  Sourahs,  and  the  Khonds. 
The  Khonds  are  believed  to  be  the  descendants  of 
the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  country.  This  tribe 
occupied  an  area  extending  from  north  of  the  Maha- 
naddi,  south  to  the  banks  of  the  Godavari.  Their 
mountain-haunts  are  admirably  suited  for  defence, 
as  the  districts  which  they  inhabit  are  almost 
inaccessible ;  and  although  they  do  not  yet  appear 
to  have  adopted  firearms,  they  manage  their  battle- 
120 


axes  and  bows  and  arrows  with  an  adroitness  and 
courage  that  make  them  formidable  enemies.  Tlie 
Khonds  are  a  totally  distinct  race  from  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  plains,  and  there  is  but  little  resem- 
blance  between  them  and  the  other  hill-tribes,  the 
Gonds  and  Sourahs.  The  chief  peculiarities  of  the 
Khonds  are,  that  their  language,  which  is  quite 
distinct  from  those  of  the  neighbouring  tribes,  is 
not  in  the  least  understood  by  the  inhabitants  of 
the  plains ;  and  that  human  sacrifice  formed,  till 
within  the  last  few  years,  one  of  the  distinguishing 
features  of  their  religion.  They  do  not  barter 
or  traffic,  and  all  commercial  transactions  are 
managed  for  the  Khonds  by  the  Panus,  who  are 
regarded  by  their  employers  as  an  inferior  race. 
There  are,  however,  no  caste  prejudices  among 
the  Khonds  such  as  generally  prevail  throughout 
the  plains  of  India.  Agriculture  and  war  are  the 
only  employments.  The  revolting  custom  of  human 
sacrifice  prevaded  among  the  Khonds  from  the 
earliest  times,  although  it  was  not  till  1836  that 
the  attention  of  the  government  was  specially  called 
to  the  subject,  at  the  conclusion  of  an  insurrection, 
in  the  course  of  which  British  officers  had  been 
brought  into  contact  with  the  Hill  tribes.  The 
Khond  victims,  called  Meriah,  were  always  bought 
with  a  price,  sometimes  from  families  of  their 
own  tribes  who  had  fallen  into  poverty,  but 
generally  kidnapped  from  the  plains  by  miscreants 
of  the  Panu  race.  The  Meriah  victims  were  of 
both  sexes,  and  of  every  age ;  though  adults 
were  held  in  the  highest  esteem,  because,  being 
the  most  costly,  they  were  supposed  to  be  more 
acceptable  to  the  deity.  The  object  of  the  sacrifice 
was  to  propitiate  the  earth-god ;  and  abundant 
crops,  security  from  calamity,  and  general  prosperity 
were  supposed  to  be  insured  to  any  one  who  had 
cut  off  a  portion  of  the  flesh  of  the  human  victim, 
and  buried  it  in  his  farm.  The  consummation  of 
the  Meriah  sacrifice  was  often  attended  with  circum- 
stances of  the  most  revolting  and  disgusting  cruelty. 
In  some  cases  the  event  was  preceded  by  a 
month's  feasting,  intoxication,  and-  dancing  round 
the  Meriah.  On  the  day  before  the  sacrifice,  the 
priest  thus  addressed  the  victim  :  '  We  have  bought 
you  with  a  price,  and  did  not  seize  you ;  now  we 
sacrifice  you  according  to  custom,  and  no  sin  rests 
with  us.'  On  the  following  day  the  victim  was 
made  senseless  from  intoxication,  and  then  suffo- 
cated ;  after  which  the  officiating  priest  cut  a 
portion  of  the  flesh  from  the  body,  and  buried  it  as 
an  offering  to  the  earth-god.  The  people,  following 
his  example,  hewed  the  flesh  from  the  bones,  and 
carried  the  bloody  trophy  to  their  distant  villages, 
where  it  was  buried.  In  many  cases  the  victim 
was  not  intoxicated  before  sacrifice  ;  but  the  joints 
of  his  arms  and  legs  were  broken  with  a  hatchet,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  resistance.  In 
1S37,  General  (then  Captain)  Canq)bell  was  ap- 
pointed assistant-collector  in  Ganjam,  the  adjoining 
district  in  the  plains,  and  with  varied  success 
devoted  much  of  his  time  to  endeavouring  to  sup- 
press the  rite.  He  was  succeeded  in  1841  by  Major 
(then  Lieutenant)  Macpherson,  C.B.  Encouraged  by 
the  success  of  his  labours,  the  government  in  1845 
established,  under  Macpherson,  a  separate  agency  for 
the  suppression  of  Meriah  sacrifices  in  the  Hill 
tracts  of  0.,  in  which  he  was  succeeded,  in  1847,  by 
Major-general  Campbell,  who  carried  on,  with 
undiminished  success,  the  good  work  commenced 
by  Macpherson,  pushing  his  inquiries  and  exerting 
his  authority  among  tribes  unvisited  by  his  pre- 
decessor ;  and  reports  have  been  sent  in  from  all 
parts  of  the  country,  stating  that  for  several  years 
hardly  any  Meriah  sacrilices  have  taken  place  in 
the  great  Hill  tract  of  Orissa.    In  the  year  1852 


ORISTANO-ORKNEY  ISLANDS. 


■ — 1853,  all  victims  retained  for  sacrilice  were 
demanded,  and  in  only  one  inatanoe  bad  the  demand 
to  be  followed  up  by  force.  The  practice  of  female 
infanticide,  in  this  district  at  one  time  dreadfully 
oommon,  to  which  attention  was  lirst  called  by 
Major  Macpherson,  has  now  also  become  almost 
wholly  suppressed 

See  Report  by  Lieutenant  ATPherson,  Calcutta, 
1841 ;  An  Account  of  the  Religion  of  tlie  Rhonda  in 
Orieaa,  idem  in  the  Trans,  if  Axial.  Societies,  1851 ; 
Personal  Narrative  of  Service  amourist  the  Wild 
Tribes  of  Khondistan,  Major-General  Campbell, 
1864;  Calcutta  Review,  Nob.  IX.,  XL,  XV.,  and 
XX.;  Kayo's  History  of  the  Administration  of  the 
E.  I.  Coii.,  18.").'; ;  Memoir:  Administration  of  India 
during  Last  Thirty  Years,  1S5S  (London)  ;  Indian 
Records — History  of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the 
Operations  fur  the  Suppression  of  Human  Sacrifice 
and  Female  Infanticide  in  the  Hill  Tracts  of  Orissa, 
Calcutta,  1854. 

ORISTA'NO,  a  town,  and  inferior  river  port  on 
the  west  coast  of  Sardinia,  515  miles  north-west  of 
Cagliari.  It  stands  in  a  fruitful,  well-cultivated 
plain,  about  a  mile  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Tirso 
or  Oristano,  and  3  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  Gulf 
of  Oristano,  which  is  about  10  miles  in  length,  with 
a  breadth  of  5  miles.  It  is  surrounded  by  ancient 
walls  flanked  with  towers ;  contains  a  cathedral 
with  a  great  clock  tower,  the  most  conspicuous 
objec*.  in  the  town  ;  au  archbishop's  palace,  college, 
and  8evei-al  churches  and  couvents.  It  carries  on 
manufactures  of  ironware,  cutlery,  and  agricultural 
implements,  and  a  number  of  its  inhabitants  are 
engaged  in  the  tunny  fishery  on  the  coast.  Corn, 
Bait  fish,  and  the  wine  of  Vernaccia  are  exported. 
In  winter  the  town  is  busy  and  lively  ;  but  in 
Bummer  it  is  unhealthy,  and  during  that  season  all 
who  can  afford  to  do  so,  leave  it.     Pop.  6381. 

ORIZA'BA,  a  town  of  Mexico,  in  the  state  of 
Vera  Cruz,  70  miles  west-south-west  of  the  town 
of  that  name,  and  25  miles  south  of  the  volcano  of 
Orizaba.  The  vicinity  is  unusually  fertile,  and  is 
covered  with  forests.  The  town  contains  numerous 
churches,  a  high  school,  and  an  extensive  cotton 
spinning-factory.  Coarse  cloths  and  tobacco  are 
largely  manufactured,  and  there  is  much  general 
industry.    Pop.  15,000. 

O'RKNEY  ISLANDS,  which,  with  Shetland, 
form  one  county,  separated  from  Caithness  by 
the  Pentland  Firth  (q.  v.),  lie  between  58°  41'  24" 
and  59°  23'  2"  N.  kit.,  and  between  2°  22'  2"  and 
3°  25'  10"  W.  long.  ;  and  are  73  in  number  at 
low- water,  of  which  28,  besides  Pomona,  or  the 
Mainland,  are  inhabited.  The  area  of  the  0.  I. 
is  610  square  miles,  or  390,147  imperial  acres. 
The  surface  is  very  irregular,  and  the  land  is 
indented  by  numerous  arms  of  the  sea.  Previous 
to  the  middle  of  last  century,  the  agriculture  of 
Orkney  was,  in  more  than  an  ordinary  degree  for 
the  time,  in  a  primitive  state.  There  was  Uttle  com- 
munication then  with  the  mainland,  and  improve- 
ments were  slowly  adopted.  The  spinning-wheel, 
for  instance,  was  not  introduced  there  for  half  a 
century  after  it  was  in  use  elsewhere.  Until  towards 
the  end  of  last  century,  little  advance  seems  to  have 
been  made  in  the  management  of  the  land,  the 
inhabitants  deeming  it  more  important  and  profit- 
able to  direct  their  attention  to  the  manufacture  of 
kelp.  They  used  to  suffer  periodically  from  bad 
seasons  and  violent  storms,  when  less  help  could 
be  afforded  to  them  from  without.  In  1778,  a 
great  hurricane  of  four  hours'  duration  drove  the 
Bea-spray  over  the  islands.  The  grain  crop  was 
in  consequence  sea-gusted,  and  rendered  almost 
worthies^  and  there  required  to  be  imported  18,000 


bolls  of  meal  and  bere,  besides  other  ail  idea,  costing 
£15,000,  or   nearly   twice-    tic  mtal   of    the 

country.     Orkney  was   formerly   divided   into  32 

parishes,  having   8  pariah  ministers.      It   now  con- 

tains  22  parishes,  forming  3  presbyteries  and  1 
synod,  There  are  also  about  30  congregations 
belonging   to  the   Free  and    United    Presbyterian 

Churches,  besides  3  Independent,  and  one  or  two 
others. 

The  temperature  of  Orkney  is  comparatively 
mild,  considering  its  northern  latitude.  This  arises 
partly  from  its  being  surrounded  bj  the  sea,  but 
chiefly  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Gulf  Stream 
to  the  western  shores.  The  mean  t<  mperature 
in  February,  the  coldest  month,  taking  a  series 
of  33  years  from  182G,  was  38°,  and  in  July 
550,14.  Only  twice  during  that  period  did  the  mean 
monthly  temperature  fall  below  the  freezing-point, 
in  February  1838  and  1855,  when  it  fell  to  31°  and 
31°G4 ;  and  during  the  same  period  it  was  never 
SO  high  as  G0°,  except  in  1852,  when  it  reached 
00° '04.  The  rain-fall  during  these  33  years  averaged 
3G|  inches. 

The  carrying-trade  and  merchandise  of  Orkney 
have  greatly  increased  of  late  years.  The  exports 
rose  from  £49,308  in  1848  to  6181,483  in  1861. 
According  to  a  carefully  prepared  return  in  connec- 
tion with  H  Piers'  Bill,  the  value  of  exports  in  1871 
exceeded  £250,000.  The  exports  are  chiefly  of  fish 
and  agricultural  produce,  of  which  cattle  are  the 
principal. 

The  total  acreage  in  1872  under  all  kinds  of  crops, 
bare  fallow  and  grass,  was  89,902,  wheat,  3  acres; 
barley  and  bere,  6263  acres;  oats,  28,675  acres;  tur- 
nips, 11,144  acres;  potatoes,  3555  acres.  The  num- 
ber of  horses  in  1872  was  5609;  cattle,  24,401; 
sheep,  28,849 ;  swine,  5886.  The  number  of  occu 
pants  of  land  was  3123. 

The  chief  towns  are,  Kirkwall  (q.  v.),  the  capital 
(situated  in  Pomona),  and  Stromness,  in  which  there 
are  3  distilleries,  producing  upwards  of  20,000  gallons 
of  whisky  annually ;  but  Kirkwall  is  the  only  royal 
burgh  in  the  shire.  The  old  valued  rent  of  Orkney 
and  Shetland  was  £57,786  Scots,  of  which  about 
two-thirds,  or  £38,500,  were  attributed  to  Orkney. 
The  valuation  of  Orkney,  exclusive  of  the  burgh 
Kirkwall,  in  1872—1873  was  £55,523.  Inhabited 
houses,  6288;  pop.  (1871)  31,274.  Constituency  re- 
turning a  member  of  parliament,  with  Shetland,  in 
1872—1873,  1194. 

The  Orkneys,  under  the  name  Orcades  [whence 
the  modern  adjective,  Orcadian],  are  mentioned  by 
the  ancient  geographers,  Pliny,  Ptolemy,  Mela,  and 
by  other  classical  writers,  but  of  their  inhabitants 
we  know  almost  nothing  till  the  dawn  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  They  were  most  probably  of  the  same  stock 
as  the  British  Celts.  From  an  early  period,  how- 
ever, the  Norsemen  resorted  to  these  islands,  as 
a  convenient  spot  from  which  to  make  a  descent  on 
the  Scotch  and  English  coasts.  In  87G,  Harald 
Haarfager  conquered  both  them  and  the  Hebrides. 
During  the  greater  part  of  the  10th  c,  they  were 
ruled  by  independent  Scandinavian  jarls  (earlak. 
but  in  1098  they  became  formally  subject  to  the 
Norwegian  crown.  Thus  they  remained  till  1468. 
when  they  were  given  to  James  III  of  Scotland  as 
a  security  for  the  dowry  of  his  wife,  Margaret 
of  Denmark.  The  islands  were  never  redeemed 
from  thi3  pledge ;  and  in  1590,  on  the  marriage  of 
James  I.  with  the  Danish  Princess  Anne,  Denmark 
formally  resigned  all  pretensions  to  the  sovereignty 
of  the  Orkneys.  During  their  long  connection, 
however,  with  Norway  and  Denmark,  all  traces  of 
the  primitive  Celtic  population  disappeared,  and  the 
present  inhabitants  are  of  the  pure  Scandinavian 
stock. 

121 


ORLE— ORLEANS. 


ORLE,  in  Heraldry,  one  of  the  charges  known 
under  the  charge  of  suh-ordinaries,  said  to  be  the 
diminutive  of  a  Bordure  (q.  v.),  but  differing  from 
it  in  being  detached  from  the  sides  of  the  shield. 
It  may  be  the  sole  charge  in  a  shield.  Or,  an  orle 
gules  was  the  coat  borne  by  John  Balioh    An  orle 


Orle. 

of  heraldic  charges  of  any  kind  denotes  a  certain 
number  (generally  eight)  of  these  charges  placed  in 
orle,  as  in  the  coat  of  the  old  Scottish  family  of 
Gladstanes  of  that  Ilk  ;  argent,  a  Bavage's  head 
couped,  distilling  drops  of  blood  proper,  thereon  a 
bonnet  composed  of  bay  and  holly  leaves  all  proper, 
within  an  orle  of  eight  martlets  sahle. 

ORLEANS,  an  important  commercial  town  of 
France,  capital  of  the  department  of  Loiret,  and 
formerly  capital  of  the  old  province  of  Orleannais, 
which  now  forms  the  greater  part  of  the  depart- 
ments of  Loiret,  Eure-et-Loir,  and  Loir-et-Cher, 
is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire,  here 
crossed  by  a  bridge  of  9  arches,  and  is  75|  miles 
south-south-west  of  Paris  by  railway.  Close  to  the 
city  is  the  Forest  of  0.,  one  of  the  largest  in  the 
country,  consisting  of  94,000  acres,  planted  with  oak 
and  other  valuable  trees.  0.  stands  on  the  verge  of 
a  magnificent  plain  sloping  toward  the  Loire,  and 
watered  by  the  Loire  and  Loiret,  and  is  surrounded 
on  the  land-side  by  a  wall  and  dry  ditches,  on  either 
Bide  of  which  there  are  pleasantly  shaded  boule- 
vards. Around  it  are  eight  prosperous  and  populous 
suburbs.  Among  its  principal  buildings  are  the 
cathedral,  with  two  lofty  and  elegant  towers,  one  of 
the  finest  Gothic  edifices  in  the  country ;  the  tower ; 
bishop's  residence ;  the  houses  of  Joan  of  Arc,  of 
Agnes  Sorel,  of  Diane  de  Poitiers,  of  Francois  I., 
of  Pothier ;  the  churches  and  hospitals,  which  are 
numerous;  the  musee,  theatre,  &c.  The  town  con- 
tains three  statues  of  Joan  of  Arc,  of  which  the 
equestrian  one  was  inaugurated  in  1855.  The  situa- 
tion of  the  town  has  many  commercial  advantages, 
arising  from  its  position  on  a  navigable  river,  on 
lines  of  railway  which  connect  it  with  Paris  and  the 
great  trading  towns  in  the  south  of  France,  and  on 
the  canal  which  connects  the  Loire  with  the  Seine. 
Manufactures  of  hosiery,  cotton  and  linen  goods, 
refined  sugar,  vinegar,  bleached  wax,  leather,  &c,  are 
carried  on,  and  the  trade  is  chiefly  in  stockings,  sheep- 
skins, wine,  brandy,  corn,  and  sugar.     Pop.  49,100. 

O.,  originally  called  Genabum,  afterwards  Aure- 
'.ia.7ii  (probably  from  the  Emperor  Aurelian),  of 
which  the  modern  name  is  only  a  corruption,  was  be- 
sieged by  Attila  in  451,  but  relieved  by  the  Romans, 
who  here  defeated  Attila.  It  afterwards  passed  into 
the  hands  of  the  Franks,  was  taken  by  the  Northmen 
in  855,  and  again  in  865.  In  1428,  it  was  besieged 
by  the  English  under  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  but  was 
deliv'jred  from  the  besiegers  by  the  inspiriting  exertions 
of  Joan  of  Arc  (q.  v.),  who  on  this  account  is  also 
named  the  Maid  of  Orleans.  During  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war,  1870 — 1871,  Orleans  was  occupied  by 
the  Germans  Sept.  27,  and  evacuated  Nov.  10,  1870. 

ORLEANS,  House  of.    See  Bourbon. 

OELEANS,  Jean  Baptiste  Gaston,  Due  d', 
third  son  of  Henry  IV.  of  France  and  Mary  de 
Medicis,  was  born  at  Fontainebleau,  25th  April,  1608. 
122 


He  possessed  tolerable  abilities,  but  his  educatiot 
was  neglected.  On  his  marriage  with  Marie  of  Bour- 
bon, Duchess  of  Montpensier,  in  162G,  he  received  the 
duchy  of  Orleans  as  appanage.  His  wife  soon  died, 
leaving  one  daughter,  the  celebrated  Mademoiselle 
de  Montpensier.  His  brother,  Louis  XIII.,  regarded 
him  with  dislike  as  heir-presumptive  to  the  throne, 
the  queen  having  no  children ;  and  the  treatment 
which  he  received  at  the  hands  of  the  king  and  of 
Richelieu,  led  him  to  join  with  his  mother  in 
attempting  the  overthrow  of  that  minister.  He 
left  the  court  with  a  number  of  other  great 
nobles  in  February  1631 ;  sought  the  support  of 
the  Duke  of  Lorraine,  whose  sister  he  married; 
and  raised  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands  a  corps  of 
2000  men,  at  the  head  of  which  he  crossed  the 
French  frontier,  assuming  the  title  of  Lieutenant- 
general  of  the  Kingdom ;  but  was  completely  defeated 
by  Marshal  Schomberg  at  Castelnaudary,  and  fled  to 
the  Duke  of  Lorraine,  whom  he  thereby  involved  in 
ruin.  In  1634,  however,  he  returned  to  the  French 
court.  Richelieu  sought  to  have  his  marriage  with 
Marguerite  of  Lorraine  declared  invalid,  but  after  a 
long  struggle,  and  much  disputing  among  jurists 
and  theologians,  its  validity  was  sustained.  The 
duke  was,  however,  again  obliged  to  leave  France 
in  consequence  of  fresh  intrigues  against  Richelieu. 
After  Richelieu's  death,  a  reconciliation  was  effected 
between  him  and  his  brother,  the  king,  by  the 
ministers  Mazarin  and  Chavigny ;  and  Louis  XIIL 
appointed  him  Lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom 
during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  Mazarin  and 
the  queen-mother,  Anne  of  Austria,  attempting  to 
assume  all  power  to  themselves,  the  duke  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  Fronde  (q.  v.) ;  but  with 
his  usual  vacillating  weakness  and  selfish  sacri- 
fice of  his  friends,  soon  made  terms  again  with  the 
court.  Yet,  when  Mazarin  returned  from  bauish- 
ment  in  1652,  the  duke  again  assembled  troops  for 
the  Prince  of  Conde,  upon  which  account,  after  the 
disturbances  were  ended,  he  was  confined  to  his 
castle  of  Blois,  where  he  died  on  2d  February  1660. 
He  left  three  daughters  by  his  second  marriage. 

ORLEANS,  NEW.    See  New  Orleans. 

ORLEANS,  Philippe,  Due  d',  regent  of  Franco 
during  the  minority  of  Louis  XV.,  was  the  son  of 
Philippe,  Due  d'Orleans,  and  the  grandson  of  Louis 
XIIL,  and  was  born  4th  August  1674.  He  possessed 
excellent  talents,  and  made  unusual  attainments 
both  in  science  and  belles  lettres ;  but  his  tutor, 
Cardinal  Dubois  (q.  v.),  did  not  scruple  to  minister 
to  the  strong  passions  of  the  young  prince,  and  exer- 
cised a  most  pernicious  influence  over  him.  He  gave 
himself  up  to  debauchery.  The  king  compelled  him 
to  marry  Mademoiselle  de  Blois,  his  daughter  by 
Madame  de  Montespan.  He  astonished  and  alarmed 
the  court  by  protesting  against  his  exclusion  by  the 
testament  of  Charles  II.  from  all  right  of  succession 
to  the  throne  of  Spain,  and  by  the  attention  which 
he  immediately  began  to  give  to  military  and 
political  affairs.  His  military  talents,  however,  led 
to  his  employment  in  the  wars  in  Italy  and  in 
Spain  ;  but  his  presence  in  Madrid  after  his  victories 
was  regarded  with  apprehension  both  by  Philip  V. 
and  by  Louis  XIV.  He  had,  indeed,  formed  the 
design  of  taking  possession  of  the  Spanish  throne 
for  himself.  In  consequence  of  this,  he  lived  for 
some  years  in  complete  exile  from  the  court,  and 
much  dreaded  by  it ;  spending  his  time  both  in 
vicious  excesses,  and  in  the  cultivation  of  the  fine 
arts  and  the  study  of  chemistry.  This  study  afforded 
a  pretext  to  Madame  de  Maiutenon  and  her  party 
for  accusing  him  of  poisoning  the  dauphin  and 
others  of  the  royal  family,  who  died  suddenly,  and 
in  rapid  succession,   of   malignant  fever,   in' 1711. 


ORLEANS  -ORMF/S  HEAD. 


The  king  refused  an  investigation  which  the  duke 
demanded.  Louis,  having  legitimised  his  sons,  the 
Duke  of  Maine  and  the  Count  of  Toulouse,  appointed 
the  Duke  of  Orleans  only  president  <>f  the  regency 
and  not  regent,  giving  tho  guardianship  of  his 
youthful  heir  and  the  command  of  the  household 
troops  to  the  Duke  of  Maine ;  hut  all  this  was  set 
aside  at  his  death,  and  the  Duke  of  Orleans  hecame 
eole  regent.  He  was  popular,  and  his  lirst  measures 
increased  his  popularity;  hut  the  financial  affaire 
of  tho  kingdom  were  perplexing,  and  the  regent's 
adoption  of  the  schemes  of  Law  (q.  v.)  Led  to 
disastrous  results.  Meanwhile,  on  the  26th  August 
1718,  he  held  the  celebrated  Lit  de  justice,  in  which 
he  prohibited  the  parliament  of  Paris  from  meddling 
with  financial  or  political  affairs,  and  declared  the 
legitimised  sons  of  Louis  XIV.  incapable  of  succeed- 
ing to  the  throne.  Dubois,  who  still  possessed  an 
unhappy  inlluence  over  his  former  pupil,  became 
prime-minister,  and  eventually  ruler  of  France ;  the 
regent,  who  was  really  a  man  of  far  higher  abilities, 
neglecting  all  duties,  and  pursuing  a  course  of 
profligacy  almost  unequalled  in  the  worst  instances 
of  antiquity.  His  eldest  daughter,  the  Duchess  de 
Berry,  followed  his  example,  and  brought  herself  to 
an  early  grave.  Dubois,  wishing  to  be  made  a 
cardinal,  persuaded  the  regent  to  sacrifice  the 
Jansenists,  and  to  compel  the  parliament  in  1722  to 
recognise  the  bull  Unigenitus  (q.  v.).  After  the 
king's  coronation,  15th  February  1723,  and  the 
death  of  Dubois  in  August,  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
although  disliking  public  affairs,  consented  to 
become  prime-minister ;  but  died  on  the  2d 
December  of  the  same  year,  physically  exhausted 
by  his  incessant  debauchery.  The  influence  of  his 
religious  and  other  opinions,  and  the  example  of 
his  immoralities,  powerfully  tended  to  promote  that 
state  of  things  which  eventually  produced  the 
horrors  of  the  French  Revolution. 

ORLEANS,  Louis  Philippe  Joseph,  Due  d', 
born  April  13,  1747,  was  the  great-grandson  of  the 
preceding.  He  possessed  very  good  abilities  ;  but 
early  fell  into  the  grossest  debaucheries,  in  which 
he  continued  to  the  end  of  his  career.  Louis  XVI. 
disliked  him  on  account  of  his  debased  character, 
and  the  queen  for  his  obtrusiveness.  He  became 
gradually  estranged  from  the  court,  sought  popu- 
larity and  obtained  it,  and  embraced  the  cause  of 
American  independence.  In  the  Assembly  of 
Notables  in  1787  he  declared  against  the  ministe- 
rial proposals  ;  and  when  the  king  sought  to  over- 
come the  resistance  of  the  parliament  by  a  Lit  de 
justice,  he  protested  against  the  proceeding.  On  the 
assembly  of  the  States-General,  he  took  the  popular 
side,  and  voted  with  the  extreme  left  in  the  National 
Assembly ;  seeking  at  the  same  time  to  please  the 
populace  by  profuse  expenditure,  with  the  hope  of 
being  made  Lieutenant-general  of  the  Kingdom,  or 
perhaps  of  opening  for  himself  a  way  to  the  throne. 
When  the  insurrectionary  movements  began  in 
Paris  in  1789,  he  promoted  them  by  secret  agents 
and  money.  The  court  sent  him  on  an  ostensibly 
diplomatic  mission  to  England,  from  which  he 
returned  after  more  than  six  months'  absence,  in 
July  1790,  and  unscrupulously  engaged  in  new 
intrigues  hostile  to  the  king.  But  he  began  to  find 
tbat  he  himself  was  made  the  mere  tool  of  a  party, 
who  avaded  themselves  of  his  influence  and  wealth 
for  their  own  purposes,  and  this  discovery  cooled  his 
revolutionary  fervour.  He  withdrew  from  the 
Jacobin  Club,  was  reconciled  to  the  king,  and 
appeared  at  court ;  but  was  treated  with  such 
disrespect  by  the  courtiers,  that  he  turned  away, 
and  from  that  time  followed  in  blind  rage  the  stream 
of  the  revolution.  He  joined  Dauton's  party,  was 
concerned  in  insurrections,  disclaimed  all  pretensions 


to  tho  throne,  renounced  bii  titles,  assumed  tho 
name  of  Philippe  Egalitl,  was  addressed  as  Citizen 
Egalit6,  unci  was  returned  by  the  department  ol 
Beine  and  .Manic  to  the  National  Convention,  in 
which  he  took  his  place  among  the  Mountain 
party.  Be  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king,  being, 
it  is  said,  himself  threatened  with  death  \>y  the 
Jacobins  if  he  should  do  otherwise,  but  alleging  his 
sense  of  duty  and  his  belief  that  every  one  who 
did  anything  contrary  to  the  sovereignty  of  the 
people  deserved  death.  The  vote  was  received  with 
a  cry  of  disgust,  and  by  no  means  increased  the 
safety  of  his  own  position.  The  Mountain  party 
were  dissatisfied  with  him,  because  he  did  not  give 
up  the  whole  of  his  immense  wealth  for  parts  pur- 
poses. After  the  desertion  of  his  son,  the  Duke  de 
Chartres  (see  Louis  Philippe),  the  decree  for  the 
imprisonment  of  all  the  Bourbons  was  applied  to 
him.  He  was  thrown  into  prison  with  his  family 
in  Marseille,  and  was  brought  before  the  tribunal  of 
the  department  of  Bouches  de  RhGne  on  a  charge  of 
high  treason.  He  was  acquitted,  but  the  Committee 
of  Public  Safety  immediately  brought  him  before  the 
Revolutionary  Tribunal  in  Paris  ;  and  on  the  Gth  of 
November  1793  he  was  condemned,  and  on  the 
same  day  executed  amidst  the  execrations  of  the 
multitude  which  had  so  often  applauded  him. 

ORLEANS  CLOTH,  a  kind  of  stuff  made  for 
ladies'  dresses,  in  which  the  warp  is  of  cotton  and 
the  weft  of  worsted.  It  is  so  called  from  having 
been  first  made  at  Orleans  iu  France,  but  it  ia  now 
extensively  manufactured  at  Bradford  in  Yorkshire. 

ORLOFF,  or  ORLOV,  a  Russian  family  that 
first  rose  to  eminence  during  the  reign  of  Paid 
III.,  when  one  of  its  members,  Count  Gregori  0., 
attracted  the  notice  of  the  Grand  Duchess  Cathe- 
rine, afterwards  the  Empress  Catherine  II.,  and 
succeeded  Poniatovvski  as  her  favourite.  It  was 
Gregori  who  planned  the  murder  of  Peter  III.,  and 
his  brother  Alexis  who  committed  the  deed,  and 
both  received  high  honours  and  rich  rewards  for 
this  and  other  services.  The  flourishing  famdy  of 
the  Counts  Bobrinski  resulted  from  Gregori' s 
intercourse  with  the  empress.  The  legitimate  line  of 
0.  soon  became  extinct ;  but  Feodor,  a  brother  of 
Gregori  and  Alexei,  left  four  illegitimate  sons,  one 
of  whom,  Mikail,  distinguished  himself  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1814  ;  and  another  is  Count  Alexei  0.,  the 
celebrated  diplomatist.  Count  Alexei  was  born  in 
1787,  signalised  himself  by  courage  and  military 
talents  during  the  French  wars,  negotiated  the 
treaties  of  Adrianople  (1829)  and  Unkiar-Skelessi 
(1833),  and  represented  Russia  at  the  London 
conference  of  1832  on  the  affairs  of  Belgium  and 
Holland.  In  1844,  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  secret  police  ;  and  the  ability  and  energy  with 
which  he  directed  its  vast  machinery,  rendered  him 
the  most  dreaded  official  in  Russia.  He  was  high 
in  the  favour  of  the  Emperor  Nicholas,  who  employed 
him  in  the  negotiations  with  Austria  previous  to  the 
Crimean  war.  In  1856,  he  sat  in  the  congress  of 
Paris  as  the  representative  of  Russia,  and  on  his 
return  was  made  president  of  the  grand  council  of  the 
empire.     He  died  at  St  Petersburg,  20th  May  1861. 

O'RLOP  (Dutch,  overloop,  that  which  runs  over, 
or  covers),  in  ships  of  war,  is  the  lowest  deck,  imme- 
diately above  the  hold.  It  contains  the  magazine, 
bread-room,  and  various  store-rooms ;  and  is  used 
in  time  of  action  for  the  reception  and  treatment 
of  the  wounded,  as,  from  being  below  the  water- 
line,  it  is  the  rafest  part  of  the  ship. 

ORME'S  HEAD,  Geeat,  a  headland  in  the 
north-east  of  Caernarvonshire,  North  Wales,  five 
miles  north-north-west  of  Conway,  is  an  enor- 
mous mass   of  limestone  rock,  surmounted   by  a 

123 


ORMOLL  -ORMUZD. 


light-house,  and  forming  the  extreme  point  of  the 
western  shore  of  ( )rmc's  Bay.  Lat.  53°  20'  N.,  long. 
3'  51'  \V. — Little  (Jraic's  Head  forms  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  same  bay. 

O'RMOLU  is  a  variety  of  brass,  consisting  of 
zinc  25  parts,  and  copper  75  parts,  which  has  a 
nearer  resemblance  in  colour  to  gold  than  ordinary 
Brass  (q.  v.).  It  is  extensively  used  for  castings  of 
ornaments  for  furniture,  candelabras,  and  such 
articles.  When  the  casting  is  made,  its  colour  is 
brought  out  by  a  pickle  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
after  which  the  acid  is  removed  by  water,  and  a 
liquor  varnish  is  put  on  to  keep  it  from  tarnishing. 

ORMOND,  James  Butler,  Dukk  of,  was  the 
first  of  the  ancient  Anglo-Irish  family  of  Butler 
on  whom  the  ducal  title  was  conferred.  The  family 
was  of  illustrious  antiquity.  Genealogical  legend 
carried  it  back  to  the  dukes  of  Normandy  before 
the  Conquest,  and  it  is  certain  that  at  the  dawn  of 
the  13th  c,  it  held  the  hereditary  office  of  royai 
cup-bearer  or  butler,  whence  the  family  name.— 
The  subject  of  the  present  article  was  born  in 
London  in  1G10.  His  father,  the  son  of  the  cele- 
brated Walter,  Earl  of  Ormond,  was  drowned  in 
crossing  the  Channel ;  and  the  old  earl  having 
incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  king,  James  I.,  and 
being  thrown  into  prison,  James,  who  on  his  father's 
death  became,  as  Viscount  Thurles,  the  heir  of  the 
title,  was  seized  as  a  royal  ward,  and  placed  under 
the  guardianship  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
On  the  restoration  of  his  grandfather  to  liberty,  he 
also  was  released ;  and  in  his  twentieth  year  he 
married  his  cousin,  Lady  Elizabeth  Preston,  and  in 
1632  succeeded,  upon  his  grandfather's  death,  to  the 
earldom  and  estates  of  Ormond  During  the  Straf- 
ford administration  in  Ireland,  0.  distinguished 
himself  so  much,  that  on  Strafford's  recall  he  recom- 
mended 0.  to  the  king ;  and  in  the  rebellion  of  1640, 
O.  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  the 
army.  During  the  troubled  times  which  followed, 
be  conducted  himself  with  undoubted  ability, 
although,  as  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  number- 
less divisions  and  subdivisions  of  party  which  then 
prevailed  in  Ireland,  he  failed  to  satisfy  any  one  of 
the  conflicting  sections ;  and  when,  in  1643,  he  con- 
cluded an  armistice,  his  policy  was  loudly  condemned 
as  well  by  the  friends  as  by  the  enemies  of  the 
royalist  party  in  England.  During  the  long  contest 
of  Charles  with  the  parliament,  0.  continued  to 
uphold  the  royal  interest  in  his  Irish  govern- 
ment ;  and  when  the  last  crisis  of  the  king's 
fortunes  came,  he  resigned  his  Irish  command,  and 
retired  to  France,  from  which  country  he  again 
returned  to  Ireland  with  the  all  but  desperate 
design  of  restoring  the  royal  authority,  and  after 
a  gallant  but  unequal  struggle,  was  compelled,  in 
1650,  to  return  once  more  to  France.  His  services 
to  the  royal  cause  continued  unremitting  during 
his  exile  ;  and  at  the  restoration  he  accompanied 
Charles  II.  on  his  return,  and  was  rewarded  for  his 
fidelity  by  the  ducal  title  of  Ormond.  His  after-life 
was  less  eventful,  although  he  twice  again  returned 
to  the  government  of  Ireland.  It  was  in  1679  that 
the  well-known  attempt  was  made  by  the  notorious 
Colonel  Blood  (q.  v.)  upon  the  life  of  Ormond.  As 
he  was  returning  from  a  civic  festival,  he  was 
attacked  by  Blood  and  a  party  of  ruffians,  and 
was  dragged  from  his  coach  with  the  intention 
of  his  being  hanged  at  Tyburn.  The  attempt  drew 
additional  interest  from  its  being  commonly  sup- 
posed to  have  been  instigated  by  the  profligate 
Duke  of  Buckingham,  O.'s  inveterate  foe.  He 
escaped  uninjured,  aud  lived  until  the  year  1688. 
His  letters  and  other  papers  are  full  of  deep 
historical  interest.  See  Carte's  Life  of  Ormond. 
124 


O'RMSKIRK,  a  market  town  of  England,  in 
Lancashire,  in  the  centre  of  a  rich  and  populous 
agricultural  district,  12  miles  north  of  Liverpool  by 
the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  railway.  The  parish 
church  has  both  a  tower  and  spire.  Its  grammar- 
school  has  an  annual  income  from  endowment  of  £150. 
Silk- weaving,  rope-making,  basket-making,  and  1  >rew- 
ing  are  the  principal  branches  of  industry.  There 
are  large  collieries  in  the  vicinity.    Pop.  (1871)  6127. 

O'RMUZ,  or  HORMUZ,  a  small  island  in  the 
strait  of  the  same  name,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  within  ten  miles  of  the  Persian 
coast.  It  is  about  twelve  miles  in  circumference, 
and  belongs  to  the  Imaum  of  Muscat,  who  derives 
an  income  from  the  salt  exported  from  the  island. 
In  the  16th  c.  it  was  taken  by  the  Portuguese,  and 
being  made  by  them  an  entrepot  for  goods  from  India, 
Persia,  and  Turkistan,  it  became  important,  and  the 
town  of  the  same  name  rose  in  population  until  it 
had  40,000  inhabitants.  The  town  was  demolished, 
in  1622,  by  Shah  Abbas,  assisted  by  the  English, 
and  its  trade  was  removed  to  Gombroon  (q.  v.). 

ORMUZD  (Ahurmazd,  Auramazda,  Hormazd, 
Ormazd),  corrupted  from  Ahuro-Mazdao,  i.  e.,  that 
Ahura  (Vedic  Asura)  or  '  Spiritual  Being,'  who  is 
called  Mazdad  (i.  e.  Vedic  Medhas)  =  '  Creator  of  all 
things  ;'  the  name  of  the  supreme  deity  of  the 
ancient  Persians,  and  of  their  descendants  the 
Guebres  and  Parsees.  It  was  at  first  emphatically 
employed  in  this  sense  by  Zoroaster,  or  Zarathustra 
Spitama.  O.  is,  according  to  Zoroaster's  original 
doctrine,  the  creator  of  the  earthly  and  spiritual 
life,  the  lord  of  the  whole  universe,  in  whose 
hands  are  all  creatures.  He  is  the  light  and  the 
source  of  light,  the  wisdom  and  the  intellect, 
and  is  in  the  possession  of  all  good  things,  such 
as  '  the  good  mind,'  '  immortality,'  '  wholesomeness,' 
'the  best  truth,'  'abundance,'  &c. ;  which  gifts  he 
bestows  upon  the  pure  in  thoughts,  deeds,  and 
words,  while  the  wicked  ai-e  punished  by  him 
according  to  their  wickedness.  ('  For  thou  art 
through  purity,  the  holy  over  the  wicked,  the 
ruler  over  all,  the  heavenly,  the  friend  of  both 
worlds,  Mazda !  .  .  .  .  Father  of  the  pure  creatures 
at  the  beginning,  who  hath  created  the  way  of  the 
sun,  of  the  stars,  who   causeth  the  moon  to  wax 

and  to  wane He  holdeth  the  earth  and  the 

unsupported  [heavenly  bodies?],  the  waters  and 
the   trees,  and  giveth  swiftness  to  the  wind   and 

the  clouds The  creator  of  the  good  mind, 

the  working  good,  hath  made  light  as  well  as  dark- 
ness, sleep  and  waking,  the  morning  dawns,  the 
noons,  the  nights,'  &c. —  Yazna,  43.)  Sprung  from 
Zarvan-Akarana  (the  boundless  time),  i.  e.,  being 
from  eternity,  self- existing,  neither  born  nor  created, 
he  unites  within  himself — as  does  man  and  every- 
thing else  existing — the  two  primeval  principles  of 
good  and  evil,  the  Cpento-mainyus — i.  e.,  the  white, 
holy  spirit ;  and  the  Angro-mainyus  (corrupted  into 
Ahriman)  =  the  dark  spirit.  This  Zoroastrian  con- 
ception of  the  two  sides  of  the  divine  being — itself 
one  and  indivisible — has,  however,  in  the  course  of 
time,  partly  through  misunderstandings  and  wilfully 
false  interpretations,  undergone  important  changes. 
While  the  Zarvan-Akarana  was  transformed  by  the 
Magi — in  opposition  to  the  Zendiks — into  the  Supreme 
Being  itself,  the  philosophical  notion  of  a  duality  in 
O.  became  the  theological  dogma  of  god  and  devil, 
jealous  of  each  other's  power,  bent  upon  the  des- 
truction of  each  other's  works,  and  consequently  in 
constant  war  with  each  other,  they  and  their  armies. 
Both  are — according  to  this  corrupted  view  of  later 
times,  by  means  of  which  the  genuine  one  has 
been  forgotten  up  to  our  day — supreme  rulers  ;  both 
have  their  fixed  number  of  councillors  (sprung  from 


ORNAMENTATION— ORNITHOLOGY. 


an  egg  Plut.  Isis  and  Osiris),  who  are  the  actual 
governors  of  the  whole  universe,  each  in  his  special 

province;  which  councillors,  however,  are  neither 
more  nor  less  than  certain  abstract  ideas  of  Zoroaster. 
One  persi  inal  archangel  alone  is  assumed  by  the  latter, 
viz.,  Sraoaha  (Scrosh,  cf.  Sanaor.  Shruti),  i.  e.,  hearing, 
tradition.  He  is  vested  with  very  high  powers, 
and  stands  between  O.  and  man  ;  he  is  the  teacher 
of  good  religion;  he  shews  the  way  to  heaven, 
and  pronounces  judgment  over  human  actions  after 
death.  He  is  the  personification  of  the  whole 
divine  worship  and  its  outward  manifestations,  the 
Symbols,  prayers,  sacrifices,  rites,  &c,  and  the  chief 
combatant  of  the  influence  of  the  Devas;  who  stand 
symbolically  for  the  Brahmanic  religion.  0.  is 
represented  as  sitting  upon  a  throne  of  light,  as  a 
venerable  mau,  or  seated  upon  a  bull,  &c. — For 
further  particulars  about  the  seasons  and  the 
manner  of  his  worship,  as  well  as  the  general 
relations  between  his  and  the  Brahmanic  religion 
(both  the  result  of  a  prehistoric  conflict  between 
the  Iranians  ami  those  Arian  brother-tribes  who 
immigrated  into  Hindustan  Proper),  we  must  refer 
to  Parsers,  Persia,  and  Zoroaster. 

ORNAMENTATION,  or  DECORATION,  in 
Architecture,  applies  to  something  which  is  added 
to  the  simple  constructive  features,  or  to  the  form 
given  to  those  features,  for  the  purpose  of  making 
them  beautiful  or  elegant.  Thus,  the  Doric  shaft, 
while  answering  the  constructive  purposes  of  a 
simple  square  or  round  pier,  is  ornamented  with 
fluting ;  aud  its  capital,  with  its  beautifully  pro- 
portioned echinus  and  abacus,  supports  as  a  plain 
slab  would  do  the  weight  of  the  entablature.  The 
other  classic  orders  illustrate  this  in  a  richer 
manner.  Thus,  the  Corinthian  column,  with  its 
fluted  and  elegant  shaft,  resting  on  an  ornamented 
base,  and  crowned  by  an  ornamented  capital,  takes 
the  place  of  what  might  have  been,  had  utility 
alone  been  consulted,  a  plain  pier  of  rubble-work, 
with  a  rough  stone  to  rest  upon,  and  another  on 
the  top  to  receive  the  load. 

In  classic  architecture,  a3  in  every  good  style,  the 
same  principle  pervades  all  the  ornamental  features — 
viz.,  that  they  are  constructive  features  ornamented 
in  a  manner  suitable  to  their  use;  for  instance,  a 
column  being  a  member  for  support,  should  be  of 
euch  a  form  as  to  denote  this — the  constructive 
use  of  a  cornice  being  to  protect  the  top  of  the  wall, 
and  to  shield  the  front  of  it  from  the  rain  and  sun, 
it  should  be  made  of  such  a  form  as  to  do  this,  and 
also  to  look  as  if  it  did  it — to  express  its  purpose.  In 
classic  architecture,  the  cornice  consists  of  several 
members,  in  which  the  constructive  decoration  is 
well  seen ;  the  mutules  and  modillions  beautifully 
indicating  in  an  ornamental  manner  their  original 
nse,  while  the  leaf  enrichments  of  the  small 
mouldings  give  life  and  animation  to  the  building. 
In  medieval  art  the  same  principle  prevails  in  a 
much  greater  degree,  and  over  a  more  complex 
system  of  construction.  The  shafts,  with  their 
elegant  and  purpose-like  bases  and  caps,  are  arranged 
so  that  each  supports  a  separate  member  of  the 
vaulting.  The  arch  mouldings  are  divided  so  as  to 
indicate  the  rings  of  their  constructive  formation. 
The  buttresses,  so  elegant  in  outline,  express  the 
part  they  serve  in  supporting  the  vaulting ;  the 
pinnacles,  with  their  ornamental  finials,  are  the 
decorated  dead-weights  which  steady  the  but- 
tresses. The  foliage  and  smaller  ornament  is  also 
beautifully  and  suitably  applied,  as  the  growth  and 
vigour  of  the  supporting  capitals  and  corbels,  and 
the  running  foliage  of  the  string-courses,  arch- 
mouldings,  &c,  fully  illustrate. 

There  are,  no  doubt,  many  styles  of  art  to  which 
these  remarks  can  hardly  be  said  to  apply ;  as,  for 


example,  the  Assyrian,  Egyptian,  and  Hindu  styles, 
where  we  find  mai.y  features  applied  in  a  manual 
meant  to  be  ornamental,  although  actually  sontrary 
to  their  constructive  use.     L  les  (and  also 

in  Greek  architecture),  human  figures,  bulls,  and 
other  animals  are  placed  as  columns  to  carry  the 
weight  of  a  superincumbent  mass.  This  is  evidently 
wrong  in  principle,  except  when  the  h'gure  is 
in  an  attitude  to  indicate  that  be  is  Buppoti 
weight,  as  the  Greek  Atlantes  do  ;  but  in  the  former 
cases  religious  notions  seem  to  have  overcome  true 
artistic  feeling.  There  are  also  many  form  i  of  orna- 
ment used  in  all  styles,  the  origin  of  which  is  obscure, 
and  their  advantage  doubtful  ;  such  are  the  zigzag, 
chevron,  billet,  &c,  so  common  in  early  m 
art,  and  the  scrolls  of  Ionic  and  Indian  art,  and  the 
complications  of  the  interlacing  work  of  the  North 
in  the  middle  ages.  Such  things  may  be  admissible 
in  coloured  decoration,  such  as  the  confused  patterns 
of  Saracenic  art,  and  the  shell-patterns  of  Indian 
art ;  but  where  ornamental  form  is  wanted,  unless 
the  requirements  of  the  construction  are  carefully 
followed  as  the  guide  to  the  decoration,  all  prin- 
ciple is  lost,  and  the  ornament  runs  wild.  This 
has  frequently  occurred  in  the  history  of  art,  and 
in  no  case  more  markedly  than  in  the  art  of  the 
Renaissance. 

The  material  in  use  must  also  have  an  influence 
on  the  form  and  style  of  the  ornament.  Thus, 
stone-carving  and  metal-work  must  evidently 
require  different  treatment.  Fac-simile  leaves  might 
be  formed  in  iron,  but  could  not  be  so  carved  in 
stone.  This  constructive  element  should  be  care- 
fully attended  to  in  designing.  All  imitative  art 
must  be  to  some  extent  conventional.  Natural 
objects,  such  as  leaves,  flowers,  &c,  cannot  be 
copied  absolutely  literally  ;  and  in  suiting  the 
conventional  treatment  to  the  nature  of  the  mate- 
rial used,  lies  the  great  skill  of  the  artist. 

ORNE,  a  department  of  France  formed  out  of 
the  old  provinces  of  Normandy  aud  Perche,  is 
separated  on  the  north  from  the  English  Channel 
(La  Manche)  by  the  department  of  Calvados. 
Area,  1,506,727  acres,  more  than  one-half  of  which 
is  cultivable  land;  pop.  (1872)  398.205.  A  range 
of  wooded  hills,  nowhere  rising  above  1370  feet, 
extends  across  the  south  of  the  department  from 
east  to  west.  North  of  this  range  the  surface 
slopes  toward  the  English  Channel ;  south  of  it, 
toward  the  Atlantic.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Orne  (which  gives  name  to  the  department),  the 
RUle,  the  Sarthe,  and  Huisne.  The  climate  is 
damp,  though  in  general  temperate,  and  the  winters 
are  severe.  The  soil  is  fertde,  but  agriculture  ie 
not  in  an  advanced  state.  The  inhabitants  con- 
sume one-third  more  grain  produce  than  is  grown 
on  the  land.  There  are  several  millions  of  apple 
and  pear  trees  planted  along  the  roads,  &c,  and 
cider  is  extensively  made.  Cattle,  and  horses  of 
the  purest  Norman  breed,  are  reared.  Mining  is  an 
important  branch  of  industry ;  the  chief  products 
are  iron  and  copper ;  marble,  granite,  and  other 
stones  for  building  are  quarried.  The  department  is 
divided  into  four  arrondissements,  Alencon,  Argentau, 
Domfront,  and  Mortagne ;  capital,  Alengon. 

ORNITHO  LOGY  (Gr.  ornis,  a  bird,  and  logos, 
a  discourse),  that  branch  of  zoology  of  which  the 
subject  is  birds.  By  Aristotle,  Pliny,  and  others 
of  the  ancients,  this  study  was  prosecuted  to  some 
extent,  along  with  other  parts  of  natural  history ; 
but  it  is  only  in  modern  times  that  ornithology  has 
assumed  the  rank  of  a  distinct  branch  of  science. 
The  first  modern  author  to  attempt  a  scientific 
classification  of  birds  seems  to  have  been  Pierre 
Belon,  noted  also  as  an  ichthyologist,  whose  Historia 

125 


ORNITHORHYNCHUS— OROBUS. 


Avium  was  published  about  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century.  Some  of  his  classes  are  very  heterogeneous 
assemblages  ;  but  the  first  three,  viz.,  Birds  of  Prey, 
Web-footed  Birds,  and  Orallce,  are  so  natural  as  to 
have  been  acknowledged,  with  some  modification  of 
their  limits,  in  all  subsequent  systems.  In  the 
17th  c.  much  progress  was  made  in  the  observation 
and  description  of  species,  not  only  of  the  birds  of 
Europe,  but  of  other  parts  of  the  world.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  century,  attention  began  to  be 
given  to  the  anatomy  of  birds.  An  ornithological 
system,  more  perfect  than  that  of  Belon,  was  pro- 
posed by  Willughby  about  1676,  and  afterwards 
matured  and  improved  by  Ray.  On  this  system 
thai  of  Linnams  was  founded.  During  the  18th  c, 
the  progress  of  ornithology  was  very  rapid.  The 
birds  of  many  countries  were  described  in  works 
especially  devoted  to  them,  and  the  habits  of  birds 
began  to  be  carefully  observed  ;  but  the  system  of 
Linnaeus,  as  framed  by  him  before  the  middle  of  the 
century,  continued  to  prevail  almost  unmodified  till 
the  publication  of  Ouvier's  Regne  Animal  in  1817. 
Latham,  Lacepede,  Illiger,  Temminck,  and  others, 
had  indeed  previously  proposed  systems  more  or 
less  different  from  it ;  and  systems  have  since  been 
proposed  by  others,  particularly  by  Mr  Vigors  and 
Mr  Swainsou,  who  have  endeavoured  to  accommo- 
date the  classification  to  certain  first  principles 
which  they  supposed  to  pervade  nature,  but  which 
other  naturalists  in  general  regard  as  fanciful.  The 
system  of  Lilljeborg  is  now  generally  received  by 
ornithologists,  as  that  of  Linnaeus  formerly  was ;  not, 
however,  without  modifications,  by  which  it  has  been 
sought  to  accommodate  it  to  the  progress  of  science, 
and  some  of  the  names  introduced  by  other  authors 
have  obtained  very  general  acceptance.  The  system 
of  Linnaeus  divided  birds  into  six  orders — Accipitres, 
Piece,  A?iseres,  Grallce,  Gallince,  and  Passeres.  That 
of  Lilljeborg  divides  them  into  three  subclasses  and 
twelve  orders,  as  follows:  I.  Natatores — 1.  Pygo- 
podes,  2.  Longipcnnes,  3.  Steganopodes,  4.  Lamellv- 
rostres;  II.  ClJRSORES — 5.  Orallce,  6.  Brcvipennes, 
7.  Oallince ;  HI.  INSESSORES — 8.  Pullastrce,  9.  Ac- 
cipitres, 10.  Strisores,  11.  Zygodactyly  12.  Passeres. 
The  Pygopodes  (Auks  and  Penguins)  and  Brevi- 
pennes  (Ostrich,  etc.)  exhibit  reduced  wings,  and 
are  most  reptilian  and  mammalian  in  the  direction  of 
their  affinities.  The  Passeres  are  most  specialised  in 
bird  peculiarities,  having  unsymmetrical  carotid  arte- 
ries, well  developed  singing  apparatus,  and  generally 
plated  tarsi.  The  Steganopodes  (Cormorants,  etc.) 
have  the  feet  most  completely  webbed,  while  the 
horny  plates  of  the  beak  in  the  Lamellirostres  (Ducks, 
etc.)  have  homology  and  use  of  the  whalebone  of 
Cetacea.  The  Longipennes  (Albatross)  exhibit  most 
powerful  flight.  The  Orallce  are  the  cranes,  etc. ;  the 
Oallince,  the  turkey,  peacock,  chicken,  etc.  The 
Pullastrce  include  pigeons  and  other  birds  combining 
features  of  terrestrial  and  arboreal  types.  The  Zygo- 
dactyli  have  the  toes  in  pairs  (woodpecker,  cuckoo,  etc.). 
The  progress  of  O.  during  the  19th  century  has  been 
rapid ;  every  department  of  it  has  been  cultivated,  and 
many  of  the  works  published  have  been  not  only  of 
great  merit,  but  very  sumptuous.  The  works  of  Au- 
dubon and  Gould  merit  particular  notice. 

ORNITHORHY'NCHUS.     See  Duck-bill. 

OROBANCHA'CE^E  (Broom -rape  family),  a 
natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  all  herbaceous, 
and  destitute  of  true  leaves,  but  having  their  stems 
covered  with  brown  or  colourless  scales.  They  all 
grow  parasitically  upon  the  roots  of  other  plants. 
The  calyx  is  divided,  persistent,  inferior;  tho 
corolla  monopetalous,  hypogynous,  and  irregular. 
The  stamens  are  four,  two  long  and  two  short ;  the 
ovary  1 -celled,  seated  in  a  fleshy  disc,  composed  of 
126 


two  carpels,  with  one  style.  The  fruit  is  capsular, 
enclosed  within  the  withered  corolla,  1-celled, 
2-valved.   The  seeds  are  numerous,  and  very  minute. 


Broom-rape  [Orobanche  rubra) : 
a,  the  top  of  the  stem,  with  bracts  and  flowers  ;  b,  the  5aso 
of  the  stem,  with  scales;  c,  the  corolla,  cut  open,  shewing 
stamens;  d,  the  middle  segment  of  the  lower  lip  of  the 
corolla,  magnified,  shewing  the  beautiful  fringe  of  gland* 
bearing  hairs ;  e,  capsule. 

There  are  about  120  known  species,  natives  chiefly 
of  temperate  climates,  and  generally  characterised 
by  astringency  and  bitterness,  upon  account  of 
which  some  of  them  have  been  used  in  medicine 
(see  Cancer  Root).  Three  species  are  natives  of  the 
states  east  of  the  Mississippi,  none  of  which  belong  to 
the  genus  Orobanche.  To  some  of  these,  important 
medicinal  virtues  were  once  erroneously  ascribed.  The 
enlarged  base  or  rootstock  of  a  species  of  Orobanche 
is  cooked  or  dried,  and  eaten  by  the  Indians  of  the 
north-western  parts  of  America. 

O'ROBUS,    a    genus    of    plants   of    the    natural 


Bitter  Vetch  (Orobus  tuberosus) : 
a,  standard  of  the  corolla. 

order  Leguminosce,  suborder  Papilionacece,  allied  to 
Vetches,  and  sometimes  called  Bitter  Vetch  ;  the 


0R0NTES-0RPHEU9. 


style  linear,  downy  beneath  the  stigma  ;  the  calyx 
obtuse  at  the  base  and  oblique  at  the  mouth  ; 
its  upper  segmenta  deeper  ana  shorter;  the  pod 
1 -celled,  2-valved  ;  the  leaves  pinnate,  without 
tendrils.      The    species    are    perennial    herbaceous 

Jtlants,  chietly  natives  of  Europe.  They  afford  good 
ood  for  cattle.  Two  are  natives  of  Britain,  of  which 
the  most  common  is  0.  tuberosity,  whose  racemes 
of  purple  flowera  often  adorn  heaths  and  bushy 
places,  especially  in  hilly  districts.  The  stem  is 
unbranched,  erect,  about  a  foot  high,  with  narrow 
membranous  wings  ;  the  leaflets  in  2—4  pairs  ;  the 
pods  long,  cylindrical,  black  ;  the  root  creeping 
and  swelling  out  into  tubers  at  irregular  intervals. 
The  tubers  have  a  sweet  taste,  resembling  that  of 
liquorice,  and  are  sought  after  by  children ;  they 
are  also  bruised  and  steeped  in  water  in  some  parts 
of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  to  make  a  fermented 
liquor,  and  a  kind  of  liquor  is  made  by  steejiing 
them  in  whisky  ;  they  are  well-ilavoured  and 
nutritious  when  boiled  or  roasted,  and  are  used  in 
this  way  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  in  Holland, 
Belgium,  and  other  countries. 

ORO'NTES,  the  ancient  name  of  a  river  in  Syria, 
now  called  Nahr-el-Asi.  It  rises  in  the  highest 
part  of  Coele-Syria,  near  Baalbek,  flows  northward 
between  the  mountains  of  Libanus  and  Anti-Libanus, 
as  far  as  the  city  of  Autioch,  and  then  westward  to 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  after  a  course  of  240  miles, 
passing  by  a  cross  valley,  through  the  mountains 
of  the  Syrian  coast.  Its  lower  course  is  remark- 
ably beautiful,  surpassing  everything  else  that  can 
be  seen  in  Syria.  Its  rocky  banks  are  300  feet 
high,  and  the  windings  of  the  river  shew  them  off 
to  the  greatest  advantage.  Myrtle-bushes,  laurels, 
figs,  wild  vines,  arbutus,  dwarf-oaks,  and  syca- 
mores (Acer  pseudo-platanus)  are  scattered  about  in 
picturesque  confusion.  Here  and  there  the  eye 
catches  a  glimpse  of  some  cavern  mouth  or  ivy- 
matted  precipice,  while  from  the  abyss  beneath 
ascends  for  ever  the  roar  of  the  impatient  stream. 
The  country  through  which  it  flows  is  of  great 
fertility,  and  in  many  parts  is  richly  cultivated. 

ORO'SIUS,  Paulus,  a  Spanish  presbyter  and 
historian,  was  born  at  Tarragona,  and  flourished  in 
the  early  part  of  the  5th  century.  He  went  to' 
Africa  about  413  a.d.,  where  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  St  Augustine,  and  thence  to  Palestine,  to 
Btudy  under  St  Jerome,  then  living  at  Bethlehem. 
He  linally  settled  in  Africa,  but  the  date  of  his 
death  is  unknown.  His  chief  work,  the  Historiarum 
adversus  Paganos  Libri  7,  begins  with  the  creation 
and  goes  down  to  417  a.d.  It  is  apologetic  in 
design,  being  intended  to  refute  the  notion  then 
current  among  the  pagans,  that  the  misfortunes  of 
the  Roman  Empire  and  the  wretchedness  of  the 
great  masses  were  owing  to  the  anger  of  the  gods 
at  the  abandonment  of  their  worship,  and  the 
profanation  of  their  altars.  The  work  is  a  trivial, 
inaccurate,  uncritical  miscellany  of  facts,  culled 
from  such  second-rate  authorities  as  Justin  and 
Eutropius  ;  the  style  is  elegant,  but  also,  as  Bacon 
Bays,  '  watery.'  Yet  it  has  obtained  a  place  in 
literature  from  being  a  favourite  text-book  of 
universal  history  during  the  middle  ages,  and  had 
the  honour  of  being  translated  into  Anglo-Saxon  by 
our    own    Alfred.      Some    manuscripts    bear    the 

Euzzling  title  of  Hormesta  or  Ormlsta,  conjectured 
y  some  to  be  a  corruption  of  Or.  M.  ist. ;  that  is, 
Orosii  Mundi  Historic/.  (Orosius's  History  of  the 
World).  The  editio  princeps  of  the  work  appeared 
at  Vienna  in  1471 ;  the  best  edition  is  that  of  Haver- 
camp  (Lug.  Bat.  4to,  1738).  Other  writings  of  O.s' 
are  Liber  Apohgeticus  de  Arbitrii  Liber tate,  an  anti- 
Pelagian  treatise,  Commonitorium  ad  Augustinum, 


an  explanation  <>f  the  state  of  religious  parties  io 
Spain  in  his  time.  See  M-.ri.  i' ;  !>■  Orosii  Vita 
qtugue  //is/orUtrum  LibriaBepUm  adversus  r<«i<a,o» 
(Berl.  1844). 

OROTA'VA,  a  town  on  the  north  coast  of 
Teneritre,  one  of  the  Canary  Islands,  is  situated 
below  the  Peak,  in  one  of  the  most  fertile,  pleasant, 
and  healthy  districts  in  the  world.  It  contains, 
several  beautiful  churches,  the  residence  of  the 
governor  and  the  citadel.  Fishing  is  carried  on 
to  some  extent,  and  there  is  a  trade  in  wire. 
Pop.  8G28. 

O'RPHEUS  (supposed  to  be  the  Vedic  Ribha  or 
Arblm,  an  epithet  both  of  Indra  and  the  Sun),  a 
semi-mythic  name  of  frequent  occurrence  in  ancient 
Greek  lore.  The  early  legends  call  him  a  son  of 
Apollo  and  the  muse  Calliope,  or  of  Olcagrus  and 
Clio,  or  Polymnia.  His  native  country  is  Thracia, 
where  many  different  localities  were  pointed  out  as 
his  birthplace— such  as  the  Mounts  of  Olympus, 
and  Pangieus,  the  river  Enipeus,  the  promontory  of 
Serrhium,  and  several  cities.  Apollo  bestows  upon 
him  the  lyre,  which  Hermes  invented,  and  by  its 
aid  0.  moves  men  and  beasts,  the  birds  in  the  air, 
the  fishes  in  the  deep,  the  trees,  and  the  rocks. 
He  accompanies  the  Argonauts  in  their  expedition, 
and  the  power  of  his  music  wards  off  all  mishaps 
and  disasters,  rocking  monsters  to  sleep  and  stopping 
cliffs  in  their  downward  rush.  His  wife,  Eurydice 
(?  =  Sanscr.  Uru,  Dawn),  is  bitten  by  a  serpent 
(?  =  Night),  and  dies.  0.  follows  her  into  the  infer- 
nal regions ;  and  so  powerful  are  his  'golden  tones,' 
that  even  stern  Pluto  and  Proserpina  are  moved  to 
pity ;  while  Tantalus  forgets  his  thirst,  Ixion's 
wheel  ceases  to  revolve,  and  the  Danai'des  stop  in 
their  wearisome  task.  He  is  allowed  to  take  her 
back  into  the  'light  of  heaven,'  but  he  must  not 
look  around  while  they  ascend.  Love  or  doubt, 
however,  draws  his  eyes  towards  her,  and  she  is  lost 
to  him  for  ever  (?  =  first  rays  of  the  sun  gleaming 
at  the  dawn  make  it  disappear  or  melt  into  day). 
His  death  is  sudden  and  violent.  According  to 
some  accounts,  it  is  the  thunderbolt  of  Zeus  that  cuts 
him  off,  because  he  reveals  the  divine  mysteries; 
according  to  others,  it  is  Dionysius,  who,  angry 
at  his  refusing  to  worship  him,  causes  the 
Menades  to  tear  him  to  pieces,  which  pieces  are 
collected  and  buried  by  the  Muses  in  tearful  piety 
at  Leibethra,  at  the  foot  of  Olyinpus,  where  a 
nightingale  sings  over  his  grave.  Others,  again, 
make  the  Thracian  women  divide  his  limbs 
between  them,  either  from  excessive  madness  of 
unrequited  love,  or  from  anger  at  his  drawing 
their  husbands  away  from  them.  Thus  far  legend 
and  art,  in  manifold  hues  and  varieties  and 
shapes,  treat  of  O.  the  fabulous.  The  faint  glimmer 
of  historical  truth  hidden  beneath  these  myths 
becomes  clearer  in  those  records  which  speak  of  O. 
as  a  divine  bard  or  priest  in  the  service  of  Zagreus, 
the  Thracian  Dionysius,  and  founder  of  the  Mys- 
teries (q.  v.) ;  as  the  first  musician,  the  first  inau« 
gurator  of  the  rites  of  expiation  and  of  the  Mantio 
art,  the  inventor  of  letters  and  the  heroic  metre ;  of 
everything,  in  fact,  that  was  supposed  to  have  con- 
tributed to  the  civilisation  and  initiation  into  a  more 
humane  worship  of  the  Deity  among  the  primitive 
inhabitants  of  Thracia  and  all  Greece :  a  task  to 
which  0.  was  supposed  to  have  devoted  his 
life  aftei  his  return  with  the  Argonauts.  A  kind  of 
monastic  order  sprang  up  in  later  times,  calling 
itself  after  him,  which  combined  with  a  sort  of 
enthusiastic  creed  about  the  migration  of  souls  and 
other  mystic  doctrines  a  semi-ascetic  life.  Absti- 
nence from  meat  (not  from  wine),  frequent  purifica- 
tions and  other  expiatory  rites,  incantations,  the 

187 


ORPHEUS-ORSINL 


Wearing  of  white  garments  and  similar  things — not 
unlike  some  of  the  Essenic  manners  and  customs- 
were  among  tl.  eir  fundamental  rules  and  ceremonies. 
But  after  a  brief  duration,  the  brotherhood,  having 
first,  during  the  last  days  of  the  Roman  empire, 
passed  through  the  stage  of  conscious  and  very 
profitable  jugglery,  sank  into  oblivion,  together  with 
their  •  orpheotelistic'  formulas  and  sacrifices,  and 
together  with  the  joys  of  the  upper,  and  the  never- 
ending  punishments  of  the  infernal  regions  which 
they  held  out  to  their  rich  dupes  :  according  to  the 
sums  they  grudged  or  bestowed  upon  them. 

0.  has  also  given  the  name  to  a  special  literature 
called  the  Orphic,  the  real  origin  of  which,  however, 
is  (according  to  Ottfried  Miiller),like  Orpheus's  own 
history,  '  uncpiestionably  the  darkest  point  in  the 
entire  history  of  early  Greek  poetry.'  .Like  Oleu, 
Linus,  Philammon,  Eumolpus,  Musanis,  and  other 
legendary  singers  of  prehistoric  Greece,  0.  is  supposed 
to  have  been  '  the  pupil  of  Apollo  and  the  Muses,' 
and  to  have  first  composed  certain  hymns  and  songs 
used  in  the  worship  of  a  Dionysius,  dwelling  in  the 
infernal  regions,  and  in  the  initiations  into  the  Eleu- 
sinian  mysteries.  A  mere  '  abstraction,'  as  it  were,  he 
was  called  the  first  poet  of  the  heroic  age,  and  though 
not  mentioned  before  Ibycus,  Pindar,  Hellanicus, 
and  the  Athenian  tragedians,  he  was  yet  placed 
anterior  to  both  Homer  and  Hesiod.  The  fragments 
current  under  his  name  were  first  collected  at  the 
time  of  the  Pisistratidse,  chiefly  by  Onomacritus, 
and  these  fragments  grew  under  the  hands  of  the 
Orphic  brotherhood,  aided  by  the  Pythagoreans,  to 
a  vast  literature  of  sacred  mythological  songs  sung 
at  the  public  games,  chanted  by  the  priests  at  their 
service,  worked  out  for  dramatic  and  pantomimic 
purposes  by  the  dramatists,  commented  upon,  phil- 
osophised upon,  and  'improved'  by  grammarians, 
{milosophers,  and  theologians.  Although  authorities 
ike  Herodotus  and  Aristotle  had  already  combated 
the  supposed  antiquity  of  the  so-called  Orphic 
myths  and  songs  of  their  day,  yet  the  entire 
enormous  Orphic  literature  which  had  grown  out 
of  them  retained  its  '  ancient '  authority,  not 
only  with  both  the  Hellenists  and  the  church 
fathers  of  the  3d  and  4th  centuries  A.  D.  (who,  for 
their  individual,  albeit  opposite  purposes,  referred 
to  it  as  the  most  authentic  primitive  source  of 
Greek  religion,  from  which  Pythagoras,  Hera- 
cleitus,  Plato  had  drawn  their  theological  phil- 
osophy), but  down  almost  to  the  last  generation, 
when  it  was  irrefutably  proved  to  be  in  its  main 
bulk,  as  far  as  it  has  survived,  the  production  of 
those  very  third  and  fourth  centuries  A.  v.,  raised 
upon  a  few  scanty,  primitive  snatches.  The  most 
remarkable  part  of  the  Orphic  literature  is  its 
Theogony,  which  is  based  mainly  on  that  of  Hesiod, 
with  allegorising  and  symbolising  tendencies,  and 
with  a  desire  to  simplify  the  huge  Olympic  popu- 
lation by  compressing  several  deities  into  a  single 
one.  See  Theogony.  Yet  there  is  one  figure  which 
stands  out  here  prominently — viz.,  Zagreus,  the 
horned  child  of  Zeus  by  his  own  daughter  Perse- 
phone, who,  killed  by  the  Titans  at  the  bidding  of 
Here,  is  reborn  by  Semele  as  Dionysius. 

Besides  the  fragments  of  the  Theogony  which 
have  survived,  imbedded  chiefly  in  the  writings  of 
the  Neoplatonists,  are  to  be  mentioned  the  Argon- 
avtica,  a  poem  of  the  Byzantine  period,  consisting 
of  1384  hexameters ;  further,  a  collection  of  87 
or  88  liturgical  hymns ;  a  work  on  the  virtues  of 
stones,  called  Lythica,  &c.  Other  poems  belonging 
to  the  Orphic  Cycle,  of  which,  however,  only 
names  have  survived  in  most  instances,  are  Sacred 
Legends,  ascribed  to  Cecrops ;  a  Poem  on  Nature, 
called  Physica,  probably  by  Brontinus ;  Bacchica, 
supposed  to  be  written  by  Avignota,  the  daughter 
128 


of  Pythagoras  ;  Minyas,  or  Orpheus's  descent  into 
the  Hades ;  and  other  poetical  productions  by 
Zopyrus,  Timocles,  Nicias,  Perainus,  Prodicus,  &c. 
The  best  edition  of  the  Orphic  fragments  is  that 
of  G.  Herrmann. (Leipzig,  1805).  The  hymns  have 
repeatedly  been  translated  into  English  by  T. 
Taylor  and  others.  The  chief  authority  on  the 
Orphic  literature  still  remains  Lobeck'a  AgUo- 
phamus. 

O'RPIMENT.    See  Arsenic. 

O'RRERY,  a  machine  constructed  for  the  pur  ,x»e 
of  exhibiting  the  motions  of  the  planets  round  the 
sun,  and  of  the  satellites  round  their  primrtries, 
which  was  in  high  repute  during  the  18th  and 
beginning  of  the  19th  centuries,  though  now  regarded 
as  a  mere  toy.  It  was  a  combination  of  the  old 
Planetarium  (q.  v.),  with  other  machines  which 
shewed  the  motions  of  the  earth,  moon,  and 
planetary  satellites.  Though  the  construction  of 
a  machine  which  would  exhibit  accurately  the 
motions,  distances,  and  magnitudes  of  the  planets 
is  impossible,  yet  an  orrery  is  in  some  degree 
useful  as  giving  a  general  notion  of  the  way  in 
which  the  planetary  motions  are  performed.  As 
it  was  a  favourite  machine  at  one  time,  a  descrip- 
tion of  it  may  not  be  uninteresting.  A  number 
of  iron  tubes  equal  in  number  to  the  planets, 
and  of  different  dimensions,  are  placed  one  within 
the  other ;  their  lengths  being  arranged  so  that 
the  innermost  tube  projects  at  both  ends  beyond 
the  one  next  to  it,  that  one  similarly  projects 
beyond  the  third,  and  so  on.  At  one  end  of  each 
tube  a  rod  is  fixed  at  right  angles,  and  a  ball 
or  lamp  attached  to  its  end  ;  the  lengths  of  the 
rods  being  proportional  (or  at  least  supposed  to  be 
so)  to  the  radii  of  the  planetary  orbits.  The  other 
ends  of  the  tubes  form  the  axes  of  toothed  wheels, 
which  are  connected  either  directly,  or  by  means  of 
combinations  of  toothed  wheels,  with  a  winch.  The 
several  combinations  of  wheels  are  so  adjusted  that 
the  velocity  of  revolution  of  the  rods  is  proportional 
to  the  times  of  revolution  6f  the  planets.  On  turning 
the  winch  the  whole  apparatus  is  set  in  motion,  and 
the  balls  or  lamps  (representing  the  planets)  revolve 
round  the  centre,  which  is  a  fixed  lamp  (representing 
the  sun),  at  different  distances,  and  with  varying 
velocities.  There  are  many  nice  arrangements,  such 
as  for  producing  elliptic  motion,  but  these  need  not 
be  described. 

O'RRIS  ROOT  (probably  a  corruption  of  Iris 
Root),  the  rootstock  {rhizome)  of  certain  species  of 
Iris  (q. v.),  natives  of  the  south  of  Europe,  belonging 
to  the  division  of  the  genus  having  bearded  flowers, 
sword-shaped  leaves,  and  scapes  taller  than  the 
leaves ;  viz.  /.  Florentina,  a  species  with  white 
flowers;  I.  pallida,  which  has  pale  flowers;  aod 
/.  Germanica,  which  has  deep  purple  flowers.  The 
flowers  of  all  these  species  are  fragrant.  7.  Germanica 
extends  further  north  than  the  other  species,  and 
its  root  is  sometimes  said  to  be  more  acrid.  0.  R. 
was  formerly  used  in  many  medicinal  preparations 
as  a  stimulant,  but  is  now  almost  entirely  disused. 
It  is  sometimes  chewed  to  sweeten  an  offensive 
breath.  Its  chief  use  is  in  perfumery.  It  has 
a  pleasant  smell  of  violets,  which  it  acquires  in 
drying.  Hair  and  tooth  powders,  and  oils,  are  often 
scented  with  it.  A  tincture  of  it  is  also  used  as 
a  scent,  and  is  often  sold  as  Essence  of  Violets. 

ORSINI,  Felice,  an  Italian  revolutionist,  who  is 
destined  to  be  remembered  for  his  atrocious  attempt 
on  the  life  of  the  French  emperor,  Napoleon  III., 
was  born  at  Meldola,  in  the  States  of  the  Church, 
in  1819.  The  son  of  a  conspirator,  0.  at  an 
early  age  was  initiated  into  secret  societies,  and 
before   he   had   reached    his    twentieth    year,   he 


ORSOVA-ORTHOGRAPHY. 


was  thrown  into  prison,  and  condemned  to  the 
galleys  for  life.  The  amnesty  of  Pius  IX.  (181(5) 
restored  him  to  liberty,  hut  he  was  soon  after  again 

imprisoned  for  participation  in  political  pints. 
When  tiie  revolution  of  1S48  broke  <vit,  O.  was 
elected  as  a  deputy  to  the  Roman  Constituent 
Assembly.    He  was  invested    with   extraordinary 

I  towers,  and  sent  to  Ancona  and  Aseoli  to  suppress 
irigandage.  He  signalised  himself  by  the  violence 
with  which  he  executed  his  commission.  He  also 
took  part  in  the  defence  of  Rome  and  Venice  ; 
agitated  in  Genoa  and  the  Duchy  of  Modena;  and 
in  1853  was  shipped  for  England  by  the  Sardinian 
government,  where  he  formed  close  relations  with 
Mazzini.  Furnished  with  money  by  the  leaders  of 
the  revolutionary  party,  he  appeared  at  Parma  in 
lS/H.  and  afterwards  at  Milan,  Trieste,  Vienna, 
everywhere  agitating  in  the  interest  of  insurrection  ; 
until  at  last  he  was  arrested  and  confined  in  the 
fortress  of  Mantua.  In  1856  he  succeeded  in  making 
his  escape,  and  found  refuge  in  England,  where  he 
supported  himself    hy  public  lecturing,  and  wrote 

a  I k   entitled    The  Austrian   Dungeons  in  Italy 

(Lond.  1850).  Towards  the  end  of  1S57  he  repaired 
to  Paris,  with  the  intention  of  assassinating  Louis 
Napoleon,  whom  he  reckoned  the  great  obstacle  to 
the  progress  of  revolution  in  Italy.  His  associates 
in  this  diabolical  design  were  persons  named  Pieri, 
Rubio,  and  Gomez.  Providing  themselves  with 
bombs,  they  took  up  their  station  in  a  bouse  close  by 
the  opera,  and  on  the  evening  of  the  14th  January 
1S58,  just  as  the  carriage  containing  the  emperor 
and  empress  were  drawing  up,  they  threw  three 
of  the  deadly  missiles  under  the  carriage.  An 
explosion  took  place,  and  several  people  were 
wounded,  one  or  two  mortally,  but  their  majesties 
remained  unhurt.  The  assassins  were  arrested,  tried, 
and  sentenced ;  Orsini,  Pieri,  and  Rubio  to  capital 
punishment,  Gomez  to  hard  labour  for  life.  Rubio's 
life  was  spared  at  the  intercession  of  the  empress, 
but  Pieri  and  Orsini  were  beheaded  on  the  13th  of 
March. 

ORSO'VA,  New.    See  Danube. 

ORTHEZ,  a  small  town  of  France  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Basses-Pyrenees,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Gave  de  Pau,  37  miles  east  of  Bayonne.  Pop. 
6724.  The  Castle  of  Moncada,  now  reduced  to  a 
few  ruined  walls,  overtopped  by  one  stately  tower, 
was  built  here  in  1240  by  Gaston  de  Foix.  In  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  town,  the  British,  under 
Wellington,  gained  a  grand  and  decisive  victory 
over  the  French  under  Soult,  February  27,  1814. 
In  this  engagement  the  French  lost  39(10  men  and 
six  guns  on  the  field,  and  the  spirit  of  Soult's  army 
was  thoroughly  broken. 

O'RTHIS  (Gr.  straight),  a  large  genus  of  fossil 
brachiopodous  mollusca,  found  in  the  Palaeozoic 
rocks,  most  abundantly  in  the  Silurian  rocks,  but 
ranging  upwards  to  the  Permian  series.  The  genus 
contains  upwards  of  100  species. 

ORTHO'CERAS  (Gr.  straight  horn),  an  exten- 
sive genus  of  cephalopodous  mollusca,  found  in  the 
palaeozoic  rocks,  from  the  Lower  Silurian  to  the 
Trias.  It  is  nearly  allied  to  the  Nautilus,  and  is 
indeed,  in  its  simplest  forms,  nothing  more  than  an 
unrolled  and  straightened  nautilus.  The  shell  is 
straight,  the  siphuncle  central,  and  the  body  cham- 
ber small.  The  members  of  the  genus  are  the 
most  widely  distributed,  and  the  most  abundant  of 
any  of  the  palaeozoic  fossils.  Nearly  200  species 
have  been  described,  but  a  considerable  number  of 
these  have  been  separated  into  sub-genera,  charac- 
terised chiefly  by  the  form  and  size  of  the  siphuncle. 

ORTHODOXY  (Gr.  orthos,  right,  and  doxa,  an 
opinion),  a  name  given  by  theologians  to  rebgious 
321 


opinions  in  agreement  with  Scripture,  or  rather 
with  the  view  of  Scriptare  entertained  either  by 
the  chunh  in  general,  or  by  the  Established  Church 

of  any  particular  nation.  Its  antithesis  is  II  1.11.1:0- 
DOXY  (Gr.  hetavt,  another,  meaning  'wrong,'  and 
doxa,  opinion). 

O'RTHOEPY  (Gr.  correctness  or  propriety  of 
speech),  a  branch  of  grammar  that  treats  of  the  right 
pronunciation  of  the  words  of  a  language. 

ORTHO'GRAPHY  (Gr.  correct  writing),  a 
branch  of  grammar  that  treats  of  the  elementary 
sounds  of  a  language,  the  signs  or  letters  by  which 
they  are  represented  in  writing,  and  the  combin- 
ations of  these  signs  to  represent  words  ;  it  also 
includes  the  right  dividing  of  words  into  syllables 
(as  when  a  word  has  to  be  divided  at  the  end  of 
a  line),  and  punctuation.  In  a  more  restricted 
sense,  orthography  is  synonymous  with  the  art  of 
correct  spelling.  No  part  of  grammar  is  less 
satisfactory  than  this.  All  alphabets  were  from 
the  first  both  defective  and  redundant,  and  there- 
fore inadequate  to  represent  exactly  the  elementary 
sounds  of  the  languages  to  which  they  were  applied 
(see  Alphabet,  Letters  and  Articulate Sounds). 
The  first  attempts  then  at  writing  any  language 
must  have  exhibited  great  diversity  of  spelling. 
Wherever  an  extensive  literature  has  sprung  up 
among  a  people,  and  language  been  made  a  study 
of  itself,  there  a  greater  or  less  uniformity  of  spelling 
has,  by  tacit  convention  or  otherwise,  become 
established  for  a  time.  Such  was  the  case  with 
Latin  in  the  time  of  the  Ciesars,  with  High  German 
about  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  and  with  English 
(Anglo-Saxon)  in  and  for  some  time  after  the  days 
of  Alfred.  But  although  language,  as  depicted  to 
the  eye,  may  be  fixed  for  a  time,  the  spoken  tongue, 
being  a  living  organism,  cannot  be  thus  petrified. 
A  written  literature  may  modify,  and  in  some 
degree  retard,  but  cannot  altogether  arrest  that 
incessant  change  and  evolution  to  which  all  spoken 
tongues  are  subject.  The  breaking  up  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  in  its  transition  into  modern  English, 
brought  necessarily  a  period  of  orthographic  chaos. 
Never  was  the  lawlessness  greater  than  during  one 
of  the  brightest  periods  of  the  literature,  namely, 
the  Elizabethan  period.  Then,  and  for  a  long  time 
after,  all  perception  of  the  real  powers  of  the  letters 
seems  to  have  been  lost,  and  nothing  but  caprice 
ruled.  Not  only  were  words  spelled  differently  by 
different  persons,  but  even  among  the  best  educated 
classes  the  same  person  would  spell  the  same  word 
(even  his  or  her  own  name)  half-a-dozen  ways  in 
the  same  page.  Among  the  classic  writers  of  the 
Queen-Anne  period,  some  degree  of  uniformity 
began  to  establish  itself,  and  this  was  afterwards 
further  confirmed  and  fixed  by  the  publication  of 
Johnson's  Dictionary,  since  which  time  the  alter- 
ations have  been  comparatively  trifling.  The 
modern  spelling  thus  established,  conformed  itself 
only  partially  to  the  changes  the  spoken  language 
had  undergone.  Of  the  letters  that  had  become 
silent  through  the  wearing  away  and  collapse  of 
the  spoken  words,  some  were  omitted  and  others 
retained,  with  little  attention  to  consistency,  or  to 
any  principle  now  discernible.  Hence,  in  the 
English  language  as  now  written  and  spoken,  there 
is  in  general  so  imperfect  a  correspondence  between 
the  sound  of  a  word,  and  the  sounds  of  the  several 
letters  that  are  written  to  represent  it,  that  the 
spelling  of  each  individual  word  has,  in  a  manner, 
to  be  learned  by  itself.  By  no  possible  rules  can 
a  learner  be  taught  when  he  sees  the  groups  of 
letters  n-o-w,  p-l-o-u-g-h,  e-n-o-u-g-h,  to  make  out 
the  sounds  or  spoken  words  that  these  groups 
actually  represent ;   or,  conversely,  when  he  hears 

129 


ORTHOPTERA-ORYX. 


the  words  spoken,  to  find  out  what  letters  they  are 
to  be  represented  by.  This  circumstance  presents 
great   difficulty   to  foreigners  in   the   acquisition  of 

English;  which,  in  other  respects,  is  one  of  the 
simplest  and  most  easily  learned  languages  in  the 
world  The  orthography  of  English  is  only  to  be 
acquired  by  observation  and  practice.  There  are  no 
rules  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word ;  the  only 
effective  assistance  that  can  be  given  in  this  matter 
is  to  bring  together,  under  some  kind  of  classification, 
the  words  that  are  most  frequently  misspelled. 
See  Phonetic  Writing. 

ORTHO'PTERA  (Gr.  straight- winged),  an  order 
of  mandibulate  insects,  in  many  respects  resembling 
the  Cohoptera  (q.  v.),  but  having  the  wing-covers 
softer  and  generally  leathery  and  flexible.  The 
wing-covers  also  often  overlap  on  the  back  when  at 
rest,  or  meet  at  an  angle  like  the  roof  of  a  house. 
The  wings  are  broader  than  the  wing-covers,  and 
fold  in  a  fan-like  manner.  A  few  species  are 
wingless.  The  body  is  generally  elongated.  The 
antennae  are  almost  always  filiform  and  many- 
jointed.  The  eyes  are  usually  very  large,  and  there 
are  also  in  most  species  two  or  three  stemmatic 
eyes.  The  mouth  much  resembles  that  of  the 
Coleoptera,  but  the  maxillae  are  terminated  by  a 
horny  denticulated  piece,  and  covered  by  a  galea ; 
and  the  interior  of  the  mouth  exhibits  a  distinct 
fleshy  piece,  which  some  regard  as  a  kind  of  tongue. 
The  O.  undergo  only  a  semi-complete  metamor- 
phosis, the  larva  and  pupa  much  resembling  the 
perfect  insect,  except  in  the  want  of  wings  ;  which, 
however,  begin  to  be  developed  in  the  pupa.  The 
Earwig  family  differs  so  much  from  the  other  0.  as 
to  have  been  constituted  by  some  entomologists  into 
a  distinct  order.  See  Earwig.  The  0.  are  divided 
into  two  sections,  Cursoria  and  Saltatoria  ;  the  first 
with  legs  adapted  for  running,  as  the  Mantis  family, 
Specti-e  Insects,  Walking  Sticks,  Leaf  Insects,  &c. ; 
the  second  having  the  hinder  legs  very  large  and 
strong,  generally  adapted  for  leaping,  as  Grass- 
hoppers, Locusts,  Crickets,  &c. 

OR'TOLAN  (Emberiza  hortulana),  a  species  of 
Bunting  (q.  v.),  much  resembling  the  Yellow 
'Hammer,  and  not  quite  equal  to  it  in  size.     The 


Ortolan  {Emberiza  hortulana). 

adult  male  has  the  back  reddish  brown,  the  wings 
dusky  black  and  rufous  brown ;  the  tad  dusky 
black,  some  of  the  outer  tad-feathers  with  a  patch 
of  white  on  the  broad  inner  web  ;  the  chin,  throat, 
and  upper  part  of  the  breast  yellowish -green ;  the 
other  under  parts  reddish  buff-colour.  The  plumage 
of  the  female  is  of  less  vivid  hues.  The  O.  occurs 
in  great  flocks  in  the  south  of  Europe  and  north  of 
Africa.  Even  in  the  south  of  Europe  it  is  a 
summer  bird  of  passage,  but  its  migrations  extend 
as  far  north  as  Lapland,  although  in  Britain  it  is  a 
very  rare  bird,  and  only  of  accidental  occurrence.  It 
has  no  song,  but  merely  a  monotonous  chirping  note. 
130 


It  frequents  bushy  places,  but  often  makes  its  nest 
on  the  ground  in  cornfields,  particularly  where  the 
soil  i3  sandy.  No  bird  is  so  highly  esteemed  by 
epicures,  and  vast  numbers  are  used  for  the  table. 
It  is  taken  chiefly  by  nets,  with  the  aid  of  decoy- 
birds,  and  after  being  taken  is  fattened  on  millet 
and  oats,  in  rooms  dimly  lighted  by  lamps.  Thus 
treated,  it  becomes  excessively  fat,  sometimes  so  as 
to  die  of  obesity ;  and  attains  a  weight  of  three 
ounces.  Great  numbers  of  ortolans,  potted  and 
pickled,  are  exported  from  Cyprus. 

ORTO'NA,  a  town  of  Italy,  on  the  Adriatic,  in  thb 
province  of  Chicti  (Abrnzzo  Citra),  and  14  miles  eubt 
of  the  town  of  that  name.  It  gi.ves  title  to  a  bishop 
and  contains  a  cathedral  and  other  religious  edifices 
Its  port  has  ceased  to  exist,  and  vessels  are  now 
obliged  to  anchor  about  a  mile  from  the  town  in  un- 
sheltered roads,  where,  however,  the  water  is  deep  and 
the  bottom  good.  Wine  is  extensively  grown,  and 
has  a  local  reputation  as  the  best  in  this  part  of  Italy. 
Pop.  about  12,000. 

O'RTYX.    See  Virginian  Quail. 

ORVIE'TO,  a  city  in  the  province  of  LTmbria 
(Perugia),  which  was  formerly  included  in  the  Papal 
States,  but  now  forms  part  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Italy,  stands  on  the  right  hank  of  the  Paglia,  8 
miles  north-east  of  Lake  Bolsena,  and  60  miles 
north-north-west  of  Rome.  It  occupies  a  strong 
position  on  a  steep  hill,  is  well  built,  and  is  sur- 
rounded with  walls.  It  has  been  the  seat  of  a  bishop 
since  509  A.  D.  The  cathedral,  a  beautiful  specimen 
of  the  Italian  Gothic,  and  one  of  the  most  richly- 
decorated  edifices  in  Italy,  is  built  of  black  and 
white  marble,  was  begun  in  1290,  and  completed 
about  the  middle  of  the  14th  century.  The  facade  is 
unsurpassed  in  richness  of  material,  and  in  the  beauty 
of  its  mosaics,  sculptures,  and  elaborate  ornamen- 
tation. The  interior  is  also  magnificently  decorated 
with  sculptures  and  paintings.  The  other  chief 
buildings  are  St  Patrick's  Well,  and  several  palaces. 
Pop.  12,955,  who  trade  in  corn,  cattle,  and  silk, 
and  a  delicate  white  wine,  which  is  highly  esteemed 
at  Rome. 

0.,  called  in  the  time  of  the  Longobards  Urbs 
Vetus—oi  which  its  present  name  is  a  corruption — 
has  been  the  place  of  residence  and  retreat  in 
turbulent  times  of  upwards  of  30  popes.  The  city  is 
evidently  of  Etruscan  origin,  but  of  its  early  history 
nothing  is  known. 

O'RYX,  the  name  given  by  the  ancients  to  a 
species  of  autelope,  a  native  of  the  north  of  Africa. 


Oryx. 

It  is  often  represented  on  the  monuments  of  Egypti 
and  as  these  representations  are  almost  always  in 
profile,  it  is  generally  made  to  appear  as  having 


ortYZA-  oscr. 


only  one  horn,  thus  probably  contributing  to  tbe 
falile  of  the  unicorn  ;  and,  indeed,  all  the  older 
figures  of  the  unicorn  exhibit  a  considerable  resem- 
blance to  this  kind  of  antelope.  The  name  A  ntilope 
oryx  was  given  by  Pallas  to  the  (Jems-hoc  (q.  v.), 
an  antelope  certainly  much  resembling  the  0.,  but 
Bound  only  in  South  Africa  ;  and  it  is  now  generally 
believed  that  the  true  O.  of  the  ancients  is  a  species 
also  known  as  the  Aloazxl  (Antilope  OazeUa,  or 
Oryx  betoartiea),  common  in  the  north  of  Africa. 
It  is  about  three  feet  six  inches  high,  of  a  stout 
figure;  with  sheep-like  muzzle;  lone  ears;  horns 
of  the  male  from  two  to  three  feet  long,  slender, 
gra  lually  attenuated,  directed  backwards  and 
curved,  annulated  for  about  half  their  length ; 
the  female  also  having  horns. 

ORY'ZA.    See  Rice. 

OSA'CA,  an  imperial  city  of  Japan,  in  N.  lat. 
35°  5',  about  30  miles  from  its  seaport  of  Hiogo,  is 
situated  on  a  large  river  on  the  south-east  coast  of 
the  island  of  Nipon,  in  the  most  central  and  popu- 
lous part  of  the  empire,  and  surrounded  by  the 
great  tea  districts.  It  is  the  great  emporium  of 
trade  and  luxury ;  bearing  much  about  the  same 
relation  to  Japan  that  Soo-chow  once  did  to  China. 
By  the  treaty  of  1S">S,  British  subjects  were  to  be 
allowed  to  reside  in  0.  fcr  the  purpose  of  trade  from 
January  1,  18G3.  The  population  of  0.  has  been 
estimated  at  about  S0,000. 

OSA'GE,  a  river  of  Missouri,  U.S.,  rises  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Kansas,  and  flowing  easterly  in  a 
very  circuitous  course  about  400  miles,  empties  into 
the  Missouri  Biver  near  Jelferson  City. 

OSAGE  ORANGE  (Madura  aurantiaca),  a  tree 
of  the  natural  order  Urticacece,  a  native  of  North 
America.  It  attains  a  height  varying,  according 
to  soil  and  situation,  from  twenty  to  sixty  feet.  It 
is  of  the  same  genus  with  Fustic  (q.  v.),  and  its 
wood,  which  is  bright  yellow,  might  probably  be 
used  for  dyeing.  The  wood  is  fine-grained  and  very 
elastic,  and  is  much  used  by  the  North  American 
Indians  for  making  hows.  The  ().  O.  has  been 
successfully  employed  in  the  Middle  States  as  a  hedge 
plant.  Its  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  large 
orange,  has  a  tuberculated  surface  of  a  golden 
colour,  and  is  tilled  internally  with  radiating  some- 
what woody  fibres,  and  with  a  yellow  milky  juice, 
the  odour  of  which  is  generally  disliked,  so  that 
the  fruit,  although  not  unwholesome,  is  seldom 
eaten. 

O'SBORNE    or   ST   HELEN'S    BEDS   are   a 

series  of  strata  of  the  Middle  Eocene  period,  occur- 
ring in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  They  have  been  divided 
into  two  groups  :  1.  The  St  Helen's  Sands,  consist- 
ing of  layers  of  white,  green,  and  yellow  sands, 
interstratified  with  blue,  white,  and  yellowish  clays 
and  marls,  with  a  maximum  thickness  of  50  feet ; 
and,  2,  the  Nettlestone  Grits,  composed  of  yellow 
limestone  and  marl,  and  a  shelly  freestone,  which  is 
much  used  for  building,  having  a  maximum  thick- 
ness of  20  feet.  The  fossils  of  the  Osborne  Beds  are 
species  of  Paludina  and  Cypris,  and  the  spirally 
sculptured  spore-cases  of  Chara.  The  group  is  of 
fresh  and  brackish  water  origin,  and  is  very  variable 
in  mineral  character  and  thickness. 

OSCAR  I.,  Joseph-Francis,  king  of  Sweden  and 
Norway,  was  born  at  Paris,  July  4,  1799,  and  was 
the  only  issue  of  the  marriage  of  Charles  XIV.  (q.  v.), 
formerly  Marshal  Bernadotte,  with  Desiree  Clary, 
the  daughter  of  a  MarseUlais  merchant,  and  sister  of 
Madame  Joseph  Bonaparte.  After  the  election  of 
his  father  as  crown-prince  of  Sweden,  O.  received 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Sudermania,  and  was  placed 


under  the  tutelage  of  tin-  poet  Atterbom,  for  the 
purpose  of  acquiring  the  Swedish  language.  In 
1818,   he   entered    the   university   of    Cpsala,   where 

Ins  education  was  completed.  The  effects  of  the 
thorough  training  he  received  were  seen  in  his 
remarkable  proficiency   in  science,  literature,  and 

especially    the    liin-    aits.      Pox   some    tune   be   gave 

1" ii  op  almost  entirely  to  the  study  of  music, 

and  composed  various  pieces,  including  an  opera, 
and  several  waltzes,  marches,  &C.  ;  he  is  also  the 
author  of  several  songs  and  hymns,  some  of  which 
are  still  popular  in  Sweden.  What  is  of  more  I  on- 
sequence,  however,  he  became  thoroughly  imbued 
with  the  national  sentiments,  and  after  his  adm 
to  a  share  in  the  administration,  vigorously  op 
though  with  becoming  filial  respect,  the  pro-Ruaaiau 
policy  of  his  father.  This  course  of  conduct 
rendered  him  immensely  popular,  and  on  March  8, 
1S44,  his  accession  to  the  throne  was  hailed  with 
rapture  by  the  great  majority  of  his  subjects,  ilia 
rule  was  distinguished  for  its  liberality  and  justice  ; 
and  many  liberal  measures,  such  as  those  for  the 
removal  of  Jewish  disabilities,  freedom  of  manufac- 
tures and  commerce,  and  parliamentary  reform  (the 
last  mentioned  being  vigorously  opposed  by  the 
nobility),  were  laid  before  the  Rikadad  by  his 
orders.  He  introduced  these  changes  with  caution 
and  gentleness,  and  had  the  gratification  of  seeing, 
in  most  cases,  his  prudence  crowned  with  success. 
His  foreign  policy  was  of  an  independent  and 
anti-Russian  character,  and  during  the  Crimean 
war  he  joined  (November  21,  1S55)  the  king  of 
Denmark  in  a  declaration  of  armed  neutrality, 
which  gradually  assumed  a  more  hostile  attitude 
to  Russia,  and  would  have  inevitably  led  to  war, 
had  not  the  Paris  treaty  so  rapidly  succeeded.  His 
attitude  at  this  time  gained  him  general  favour  and 
respect  throughout  Europe.  On  July  19,  1S23,  he 
married  Josephine  Beauharnais,  the  granddaughter 
of  the  Empress  Josephine,  by  whom  he  had  five 
children,  the  eldest  of  whom,  on  account  of  his 
father's  failing  health,  was  appointed  regent,  Sep- 
tember 25,  1S57,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  as 
Charles  XV.  on  the  death  of  O.,  July  8,  1859. 
While  crown-prince,  0.  published  two  works,  a 
Memoir  on  the  Education  of  the  People,  and  an 
Essay  on  Punishments  and  Penal  Establishments. 

OSCEOTjA  (Seminole,  As-se-ho-lar),  a  chief  of 
the  tribe  of  Seminole  Indians  in  Florida,  U.S.,  was 
born  about  1S03.  He  was  the  son  of  an  English 
trader,  named  Powell,  and  the  daughter  of  a 
Seminole  chief.  In  1835  the  wife  of  0.,  a  chiefs 
daughter,  was  claimed  and  seized  as  a  slave  by  the 
owner  of  her  mother.  The  outraged  husband 
threatened  revenge,  and  for  his  threats  was 
imprisoned  six  days  in  irons  by  General  Thompson. 
Lying  in  wait,  a  few  days  afterwards  he  killed  the 
general  and  four  others.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
the  second  Seminole  war.  Laying  an  ambush  soon 
after,  he  killed  Major  Dade  and  a  small  detachment 
of  soldiers,  and  taking  to  the  almost  impenetrable 
Everglades,  with  two  or  three  hundred  followers,  he 
fought  for  a  year  with  great  energy  and  skill  the 
superior  numbers  sent  against  him.  He  was  taken 
prisoner  at  last  by  General  Jessup,  while  holding  a 
cor  ference  under  a  flag  of  truce,  an  act  of  inexcus- 
able  treachery,  though  represented  as  one  of  retalia- 
tion, and  confined  in  Fort  Moultrie  until  his  death 
in  January  1838. 

O'SCI,  originally  OPSCI  (rendered  by  Momrosen, 
'labourers,'  from  opus,  a  work),  in  Greek  always 
OPIKOI,  the  name  of  an  Italian  people,  who 
at  an  early  period  occupied  Campania,  and 
were  either  closely  allied  to,  or  the  same  race  as 
the    Ausones.       Subsequently    (about    423    b.  c.) 

131 


OSCULATION  AND  OSCULATING  CIRCLE-OSIER. 


Samnitcs  from  the  hilly  districts  to  the  north 
overran  the  country,  and  amalgamated  with  the 
inhabitants  whom  they  had  subjugated.  It  is 
conjectured  that  the  conquerors  were  few  in 
numbers,  as  (like  the  Normans  in  English  history) 
they  adopted  in  time  the  language  of  the  conquered, 
but  whether  they  modilied  the  original  Oscan 
language,  and  if  so,  to  what  extent,  cannot  now  be 
ascertained.  As  it  was  these  Samnitic  Oscans  or 
Campaniana  who  formed  that  Samnitic  peojde  with 
whom  both  the  Greeks  of  Lower  Italy  and  the 
Romans  first  came  into  contact,  the  names  Osci  and 
Oscan  language  were  subsequently  applied  to  all  the 
other  races  and  dialects  whose  origin  was  nearly  or 
wholly  the  same.  The  Oscan  language  was  not 
substantially  different  from  the  Latin,  but  only  a 
ruder  and  more  primitive  form  of  the  same  central 
Italic  tongue.  The  territory  where  it  was  spoken 
comprised  the  countries  of  the  Samnites,  Frentani, 
Northern  Apulians,  Hirpini,  Campani,  Lucani, 
Bruttii,  and  Mamertini,  whose  dialects  only 
slightly  differed  from  each  other ;  besides  the 
entire  Samnitic  races,  whence  the  language  is  some- 
times called  Samnitic  or  Safinic.  The  races  situated 
north  of  the  Silarus  were  purely  Samnitic ;  those 
south  of  it,  and  even  of  the  region  round  the  Gulf 
of  Naples,  were  Gneco-Satnnitic.  The  use  of  the 
national  Samnitic  alphabet  was  confined  to  the 
former.  By  the  victories  of  the  Romans  over  the 
Samnites,  and  the  conferring  of  the  civitas  on  all  the 
Italians  (S3  B.C.),  an  end  was  put  to  the  official  use 
of  the  Oscan  tongue ;  nevertheless,  in  the  time  of 
Varro  (1st  o.  B.C.)  it  was  still  used  by  the  people,  and 
a3  late  as  the  destruction  of  Herculaneum  and 
Tom  pen  was  spoken  by  a  few  individuals.  During 
its  most  flourishing  period  it  was  something  more 
than  a  country  patois;  it  is  even  possible  that  the 
Oscans  had  a  literature  and  art  cf  their  own,  which 
may  not  have  been  without  influence  on  the  early 
Calabrian  poets,  Ennius  and  Facuvius,  and  the 
Campanian  Lucilius.  At  any  rate,  we  certainly 
know  of  a  poetic  creation  peculiar  to  the  Cam- 
panians,  a  kind  of  unwritten,  regular,  probably 
improvised  farce,  with  fixed  parts  and  changing 
situations,  which  was  transplanted  to  Rome  about 
304  B.C.,  but  was  imitated  there  not  in  Oscan  but  in 
Latin.  See  Atellana  -Besides  a  considerable 
number  of  coins  with  Oscan  legends,  there  are  still 
extant  a  number  of  inscriptions  in  the  Oscan  tongue, 
among  which  the  most  important  for  linguistic 
purposes  are,  1st,  the  Tabula  Bantina,  a  bronze 
tablet  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bantia  (on  the 
borders  of  Lucania  and  Apulia),  referring  to  the 
municipal  affairs  of  that  town  ;  2d,  the  Cippus 
Ah  llanus,  or  Stone  of  Abella  (in  Campania)  ;  and 
3d,  a  bronze  tablet  found  near  Agnone,  in  Northern 
Samnium.  See  Mommsen's  Oskische  Studien  (Berlin, 
1845),  and  Die  Unteritalischen  Dialehte  (Leip.  1850) ; 
also  Friedl'ander's  Die  Oskischen  Miinzen  (Leip. 
1850),  Kirchhoffs  Das  Stadtrecht  von  Bantia  (Berl. 
1853),  and  Donaldson's  Varronianus  (pp.  104-138). 

OSCULATION  and  O  SCULATING  CIRCLE 
(Lat.  osculari,  to  kiss).  One  curve  is  said  to  osculate 
anotl  er  when  several  points  are  common  to  it  with 
the  other,  and  the  degree  of  osculation  is  said  to 
be  high  or  low  according  as  the  number  of  points 
in  contact  are  many  or  few.  The  number  of  possible 
points  of  contact  is  determined  by  the  number  of 
constants  contained  in  the  equation  to  the  tangent 
curve  (supposing  the  number  of  constants  in  the 
equation  to  the  curve  which  is  touched  to  be 
creater).  The  same  is  true  of  a  straight  line  and 
a  curve.  The  equation  to  a  straight  line  being  of 
the  form  ax  4-  b,  contains  two  constants,  a  and  b, 
hence  a  straight  line  can  coincide  with  a  curve  in 
two  contiguous  points,  and  the  contact  is  said  to 
132 


be  of  the  first  order.  This  straight  line  is  the 
tangent  at  the  point  of  con  tact.  VVh^n  a  straight 
line,  not  a  tangent,  meets  a  curve,  there  is  no 
'  contact '  but  '  section,'  as  in  that  case  only  one 
point  is  common  to. the  straight  line  and  the  curve. 
The  equation  to  a  circle  contains  three  constants, 
and  therefore  a  circle  can  have  three  consecutive 
points  in  common  with  a  curve,  and  the  contact 
is  then  of  the  second  order.  This  circle  is  known  as 
the  'circle  of  curvature,'  or  the  osculating  circle 
(see  Fig.  of  article  Cukvature),  and  has  for  its 
radius  the  radius  of  curvature  of  that  portion  of  the 
curve  with  which  the  circle  is  in  contact.  No 
other  circle  cau  have  so  high  a  degree  of  contact 
with  a  curve  at  any  point  as  the  osculating  circle  at 
that  point. 

O'SHKOSH,  a  town  in  Wisconsin,  U.S.,  on  both 
sides  of  the  Fox  River,  at  its  entrance  to  Lake 
Winnebago,  90  miles  north-north-east  of  Madison. 
It  has  a  large  lumber  trade,  saw-mills,  planing-mills, 
steam-boats,  &c.   Pop.  in  I860,  6086;  in  1880,15.758. 

OSIANDER,  Andreas,  one  of  the  most  learned 
and  zealous  of  the  German  reformers,  was  born  in 
149S,  at  Gunzenhausen,  near  Niirnberg.  His  father 
was  a  blacksmith,  called  Hosemann,  out  of  which 
name  his  son,  after  th^  *ashion  of  his  time,  manu- 
factured the  classic-looking  Osiander.  O.  was 
educated  at  Ingolstadt  and  Wittenberg ;  and  after 
completing  his  course  of  study,  became  a  preacher 
at  Niirnberg,  where  he  was  conspicuously  active  in 
introducing  the  Reformation  (1522).  He  ardently 
advocated  the  views  of  Luther  in  his  controversy 
with  the  Swiss  reformer  Zwingli,  on  the  question 
of  the  Lord's  Supper.  He  took  part  in  the  confer- 
ence hell  at  Marburg  (1529),  and  was  present  at  the 
diet  of  Augsburg  (1530).  In  1548  he  was  deprived 
of  his  office  as  preacher  at  Niirnberg,  because  he 
would  not  agree  to  the  Augsburg  Interim  ;  but  was 
immediately  afterwards  invited  by  Albrecht,  Duke 
of  Prussia,  to  become  the  head  of  the  theological 
faculty  in  the  newly-established  university  of  Kou  igs- 
berg.  He  was  hardly  settled  here  when  he  became 
entangled  in  a  theological  strife  that  imbittered  his 
naturally  imperious  and  arrogant  temper.  In  a 
treatise,  Dp  Lege  et  Evangel  io  ('  On  the  Law  and  the 
Gospel '),  O.  asserted  that  the  righteousness  by 
which  sinners  are  justified,  is  not  to  be  conceived 
as  a  mere  justificatory  or  imputative  act  on  the 
part  of  God,  but  as  something  inward  and  subjec- 
tive, as  the  impartation  of  a  real  righteousness, 
springing  in  a  mystical  way  from  the  union  of 
Christ  with  man.  The  most  notable  of  his  oppon- 
ents was  Martin  Chemnitz  (q.  v.).  A  seemingly 
amicable  arrangement  between  the  disputants  was 
brought  about  by  Duke  Albrecht  in  1551 ;  but  the 
strife  was  soon  recommenced,  by  O.  publishing  some 
new  writings  in  which  he  attacked  Melanchthon  ; 
nor  did  his  death  in  the  following  year  put  a  stop 
to  the  war  of  words.  It  was  continued  by  his 
followers,  called  Osiandrists,  who  were  finally 
extinguished  by  the  Corpus  Doctrinm  Prutenicun 
(in  1567),  which  caused  their  banishment  from  all 
parts  of  Prussia.  See  Wilken,  Andr.  Osiander's 
Leben,  Lehre  und  Schriften  (Strals.  1844). 

O'SIER  (Fr.  probably  of  Celtic  origin),  the  popu- 
lar name  of  those  species  of  Willow  (q.  v.),  which 
are  chiefly  used  for  basket-making  and  other  wicker- 
work.  They  are  of  low  bushy  growth,  few  of  then 
ever  becoming  trees,  their  branches  long  and  slender; 
and  they  are  the  more  valuable  in  proportion  to  the 
length,  slenderness,  suppleness,  and  toughness  of 
their  branches.  Their  leaves  are  long  and  narrow, 
lanceolate,  or  nearly  so,  obscurely  notched  on  the 
margin,  almost  always  smooth  on  the  upper  side, 
but   generally   white    and    downy   beneath.      Tlio 


OSIER -OSIRIS. 


Common  0.  {Salix  vkninalia),  a  common  native  <>f 
•wet  alluvial  grounds  in  Britain  and  many  parte 
of  Europe,  is  one  of  those  which  sometimes 
become  trees,  although  when  cultivated  for  basket- 
making,  it  is  not  permitted  to  do  so.  It  has 
two  distinct  stamens  in  the  flowers  of  the  male 
catkins;  and  the  stigmas  of  the  female  catkins  are 
long  and  slender.  It  is  often  planted  to  prevent 
the  banks  of  rivers  from  being  washed  away.  Its 
branches  are  used  for  making  hoops  and  coarse 
baskets.  There  are  several  varieties  in  cultivation, 
not  easily  distinguished  except  by  a  very  practised 
eye,  but  much  more  useful  than  the  original  or  wild 
kind,  which  is  apt  to  break,  and  therefore  of  little 
value.  More  suitable  for  the  finer  kinds  of  basket- 
making  are  Salic  Forbyona,  sometimes  called  the 
Fine  Basket  0.,  and  S.  rubra,  known  near  London 
as  the  Green-leaved  0.  or  Ornard;  S.  triandra,  a 
triandrous  species,  known  to  English  osier-cultiva- 
tors and  basket-makers  as  the  Spaniard  Rod  ; 
whilst  *S.  vitellina,  a  pentandrous  species,  sometimes 
becoming  a  tree,  is  the  Golden  0.  or  Golden 
Willow,  remarkable  for  the  bright-yellow  colour 
of  its  branches,  as  well  as  for  their  pliancy 
and  toughness.  There  are  other  species,  not 
natives  of  Britain,  which  are  also  valuable ;  but 
the  osiers  chiefly  cultivated  belong  to  those  which 
have  been  named,  or  are  very  nearly  allied  to 
them. 

Osiers  are  very  extensively  cultivated  in  Holland, 
Belgium,  and  France,  on  alluvial  soils,  especially 
near  the  mouths  of  rivers  ;  and  from  these  countries 
great  quantities  of  '  rods '  are  imported  into  Britain. 
They  are  cultivated  also  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  some  parts  of  England,  particularly  on  the  banks 
of  the  Thames  and  the  Severn,  and  in  the  level 
districts  of  Cambridgeshire,  Huntingdonshire,  &c. 
They  are  nowhere  extensively  cultivated  in  Scot- 
land. Islets  in  the  Thames  and  other  rivers, 
entirely  planted  with  osiers,  are  called  0.  holts. 
Osiers  grow  particularly  well  on  grounds  flooded 
by  the  tide.  Much  depends  on  the  closeness  of 
planting  of  0.  grounds ;  as  when  space  is  too 
abundant,  the  shoots  of  many  of  the  kinds  do  not 
grow  up  so  long,  slender,  and  unbranched  as  is 
desirable.  The  French  cultivators,  when  they  wish 
osiers  for  the  finest  kinds  of  basket-work,  cut 
branches  into  little  bits  with  a  bud  or  eye  in  each, 
and  plant  these  pretty  close  together,  so  as  to 
obtain  weak  but  fine  shoots;  but  generally  cut- 
tings of  fifteen  or  sixteen  inches  in  length  are 
used,  and  of  tolerably  thick  branches  ;  and  these 
are  placed  in  rows,  from  18  inches  to  2  feet 
apart,  and  at  distances  of  15  to  18  inches  in  the 
row.  0.  plantations  in  light  soils  continue  produc- 
tive for  15  or  20  years,  and  much  longer  in  rich 
alluvial  soils.  Osiers  succeed  best  in  rich  soils,  but 
not  in  clays.  No  cultivation  is  required  after 
planting  ;  but  the  shoots  are  cut  once  a  year,  at  any 
time  between  the  fall  of  the  leaf  and  the  rising 
of  the  sap  in  spring.  After  cutting,  they  are  sorted ; 
and  those  intended  for  brown  baskets  are  carefully 
dried  and  stacked,  care  being  taken  that  they  do 
not  lieat,  to  which  they  are  liable,  like  hay,  and  by 
which  they  would  be  rotted  and  rendered  worthless. 
The  stacks  must  be  carefully  protected  from  rain. 
The  osiers  intended  for  white  baskets  cannot  at 
once  be  peeled;  but  after  being  sorted,  they  are 
placed  upright  in  wide  shallow  trenches,  in  which 
there  is  water  to  the  depth  of  about  four  inches,  or 
in  rivulets,  being  kept  secure  in  their  upright  posi- 
tion by  posts  and  rails ;  and  thus  they  remain  till 
they  begin  to  bud  and  blossom  in  spring,  which  they 
do  as  if  they  remained  on  the  parent  plant,  sending 
forth  small  roots  at  the  same  time  into  the  water. 
They  are  then,  in  ordinary  seasons,  easily  peeled  by 


drawing  them  through  an  instrument  called  a  brenC, 
but  in  cold  springe  it  is  sometimes  nec^isary  to  lay 
them  for  a  while  under  a  quantity  of  litter.     After 

being  peeled,  they  are  stacked,  preparatory  to  sale. 

It  is  impossible  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  quantity 

produced  m  Qreat  Britain,  but  our  imports  amount 

annually  to  about  200,000  bundles;    marly  one-hall 

are  from  Holland,  and  the  remainder  from  the 
Hanse  Towns,  Belgium,  and  France. 

OSI'RIS,  according  to  others,  Asiris,  or  ?I;isirU 
('Many-eyed'),  a  celebrated  Egyptian  deity,  whose 
worship  was  universal  throughout  Egypt.  This 
name   appears  in   the   hieroglyphic  early 

as  the  4th  dynasty,  and  is  expressed  ly  a  throne 
and  eye ;  at  a  later  period,  that  of  the  19th,  a 
palanquin  is  substituted  for  a  throne  ;  and  under 
the  Romans,  the  pupil  of  the  eye  for  th< 
itself.  0.  does  not  indeed  appear  to  have  been 
universally  honoured  till  the  time  of  the  1 1th 
and  12th  dynasties,  or  about  1800  B.C.,  when 
Abydos,  which  was  reputed  to  be  his  burial-place, 
rose  into  importance.  In  the  monuments  of  this 
age  he  is  called  great  god,  eternal  ruler,  dwelling 
in  the  west,  and  lord  of  Abut  or  Abydos.  Even  at 
the  most  remote  period,  individuals  after  death  were 
supposed  to  become  an  Osiris ;  and  all  the  prayers 
and  ceremonies  performed  or  addressed  to  them  were 
in  this  character,  referring  to  their  future  life  and 
resurrection.  At  the  time  of  the  18th  dynasty,  this 
title  of  Osiris  was  prefixed  to  their  names,  and 
continued  to  be  so  till  the  time  of  the  Romans  and 
fall  of  paganism. 

In  the  Ritual,  and  other  inscriptions,  0.  is  said  to 
be  the  son  of  Seb  or  Saturn,  and  born  of  Nu  or 
Rhea ;  to  be  the  father  of  Horus  by  Isis,  of  Anubis, 
and  of  the  four  genii  of  the  dead.  Many  mystic 
notions  were  connected  with  0. ;  he  was  sometimes 
thought  to  be  the  son  of  Ra,  the  Sun,  or  of  Atum, 
the  setting  Sun,  and  the  Bennu  or  Phcenix  ;  also 
to  be  uncreate,  or  self -engendered,  and  he  is  identi- 
fied in  some  instances  with  the  Sun  or  the  Creator, 
and  the  Fluto  or  Judge  of  Hades.  0.  was  born 
on  the  first  of  the  Epagoinenae,  or  five  additional 
days  of  the  year.  When  born,  Chronos  or  Saturn 
is  said  to  have  given  him  in  charge  to  Pamyles  ; 
having  become  king  of  Egypt,  he  is  stated  to 
have  civilised  the  Egyptians,  and  especially  to 
have  taught  them  agriculture,  the  culture  of  the 
vine,  and  the  art  of  making  beer;  he  afterwards 
travelled  over  the  earth,  and  conquered  the  people 
everywhere  by  his  persuasion.  During  his  absence, 
his  kingdom  was  confided  to  Isis,  who  guarded  it 
strictly,  and  Set  or  Typhon,  the  brother  of  O.  (who 
was  born  on  the  3d  of  the  Epagomense),  was  unable 
to  revolt  against  him.  Typhon  had,  however, 
persuaded  72  other  persons,  and  Aso,  the  queen  of 
Ethiopia,  to  join  him  in  a  conspiracy ;  and  having 
taken  the  measure  of  0.,  he  had  a  chest  made  of  the 
same  dimensions,  richly  ornamented  and  carved, 
and  produced  it  at  a  banquet,  where  he  promised  to 
give  it  to  whomsoever  it  should  fit ;  and  w  iju=i  ill 
had  lain  down  and  tried  it,  and  it  suited  none,  O. 
at  last  laid  himself  down  in  it,  and  was  immediately 
covered  over  by  the  conspirators,  who  placed  the 
lid  upon  it,  and  fastened  it  with  nails  aud  molten 
lead.  The  chest  was  then  hurled  into  the  Nile,  and 
floated  down  the  Tanaitic  mouth  into  the  sea.  This 
happened  on  the  17th  of  the  month  Athyr,  in  the 
2Sth  year  of  the  reign  or  age  of  Osiris.  Khem  or 
Fan,  and  his  attendant  deities,  discovered  the 
loss  of  the  god ;  Isis  immediately  cut  off  a  lock 
of  hair  and  went  into  mourning,  and  proceeded 
in  search  of  Anubis,  the  child  of  her  sister 
Nephthys  by  0.  ;  and  having  found  him,  brought 
him  up.  The  chest  having  floated  to  Byblos,  had 
lodged  in  a  tamarisk,  and  became  enclosed  in  the 


OSIRIS  -OSMOSE ;  DIALYSIS. 


tree,  which  was  cut  down  by  the  king,  and  the 
trunk,  containing  the  chest  and  the  body  of  the 
god,  converted  into  a  pillar  to  support  the  roof  of 
the  palace.  The  goddess  proceeded  to  Byblos,  and 
ingratiated  herself  with  the  queen's  women  by 
plaiting  their  hair  and  imparting  to  it  an  ambrosial 
smell,  so  that  the  monarch,  whose  name  was  Mel- 
carthus,  and  his  wife,  Saosis  or  Nemanoun,  invited 
her  to  court  to  take  care  of  the  royal  child.  She 
endeavoured  to  confer  immortality  upon  him  by 
placing  him  on  a  fire,  and  changing  herself  into  a 
swallow,  flew  round  the  pillar  and  bemoaned  her 
fate.  The  queen  became  alarmed  at  the  danger 
of  her  child ;  Isis  revealed  herself,  and  asked  for  the 
pillar  of  tamarisk  wood,  which  was  given  her.  She 
then  cut  it  open,  and  took  out  the  chest,  making 
great  lamentations,  and  subsequently  safled  for 
Egypt,  with  the  eldest  of  the  king's  sons.  The 
goddess,  intending  to  visit  Horus  her  son  at  Buto, 
deposited  the  chest  in  an  unfrequented  spot ;  but 
Typhon  discovered  it  by  the  light  of  the  moon,  tore 
it  into  14  pieces,  and  distributed  each  to  a  nome  or 
district.  Isis  recovered  all  by  passing  the  marshes 
in  a  boat  of  papyrus  ;  all  except  the  phallus,  which 
had  been  eaten  by  the  Lepidotus,  the  Phagrus,  and 
Oxyrhynchus  fish.  Subsequently,  a  battle  took 
place  between  Horus  and  Typhon  or  Set,  which 
lasted  three  days,  and  ended  by  Typhon  having 
fetters  placed  upon  him.  Isis,  however,  liberated 
Typhon,  which  so  enraged  Horus  that  he  tore  off 
her  diadem,  but  Teti  or  Thoth  placed  on  her  the 
head  of  a  cow  instead.  Typhon  finally  accused 
Horus  of  illegitimacy  ;  but  the  question  was  decided 
between  them  by  Teti  or  Thoth  and  the  gods. 
From  0.,  after  his  death,  and  Isis  sprung  Harpo- 
crates.  See  Harpocrates.  0.  seems  to  have  been 
finally  revived,  and  to  have  become  the  judge  of 
the  Karneter  or  Hades,  presiding  at  the  final 
judgment  of  souls  in  the  Hall  of  the  two  Truths, 
with  the  42  demons  who  presided  over  the  capital 
sins,  and  awarding  to  the  soul  its  final  destiny. 
Thoth  or  Hermes  recorded  the  judgment,  and  justi- 
fied the  deceased  against  his  accusers,  as  he  had 
formerly  done  for  Osiris. 

Considerable  diversity  of  opinion  existed  amongst 
the  ancients  themselves  as  to  the  meaning  of  the 
myth  of  Osiris.  He  represented,  according  to 
Plutarch,  the  inundation  of  the  Nile ;  Isis,  the 
irrigated  land ;  Horus,  the  vapours  ;  Buto,  the 
marshes  ;  Nephthys,  the  edge  of  the  desert  ; 
Anubis,  the  barren  soil ;  Typhon,  was  the  sea ; 
the  conspirators,  the  drought  ;  the  chest,  the 
river's  banks.  The  Tanaitic  branch  was  the  one 
which  overflowed  unprofitably  ;  the  28  years, 
the  number  of  cubits  which  the  Nile  rose  at 
Elephantine  ;  Harpocrates,  the  first  shootings  of 
the  corn.  Such  are  the  naturalistic  interpretations 
of  Plutarch;  but  there  appears  in  it  the  dualistic 
principle  of  good  and  evil,  represented  by  0.  and 
Set  or  Typhon,  or  again  paralleled  by  the  contest 
of  Ka  or  the  Sun,  and  Apophis  or  Darkness.  The 
difficulty  of  interpretation  increased  from  the  form 
of  0.  having  become  blended  or  identified  with 
that  of  other  deities,  especially  Ptah-Socharis,  the 
pigmy  of  Memphis,  and  the  bull  Hapis  or  Apis, 
the  avatar  of  Ptah.  Osiris  was  the  head  of  a 
tetrad  of  deities,  whose  local  worship  was  at 
Abydos,  but  who  were  the  last  repetition  of  the 
gods  of  the  other  nomes  of  Egypt,  and  who  had 
assumed  an  heroic  or  mortal  type.  In  form,  0. 
is  always  represented  swathed  or  mummied  in 
allusion  to  his  embalmment ;  a  net- work,  suggestive 
of  the  net  by  which  his  remains  were  fished  out 
of  the  Nile,  covers  this  dress  ;  on  his  head  he  wears 
the  cap  at/,  having  at  each  side  the  feather  of  truth, 
of  which  he  was  the  lord.  This  is  placed  on  the 
134 


horns   of  a  goat.     His   hands  hold  the  ciook  and 

j  whip,  to  indicate  his  governing  and  directing  power | 

!  and  his  feet  are  based  on  the  cubit  of  truth  ;  a 
panther's  skin  on  a  pole  is  often  placed  before  him, 
and  festoons  of  grapes  hang  over  his  shrine,  connect- 
ing him  with  Dionysos.     As  '  the   good  beincr,'  or 

j  Onnophris  the  meek  hearted,  the  celestial  or  king  of 
heaven,  he  wears  the  white  or  upper  crown.    Another 

j  and  rarer  type  of  him  represents  him  as  the  Tat, 
or  emblem  of  stability,  wearing  the  crown  of  the 

]  two  Truths  upon  his  head.  His  worship,  at  a  later 
time,  was  extended  over  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and 
Rome,   and   at  an  early  age  had  penetrated    into 

j  Phoenicia,  traces  of  it  being  found  on  the  coins 
of  Malta  and  other  places.     He  became  introduced 

[  along  with  the  Isiac  worship  into  P^ome,  and  had 
votaries  under  the  Roman  empire.  But  the  attacks 
of  the  philosophers,  and  the  rise  of  Christianity, 
overthrew  these  exotic  deities,  who  were  never 
popular  with  the  more  cultivated  portion  of  the 
Roman  world. 

Herodotus,  ii.  40—42  ;  Plutarch,  Be  Is'de ; 
Tibullus,  i.  7 ;  Diodorus,  i.  25  ;  Prichard,  Mythology, 
p.  208  ;  Wilkinson,  Man.  and  Oust.  iv.  314;  Bunsen, 
Egypt's  Place,  i.  414. 

O'SMAZOME,  a  name  given  by  Thenard  to  the 
spirit-extract  of  flesh,  on  which,  as  he  supposed,  its 
agreeable  taste,  when  cooked,  depended.  The  term 
is  now  abandoned  by  chemists. 

O'SMIUM  (symb.  Os  ;  equiv.  199  ;  spec.  grav.  10) 
is  one  of  the  noble  metals  which  occurs  in  associa- 
tion with  platinum  in  the  form  of  an  alloy  with 
iridium.  It  may  be  obtained  in  the  metallic 
condition  by  several  processes  which  yield  it  either 
in  thin,  dark-gray  glistening  scales,  or  as  a  dense 
iron-black  mass.  It  is  the  least  fusible  of  all  the 
metals  ;  the  oxyhydrogen  jet  volatilising,  but  not 
fusing  it. 

Five  oxides  of  0.  are  known— viz.,  the  protoxide 
(OsO),  which  is  of  a  dark-green  colour,  and  forms 
green  salts  when  dissolved  in  acids  ;  the  sesquioxide 
(Osa0.j),  which  has  not  been  isolated ;  the  binoxide 
(Os02),  which  is  black  ;  the  teroxide  (Os03),  which 
possesses  the  characters  of  a  weak  acid,  but  has 
not  been  isolated ;  and  osmic  acid  (0s04),  which 
occurs  in  colourless,  glistening,  acicular  crystals, 
freely  soluble  in  water,  and  very  volatile.  At 
about  220°,  this  compound  gives  off  an  extremely 
irritating  and  irrespirable  vapour ;  and  hence  the 
name  of  the  metal  (from  the  Greek  word  osme, 
odour).  It  produces  a  permanent  black  stain 
upon  the  skin,  and  gives  a  blue  precipitate  with 
tincture  of  ga"s.  O.  also  forms  three  chlorides, 
which  correspond  in  composition  to  the  last  three 
oxides.  This  metal  was  discovered  by  Tennant  in 
1803. 

O'SMOSE ;  DI  A'LYSIS.  The  earlier  discoveries  of 
Dutrochet  and  Graham  have  been  briefly  described 
in  the  article  on  Diffusion  (q.  v.).  The  subject 
has,  however,  been  much  extended  recently,  princi- 
pally by  the  investigations  of  Graham  ;  and  as  the 
whole  phenomena  are  exceedingly  interesting  aud 
important,  since  secretion,  absorption,  and  various 
other  organic  processes  are  to  a  great  exteut  depen- 
dent on  them,  some  further  detail,  especially  of 
these  later  facts,  may  here  be  given. 

When  two  different  liquids  are  separated  by  a 
bladder  or  other  membrane,  or  a  piece  of  calico 
coated  with  coagulated  albumen,  there  is  always  a 
more  or  less  rapid  transference  of  the  two  liquids 
in  opposite  directions  through  the  diaphragm.  In 
certain  cases,  the  explanation  given  in  the  article 
referred  to  is  complete,  but  in  others  it  appears  to 
be  insufficient.  Graham  has  made  an  extensive 
series  of  experiments  upon  osmose,  when*  distilled 


OSMUNDA-OSXAMIMVK. 


water  was  on  one  side  of  the  diaphragm,  and  various 
liquids  and  solutions  on  the  other,  and  lias  arrived 

at  many  general  results,  of  which  the  following  are 
the  more  important.  The  osmose  is  considered  aa 
positive  when  more  of  the  water  passes  through  the 
diaphragm  than  of  the  other  liquid.  Such  sub- 
stances as  gum,  gelatine,  fee.,  produce  Boarcely  any 
cfleet.  Solutions  of  neutral  salts,  such  as  common 
salt,  Epsom  salts,  &C.,  follow  the  ordinary  law  of 
diffusion,  as  if  no  diaphragm  had  been  interposed. 
Aei  I  Baits  in  solution,  and  dilute  acids,  pass  rapidly 
into  the  water— or  the  osmose  is  negative;  while 
ftil  iline  solutions  give,  in  general,  a  strong  positive 
effect. 

In  all  the  cases  in  which  an  osmotic  action 
occurs  which  cannot  be  explained  by  capillary 
forces,  there  is  chemical  action  on  the  diaphragm  ; 
and  conversely,  such  osmose  cannot  be  produced  if 
the  material  of  the  diaphragm  be  not  acted  on  by 
the  liquids  in  contact  with  it. 

But  the  most  remarkable  results  of  Graham's 
later  investigations  are  those  relating  to  Dialysis 
■ — i.  e.,  to  the  separation  of  the  constituents  of 
mixtures,  and  even  the  decomposition  of  chemical 
compounds,  by  osmose.  The  results  of  his  earlier 
investigations,  above  given,  shew  a  remarkable 
difference  between  two  classes  of  bodies ;  gum, 
gelatine,  &c,  which  form  viscous  solutions,  ou  the 
one  hand ;  aud  salts,  acids,  and  alkalies,  ou  the 
other.  The  first  class  he  has  called  Colloids;  the 
second,  CrystaUoiils.  The  former  are  extremely 
sluggish,  the  latter  comparatively  rapid  in  their 
action.  Thus,  of  common  salt  and  albumen,  under 
precisely  similar  circumstances,  there  pass  through 
the  diaphragm  in  a  given  time  quantities  which  are 
as  25  to  1  by  weight.  Hence,  if  a  solution  contain- 
ing both  classes  of  substances  be  opposed  to  pure 
water,  the  crystalloids  will  pass  rapidly  through 
the  diaphragm,  and  the  colloids  slowly.  This  pro- 
cess promises  to  be  of  very  great  value  in  medical 
jurisprudence,  as,  without  introducing  any  new 
substance  (except  the  diaphragm  and  distilled 
water),  we  have  the  means  of  separating  from  the 
generally  colloidal  contents  of  animal  viscera  such 
poisonous  crystalloids  as  white  arsenic,  vegetable 
alkaloids,  &c,  which  by  the  old  methods  was  in 
general  attended  with  great  difficulty,  and  often 
uncertainty.  These  methods  are  still  in  their 
infancy,  but  enough  is  already  known  to  shew  how 
valuable  they  must  soon  become  to  the  chemist 
and  the  toxicologist.  One  economical  application 
has  been  proposed,  and  shewn  to  be  practicable. 
When  a  bladder  is  tilled  with  the  brine  of  salt 
beef,  and  suspended  in  fresh  water,  the  salt  after 
a  time  nearly  all  disappears,  and  there  remains  in 
the  bladder  a  rich  extract  of  meat  fit  for  making 
soup. 

For  a  brief  notice  of  the  speculations  which 
Graham's  researches  have  led  him  to  form  as  to 
the  nature  of  Matter,  see  that  article,  and  for  an  ex- 
tended notice,  see  Liquids,  Diffusion  of,  in  Watt's 
Diet,  of  Chemistry,  1868. 

OSMU'NDA,  a  genus  of  Ferns,  distinguished  by 
Bpore-cases  in  branched,  stalked  masses.  The  <  )8MOND- 
royal,  Royal  or  Flowering  Fern  ( O.  regalis),  is 
the  noblest  and  most  striking  of  American  ferns.  It  is 
very  frequent  in  the  districts  of  Scotland  and  Ireland 
most  remarkable  for  the  moisture  of  their  climate, 
growing  in  boggy  places  and  the  wet  margins  of 
woods.  It  has  bipinnate  fronds,  and  panicled  spore- 
cases  upon  altered  fronds,  which  appear  as  stalks  dis- 
tinct from  the  fronds,  and  assimilate  the  general 
appearance  to  that  of  a  phanerogamous  plant.  It 
sometimes  rises  to  11  feet  in  height.  It  is  found  in 
many  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  Asia.  It 
possesses  tonic  and  styptic  properties,  and  its  root- 


stocks  were  formerly  employed  in  scrofula.   'I  be  other 
American  Oemnnda  common  in  the  northeix  stutes 


Royal  Fern  [Osmimda  regalis) : 
a,  pinnate  of  a  barren  frond;    6.    br.inchlet  of  fertile  frond | 
c,  spore-case ;   d,  the  same,  shewing  how  it  opens  by  two 
valves. 

are  the  O.  spectabilis  (a  variety  of  the  0.  regalia),  0. 
interrupta,  and  O.  cinnamomea. 

O'SNABRUCK,  or  OSNABURG,  a  territory  occu- 
pying the  western  portion  of  the  Prussian  province  of 
Hanover,  and  embracing  the  principality  of  <).,  the 
countships  of  Lingen  and  of  Bentheim,  the  duchy  of 
Arensberg-Meppen,  anil  the  lordship  of  Papenburg. 
Area,  2408  Square  miles;  pop.  264,475,  at  the  close 
of  1867. 

OSNABRUCK,  the  chief  town  of  the  territory, 
lies  in  the  midst  of  the  extended  and  fruitful  valley 
of  the  Hase,  80  miles  west-south-west  of  Hanover 
by  railway.  It  still  ranks  as  the  third  com- 
mercial city  of  Hanover,  although  it  cannot  boast 
of  the  important  trade  which  it  enjoyed  before  the 
establishment  of  the  existing  system  of  the  Prussian 
Zollverein.  Pop.  23.306,  0.  has  thriving  manu- 
factories of  cigars  aud  tobacco,  paper-hangings,  and 
cotton  and  woollen  goods,  and  extensive  works 
for  the  preparation  of  mineral  dyes  and  cement, 
besides  iron,  machinery,  and  carriage  manufactories. 
According  to  the  opinion  of  antiquarians,  U.  stands 
on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Wittekindsburg,  which 
was  raised  to  a  bishopric  in  783  by  Charlemagne, 
some  relics  of  whom,  together  with  the  pretended 
bones  of  the  martyrs  (Jrispinus  and  Crispinianus, 
are  preserved  in  the  cathedral — a  line  specimen  of 
the  Byzantine  style  of  architecture  of  the  12th 
century.  The  Church  of  St  Mary,  a  noble  Gothic 
building,  was  erected  by  the  burghers  of  O.  in  the 
14th  c.  during  their  contentions  with  theii  haughty 
ecclesiastical  rulers,  and  contains  the  grave  of  Mbser, 
in  whose  honour  a  statue  was  placed  in  the  square 
of  the  cathedral  in  1S36.  The  signing  of  the  peace 
of  Westphalia  in  1648,  in  an  apartment  of  the  town- 
hall,  is  commemorated  by  the  preservation  of  the 
portraits  of  all  the  ambassadors  who  took  part  in 
the  treaty.  It  was  decreed  in  this  treaty  that  the 
ancient  bishopric  of  0.  should  thenceforth  be 
occupied  alternately  by  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate 
and  a  Protestant  secular  prince  of  the  House  of 
Brunswick-Luneburg ;  and  after  having  been  last 
held  by  Frederick,  Duke  of  York,  the  district  of  O. 
was  ceded  to  Hanover  in   1803,  and  the  chapter 

finally  dissolved. 

J  135 


OSPKEY-OSSIAN. 


O'SPREY  (Pandion),  a  genus  of  Falconidce,  of 
which  only  one  species  is  known  (P.  luiliaiitus),  also 
called  the  Fishing  Hawk  or  Fishing  Eagle,  and 
sometimes  the  Bald  Buzzard.  It  is  singular 
among  the  Falconidce  in  preying  exclusively  on  fish  ; 
and  to  this  its  whole  structure  and  habits  are 
adapted.  Its  whole  length  is  about  twenty-two 
inches :  it  is  of  a  dark-brown  colour,  variegated 
with  black,  gray,  and  white.  The  under  parts  are 
white,  except  a  light-brown  band  across  the  chest. 


lb 


Osprey  (Pandion  haliaetw). 

The  bill  is  short,  strong,  rounded,  and  broad.  The 
tail  is  rather  long,  the  wings  are  very  long,  extend- 
ing beyond  the  tail ;  the  under  surface  of  the  toes 
remarkably  rough,  covered  with  small  pointed 
scales,  suited  for  the  securing  of  slippery  prey ;  the 
claws  not  grooved  beneath,  as  in  most  of  the  Fal- 
conidcp-.  The  feathers  are  destitute  of  the  supple- 
mentary plume,  which  is  considerably  developed  in 
most  of  the  Falconidce.  The  intestine  differs  from 
that  of  the  other  Falconidce  in  being  very  slender 
and  of  great  length. 

The  0.  is  chiefly  to  be  seen  near  the  sea,  lakes, 
and  large  rivers.  No  bird  is  more  widely  diffused  ; 
it  is  found  in  all  quarters  of  the  world;  its  geo- 
graphical range  including  Europe,  Asia,  Africa, 
North  and  South  America,  and  Australia,  and  both 
very  warm  and  very  cold  climates.  It  is  every- 
where a  bird  of  passage,  retiring  from  high  northern 
latitudes  on  the  appearance  of  frost.  It  occurs  on 
many  parts  of  the  British  coasts,  and  is  sometimes 
found  in  inland  districts,  but  is  nowhere  abundant 
in  Britain.  In  some  places  in  Scotland,  it  still 
breeds  year  after  year,  on  the  highest  summit  of  a 
ruined  building,  or  the  top  of  an  old  tree.  It  is 
very  plentiful  iu  some  parts  of  North  America  ;  and 
its  return  in  the  beginning  of  spring  is  hailed  with 
joy  by  fishermen,  as  indicative  of  the  appearance  of 
nsh.  The  nest  is  a  huge  structure  of  rotten  sticks, 
in  the  outer  interstices  of  which  smaller  birds  some- 
times make  their  nests ;  for  the  0.  never  preys  on 
birds,  and  is  not  dreaded  by  them.  It  is,  indeed,  of 
a  pacilic  and  timorous  disposition,  and  readily 
abandons  its  prey  to  the  White-headed  Eagle  (or 
Erne,  q.  v.).  In  the  days  of  falconry,  the  0.,  being 
very  docile,  was  sometimes  trained  and  used  for 
catching  fish. 

O'SSA,  the  ancient  name  of  a  mountain  on  the 

east  side  of  Thessaly,  near  Pelion,  and  separated 

from  Olympus  by  the  vale  of  Tempe.      It  is  now 

called   Kissavo.      The  conical   summit   is  covered 

136 


with  snow  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  The 
ancients  placed  the  seat  of  the  Centaurs  and  Giants 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Pelion  and  Ossa. 

O'SSEIN.  This  term  is  applied  by  chemists  to 
the  substance  in  the  tissue  of  the  bones  which  yields 
gluten.  It  is  obtained  by  the  prolonged  action  of 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid  on  bone,  which  dissolves 
all  the  earthy  matter.  The  material  thus  procured 
retains  the  form  of  the  bone  without  its  hardness, 
and  must  be  repeatedly  washed  with  water,  and 
treated  with  alcohol  and  ether  to  remove  traces  of 
salts,  fat,  &c.  It  is  insoluble  in  wrater,  but  ia 
converted  into  gluten  (one  of  the  forms  of  gelatine) 
by  the  action  of  boiling  water — a  transformation 
which  is  much  facilitated  if  a  little  acid  be  present. 
The  ossein  yielded  by  different  kinds  of  animals 
requires  different  times  forits  conversion  into  gluten  ; 
and  that  of  young  animals  changes  more  rapidly  than 
that  of  adults  of  the  same  species.  It  appears  to 
exist  in  the  bones  in  a  state  of  freedom — that  is  to 
say,  not  in  combination  with  any  of  the  salts  of 
lime.  Fremy's  analyses  shew  that  the  amount  of 
gluten  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  of  the  ossein 
which  yields  it,  and  that  the  two  substances  are 
isomeric. 

O'SSIAN,  Poems  of.  Ossian,  or  Oisin  (a  word 
which  is  interpreted  the  'little  fawn'),  a  Celtic 
warrior-poet,  is  said  to  have  lived  in  the  3d  c,  and 
to  have  been  the  son  of  Fingal  or  Finn  MacCum- 
haill.  The  poems  which  are  ascribed  to  him  in 
manuscripts  of  any  antiquity,  are  few  and  short, 
and  of  no  remarkable  merit.  But  in  1760 — 1763,  a 
Highland  schoolmaster,  James  Macpherson  (q.  v.), 
published  two  epics,  Fingal  and  Temora,  and  several 
smaller  pieces  and  fragments,  which  he  affirmed  to 
be  translations  into  English  prose  of  Gaelic  poems 
written  by  0.,  and  preserved  by  oral  tradition  in 
the  Scottish  Highlands.  Their  success  was  wonder- 
ful. They  were  received  with  admiration  in  almost 
every  country  of  Europe,  and  were  translated  not 
only  into  French  and  Italian,  but  into  Danish  and 
Polish.  But  their  authenticity  was  challenged 
almost  as  soon  as  they  saw  the  light,  and  a  !«nr  and 
angry  controversy  followed.  That  they  w."~  what 
they  claimed  to  be,  was  maintained  by  f't  Blair, 
Lord  Karnes,  the  poet  Gray,  and  Sir  Jo/j-^  Sinclair. 
That  they  were  more  or  less  the  fabrication  of  Mac- 
pherson himself,  was  maintained  by  Dt  Tegison, 
David  Hume,  Malcolm  Laing,  and  John  Pmkerton. 
While  this  controversy  still  raged,  another  sprang 
up  scarcely  less  angry  or  protracted.  Macpherson 
made  0.  a  Sotch  Highlander,  but  the  Irish  claimed 
him  as  an  Irishman.  Both  controversies  may  be 
said  to  have  now  worn  themselves  out,  leaving  aa 
their  several  result  a  conviction  which  can  scarcely 
be  better  stated  than  in  the  words  of  Lord  Neaves  : 
1.  '  The  poems  published  by  Macpherson  as  the  com- 
positions of  Ossian,  whether  in  their  English  or  their 
Gaelic  form,  are  not  genuine  compositions  as  they 
stand,  and  are  not  entitled  to  any  weight  or  autho* 
rity  in  themselves,  being  partly  fictitious,  but  partly 
at  the  same  time,  and  to  a  considerable  extent, 
copies  or  adaptations  of  Ossianic  poetry  current  in 
the  Highlands,  and  which  also,  for  the  most  part,  is 
well  known  in  Ireland,  and  is  preserved  there  in 
ancient  manuscripts.  2.  Upon  fairly  weighing  the 
evidence,  I  feel  bound  to  express  my  opinion  that 
the  Ossianic  poems,  so  far  as  original,  ought  to  be 
considered  generally  as  frish  compositions  relating 
to  Irish  personages,  real  or  imaginary,  and  to  Irish 
events,  historical  or  legendary ;  but  they  indicate 
also  a  free  communication  between  the  two  countries, 
and  may  be  legitimately  regarded  by  the  Scottish 
Celts  as  a  literature  in  which  they  have  a  direct 
interest;   written  in  their  ancient  tongue,  recording 


OSSIFICATION. 


tr*.\ition3  common  to  the  Gaelic  tribes,  and 
having  been  lon^  preserved  ami  diffused  in  the 
Scottish  Highlands  ;  while  if  the  date,  or  lirst  com- 
mencement of  any  of  th  •-"■  compositions,  is  of  great 

antiquity,  they  belong  as  much  to  the  ancestors  of 
the  Scottish  as  of  the  Irish  Celts.'  Poems  ascribed 
to  0.,  committed  to  writing  in  the  Scotch  Highlands 
in  the  first  half  of  the  loth  c,  are  printed  in  the 
Dean  of  Llimore's  Book  (Edin.  1862),  with  transla- 
tions as  well  into  RngliA  as  into  modern  Qaelio. 
The  poems  ascribed  to  <>.,  preserved  in  Ireland,  have 
been  published  by  the  Ossianic  Society  in  six 
volumes  (Dublin,  1854— 18G1). 

OSSIFICATION",  or  the  formation  of  bone,  is 
a  process  to  which  physiologists  have  paid  much 
attention,  but  regarding  which  there  is  still  consi- 
derable difference  of  opinion.  On  one  point,  how- 
ever, there  is  a  general  agreement — viz.,  that  the 
bonc-s  are  not  in  any  instance  a  primary  formation, 
but  always  result  from  the  transformation  and 
earthy  impregnation  of  some  pre-existing  tissue, 
which  is  most  commonly  either  cartilage  or  a  mem- 
brane containing  cell-nuclei.  At  a  very  early  period 
of  embryonic  lite,  as  soon,  indeed,  as  any  structural 
differences  can  be  detected,  the  material  from  which 
the  biuies  are  to  be  formed  becomes  mapped  out  as 
a  soft  gelatinous  substance,  which  may  be  distin- 
guished from  the  other  tissues  by  being  rather  less 
transparent,  and  soon  becoming  decidedly  opaque. 
From  this  beginning  the  bones  are  formed  in  two 
ways  :  either  the  tissue  just  described  becomes  con- 
verted into  cartdage,  which  is  afterwards  replaced 
by  buie,  or  a  germinal  membrane  is  formed,  in 
which  the  ossifying  process  takes  place.  The  latter 
is  the  most  simple  and  rapid  mode  of  forming  bone. 
When  ossification  commences,  the  membrane  be- 
comes more  opaque,  and  exhibits  a  decided  fibrous 
character,  the  fibres  being  arranged  more  or  less  in 
a  ratieulated  manner.  These  fibres  become  more 
distinct  and  granular  from  impregnation  with  lime 
salts,  and  are  converted  into  incipient  bone,  while 
the  cells  which  are  scattered  among  them  shoot  out 
into  the  bone  corpuscles,  from  which  the  canaliculi 
are  extended  probably  by  resorption.  The  facial 
and  cranial  bones,  with  the  exception  of  those  at 
the  base  of  the  skull,  are  thus  formed  without  the 
intervention  of  any  cartilage. 

The  process  of  ossification  in  Cartilage  (q.  v.)  is 
too  complex  and  difficult  to  follow  in  these  pages. 
Some  physiologists  hold  that  when  ossification  is 
carried  on  in  cartdage,  a  complete  molecular  replace- 
ment of  one  substance  by  the  other  takes  place ; 
while  others  believe  that  more  or  less  of  the  carti- 
laginous matrix  remains,  and  becomes  impregnated 
with  earthy  matter,  at  the  same  time  that  gluten  is 
Substituted  for  chondrine  (chondrine  being  the  variety 
of  gelatine  that  is  yielded  by  ossein  or  bone-carti- 
lage before  ossification,  while  gluten  is  yielded  after 
that  process  is  established).  All  the  bones  of  the 
body,  excepting  those  of  the  head  and  face  already 
mentioned,  are  at  first  formed,  in  part  at  all  events, 
from  cartilage. 

The  time  at  which  ossification  commences  does 
not  at  all  follow  the  order  in  which  the  primordial 
cartilage  is  laid  down.  Thus  the  cartilage  of  the 
vertebrae  appears  before  there  is  any  trace  of  that 
of  the  clavicle,  yet  at  birth  the  ossification  of  the 
latter  is  almost  complete,  whde  that  of  the  former 
is  very  imperfect  for  many  years.  We  will  briefly 
trace  the  process  of  ossification  as  it  occurs  in  the 
human  femur  or  thigh-bone.  Ossification  commences 
in  the  interior  of  the  cartdage  at  determinate  points, 
which  are  hence  termed  points  or  centres  of  ossifi- 
cation. From  these  points  the  process  advances 
into  the  surrounding  substance.  In  the  second 
month  of  foetal  life,  one  of  these  centres  shews  itself 


about  the  middle  of  the  shaft,  and  from  this  point 
ossification  rapidly  extends  upwards  and  downwards 
along  the  whole  length  of  the  abaft.  The  upper  and 
lower  ends  remain  cartilaginous,  and  it  is  not  till 
the  last  month  of  foetal  life  that  a  second  centre 
appears  at  the  lower  end.  The  third  centre,  from 
which  the  upper  end  of  the  bone  is  ossified,  does 
not  appear  till  about  a  year  after  birth.  The  bone 
now  consists  of  two  extremities  or  epiphytes,  with 
an  intermediate  shaft  or  diaphysit  ;  and  the  superior 
epiphysis  is  not  ossified  to  the  shaft  until  about  the 
eighteenth,  and  the  inferior  until  after  the  twentieth 
year.  At  about  the  fifth  year,  a  fourth  ossifio 
centre  is  developed  in  the  cartilage  of  the  greater 
trochanter,  and  a  fifth  centre  appears  in  the 
lesser  trochanter  at  about  the  fourteenth  year. 
These  osseous  processes,  thus  developed  from  special 
ossific  centres,  are  termed  apophyses.  Most  of  the 
long  bones  are  developed  in  a  corresponding  way. 
It  is  a  curious  fact  (which  is  of  such  general  occur- 
rence that  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  law)  that  in  the 
skeletons  both  of  man  and  of  the  lower  animals, 
the  union  of  the  various  apophyses  to  the  epi- 
physes, and  of  the  epiphyses  to  the  diaphysis  or 
shaft,  takes  place  in  the  inverse  order  to  that  in 
which  their  ossification  began.  The  advantages 
derived  from  this  subdivision  of  the  long  bones  into 
segments,  with  interposed  cartilaginous  plates,  are 
obvious.  Besides  the  greater  facilities  for  growth 
thus  afforded,  the  flexibility  of  the  bony  framework 
is  thereby  .greatly  increased,  and  its  escape  from 
injury  during  the  many  falls  incidental  to  this  period 
of  life  is  in  no  small  degree  attributable  to  this 
cause.  See  Humphry  On  the  Human  Skeleton,  pp. 
33—45. 

True  Ossification  sometimes  occurs  as  a  morbid 
process  ;  but  in  many  cases,  the  term  is  incorrectly 
used  (especially  in  the  case  of  blood-vessels)  to 
designate  a  hard  calcareous  deposit,  in  which  the 
characteristic  microscopic  appearances  of  true  bone 
are  altogether  absent. 

In  one  sense,  the  osseous  tissue  that  is  formed  in 
regeneration  of  destroyed  or  fractured  bones,  may 
be  regarded  as  due  to  a  morbid,  although  a  restora- 
tive action.  Hypertrophy  of  bone  is  by  no  means 
rare,  being  sometimes  local,  forming  a  protuberance 
on  the  external  surface,  in  which  case  it  is  termed 
an  exostosis;  and  sometimes  extending  over  the  whole 
bone  or  over  several  bones,  giving  rise  to  the  condi- 
tion known  as  hyperostosis.  Again,  true  osseous 
tissue  occasionally  occurs  in  parts  in  which,  in  the 
normal  condition,  no  bone  existed,  as  in  the  dura 
mater,  in  the  so-called  permanent  cartilages  (as 
those  of  the  larynx,  ribs,  &c),  in  the  tendons  of 
certain  muscles,  and  in  certain  tumours.  The 
peculiar  causes  of  the  osseous  formations  which  are 
unconnected  with  bone,  are  not  known. 

Calcareous  deposits  or  concretions  not  exhibiting 
the  microscopical  character  of  bone,  but  often  falsely 
termed  ossifications,  are  of  no  unfrequent  occur- 
rence. Analyses  of  such  concretions  occurring  in 
pus,  in  the  valves  of  the  heart,  in  the  muscles,  and 
in  the  lungs,  are  given  by  Vogel  in  his  Pathological 
Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body  ;  and  in  some  of  these 
concretions,  the  phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime 
occur  in  nearly  the  same  percentages  as  those  in 
which  they  are  found  in  bone.  The  diseased  con- 
dition usually  but  incorrectly  called  ossification  of 
the  arteries,  is  of  sufficient  importance  to  require  a 
brief  notice.  In  consequence  of  the  deposition  of 
earthy  or  calcareous  matter  in  the  middle  coat  of 
the  artery,  the  vessel  loses  all  its  elasticity,  and 
becomes  a  rigid,  unyielding  tube.  All  parts  of  the 
arterial  system  are  liable  to  this  change ;  but  it  is 
more  frequently  met  with  in  the  ascending  portion 
and  arch  of  the  aorta,  than  in  any  other  part  of 

13? 


0STADE— OSTIA. 


that  vessel,  and  is  more  common  in  the  lower 
extremities  than  the  upper.  The  affection  is 
usually  partial,  but  occasionally  it  appears  to  be 
almost  universal.  Thus,  Dr  Adams  has  recorded  a 
case,  in  the  Dublin  Hospital  Reports,  in  which  no 
pulsation  could  be  felt  in  any  part  of  the  body,  and 
even  the  heart  offered  no  other  sign  of  action 
than  a  slight  undulating  sound.  Old  age  strongly 
predisposes  to  this  diseased  condition,  and  probably 
few  very  aged  persons  are  altogether  exempt  from 
it.  There  i3  also  reason  to  believe  that  gout  and 
rheumatism  favour  these  calcareous  deposits.  This 
condition  of  the  arteries  may  give  rise  to  aneurism, 
to  gangrene  of  the  extremities  in  aged  persons,  and 
to  atrophy,  and  consequent  feebleness  of  the  brain 
and  heart.  (The  coronary  arteries,  which  supply 
the  heart  with  the  arterial  blood  necessary  for  its 
own  nutrition,  are  very  often,  although  not  always, 
ossified  in  angina  pectoris.)  Moreover,  this  con- 
dition of  the  vessels  very  materially  increases  the 
risk  from  severe  accidents  and  surgical  operations. 

OSTADE,  Adrian  van,  a  celebrated  painter  and 
engraver  of  the  Dutch  school,  was  born,  at  Liibeck, 
in  North  Germany,  in  1610.  His  teachers  were 
Franz  Hals  and  Rembrandt.  He  followed  his  art 
at  Haarlem,  till  the  French  army  of  Louis  XIV. 
threatened  Holland,  when  he  removed  to  Amster- 
dam, where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He 
died  in  1685.  Country  dancing-greens,  farm-yards, 
stables,  the  interiors  of  rustic  hovels  and  beer-shops, 
are  the  places  which  he  loves  to  paint ;  and  his 
persons  are  for  the  most  part  coarse  peasant  carls, 
drunken  tobacco- smokers,  or  peasant 
women  employed  in  country  work. 
In  everything  he  did  there  is  a  bright 
and  vivid  naturalness.  Not  equal  to 
Teniers  in  originality  and  quiet 
humour,  he  surpasses  him  in  the 
force  and  fineness  of  his  execution, 
though  he  is  not  free  from  triviality 
and  repetitions,  and  inaccuracies  in 
drawing.  He  was  a  prolific  painter, 
and  his  works  are  to  be  found  in  all 
the  museums  and  collections  of  the 
Netherlands,  Germany,  France,  and  England.  They 
have  been  well  engraved  by  Vischer,  Suyderoef, 
and  himself. — Isaac  van  Ostade,  brother  of  Adrian, 
also  a  painter,  was  born  at  Liibeck  in  1612,  and 
died  at  Amsterdam  in  1671.  He  did  not  equal  his 
brother  whose  style  he  laboured  to  imitate. 

OSTASHKO'FF,  a  manufacturing  district  town 
of  Great  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Twer,  stands 
on  the  south-east  shore  of  Lake  Seliguer ;  lat.  57° 
10'  N.,  long.  33°  6'  E.  The  first  settlements  on  this 
site  are  said  to  have  taken  place  in  1230.  Pop. 
10,827.  Skin-dressing,  boot-making,  and  fishing 
in  the  neighbouring  lakes  are  the  principal  employ- 
ments of  the  inhabitants.  The  woods  in  the  vicinity 
furnish  bark  for  tanning  purposes,  and  charcoal  for 
the  blacksmiths'  shops.  There  are  in  0. 37  tanyards, 
in  which   skins   are   dressed,   and  Russian  leather 

Ittepared  to  the  amount  of  £90,OUO  annually.  The 
eather  prepared  at  Savine's  tanyard  is  known  in 
England,  Austria,  Italy,  and  North  America. 
280,000  pairs  of  boots  are  made  annually,  and  400 
men  and  KJOO  women  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture. 
Manufactures  of  hatchets  and  scythes  are  also  carried 
on.  The  commerce  of  O.  is  small,  however,  owing 
tc  its  remote  distance  from  important  hues  of  com- 
munication. 

OSTE'NDE,  a  strongly  fortified  town  of  the 
Belgian  province  of  West  Flanders,  on  the  German 
Ocean,  at  the  opening  of  the  Ostende  and  Bruges 
Canal,  in  51°  14'  N.  lat.,  and  2°  55'  E.  long.  Pop. 
17,351.  Notwithstanding  its  proximity  to  the  sea, 
138 


the  shallowness  of  the  harbour  prevents  larcre 
ships  from  entering  the  port  except  at  high  tide. 
It  ranks,  however,  as  the  second  seaport  of  the 
kingdom,  Antwerp  being  the  first,  and  is  fortified 
with  walls  and  broad  ditches.  It  has  some  good 
manufactories  for  lmens,  sailcloths,  and  tobacco, 
and  several  sugar,  salt,  and  candle  works.  From 
its  position  as  a  station  for  the  steamers  plying 
daily  between  London,  Dover,  and  the  continent, 
and  as  the  terminus  of  various  branches  of  rail- 
way in  connection  with  the  great  French  and 
German  lines,  it  is  a  lively  anil  active  place  of 
transport  traffic,  and  is  resorted  to  in  the  sum- 
mer as  a  bathing-place  by  persons  from  all  parts 
of  the  continent.  It  is,  moreover,  an  important 
station  for  oyster,  cod,  and  herring  fishing ;  has  a 
good  naval  school,  some  ship-yards,  an  efficient 
staff  of  pilots,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  commercial 
tribunal  and  a  chamber  of  customs.  The  harbour 
is  furnished  with  a  light-house,  and  is  provided  with 
an  admirably-constructed  stone  dyke  or  promenade 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  public.  O.  is  memor- 
able for  the  protracted  siege  which  it  underwent 
from  1601  to  1604,  and  which  terminated  in  the 
surrender  of  the  Dutch  and  Flemish  garrison  to  the 
Spanish  commander,  Spinola. 

OSTEOCO'LA,  a  kind  of  size  or  glue  made  by 
removing  the  mineral  matter  from  bones,  and 
dissolving  the  gelatine.  Its  more  common  name  is 
bone-glue. 

OSTEOLE'PIS  (Gr.  bone-scale),  a  genus  of  fossil 
ganoid  fish  peculiar  to  the  Old  Red  Sandstone.    It  is 


Ostcolepis. 

separated  from  its  allies  by  having  the  two  anal 
and  two  dorsal  fins  alternating  with  each  other. 
Seven  species  have  been  described 

OSTEO'LOGY  (Gr.  ostea,  the  bones)  is  that  depart- 
ment of  anatomy  which  treats  of  the  chemical  and 
physical  properties  of  the  osseous  tissue,  and  of  the 
shape,  development  and  growth,  articulatious,  &c, 
of  the  various  bones  of  which  the  skeleton  is  com- 
posed.   See  Bone,  Ossification,  Skeleton,  &c 

O'STERODE,  a  small  town  of  Prussia,  in  the 
province  of  Hanover,  situated  at  the  western  hase  of 
the  Harz  Mountains,  on  the  Sb'se,  an  affluent  of  the 
Leine,  20  miles  north-east  of  Gottingen.  It  contains 
large  grain  stores,  from  which  the  miners  of  the 
neighbourhood  and  their  families  are  supplied  with 
grain  at  a  low  and  fixed  rate.  Cotton,  woollen,  and 
linen  fabrics  and  hosiery  are  extensively  manufactured. 
Pop.  6000. 

O'STIA,  a  city  of  Latium,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tiber,  about  16  miles  from  Rome.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Ancus  Martius,  and  was 
regarded  as  the  oldest  Roman  colony.  It  first  ac- 
quired importance  from  its  salt-works,  the  establish- 
ment of  which  is  attributed  to  Ancus  Martius,  and 
afterwards  as  the  port  where  the  Sicilian,  Sardinian, 
and  African  corn  shipped  for  Rome  was  landed;  yet 
its  name  first  occurs  during  the  second  Punic  war. 
It  was  long,  too,  the  principal  station  of  the  Roman 
navy ;  but  its  harbour  was  exceedingly  hud.  and 
gradually  the  entrance  became  silted  up  with  alluvial 
deposits,  so  that  vessels  could   no   longer  approach 


OSTRACION— OSTRICIL 


it,  but  were  compelled  to  ride  at  anchor  in  the  open 
roadstead,  and  to  disembark  their  cargoes  there.  At 
length  the  Emperor  Claudius  dog  a  new  harbour  or 

basin  two  miles  north  of  ().,  and  connected  it  with 
the  Tilier  by  a  canal.  It  was  named  the  Partus 
Avgusti,  and  around  it  soon  sprang  up  a  new  town 
called  Partus  Ostienaia,  Port/is  Urbta,  Portus  Romce, 
and  often  simply  Porta*.  Yet  it  was  nut  till  nearly 
the  close  of  the  Roman  empire  that  the  prosperity  of 
0.  as  a  city  began  to  decline.  Its  decay,  however,  was 
rapid,  and  iu  the  8th  c.  it  was  a  mere  ruin.  Daring 
the  middle  ages,  a  village — the  modern  0. — was 
built  about  half  a  mile  above  the  ancient  one;  but 
it  has  not  more  than  100  permanent  inhabitants, 
who  still  carry  on  the  manufacture  of  salt,  estab- 
lished in  the  pre-historio  times  of  ancient  Hume. 
The  ruins  of  0.  extend  for  a  mile  and  a  half  along 
the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  and  are  nearly  a  mile  in 
breadth.     See  Nibby's  Uiutorni  di  lloma  (vol.  ii.). 

OSTRA'CION,  a  genus,  and  OstracioniPjE,  a 
family  of  fishes  of  the  order  Plectognatki.  They  are 
remarkably  distinguished  by  having  the  whole  body 
covered  with  an  indexible  tuberculated  coat  of  mail, 
formed  of  six-sided  bony  scales  or  plates  combiued 
in  a  tesselated  quincuncial  manner ;  the  fleshy  lips, 
the  fins,  and  the  tail  protruding  through  holes  in 
the  armour.  The  gill-opening  appears  in  the 
armour  as  a  mere  slit,  bordered  with  a  skinny  edge, 
but  there  is  a  true  gill-cover  within.  There  are  no 
ventral  fins.  The  vertebrae  are  generally  coalescent. 
There  is  little  muscular  substance,  and  in  some 
species  it  is  reputed  poison  jus;  but  the  liver  is 
large,  anil  yields  much  oil.  Some  of  the  species  are 
known  by  the  names  of  Trunk-fisti  and  Coffer- 
Fish.  They  are  mostly  found  in  the  Indian  and 
American  seas.     None  are  British. 

O'STRACISM,  a  right  exercised  by  the  people 
of  Athens  of  banishing  for  a  time  any  person  whose 
services,  rank,  or  wealth  appeared  to  be  dangerous 
to  the  liberty  of  his  fellow-citizens,  or  inconsistent 
with  their  political  equality.  It  was  not  a  punish- 
ment for  any  particular  crime,  but  rather,  as  has  been 
observed,  a  precautionary  measure  to  remove  such 
leaders  as  were  obviously  exercising  a  dangerous 
ascendency  in  the  state.  Ostracism  was  introduced 
by  Cleisthenes  about  the  beginning  of  the.  6th  c. 
B.C.,  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Peisistratidoe.  The 
people  were  annually  asked  by  the  Prytanes  if  they 
wished  to  exercise  this  right,  and  if  they  did,  a 
public  assembly  wa3  held,  and  each  citizen  had 
opportunity  of  depositing,  in  a  place  appointed  for 
the  purpose,  a  potsherd  (ostrakon)  or  small  earthen 
tablet,  on  which  was  written  the  uame  of  the 
person  for  whose  banishment  he  voted.  Six  thou- 
sand votes  were  necessary  for  the  banishment  of 
any  person ;  but  the  greatest  men  of  Athens — 
Miltiades,  Themistocles,  Cimon,  Alcibiades,  &c. — 
were  subjected  to  this  treatment.  The  banishment 
was  at  first  for  ten  years,  but  the  period  was  after- 
wards restricted  to  rive.  Property  and  civd  rights 
or  honours  remained  unaffected  by  it.  Alcibiades 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  final  abolition  of  ostra- 
cism, of  which,  however,  Plutarch  and  Aristotle 
speak  as  a  necessary  political  expedient,  and  its 
utility  has  been  very  ably  defended  in  modern  times 
by  Mr  Grote  (History  of  Greece,  voL  iv.  pp.  200 
et  seq.). 

O'STRICH  (Struthio),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
order  Grallatores,  and  tribe  Brevipennes  (q.  v.),  in 
Cuvier's  system — the  order  Cursores  (or  Runners) 
of  some  ornithologists.  In  this  genus  the  bill  is  of 
moderate  length,  broad,  flattened,  rounded  at  the 
tip,  the  mandibles  flexible ;  the  head  small ;  the 
neck  long ;  the  legs  long  (both  tibia  and  tarsus)  and 
very  robust,  the  lower  part  of  the  tibia,  as  well  as 


the  tarsus,  naked  ;  the  feet  have  only  two  toes,  o! 
which  the  inner  is  the  largest)  and  has  a  short  claw, 

the  outer  has  no  claw  ;  the  wings  are  too  short  to  1)6 
us.d  lor  flight,  but  are  useful  to  aid  in  miming;  the 
plumage  is  lax  and  tlexible  ;  the  wines  and  tad  have  ' 
lone  soft  drooping  plumes.  Only  one  secies  is 
known  (8.  camekva),  a  native  of  the  sandy  deserts  of 
Africa  and  Arabia;  the  South  American  ostriches, 
or  Nandua  (q.  v.),  constituting  a  distinct  genua. 
The  O.  is  the  largest  of  all  birds  now  existing,  being 
from  six  to  eight  feet  in  height  to  the  top  d  its 
head,  and  an  adult  male  weighing  from  two  to  three 
hundred  pounds.  The  male  is  rather  larger  than 
the  female.  The  head  and  upper  part  of  the  neck 
are  scantily  covered  with  a  thin  down,  through 
which   the  skin  ia  visible.      The   young  have  the 


Ostrich  (Struthio  camelue). 

head  and  neck  clothed  with  feathers.  The  geneial 
plumage  is  glossy  black  in  the  adult  male,  dark 
gray  in  the  female  and  young,  with  a  slight  sprink- 
ling of  white  feathers  ;  the  long  plumes  of  the 
wings  and  tail  are  white,  occasionally  marked  with 
black.  On  each  wing  are  two  plumeless  shafts,  not 
unlike  porcupine's  quills.  The  inner  toe  is  very 
large,  about  seven  inches  long,  and  its  claw  hoof- 
like. Whilst  the  sternum  is  destitute  of  a  keel,  and 
the  muscles  which  move  the  wings  are  compara- 
tively weak,  those  which  move  the  legs  are  of 
prodigious  strength,  so  that  the  O.  is  not  only 
capable  of  running  with  great  speed,  but  of  striking 
such  a  blow  with  its  foot  as  to  make  it  too  for- 
midable for  the  leopard  and  other  large  beasts  of 
prey  to  assail  it.  It  has  been  often  known  to  rip 
open  a  dog  by  a  single  stroke,  and  a  man  is  recorded 
to  have  suffered  the  same  fate.  The  eyes  of  the  0. 
are  large,  and  the  litis  are  furnished  with  laches. 
Its  sight  is  keen,  so  that  it  descries  objects  at  a 
great  distance  in  the  open  desert. 

The  O.  shuns  the  presence  of  man,  but  is  often 
to  be  seen  in  near  proximity  to  herds  of  zebras, 
quaggas,  giraffes,  antelopes,  and  other  quadrupeds. 
It  is  gregarious,  although  the  flocks  of  ostriches  are 
not  generally  very  large.  It  is  polygamous,  one 
male  usually  appropriating  to  himself,  when  he  can, 
from  two  to  seven  females,  which  seem  to  make 
their  nest  in  common,  scooping  a  mere  hole  in  the 
sand  for  this  purpose.  Each  female  is  supposed  to 
lay  about  ten  eggs.  The  eggs  are  all  placed  on  end 
in  the  nest,  which  often  contains  a  large  number, 
whilst  around  it  eggs  are  generally  to  be  found 
scattered  on  the  sand.  Concerning  these,  it  has 
been  supposed  that  they  are  intended  for  the  food 
of  the  young  birds  before  they  are  able  to  go  in 
quest  of  other  food ;  an  improbable  notion,  not 
supported  by  evidence.  It  seems  at  least  as  likely 
that  these  scattered  eggs  are  laid  by  females  wait- 
ing whilst  the  nest  is  occupied  by  another,  and 
that  they  are  lost  to  the   ostriches,  and  no  more 

139 


OSTRICH- OSWEGO  TEA. 


regarded.  Contrary  to  a  very  generally  received 
opinion,  the  0.  does  not  leave  her  eggs  to  be 
hatched  entirely  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  ;  or,  if  this 
be  the  case  in  the  warmest  regions,  it  is  otherwise 
in  the  more  northern  and  southern  countries  in 
which  this  bird  is  found,  and  by  a  remarkable 
instiuct,  the  0.  sits  upon  the  eggs  by  night,  when 
the  cold  would  be  too  great  for  them,  and  leaves 
them  to  the  sun's  heat  during  the  day. 

The  O.  feeds  exclusively  on  vegetable  substances, 
its  food  consisting  in  great  part  of  grasses  and  their 
eeeds ;  so  that  its  visits  are  much  dreaded  by  the 
cultivators  of  the  soil  in  the  vicinity  of  its  haunts, 
a  flock  of  ostriches  soon  making  terrible  devastation 
of  a  field  of  corn.  The  0.  has  a  very  large  crop,  a 
strong  gizzard,  and  a  pretty  large  proventriculus 
between  the  crop  and  the  gizzard :  the  intestines 
are  voluminous,  and  the  coeca  long,  with  a  remark- 
able spiral  valve.  There  is  a  receptacle  in  which 
the  urine  accumulates,  as  in  a  bladder,  a  thing  very 
uncommon  in  birds. 

The  0.  swallows  large  stones,  as  small  birds 
swallow  grains  of  sand,  to  aid  the  gizzard  in  the 
trituration  of  the  food ;  and  in  confinement,  has 
often  been  known  to  swallow  very  indiscriminately 
whatever  came  in  the  way,  pieces  of  iron,  bricks, 
glass,  old  shoes,  copper  coins,  &c.  Its  instincts 
do  not  suffice  to  prevent  it  from  swallowing  very 
unsuitable  things ;  copper  coins  were  fatal  in  one 
instance,  and  a  piece  of  a  parasol  in  another. 

The  0.  is  very  patient  of  thirst,  or  is  capable  of 
subsisting  for  a  long  time  without  water.  It  often 
supplies  the  want  of  water  by  eating  the  gourds  or 
melons  of  the  desert,  to  which  even  the  lion  is  said 
to  resort  on  the  same  account. 

The  speed  of  the  0.,  when  it  first  sets  out,  is 
supposed  to  be  not  less  than  GO  miles  an  hour ;  but 
it  does  not  seem  to  be  capable  of  keeping  up  this 
speed  for  a  long  time.  It  is  successfully  hunted  by 
men  on  horseback,  who  take  advantage  of  its  habit 
of  running  in  a  curve,  instead  of  a  straight  line,  so 
that  the  hunter  knows  how  to  proceed  in  order  to 
meet  it  and  get  within  shot.  It  is  often  killed  in 
South  Africa  by  men  who  envelop  themselves  in 
ostrich  skins,  and  admirably  imitating  the  manners 
of  the  0.,  approach  it  near  enough  for  their  purpose, 
without  exciting  its  alarm,  and  sometimes  kill  one 
after  another  with  their  poisoned  arrows. 

The  strength  of  the  0.  is  such  that  it  can  easily 
carry  two  men  on  its  back. 

The  voice  of  the  0.  is  deep  and  hollow,  not  easily 
distinguished,  except  by  a  practised  ear,  from  the 
roar  of  the  lion.  It  also  more  frequently  makes  a 
kind  of  cackling ;  and  when  enraged  and  striking 
violently  at  an  adversary,  hisses  very  loudly. 

The  flesh  of  the  0.  is  not  unpalatable  when  it  is 
young,  but  rank  and  tough  when  old.  It  is  gener- 
ally believed  to  have  been  prohibited  a3  unclean  to 
the  Jews  (Lev.  xi.  16),  although  the  name  is  trans- 
lated owl  in  the  English  Bible.  There  are  frequent 
references  to  it  in  the  Old  Testament. 

The  eggs  of  the  0.  are  much  esteemed  as  an 
article  of  food  by  the  rude  natives  of  Africa,  and 
are  acceptable  even  to  European  travellers  and 
colonists.  E^ch  egg  weighs  about  three  pounds, 
and  is  thus  equal  to  about  two  dozen  ordinary  hen's 
eggs.  The  egg  is  usually  dressed  by  being  set 
upright  on  a  fire,  and  stirred  about  with  a  forked 
stick,  inserted  through  a  hole  in  the  upper  end. 
The  thick  and  strong  shell  is  applied  to  many  uses, 
but  particularly  is  much  employed  by  the  South 
African  tribes  for  water-vessels.  The  reader  will 
probably  recollect  the  interesting  plate  in  Living- 
stone's Travels  of  women  filling  ostrich  shells  with 
water.  In  taking  ostrich  eggs  from  the  nest,  the 
South  African  is  careful  not  to  touch  any  with  the 
140 


hand,  but  uses  a  long  stick  to  draw  them  out,  that 
the  birds  may  not  detect  the  smell  of  the  intruder, 
in  which  case  they  would  forsake  the  nest ;  whilst 
otherwise,  they  will  return,  and  lay  more  eggs. 

The  long  plumes  of  the  O.  have  been  highly 
valued  for  ornamental  purposes  from  very  early 
times,  and  continue  to  be  a  considerable  article  of 
commerce,  for  the  sake  of  which  the  O.  is  pursued 
in  its  native  wilds. 

The  0.  is  often  to  be  seen  in  Britain  in  confine- 
ment, and  readily  becomes  quite  tame  and  familiar, 
although  still  apt  to  be  violent  towards  strangers. 
Great  numbers  were  exhibited  in  the  public  spec- 
tacles by  some  of  the  Boman  emperors ;  and  the 
brains  of  many  ostriches  were  sometimes  presented 
in  a  single  dish,  as  at  the  table  of  Heliogabalus. 

OSTRICH  FEATHERS  are  occasionally 
borne  as  a  heraldic  charge,  and  always  represented 
drooping.  Three  white  ostrich  feathers  are  the 
well-known  badge  of  the  Prince  of  Wales.  According 
to  common  tradition,  they  were  assumed  in  conse- 
quence of  Edward  the  Black  Prince  having  plucked 
a  plume  of  ostrich  feathers  from  the  casque  of  John 
of  Luxemburg,  king  of  Bohemia,  who  fell  by  his 
hand  at  Crecy.  There  is,  however,  no  doubt  that 
ostrich  feathers  were  previous  to  that  time  a  cogni- 
zance of  the  Plantagenets.  Prince  Henry,  eldest 
son  of  James  I.,  first  established  the  present  arrange- 
ment of  the  three  ostrich  feathers  within  a  prince's 
corouet. 

OSTRO'G,  a  small  district  town  of  West  Russia, 
in  the  government  of  Volhynia,  100  miles  west  of 
Jitomir.  Here,  in  the  reign  of  Constantine  of 
Ostrog,  a  school  and  typography  were  established, 
and  the  first  Slavonic  Bible  printed  in  1558.  Pop. 
8926. 

O'STROGOTHS.     See  Goths. 

OSU'NA,  a  town  of  Spain  in  the  province  of 
Seville,  and  48  miles  east-south-east  of  the  city  of 
that  name,  stands  in  a  fertile  plain,  and  on  a  trian- 
gular hill  crowned  by  a  castle  and  the  collegiate 
church.  It  stands  in  the  midst  of  a  highly  fertile 
plain,  productive  in  grain,  olives,  almonds,  &c.  An 
extensive  panoramic  view  is  obtained  from  the  castle. 
The  collegiate  church,  in  the  mixed  Gothic  and 
cinque-cento  style,  was  budt  in  153-4.  It  was 
pillaged  by  Soult  of  5  cwt.  of  ancient  church  plate, 
and  was  converted  by  him  into  a  citadel  and  maga- 
zine. Pop.  15,500,  who  are  engaged  in  agriculture 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  linen  goods,  and  iron  and 
earthenware. 

OSWE'GO,  a  city  and  port  of  entry,  in  New 
York,  U.S.,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  Oswego 
River,  on  Lake  Ontario,  at  the  extremity  of  the 
Oswego  Canal,  a  branch  of  the  Erie,  and  also  the 
terminus  of  the  Syracuse  and  Oswego  Railway.  It 
is  a  handsome  city,  with  streets  100  feet  wide, 
crossing  at  right  angles,  with  costly  government 
buildings,  custom-house,  court-house,  post-office, 
city  hall,  hospital,  orphan  asylum,  library,  14  churches, 
3  daily  and  3  weekly  newspapers,  and  is  distinguished 
for  the  excellence  of  its  normal  and  other  schools,  &c. 
The  imports  from  Canada  amount  to  $7,000,000  per 
annum.  On  the  river  are  21  flour-mills,  making 
600,000  barrels  a  year,  with  10  elevators  for  unload- 
ing vessels  at  the  rate  of  45,000  bushels  an  hour. 
Among  the  manufactures  is  that  of  13,000,000  lbs. 
of  starch  from  Indian  corn  per  annum.  The  lumber 
received  from  Canada,  in  1870,  amounted  to  289,315,- 
329  feet.  There  are  a  fort  and  a  navy-yard,  and  a 
harbour  is  in  process  of  construction.  Pop.  (1860) 
16,816;    (1870)20,910;   (1875)22,455. 

OSWEGO  TEA,  a  name  given  to  several  species 
of  Monarda,  particularly  M.  purpurea^  M.  didyma, 


OSWESTRY— OTAGO. 


and  M.  knhniana,  natives  of  North  America,  because 
of  the  occasional  use  of  an  infusion  of  the  dried 
leaves  as  a  beverage.  They  belong  to  the  natural 
order  Labia  tx,  somewhat  resemble  mints  in  appear* 
ance,  and  have  ao  agreeable  odooA  The  infusion  is 
said  t>  be  useful  in  intermittents,  and  as  a  stomachic 
Some  other  species  of  Munurda  are  used  in  the 
same  way. 

OSWESTRY,  a  small  market  town  and  muni- 
cipal borough  of  England,  in  the  county  of  Salop, 
and  IS  miles  north-west  of  Shrewsbury.  Portions 
of  the  old  wall  with  which  Edward  I.  ordered  it  to 
be  surrounded  in  1277  are  still  standing.  There  are 
also  the  remains  of  an  ancient  castle,  said  to  have 
been  the  ancestral  seat  of  Walter  Fitzallan,  pro- 
genitor of  the  royal  House  of  Stuart,  and  who, 
anting  the  troubles  of  the  reign  of  King  Stephen, 
fled  hence  to  Scotland,  and  became  steward  to 
David  I.  king  of  Scotland.  0.  is  the  centre 
of  an  extensive  agricultural  district ;  it  has  a 
handsome  new  market-place,  and  its  market  for 
agricultural  produce  is  very  largely  attended.  Com 
and  paper  mills  and  coal-mines  are  worked  in  the 
vicinity.  It  is  favourably  situated  as  the  centre  of 
extensive  railway  communication.  Pop.  (1871)  of 
municipal  borough,  7306. 

0.  is  said  to  derive  its  name  from  Oswald,  king  of 
Northumbria,  slain  here  in  642.  Near  the  town  is 
Oswald's  Well,  a  tine  spring  of  water. 

OSYMA'NDYAS,  the  name  of  a  great  king  of 
Egypt,  mentioned  by  Diodorus  and  Strabo,  who 
reigned,  according  to  these  authors,  as  the  27th 
successor  of  Sesostris.  He  distinguished  himself, 
according  to  these  authors,  by  his  victories,  and  in- 
vaded Asia  with  an  army  of  400,000  men  and  20,000 
cavalry,  and  conquered  the  Bactrians,  who  had  been 
rendered  tributary  to  Egypt  by  Sesostris.  In 
honour  of  this  exploit,  he  is  said  by  Hecatseus  to 
have  erected  a  monument  which  was  at  once  a 
palace  and  a  tomb,  and  which,  under  the  name  of 
Osymandeion,  was  renowned  for  its  size  and  splen- 
lour  in  later  times.  It  was  said  to  be  situated  in  the 
necropolis  of  Thebes,  or  at  Gournah,  and  close  to 
the  sepulchres  of  the  concubines  of  the  god  Amen 
Ra.  The  Osymandeion  is  generally  believed  to  be 
represented  by  the  extant  ruins  of  the  palace-  of 
Rameses  III.  at  Medinet  Haboo,  though  great  diffi- 
culty has  been  felt  in  reconciling  the  descriptions 
of  its  magnificence  in  ancient  writers  with  the 
dimensions  of  the  modern  relic ;  and  Letronne,  in 
his  Tombe.au  d' 'Osymandijas  (Par.  1831),  has  even 
ventured  to  suppose  that  it  was  an  imaginary  ediiice 
invented  by  the  Greeks  from  their  acquaintance 
with  the  great  palaces  of  Thebes,  but  this  scepticism 
is  considered  extreme.  The  name  of  O.  is  difficult 
to  recognise  amongst  the  Egyptian  kings,  the  nearest 
approach  to  it  being  one  of  the  Setis,  either  the  1st 
or  2d,  called  after  death,  Asiri-Meneptah.  Others 
cousider  0.  the  Ismendes  of  Strabo,  or  the  Mendes 
of  Herodotus.  The  name  of  Amenophis  may  also 
lie  concealed  in  his  name,  so  much  ambiguity 
porvades  the  subject. 

Diodorus,  L  46  to  50  ;  Strabo,  xvii.  p.  8,  11 — 16  ; 
Juvenal,  xv.  38 ;  Letronne,  Mem.  de  I' Inst.  ix.  p. 
321  ;  Champollion,  Lettres  JEcrites,  p.  260,  303 ; 
Champollion-Figeac,  UEgypte,  69,  291,  313—315. 

OTA'GO,  the  most  populous  and  prosperous  of 
the  provinces  of  New  Zealand,  forms  the  most 
southern  portion  of  Middle  Island  (see  New 
Zealand).  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
province  of  Canterbury,  and  on  the  west,  east,  and 
south  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  A  considerable  tract 
of  country,  naturally  forming  a  portion  of  the 
south  of  this  province,  and  formerly  included  with 
It,  now  forms   the   province   of   Southland  (q.  v.). 


The  province  of  0.  is  150  miles  in  length,  and  180 
miles  in  breadth  ;  area,  20.000  square  mi] 
about  17  million  acres;  pop.  in  1863  (including 
diggers),  50,000,  of  whom  37,000  were  males  and 
18,000  females.  The  pop.  at  the  last  census  (1871) 
whs  88,500.  The  coast-line  is  shout  4oo  mile*  in 
extent  ;  the  chief  rivers  are  the  Waitaki,  the 
Clutha,  and  the  Mataura,  all  of  which  flow  south- 
south-east,  and  are  navigable  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent.  The  western  regions  of  O.  remain  unsur- 
yeyed,  but  are  known  to  be  covered  with  high,  and 
in  many  cases  snow-capped  mountains,  stretching 
along  the  whole  line  of  coast,  and  extending  inland 
for  upwards  of  60  miles.  East  and  north-east 
from  the  Matauia  River  to  the  shore  the  surface  is 
well  known,  and  consists  of  mountain-ranges  alter- 
nating with  valleys,  and  extending  parallel  to  the 
sea  and  to  each  other  as  far  inland  as  the  valley  of 
the  Manuherikia,  one  of  the  first  affluents  of  the 
Clutha.  The  climate  of  O.  is  exceedingly  healthy 
and  invigorating  ;  frost  and  snow  are  unknown 
except  in  the  higher  ranges,  and  rain,  though 
sufficiently  abundant  to  answer  the  demands  of 
agriculture,  does  not  interfere  with  outdoor  occu- 
pations. All  the  English  fruits  and  flowers,  with 
some  trifling  exceptions,  are  grown  here  to  per- 
fection. The  northern  and  interior  districts  of  the 
province  are  eminently  adapted,  as  regards  both 
soil  and  climate,  for  agriculture  as  well  as  cattle- 
breeding.  The  western  districts  are  rugged,  and 
covered  with  forests  ;  but  in  the  eastern  regions 
are  many  fertile  and  well-watered  tracts,  admirably 
suited  for  the  production  of  oats,  and  the  rearing  of 
cattle  and  sheep.  In  mineral  wealth  the  province 
of  O.  is  remarkably  rich.  Coal,  iron,  copper,  silver, 
lead,  &c,  have  been  found,  and  useful  earths  and 
clays  are  abundant.  Gold  has  been  found  in 
small  quantities  in  other  provinces  of  New  Zealand, 
as  in  Auckland  and  Nelson  Province ;  but  by 
far  the  most  important  gold-fields  of  the  colony 
are  in  the  province  of  Otago.  Gold  was  first  dis- 
covered here  by  Mr  Gabriel  Read  in  June  1861, 
in  a  gully,  since  called  Gabriel's  Gully,  on  the 
Tuapeka,  an  affluent  of  the  Clutha,  in  a  direct 
line  37  miles  west  of  Dunedin.  Read  placed  his 
discovery  in  the  hands  of  government,  and  was 
presented  by  the  Provincial  Council  with  £500  as  a 
reward.  In  less  than  two  months  from  the  discovery 
of  gold,  3000  people  were  at  work  in  the  Tuapeka 
valley,  and  were  obtaining  6000  oz.  a  week.  From 
this  time  gold-mining  became  a  staple  employment. 
A  'rush'  was  made  from  Australia ;  Dunedin,  for- 
merly the  village-capital  of  the  province,  now  rapidly 
increased  in  size  and  trade,  new  fields  were  disco- 
vered, and  the  immigration-lists  were  immensely 
swelled.  From  June  1861  to  June  1863,  700,000 
oz.,  worth  nearly  ±'3,000,000,  were  obtained.  The 
most  productive  gold-producing  district  up  to  May, 
1864,  was  the  Arrow  River  District,  in  the  vicinity  ot 
Lake  Wakatip.  This  district  was  made  known  in 
November,  1862.  and  from  that  time  to  the  end  of 
October,  1863,  237,655  oz.— value,  £955,620— were 
forwarded  to  Dunedin  by  escort.  In  1863,  the  im- 
ports amounted  to  £1,463,834  in  value;  the  exports 
to  £2,569,718;  but  owing  to  the  decline  in  the  pro- 
duct of  jrold,  this  steadily  decreased  to  £1,160,147  in 
1868.  The  total  gold  exported  from  New  Zealand  to 
January  1,  1870,  has  been  estimated  ot  $100,000,000. 
At  the  last  census  the  extent  of  land  under  cultiva- 
tion and  the  amount  of  the  products  of  the  farm 
was  reported  to  lie  as  follows:  wheat,  22,812  acres, 
supplying  656,046  bushels;  oats,  66.217  acres,  2.213,- 
139  bushels;  barley,  6137  acres,  144.882  bushels; 
potatoes,  3021  acres,  16,610  tons;  hay,  7418  acres, 
12,601  tons.  The  first  known  band  of  British  set- 
tlers reached  the  shores  of    Otago  in  the  spring  of 

141 


OTAHEITE— OTHMAN  IBN  AFFAN. 


,  1848.  The  capitul  is  Dunedin.  The  population  of 
(his  city,  ami  its  suburbs,  lioslyn  and  Caveraham,  was, 
in  1870,  21,511.  O.  was  originally  a  class  colony 
connected  with  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland;  but 
the  influx  of  immigrants  consequent  on  the  dis- 
covery of  gold  has  obliterated  its  distinctive  char- 
acter. 
OTAHEI'TE.     See  Tahiti. 

OTA'LGIA  (Gr.  ot-,  the  ear,  and  algos,  pain)  is 
neuralgia  of  the  ear.  It  occurs  in  lits  of  excruci- 
ating pain,  shooting  over  the  head  and  face,  but  it 
is  not  accompanied  by  fever,  nor  usually  by  any 
sensation  of  throbbing.  Its  causes  and  treatment 
are  those  of  neuralgia  generally,  but  it  is  particu- 
larly caused  by  caries  of  the  teeth,  which  should 
always  be  carefully  examined  by  a  dentist  in  these 
cases.  When  patients  complain  of  earache,  the  pain 
is  far  more  commonly  due  to  otitis,  or  inflammation 
of  the  tympanic  portion  of  the  ear,  a  much  more 
serious  affection. 

O'TARY  (Otaridte),  a  family  of  the  Seal  tribe 
(Phoridcp),  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the 
family  by  a  projecting  auricle  or  auditory  conch 
(often  popularly  called  'external  ear'),  and  by  a 
very  remarkable  character,  a  double  cutting  edge 
in  the  four  middle  upper  incisors.  The  membrane 
which  unites  the  toes  of  the  hind-feet  is  prolonged 
into  a  flap  beyond  each  toe.  The  fore-legs,  as  if 
intended  exclusively  for  swimming,  are  placed 
further  back  in  the  body  than  in  the  true  seals, 
giving  the  otaries  the  appearance  of  having  a  longer 
neck.  The  hind-legs  are  more  like  the  fore-legs 
than  in  the  true  seals. — The  Ska  Lion  (Enmeto- 
piax  strtleri)  of  the  northern  seas  is  about  15  feet 
m    length,  and  weighs    about    16  cwt.      It   inhabits 


South  Pacific  Sea  Lion  (Otaria  juhnta). 

the    eastern     shores     of    Kamtchatka,    the     Kurile 

Islands,  the  islands  off  the  bay  of  San  Francisco,  &c, 
and  is  in  some  places  extremely  abundant.  It 
is  partially  migratory,  removing  from  its  most 
northern  quarters  on  the  approach  of  winter.  It 
is  to  be  found  chiefly  on  rocky  coasts  and  islet 
rocks,  on  the  ledges  of  which  it  climbs,  and  its 
roaring  is  sometimes  useful  in  warning  sailors  of 
danger.  It  is  much  addicted  to  roaring,  which, 
as  much  as  the  mane  of  the  old  males,  has  obtained 
for  it  the  name  of  sea  lion.  The  head  of  this  animal 
is  large  ;  the  eyes  very  large  ;  the  eyebrows  bushy ; 
the  hide  thick  ;  the  hair  coarse,  and  reddish ;  a 
heavy  mass  of  stiff,  curly,  crisp  hair  on  the  neck 
and  shoulders.  The  old  males  have  a  fierce  aspect, 
yet  they  flee  in  great  precipitation  from  man ;  but 
if  driven  to  extremities,  they  fight  furiously.  Sea 
lions  are  capable  of  being  tamed,  and  become  very 
familiar  with  man.  They  are  polygamous,  but  a 
male  generally  appropriates  to  himself  only  two  or 


three  females.  They  feed  on  fish  and  the  smaller 
seals. — The  sea  lion  of  the  southern  seas,  once 
supposed  to  be  the  same,  is  now  generally  believed 
to  be  a  distinct  species,  and,  indeed,  more  than  one 
species  are  supposed  to  inhabit  the  southern  seas. 
— The  Ursine  Seal,  Ursine  0.,  or  Sea  Bear  (O. 
ursina),  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Northern  Pacific. 
It  is  scarcely  8  feet  long.  The  hinder  limbs  being 
better  developed  than  in  most  of  the  seals,  it  can 
stand  and  walk  almost  like  a  land  quadruped.  The 
muzzle  is  prominent,  the  mouth  small,  the  lips 
tumid,  the  whiskers  long  ;  the  tip  of  the  tongue  is 
bifurcated,  the  eyes  are  large,  the  skin  is  thick,  the 
hair  long,  erect,  and  thick,  with  a  soft  underclothing 
of  wool.  The  food  consists  of  sea  otters,  small  seals, 
and  fish.  The  ursine  seal  is  polygamous,  a  strong 
male  appropriating  to  himself  from  eight  to  fifty 
females.  It  swims  with  great  swiftness.  It  is 
fierce  and  courageous.  Its  skin  is  much  prized 
for  clothing  in  the  regions  in  which  it  abounds. 
As  in  the  case  of  the  sea  lion,  it  is  doubtful  if  the 
geographical  range  of  the  sea  bear  extends  to  the 
southern  seas,  or  if  it  is  represented  there  by  a  simi- 
lar species.  Several  other  species  of  0.  are  inhabit- 
ants of  the  Pacific  and  Southern  Oceans.  The  Fur 
Seal  (0.  Falklandka)  is  one  of  these.  It  is  found 
on  the  Falkland  Islands,  South  Shetland,  &c.  It 
is  of  a  long  and  slender  form,  with  broad  head, 
and  clothed  with  soft,  compact,  grayish-brown  hair, 
amongst  which  is  a  very  soft,  brownish  fur.  It  is 
gregarious  and  polygamous.  When  South  Shetland 
was  first  visited,  its  seals  had  no  apprehension  of 
danger,  and  unsuspectingly  remained  whilst  their 
fellows  were  slain  and  skinned  ;  but  they  have  since 
learned  to  be  upon  their  guard.  The  skin  of  the  fur 
seal  is  in  great  demand,  chiefly  for  ladies'  mantles, 
and  was  much  used  for  making  a  kind  of  soft  fur 
cap,  which  was  very  common  thirty  or  forty  yean< 
ago. 

OTCHAKO'W,  a  small  town  and  seaport  oi 
South  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Kherson, 
surrounded  on  all  sides  by  a  barren  steppe,  stands 
at  the  western  extremity,  and  on  the  north  shore, 
of  the  estuary  of  the  Dnieper,  40  miles  east- 
north-east  of  Odessa.  It  traces  its  foundation 
to  the  very  earliest  times,  and  is  supposed  by 
some  to  be  the  spot  where  stood  the  Grecian 
colony  Olbia  ;  by  others,  to  be  Tomi,  the  scene 
of  Ovid's  banishment.  At  the  end  of  the  15th 
c,  the  khan  of  the  Crimea  built  here  a  strong 
fortress.  Its  present  name  occurs,  for  the  first  time, 
in  1557.  During  the  Prussian  war3  with  Turkey  in 
the  18th  c,  0.  was  alternately  the  property  of  each, 
until  it  was  taken  by  Potemkin  in  1788,  and  defi- 
nitively annexed  to  the  Russian  dominions.  The 
vicinity  of  Odessa  is  fatal  to  the  development  of 
foreign  commerce  at  its  port.  Fop.  51-H),  the  greater 
part  of  whom  are  Jews,  and  are  employed  in  salting 
fish  for  transportation  to  Little  Russia. 

OTHMAN  IBN  AFFAN,  third  calif  of  the 
Moslems,  was  born  about  574.  He  belonged  to 
the  family  of  the  prophet,  and  was  cousin-german 
of  Abu  Sofian.  One  of  the  early  converts  to 
Islam,  he  was  one  of  its  most  zealous  supporters, 
and  linked  himself  still  more  strongly  to  Moham- 
med by  becoming  his  son-in-law  and  private  secre- 
tary. He  was  elected  to  succeed  Omar  in  the 
califate  in  December  644,  and  a  most  unworthy 
successor  he  proved  to  be.  The  Moslem  empire, 
however,  continued  to  extend  itself  on  all  sides  till 
the  insane  nepotism  of  0.  gave  its  progress  a  sudden 
check.  The  able  and  energetic  leaders  who  had 
been  appointed  by  Omar  were  superseded  by  mem- 
bers of  his  own  family,  and  of  that  of  Abu  Soffan ; 
and  the  consequences  were  what  might  have  been 


OTHMAN— OTHO  L 


expected.  Egypt  revolted,  and  the  calif  was 
compelled  to  reinstate  Amrn  in  the  government  of 
that  country,  and  several  other  rebellions  were  only 
quelled  by  a  similar  restoration  of  the  previous 
governors.  Zealous  Moslems  deeply  deplored  the 
folly  of  their  chief,  and  were  indignant  at  seeing  the 
chair  of  the  prophet  occupied  by  0.,  while  Abu-hekr, 
and  even  Omar,  were  accustomed  to  seat  themselves 
two  steps  below  it.  Emboldened  by  the  knowledge 
of  his  vacillating  and  cowardly  disposition,  they 
showered  upon  him  reproaches  and  menaces  ;  but 
the  bearer  of  their  remonstrances  having  been 
bastinadoed  by  O.'s  order,  a  general  revolt  ensued. 
0.  averted  the  crisis  by  unconditional  submission  ; 
but  having  soon  after  attempted  to  put  to  death 
Mohammed,  the  son  of  the  Calif  Abu-bekr,  the 
latter  made  his  appearance  at  Medina  at  the  head 
of  a  troop  of  malcontents,  and  forcing  his  way  to 
the  presence  of  O.,  stabbed  him  to  the  heart.  0. 
vras  of  a  mild  and  pacific  disposition,  but  he  was  at 
the  same  time  most  ambitious  of  power,  though 
after  his  accession  to  supreme  authority,  he  shewed 
himself  to  be,  either  from  age  or  natural  imbecility, 
deplorably  deficient  in  those  energetic  virtues, 
without  which  the  control  of  a  warlike  people  and 
the  management  of  a  mighty  empire  such  as  that 
of  the  Moslems,  were  utterly  impossible.  0.  was 
the  first  to  cause  an  authentic  copy  of  the  Koran 
to  be  composed. 

OTHMAN,  OTHOMAN,  or  OSMAN  I.,  sur- 
named  Al-rjhazi  ('the  conqueror'),  the  founder  of 
the  Turkish  power,  was  born  in  Bithynia  in  1259. 
His  father,  Orthogrul,  the  chief  of  a  small  tribe 
of  Oguzian  Turks,  had  entered  the  service  of  Alla- 
ed-din  Kaikobad,  the  Seljuk  sultan  of  Iconium,  and 
had  rendered  important  services  to  that  monarch 
and  his  successors  in  their  wars  with  the  Byzantines 
and  Mongols.  Orthogrul  dying  in  1289,  after  a 
rule  of  more  than  half  a  century,  his  tribe  chose  his 
son  Osman  (i.  e.,  the  'young bustard,')  as  his  successor. 
0.  trod  in  his  father's  footsteps  ;  and  on  the  des- 
truction of  the  sultanate  of  Iconium  in  12!)9  by  the 
Mongols,  succeeded  in  obtaining  possession  of  a 
portion  of  Bithynia.  He  had  previously  subjugated 
many  of  the  neighbouring  Oguzian  chiefs,  and  this 
new  accession  of  territory  rendered  him  power'fid 
enough  to  attack  the  Byzantines  with  success.  In 
July  1299,  he  forced  the  passes  of  Olympus,  and  took 
possession  of  the  whole  territory  of  Nicaea,  with 
the  sole  exception  of  the  town  of  that  name,  which 
resisted  his  efforts  for  five  years  longer.  In  1301,  he 
defeated  the  Emperor  Andronicus  II.  at  Baphaeon  ; 
in  1307,  he  incorporated  the  province  of  Marmara  in 
his  dominions  ;  and  continued  till  his  death,  in  1326, 
steadily  to  pursue  his  plans  of  conquest.  '  Othman,' 
says  Knolles,  '  was  wise,  politic,  valiant,  and  fortu- 
nate, but  full  of  dissimulation,  and  ambitious  above 
measure ;  not  rash  in  his  attempts,  and  yet  very 
resolute  j  to  all  men  he  was  bountiful  and  liberal, 
especially  to  his  men  of  war  and  to  the  poor.  Of  a 
poor  lordship,  he  left  a  great  kingdom  (Phrygia, 
Bithynia,  and  the  neighbouring  districts),  having 
subdued  a  great  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  is  worthily 
accounted  the  first  founder  of  the  Turks'  great 
kingdom  and  empire.'  0.  assumed  the  title  of 
sultan  (though  this  is  denied  by  many  historians) 
on  the  extinction  of  the  Iconium  sultanate  in 
1299,  held  his  court  at  Kara-Hissar,  and  struck 
money  in  his  own  name.  From  him  are  derived 
the  terms  Ottomans,  Othomans,  and  Osmanli  or 
Osmanlu,  which  are  employed  as  synonymous  with 
Turks.     See  Ottoman  Empire. 

O'THO,  Marcus  Salvius,  Roman  emperor,  was 
descended  of  an  ancient  Etruscan  family,  and  was 
born  32  a.  d.      He  was  a  favourite  companion  of 


Nero,  who  appointed  Mm  governor  of  Ltwitnnia,  in 
which  office  he  acquitted  himself  creditably.  <  >n 
the  revolt  of  Galba  against  Nero,  O.  joined  himself 
to  the  former;  but  being  disappointed  in  his  hope 
of  being  proclaimed  Galba'a  snocoasor,  he  inarched 
at  the  head  of  a  small  band  of  soldiers  to  the 
forum,  where  he  was  proclaimed  emperor,  and 
Galba  was  slain,  69  a.  i>.  o.  was  recognised  as 
emperor  over  all  the  Roman  possessions,  with  the 
exception  of  Germany,  where  a  large  army  was 
stationed  under  Vitelline  The  first  few  weeks  of 
his  reign  were  marked  by  an  indulgence  towards  his 
personal  enemies,  and  a  devotion  to  business,  which, 
though  at  total  variance  with  his  usual  habits, 
exeited  in  the  minds  of  his  subjects  the  most 
favourable  hopes.  But  the  tide  of  rebellion  raised 
in  Germany  by  Valens  and  Csecina  during  the  reign 
of  Galba  had  by  this  time  gathered  strength,  and 
these  commanders  having  prevailed  upon  Vitelline, 
who  had  become  a  mere  good-humoured  glutton, 
to  join  his  forces  to  theirs,  the  combined  army 
poured  into  Italy.  0.  fortunately  possessed  several 
able  generals,  who  repeatedly  defeated  the  rebels ; 
but  the  prudence  of  some  among  them  in  restraining 
the  enthusiasm  of  their  troops,  who  wished  further 
to  follow  up  their  victories,  was  unfortunately 
considered  as  cowardice  or  treason,  and  produced  dis- 
sensions in  O.'s  camp.  This  state  of  matters  becom- 
ing known  to  the  generals  of  Vitellius,  encouraged 
them  to  unite  their  armies,  and  fall  upon  the  forces 
of  Otho.  An  obstinate  engagement  took  place  near 
the  junction  of  the  Adda  and  the  Po,  in  which  the 
army  of  0.  was  completely  routed,  and  the  relics 
of  it  went  over  on  the  following  day  to  the  side  of 
the  victor.  0.,  though  by  no  means  reduced  to 
extremity,  resolved  to  make  no  further  resistance  ; 
settled  his  affairs  with  the  utmost  deliberation ;  and 
then  stabbed  himself,  on  the  15th  of  April  69  a.d. 

OTHO  I.,  or  the  Great,  son  of  the  Emperor 
Henry  I.  of  Germany,  was  born  in  912,  and  after 
having  been  early  recognised  as  his  successor,  was, 
on  the  death  of  his  father  in  936,  formally  crowned 
king  of  the  Germans.  His  reign  was  one  succession 
of  eventful  and  generally  triumphant  wars,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  brought  many  turbulent  tribes 
under  subjection,  acquired  and  maintained  almost 
supreme  power  in  Italy,  where  he  imposed  laws 
with  equal  success  on  the  kings  of  Lombardy  and 
the  popes  at  Borne,  consolidated  the  disjointed 
power  of  the  Geiman  emperors,  and  established 
Christianity  at  many  different  points  in  the  Scandi- 
navian and  Slavonic  lands,  which  lay  beyond  the 
circuit  of  his  own  jurisdiction.  His  earliest  achieve- 
ment was  a  successful  war  against  the  Bohemian 
Duke  Boleslas,  whom  he  reduced  to  subjection,  and 
forcibly  converted  to  Christianity ;  next,  the  Dukes 
of  Bavaria  and  Franconia  were  compelled  to  succumb 
to  his  power ;  the  former  paying  the  penalty  of  his 
opposition  to  0.  by  defeat  and  death  in  battle,  and 
the  latter  by  the  confiscation  of  his  territories, 
which,  together  with  the  other  lapsed  aud  recovered 
fiefs  of  the  empire,  wrere  bestowed  on  near  and 
devoted  relatives  of  the  conqueror.  After  subduing 
the  Slavi  of  the  Oder  and  Spree,  for  whose  Christian 
regeneration  he  founded  the  bishoprics  of  Havelburg 
and  Brandenburg,  driving  the  Danes  beyond  the 
Eyder,  compelling  their  defeated  king  to  return  to 
the  Christian  faith  and  do  homage  to  himself ;  and 
after  founding,  at  the  suggestion  of  his  mother's 
former  chaplain,  Adeldag,  the  bishoprics  of  Aarhuus, 
Ribe,  and  Slesvig,  which  he  decreed  were  for  ever  to 
be  free  from  all  burdens  and  imposts,  he  turned  his 
attention  to  the  affairs  of  Italy.  Here  he  presented 
himself  as  the  champion  of  the  beautiful  Adelheid,  the 
widow  of  the  murdered  King  Lothaire;  and  haring 
defeated  her  importunate  suitor,  Berengar  II.  (q.  t.), 

113 


OTHO  II.— OTHO  III. 


married  Tier,  and  assumed  supreme  power  over  the 
north  of  Italy  in  951.  The  wars  to  which  this  measure 
gave  rise,  obliged  0.  frequently  to  cross  the  Alps ; 
but  at  length,  after  a  great  victory  gained  over  the 
Huns  in  955,  and  the  defeat  and  capture  of  Beren^ar, 
0.  was  acknowledged  king  of  Italy  by  a  diet  held 
at  Milan ;  and  after  being  crowned  with  the  iron 
crown  of  Lombardy,  was,  in  9G2,  recognised  by  Pope 
John  XII.  as  the  successor  of  Charlemagne,  and 
crowned  Emperor  of  the  West  at  Rome.  O.  lost  no 
time  in  asserting  his  imperial  prerogatives ;  and 
having  called  a  council,  effected  the  deposition  of 
John,  whose  licentiousness  had  become  a  burden  to 
Italy  and  a  scandal  to  Christeudom,  and  caused  Leo 
VIII.  to  be  elected  in  his  place.  Fresh  wars  were 
the  result  of  this  step.  Popes  and  anti-popes  dis- 
tracted the  peace  of  Rome ;  but  through  all  these 
disorders,  O.  maintained  the  supremacy  which  he 
claimed  as  Emperor  of  the  West,  in  regard  to  the 
election  of  popes  and  the  temporal  concerns  of  the 
Roman  territories.  His  later  years  were  disturbed 
by  domestic  differences  ;  for  his  elder  son,  Ludolph, 
and  hi3  sou-in-law,  Konrad  of  Lorraine,  having 
risen  in  rebellion  against  him,  through  jealousy  of 
his  younger  son  and  intended  successor,  Otho, 
the  empire  was  distracted  by  civil  war.  Although 
the  war  terminated  in  the  defeat  of  the  rebels,  and 
the  recognition  of  young  Otho  as  king  of  the 
Germans,  and  his  coronation  at  Rome,  in  967,  as 
joint-emperor  with  his  father,  O.'s  favourite  scheme 
of  uniting  the  richly-dowried  Greek  princess,  Theo- 
phania,  with  the  young  priuce,  met  with  such 
contempt  from  the  Greek  emperor,  that  his  outraged 
pride  soon  again  plunged  him  into  war.  His  inroads 
into  Apulia  and  Calabria,  however,  proved  con- 
vincing arguments  in  favour  of  the  marriage,  and 
Theophania  became  the  wife  of  young  Otho,  with 
Calabria  and  Apulia  for  her  dowry.  0.  died  at 
Minsleben,  in  Thuringia,  in  973,  and  was  buried  at 
Magdeburg,  leaving  the  character  of  a  great  and 
just  ruler,  who  had  extended  the  limits  of  the 
empire,  and  restored  the  prestige  of  the  imperial 
power  more  nearly  to  the  stand  which  it  occupied 
under  Charlemagne  than  any  other  emperor.  He 
created  the  duchy  of  Carinthia,  and  the  mark- 
grafdoms  of  East  and  North  Saxony  ;  appointed 
counts-palatine ;  founded  cities  and  bishoprics ;  and 
did  good  service  to  the  empire,  in  reorganising  the 
shaken  foundations  of  its  power  in  Europe.  See 
Vehse's  Leben  Kaiser  O.'s  des  Grossen  (Dresd.  1827). 
OTHO  II.,  surnamed  linfus,  '  the  Red,'  son  of 
Otho  I.,  was  born  in  955,  and  succeeded  his 
father  in  973.  For  a  time,  0.  was  content  to  rule 
under  the  regency  of  his  mother,  the  Empress 
Adelheid ;  but  differences  having  arisen  between 
them,  through  the  headstrong  and  ambitions  inclin- 
ations of  the  young  monarch,  his  mother  with- 
drew from  all  share  in  the  administration,  and 
left  him  to  the  exercise  of  his  own  will,  which 
Boon  brought  him  into  collision  with  the  great 
vassals  of  the  crown.  Civil  war  broke  out  under 
the  leadership  of  Henry  II.  of  Bavaria,  who  formed 
a  secret  alliance  against  the  young  emperor 
with  Harald,  king  of  Denmark,  and  Micislav  of 
Poland,  and  for  a  time  fortune  inclined  to  the  side 
of  the  rebels  ;  but  O.'s  astuteness  circumvented 
their  designs,  and  after  defeating  Henry,  and  depriv- 
ing him  of  hi3  duchy,  he  marched  against  the 
Danish  king,  who  had  been  making  successful 
incursions  into  Saxony.  O.'s  first  attack  on  the 
Dannevirke  having  proved  of  no  avail,  he  retired, 
vowing  that  he  would  return  before  another  year, 
and  force  every  Dane  to  forswear  paganism.  0. 
kept  his  promise,  returning  to  the  attack  the  fol- 
lowing year,  when,  according  to  the  old  chroniclers, 
acting  by  the  advice  of  his  ally,  Olaf  Trygvesen  of 
Hi 


Norway,  he  caused  large  quantities  of  trees,  brush* 
wood,  and  stubble  to  be  piled  up  against  the  Danne» 
virke,  and  set  on  tire,  and  this  drove  away  th» 
defenders,  and  destroyed  their  fortifications.  Tho 
defeated  Harold  was  soon  overpowered  by  the 
superior  numbers  of  the  Germans,  and  compelled 
to  receive  baptism,  as  the  badge  of  his  defeat. 
The  next  scene  of  war  was  Lorraine,  which  the 
French  king,  Lothaire,  had  seized  as  a  former 
appanage  of  his  crown  ;  but  here,  after  a  partial 
defeat,  0.  succeeded  in  reasserting  his  power; 
and  not  content  with  this  advantage,  devastated 
Champagne,  pursued  and  captured  Lothaire,  and 
advanced  upon  Paris,  one  of  the  suburbs  of  which  he 
burned.  Scarcely  was  this  war  ended,  when  the  dis- 
turbed condition  of  Italy  called  0.  across  the  Alps. 
His  presence  put  a  stop  to  the  insurrection  at 
Milan  and  Rome,  where  he  re-established  order ;  and 
having  advanced  into  Lower  Italy,  he  defeated  the 
Saracens,  drove  back  the  Greeks,  and  having  re- 
established his  supremacy  in  Apulia  and  Calabria, 
which  he  claimed  in  right  of  his  wife,  Theophania, 
made  himself  master  of  Naples  and  Salerno,  and 
finally  of  Tarentum,  in  982.  The  Greek  emperor, 
alarmed  at  the  successful  ambition  of  0.,  called  the 
Saracens  again  into  Italy,  who  gave  him  battle  with 
overwhelming  numbers.  The  result  was  the  total 
defeat  of  the  emperor,  who  only  escaped  from  the 
hand3  of  the  victors  by  plunging  with  his  horse  into 
the  sea,  and  swimming,  at  the  risk  of  his  life,  to  a 
ship.  Unluckily,  it  was  a  Greek  ship,  and  0.  was 
virtually  a  prisoner ;  but  as  the  vessel  neared 
Rossano,  a  friendly  port,  he  contrived  to  escape  by  a 
cunning  stratagem.  O.  now  hastened  to  Verona, 
where  a  diet  was  held,  which  was  numerously 
attended  by  the  princes  of  Germany  and  Italy,  and 
at  which  his  infant  son,  Otho,  was  recognised  as  his 
successor.  This  diet  is  chiefly  memorable  for  the 
confirmation  by  0.  of  the  franchises  and  privileges 
of  the  republic  of  Venice,  and  the  enactment  of 
many  new  laws,  which  were  added  to  the  celebrated 
Longobard  code.  O.'s  death  at  Rome,  at  the  close 
of  the  same  year,  983,  arrested  the  execution  of  the 
vast  preparations  against  the  Greeks  and  Saracens, 
which  had  been  planned  at  the  diet  of  Verona,  and 
left  the  empire  embroiled  in  wars  and  internal 
disturbances.  See  Giesebrecht's  Jahrbucher  ilea 
Deutschen  lieichs  unter  dcr  Herrsckaft,  Kaiser  O.'a  //. 
(Berl.  1840). 

OTHO  III.,  who  was  only  three  years  old  at  hia 
father's  death,  was  at  once  crowned  king  of  the 
Germans  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  983, from  which  period 
tall  996,  when  he  received  the  imperial  crown  at 
Rome,  the  government  was  administered  with  extra- 
ordinary skill  and  discretion  by  three  female  rela- 
tives of  the  boy -king — viz.,  his  mother,  Theophania; 
his  grandmother,  Adelheid  ;  and  his  aunt,  Matilda, 
Abbess  of  Quedlinhurg,  who,  in  conjunction  with 
the  learned  Willegis,  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  directed 
his  education.  The  princes  of  the  imperial  family 
disputed  the  right  of  these  royal  ladies  to  the 
custody  of  the  young  king  ;  and  Henry  of  Bavaria, 
the  nearest  agnate,  having  seized  the  person  of  O., 
tried  to  usurp  the  supreme  power ;  but  opposed  by 
the  majority  of  the  other  princes  of  the  empire,  he 
was  compelled  to  release  him,  in  consideration  of 
receiving  back  his  forfeited  duchy.  O.  early  shewed 
that  he  had  inherited  the  great  qualities  of  his  fore- 
fathers, and  when  scarcely  fifteen  years  of  age,  at 
the  head  of  his  army,  defeated  the  troops  of  the 
patrician  Crescentius,  the  seif-styled  consul  of  Rome, 
and  thu3  restored  order  in  the  Roman  territories. 
In  996,  he  was  crowned  emperor  by  hi8  relative, 
Gregory  V. ;  and  having  settled  the  affairs  of  Italy, 
returned  to  Germany,  where  he  defeated  the  Slaves, 
who  had  long  carried  on  war  against  the  empire ; 


OTHO  I.— OTLEY. 


and  having  forced  Micislav,  Duke  of  Poland,  to  do 
him  homage,  he  subsequently  raised  the  Polish 
territories  to  the  rank  of  a  kingdom,  in  favour 
of  Micislav's  successor,  Boleslas.  The  renewed 
rebellion  of  Crescentius,  who  drove  Gregory  from 
the  papal  throne,  compelled  O  to  return  to  Italy, 
where  success,  as  usual,  attended  his  measures. 
Cr<:scentius,  who  had  thrown  himself  into  St  Angalo, 
was  seized  and  beheaded,  together  with  twelve  of 
his  chief  adherents  ;  the  anti-pope,  John  XVI.,  im- 
prisoned; Gregory  restored ;  and  on  the  speedy  death 
of  the  latter,  O.'s  old  tutor,  Gherbert,  Archbishop  of 
Ravenna,  raised  to  the  papacy  under  the  title  of 
Sylvester  II.  O.,  elated  with  his  success,  took  up  his 
residence  in  Home,  where  he  organised  the  govern- 
ment, erected  new  buildings,  and  shewed  every  dis- 
j»osition,  notwithstanding  the  ill-concealed  dissatis- 
faction of  the  Romans,  to  convert  their  city  into  the 
capital  of  the  western  empire.  The  uear  approach 
of  the  year  1000,  to  which  so  many  alarming  pro- 
phesies were  then  believed  to  point  as  the  end  of  the 
world,  induced  0.  to  undertake  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
Holy  Land,  where  he  founded  an  archbishopric.  On 
his  return,  after  visiting  Charlemagne's  grave  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  removing  the  consecrated 
cross,  suspended  from  the  emperor's  neck,  he  again 
repaired  to  Rome,  to  consolidate  his  schemes  of 
establishing  a  Roman  empire.  The  insurrection  of 
the  Romans  frustrated  his  plans,  and  escaping  from 
Rome  at  the  risk  of  his  life,  he  withdrew  to 
Ravenna,  to  await  the  arrival  of  powerful  reinforce- 
ments from  Germany ;  but  before  they  had  crossed 
the  Alps,  0.  died  in  1002,  at  the  age  of  22,  appar- 
ently from  poison,  which  was  said  to  have  been 
administered  to  him  by  the  widow  of  Crescentius, 
who,  it  is  said,  had  deliberately  set  herself  to  win 
his  affections  that  she  might  have  an  opportunity  of 
avenging  the  death  of  her  husband  ;  and  with  him  the 
male  branch  of  the  Saxon  imperial  House  became 
extinct.  See  Wilmau's  Ja/irbiicher  dfs  DeutscJten 
Reielis  unter  Kaiser  Otto  III.  (Berl.  1S40). 

OTHO  I.,  second  son  of  Ludwig,  king  of  Bavaria, 
was  born  at  Salzburg,  1st  June  1815,  and  on  the 
erection  of  Greece  into  a  kingdom  in  1832,  was 
appointed  by  the  protecting  powers  king  of  Greece. 
Till  he  attained  his  majority,  the  government  was 
intrusted  to  a  regency,  which  was  unable  to  sup- 
press internal  disorder,  or  counteract  the  diplomatic 
intrigues  of  foreign  powers.  On  assuming  the 
government  in  1835,  O.  transferred  the  court  from 
Nauplia  to  Athens,  and  passed  into  law  several 
important  measures,  which  afforded  the  most  lively 
satisfaction  to  his  subjects.  During  a  visit  to 
Germany  in  1836,  he  married  the  Princess  Amalie 
of  Oldenburg.  A  monetary  crisis,  provoked  partly 
by  false  administrative  measures,  and  partly  by  too 
prompt  demands  for  repayment  on  the  part  of  the 
protecting  powers,  threw  the  affairs  of  Greece  into 
confusion,  and  materially  weakened  the  king's 
popularity.  A  national  reaction  against  the  Ger- 
manising tendencies  of  the  court  followed,  and 
resulted  in  1843  in  a  military  revolution,  which 
was  suppressed.  O.  now  attempted  to  soothe  the 
general  discontent  by  taking  the  oath  to  the  new 
constitution  of  March  30,  1844,  but  his  efforts  were 
only  partially  successful.  Though  the  Bavarian 
ministers  were  dismissed,  the  king  and  his  Greek 
advisers  shewed  the  most  reactionary  tendencies, 
and  attempted  in  various  ways  to  curtail  the 
privileges  which  the  new  constitution  had  conferred 
on  the  people.  The  ecpiivocal  position  in  which  he 
was  placed,  in  1853,  between  the  allied  powers  on 
the  one  hand,  and  his  subjects,  whose  sympathies 
were  strongly  in  favour  of  Russia,  on  the  other,  , 

?reatly  increased  the  difficulties  of    his  situation.  | 
he  occupation    of   the   Piraeus    by   Anglo-French 
322 


troops  enabled  him  to  restrain  the  enthusiasm  of 
his  subjects;  but  after  their  withdrawal  in   I  s."»7,  be 

«raa  obliged  to  adopt  severe  measures  against  the 
frontier  brigands.  Jin  council,  too,  was  composed 
of  men  unable  or  unwilling  to  support  him,  and 

his  position  became  year  by  year  more  and  more 
difficult.  The  strong  pro- Russian  ism  of  the  queen 
rendered  her  for  some  time  a  favourite  ;  but  the 
belief  that  O.'s  absolute  measures  were  due  to  her 
instigation,  turned  the  tide  of  popular  hatred  so 
strongly  against  her,  that  attempts  were  made  on 
her  life.  The  general  discontent  at  last  found  vent  in 
insurrections  at  Nauplia  and  Syrain  1862,  which  were 
soon  suppressed.  A  more  formidable  insurrection 
in  the  districts  of  Missolonghi,  Acarnania,  Elis,  and 
Messenia,  having  for  its  object  the  expulsion  of  the 
reigning  dynasty,  broke  out  in  October  of  the  same 
year,  and  in  a  few  days  extended  to  the  whole  of 
Greece.  0.  and  his  queen  fled  to  Salamis,  from 
which  place  he  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  that 
he  quitted  Greece  to  avoid  the  effusion  of  blood, 
and  a  provisional  government  was  then  established. 
This  government,  in  February  1863,  resigned  its 
executive  power  to  the  National  Assembly,  which 
confirmed  its  acts,  and  decreed  that  Prince  Alfred 
of  England  had  been  duly  elected  king  of  Greece. 
On  the  refusal  of  this  prince  to  accept  the  throne, 
their  choice  fell  on  Prince  William  of  Slesvig. 
Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg,  the  second  son  of 
Christian  IX.,  king  of  Denmark,  who,  under  the 
title  of  George  I.,  kin<j  of  the  Hellenes,  in  October, 
1863,  assumed  the  functions  of  royalty.  Otho  retired 
to  Munich  and  died  in  1867. 

OTI'TIS,  or  inflammation  of  the  tympanic  cavity 
of  the  ear,  may  be  either  acute  or  chronic,  and  it  may 
come  on  during  the  course  of  certain  febrile  affec- 
tions, especially  scarlatina,  or  in  consequence  of  a 
scrofulous,  rheumatic,  or  gouty  constitution  ;  or  it 
may  be  excited  by  direct  causes,  as  exposure  to 
currents  of  cold  air,  violent  syringing  or  probing, 
&c.  The  symptoms  of  the  acute  form  are  sudden 
and  intense  pain  in  the  ear,  increased  by  coughing, 
sneezing,  or  swallowing,  tinnitus  aurium,  or  singing 
or  buzzing  noises  heard  by  the  patient,  and  more 
or  less  deafness.  If  the  disease  goes  on  unchecked, 
suppuration  takes  place,  and  the  membrane  of 
the  tympanum  ulcerates,  and  allows  of  the  discharge 
of  pus,  or  inflammation  of  the  dura  mater  and 
abscesses  in  the  brain  may  be  established.  In  less 
severe  cases  there  is  usually  a  considerable  amount 
of  persistent  damage,  and  an  obstinate  discharge 
of  matter  {otorrhosa)  is  a  frequent  sequence  of  the 
disease. 

The  treatment  of  so  serious  an  affection  must  be 
left  solely  in  the  hands  of  the  medical  practitioner. 

The  symptoms  of  the  chronic  and  less  acute 
varieties  of  otitis  are  unfortunately  so  slight,  that 
they  are  often  neglected,  until  the  patient  iinds 
the  sense  of  hearing  in  one  or  both  ears  almost 
completely  gone.  In  these  mdder  forms  of  otitis,  the 
general  indications  of  treatment  are  to  combat  the 
diathesis  on  which  they  frequently  depend,  and  to 
improve  the  general  health.  Very  small  doses  of 
mercury  continued  for  a  considerable  time  (such 
as  one  grain  of  gray  powder  night  and  morning), 
and  small  blisters  occasionally  applied  to  the  nape 
of  the  neck  or  to  the  mastoid  process,  are  often 
of  service  in  very  chronic  cases.  If  there  is  any 
discharge,  the  ear  should  be  gently  syringed  once  or 
twice  a  day  with  warm  water,  after  which  a  tepid 
solution  of  sidphate  of  zinc  (one  grain  to  an  ounce 
of  water)  may  be  dropped  into  the  meatus,  and 
allowed  to  remain  there  two  or  three  minutes. 

O'TLEY,  a  small  market  town  of  England,  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  right  bank  of 

145 


OTORRHCE  A—  OTTER. 


the  Wharfe,  29  miles  west-south-west  of  York.  Its 
parish  church,  built  in  1 5t)7,  has  a  plain  Norman 
arch  over  the  north  door.  Extensive  cattle  ami 
grain  markets  are  held  here.  There  is  a  worsted, 
a  paper,  and  a  flour  mill  in  the  town.  Pop.  (1871) 
5855. 

OTORRHCE'A  signifies  a  purulent  or  muco- 
purulent discharge  from  the  external  ear.  It  may- 
be due  to  various  causes,  of  which  the  most  frequent 
is  catarrhal  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of 
the  meatus,  and  the  nfctft  in  frequency  is  Otitis 
(q.  v.)  in  its  various  forms.  If  the  discharge  is  very 
fetid,  a  weak  solution  of  chloride  of  lime,  or  of 
Condy's  Disinfectant  Fluid,  may  be  used,  in  place  of 
the  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc  recommended  in 
article  Otitis  ;  and  in  obstinate  cases  of  catarrhal 
inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane,  the  discharge 
may  often  be  checked  by  pencilling  the  whole 
interior  of  the  meatus  with  a  solution  of  five  grains 
of  nitrate  of  silver  in  an  ounce  of  water. 

OTRA'NTO,  Terra  di,  the  extreme  south- 
eastern province  of  Italy,  forming  the  heel  of  the 
Italian  boot,  is  bounded  on  the  north-west  by  the 
provinces  of  Bari  and  Basilicata,  and  surrounded  on 
all  other  sides  by  the  sea.  Area,  3293  square  miles ; 
pop.  (1871)493.263.  It  occupies  the  ancient  Iapygian 
or  Messapian  peninsula,  and  is  102  miles  in  length, 
and  from  25  to  35  miles  in  breadth.  Three  parts  of 
its  surface  are  covered  with  hills,  offsets  from  the 
Apennines  of  Basilicata.  All  the  rivers  are  short, 
many  of  them  being  lost  in  the  marshes  of  the 
interior;  but  abundant  springs  and  heavy  dews 
render  the  soil  surprisingly  fertile.  Good  pasture- 
lands  and  dense  forests  occur.  The  climate  is 
pleasant  and  healthy,  except  along  the  shores,  both 
on  the  east  and  west  coasts,  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  marshes,  which  in  summer  generate  malaria. 
An  abundance  of  the  best  wine,  with  corn  and  olive- 
od,  are  produced;  tobacco  (the  best  grown  in  Italy), 
cotton,  and  figs,  almonds,  oranges,  &c,  are  also 
produced.     The  capital  is  Lecce  (q.  v.). 

OTRANTO  (the  ancient  Hydrunhim),  a  small 
town  on  the  south-east  coast  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  24  miles  south-east  of  Lecce.  During 
the  latter  period  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  all 
through  the  middle  ages,  it  was  the  chief  port  of 
Italy  on  the  Adriatic,  whence  passengers  took  ship 
for  Greece — having  in  this  respect  supplanted  the 
famous  Brundusium  of  earlier  times.  In  1480,  it 
was  taken  by  the  Turks,  and  at  that  time  it  was 
a  flourishing  city  of  20,000  inhabitants  ;  but  it  has 
long  been  in  a  decaying  condition,  principally  on 
account  of  malaria,  O.  possesses  a  castle  and  a 
cathedral.  Its  harbour  is  unsafe.  In  clear  weather, 
the  coast  of  Albania  is  visible  from  Otranto.  Pop. 
about  2000. 

O'TTAWA,  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  British 
North  America,  rises  in  lat.  48°  30'  N.,  long.  76° 
W.,  in  the  watershed  on  the  opposite  side  of  which 
rise  the  St  Maurice  and  Saguenay.  After  a  course 
of  above  600  miles,  it  falls  into  the  St  Lawrence  by 
two  mouths,  which  form  the  island  of  Montreal ; 
and  the  entire  region,  drained  by  it  and  its  tribu- 
taries, measures  about  80,000  square  miles  (Geol. 
Rep.  for  1S45— 1846,  p.  13).  During  its  course,  it 
widens  into  numerous  lakes  of  considerable  size, 
and  is  fed  by  many  important  tributaries,  such  as 
the  Mattawa,  Mississippi,  Madawasca,  and  Rideau 
on  the  right,  the  Gatineau  and  the  Rivieres  du 
Moine  and  du  Lievre  on  the  left  side.  These, 
with  the  0.  itself,  form  the  means  of  transit  for 
perhaps  the  largest  lumber-trade  in  the  world, 
while  the  clearances  of  the  lumberer  have  opened 
the  country  for  several  thriving  agricultural  settle- 
ments. The  navigation  has  been  greatly  improved, 
146 


especially  for  timber,  by  the  construction  of  dams 
and  slides,  to  facilitate  its  passage  ove\  falls  and 
rapids.  The  0.  is  already  connected  with  Lake 
Ontario  at  Kingston  by  the  Rideau  Canal ;  and 
there  is  every  prospect  of  its  becoming,  before 
many  years,  the  great  highway  from  the  north- 
western states  to  the  ocean  by  being  connected 
with  the  Georgian  Bay  in  Lake  Huron  through 
the  French  River,  Lake  Nipissing,  and  the  Mat- 
tawa. This  great  engineering  achievement,  for 
which  capital  will  undoubtedly  be  soon  forthcoming, 
would  place  the  western  lake-port3  by  water  700 
miles  nearer  to  Liverpool  by  Montreal  than  by  New 
York  through  the  Erie  Canal,  and  would  save 
nearly  a  week  in  time,  while  it  would  lessen 
considerably  insurance  and  freight  charges. — The  O. 
possesses  one  of  the  few  literary  associations  of 
Canada.  At  St  Ann's,  a  few  miles  above  its  mouth, 
the  house  is  pointed  out  where  Moore  wrote  the 
Canadian  Boat-song — 

'  Soon  as  the  woods  on  shore  look  dim, 
We  '11  sing  at  St  Ann's  our  parting  hymn. 

Ottawa's  tide,  this  trembling  moon 
Shall  see  us  afloat  on  thy  waters  soon.' 

OTTAWA,  the  capital  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
is  situated  87  miles  above  the  confluence  of  the  river 
Ottawa  with  the  St  Lawrence,  126  miles  from  Mon- 
treal, 95  from  Kingston,  and  450  from  New  York. 
( )riginally  called  Bytown,  after  Colonel  By,  who,  in 
1827,  was  commissioned  to  construct  the  Rideau 
Canal,  it  was  incorporated  as  a  city,  and  received 
the  name  which  it  now  bears  in  1854.  At  the  west 
end  of  the  city,  the  Ottawa  rushes  over  the  mag- 
nificent cataract  known  as  the  Chaudiere  Falls;  and 
at  the  north-east  end  there  are  other  two  cataracts, 
over  which  the  Rideau  tumbles  into  the  Ottawa. 
The  scenery  around  (J.  also  is  scarcely  surpassed  by 
any  in  Canada.  The  immense  water-power  at  the 
city  is  made  use  of  in  several  saw-mills,  which  give 
O.  its  principal  trade,  and  issue  almost  incalculable 
quantities  of  sawn  timber.  A  suspension-bridge 
bangs  over  the  Chaudiere  Falls.  The  city  is  in  com- 
munication by  steamer  with  Montreal ;  by  the  Rideau 
Canal  with  Lake  Ontario  at  Kingston;  and  with  the 
Grand  Trunk  Railway  by  a  branch  line  from  Prescott. 
O.  contains  the  government  buildings — consisting  of 
the  parliament  buildings,  500  feet  in  length  ;  two  de- 
partmental buildings,  375  feet  long  and  containing 
300  rooms;  and  the  library,  a  circular  building  with 
a  dome  90  feet  high — the  whole  covering  nearly  4  acres 
and  costing  about  $4,000,000.  The  city  returns  two 
members  to  the  House  of  Commons  and  two  to  the 
Provincial  Legislature.     Pop.  (1871),  21,545. 

OTTER  (Lutra),  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of  the 
Weasel  family  (Mustelidce),  differing  widely  from 
the  rest  of  the  family  in  their  aquatic  habits,  and  in 
a  conformation  adapted  to  these  habits,  and  in  some 
respects  approaching  to  that  of  seals.  The  body, 
which  is  long  and  flexible,  as  in  the  other  Mhste- 
lidce,  is  considerably  flattened;  the  head  is  broad 
and  flat;  the  eyes  are  small,  and  furnished  with  J 
7iictitatin(j  membrane ;  the  ears  are  very  small ;  th\ 
legs  are  short  and  powerful;  the  feet,  which  have 
each  five  toes,  are  completely  webbed;  the  claws 
are  not  retractile;  the  tail  is  stout  and  muscular  at 
its  base,  long,  tapering,  and  horizontally  flattened; 
the  dentition  is  very  similar  to  that  of  weasels;  six 
incisors  and  two  canine  teeth  in  each  jaw,  with  fivi 
molars  on  each  side  in  the  upper,  and  five  or  siN 
in  the  lower  jaw ;  the  teeth  very  strong,  and  the 
tubercles  of  the  molars  very  pointed,  an  evident 
adaptation  for  seizing  and  holding  slippery  prey. 
The  tongue  is  rough,  but  not  so  much  so  as  in  the 
weasels.  The  fur  is  very  smooth,  and  consists  of 
two  kinds  of  hair — an  inner  fur  very  dense  and  soft. 


OTTER— OTTOMAN  EMPIRE. 


Intermixed  with  longer,  coarser,  ami  glossy  hair. 
The  species  are  numerous,  ami  are  found  both  in 
warm  ami  cold  climates.-  The  Common  0.  (L. 
Vulgaris)  is  a  well-known  British  animal,  rarer  than 
it  once  was  in  most  districts,  but  still  found  in 
almost  every  part  of  the  British  Islands,  and  com- 
mon also  throughout  the  continent  of  Europe,  and 
in  some  parts  of  Asia.  It  often  attains  a  weight  of 
20  to  2t  lhs.  Its  length  is  fully  2  feet,  exclusive  of 
the  tail,  which  is  about  Hi  inches  long.  The  colour 
is  a  bright  rich  brown  on  the  upper  parts  and  the 
outside  of  the  legs,  being  the  colour  of  the  tips  of 
the  long  hairs,  which  are  gray  at  the  base  ;  the  tips 
of  the  hairs  in  the  soft  inner  fur  are  also  brown,  the 
base  whitish-gray;  the  throat,  checks,  breast,  belly, 
and  inner  parts  of  the  legs  are  brownish-gray,  some- 
times whitish,  and  individuals  sometimes,  but  rarely, 
occur  with  whitish  spots  over  the  whole  body  ;  the 
whiskers  are  very  thick  and  strong ;  the  eyes  are 
black.  The  0.  frequents  rivers  and  lakes,  inha- 
biting some  hole  in  their  banks,  generally  choosing 
one  which  already  exists,  and  seldom,  if  ever, 
burrowing  for  itself.  It  also  inhabits  the  sea-shore 
in  many  places,  and  swims  to  a  considerable  distance 
from  the  shore  in  pursuit  of  prey.  Its  movements 
in  the  water  are  extremely  graceful ;  it  swims  with 
great  rapidity  in  a  nearly  horizontal  position,  and 
turns  and  dives  with  wonderful  agility.  Its  prey 
consists  chiefly  of  fish,  and,  like  the  other  Must?- 
lidce,  it  seems  to  take  pleasure  in  pursuing  and 
killing  far  more  than  it  is  able  to  eat ;  and  in 
this  case  it  daintily  feeds  on  the  choicest  part, 
beginning  behind  the  head  of  the  fish,  and  leav- 
ing the  head  and  often  much  of  the  tail  part. 
The  0.,  however,  when  fish  cannot  readily  be 
obtained,  satisfies  the  cravings  of  hunger  with 
other  food,   even   snails  and   worms,  and   attacks 


Otter  {Lutra  vulgaris). 

omall  animals  of  any  kind,  sometimes  making 
depredations  in  places  far  from  any  considerable 
stream.  The  0.  produces  from  two  to  five  young 
ones  at  a  birth.  The  flesh  of  the  0.  has  a  rank 
fishy  taste,  on  which  account,  perhaps,  it  is  some- 
times used  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  as  fish, 
by  those  whose  rules  forbid  them  the  use  of  flesh. 
— 0.  hunting  has  long  been  a  favourite  sport  in 
Britain,  although  now  chiefly  confined  to  Wales 
and  Scotland.  Hounds  of  a  particular  breed — 0. 
Hounds— are  preferred  for  it. — The  0.  defends 
itself  with  great  vigour  against  assailants.  The  0. 
can  be  easily  domesticated,  and  trained  to  catch 
fish  for  its  master.  In  India,  tame  otters — pro- 
bably, however,  of  another  species  to  be  afterwards 
noticed — are  not  unfrequently  used  both  for  catching 
fish,  which  they  bring  ashore  in  their  teeth,  and 
for  driving  shoals  of  fish  into  nets. — The  fur  of  the 
0.  is  in  some  request,  but  more  on  the  continent  of 
Europe  than  in  Britain. — The  American  0.  or 
Cijcada  0.  (L.  Canadensis)  is  very  like  the  Common 


0.,  but  considerably  larger.  The  tail  is  also  shorter, 
and  the  fur  of  the  belly  is  almost  of  the  same  shining 
brown  colour  with  that  of  the  back.  This  species  is 
plentiful  in  the  northern  parts  of  North  America.  Its 
skin  is  a  considerable  article  of  commerce,  and  after 
being  imported  into  England,  is  often  exported  again 

to  the  continent  of   Europe.      It  IS  usually  taken   by 

a  steel-trap,  placed  at  the  mouth  of  its  burrow.  Its 
habits  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  ( ).  (,f  Europe. 

—The  Indian  <>.  (/,.  Wair),  has  a  deep  chestnut- 
coloured  fur,  and  yellowish-white  spots  above  the 
eyes. — The  Brazilian  0.  (L.  Braziliensis)  is  said 
to  be  gregarious.— Somewhat  different  from  the 
true  otters  is  the  Uka  0.  or  K.ALAJI  (L.  marina, 
or  Enhydra  lutris),  an  animal  twice  the  size  of  the 
Common  0.,  a  native  of  Behring's  Straits  and  the 
neighbouring  regions,  frequenting  sea-washed  rocks. 
There  are,  at  least  in  the  adidt,  only  four  incisors 
in  the  lower  jaw,  and  the  ears  are  set  lower  in  the 
head  than  in  the  true  otters,  below,  not  above, 
the  eyes.  The  tail  is  also  much  shorter.  The 
molar  teeth  are  broad,  and  well  adapted  for  breaking 
the  shells  of  molluscs  and  crustaceans.  The  hind- 
feet  have  a  membrane  skirting  the  outside  of  the 
exterior  toes.  The  sea  0.  is  much  valued  for  its 
fur,  the  general  hue  of  which  is  a  rich  black,  tinged 
with  brown  above,  and  passing  into  lighter  colours 
below.  The  head  is  sometimes  almost  white.  The 
skins  of  sea  otters  were  formerly  in  very  great 
request  in  China,  so  that  a  price  of  from  £35  to 
£50  could  be  obtained  for  each ;  but  the  attention 
of  European  traders  and  hunters  having  been 
directed  to  them  —  in  consequence  chiefly  of  a 
passage  in  Cook's  Voyages— they  were  carried  to 
China  iu  such  numbers  as  greatly  to  reduce  the 
price. 

O'TTERBURN,  Battle  of.    See  Chevy  Chase. 

OTTO  or  ATTAR  OF  ROSES.  See  Per- 
fumes and  Rose. 

OTTOMAN  EMPIRE,  or  'Empire  of  the 
Osmanlis,'  comprehends  all  the  countries  which  are 
more  or  less  under  the  authority  of  the  Turkish 
sultan,  and  includes,  besides  Turkey  in  Asia,  and 
that  part  of  Turkey  in  Europe  which  is  under  his 
immediate  sovereignty,  the  vassal  principalities  of 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  Servia,  and  Montenegro, 
in  Europe ;  Egypt  with  Nubia,  Tripoli,  aud  Tunis, 
in  Africa  ;  and  a  part  of  Arabia,  including  the  holy 
cities  of  Mecca  and  Medina,  in  Asia.  The  special 
description,  topography,  history,  &c,  of  these 
countries  will  be  found  under  their  own  heads,  and 
this  article  will  consist  solely  of  a  brief  sketch  of 
the  origin,  growth,  and  present  state  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire. 

The  Ottomans,  or  Osmanlis,  to  whom  the  generic 
epithet  of  Turks  is  by  common  usage  now  confined, 
are  the  descendants  of  the  Oguzian  Turks,  a  tribe 
of  the  great  Turkish  nation,  which  in  the  13th  c. 
inhabited  the  steppes  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  The 
tide  of  Mongol  invasion  which  was  then  setting  in 
from  the  north-east,  swept  the  Oguzes  before  it, 
and  they,  to  the  number  of  50,000,  under  their  chief, 
Suliman,  fled  westward  to  the  mountainous  region 
of  Armenia.  After  the  chiefs  death,  the  majority 
of  the  tribe  became  scattered  over  Mesopotamia; 
but  a  few  thousands  under  Orthoguel,  his  youngest 
son,  marched  westward  to  aid  the  Seljuk  sultan  of 
Konieh  against  the  Khaurezmians  and  Mongols, 
and  received  from  the  grateful  monarch  a  grant  of 
land  in  Phrygia. — His  son,  Othman  (q.  v.)  (1289— 
1326),  laid  the  foundation  of  the  independent  power 
of  the  Turks;  and  Othman's  son  and  successor, 
Orkhan  (1326 — 1359)  continued  the  same  aggres- 
sive policy,  and  gained  a  footing  in  Europe  by  the 
taking    of    Gallipoli,    Koiridicastron,    and     other 

147 


OTTOMAN  EMPIRE. 


fortresses  on  the  coast.    The  Greeks,  with  the  usual 
contempt  of  civilisation  for  barbarism,  made  light 
of  these   losses,  saying  that  the  Turks  had  only 
taken  from  them  a  '  hog's  sty'  and  a  '  pottle  of  wine,' 
in  allusion  to  the  magazines  and  cellars  built  by 
Justinian  at  Gallipoli ;  but,  as  the  historian  Knolles 
quaintly  remarks,  '  by  taking  of  such  hogsties  and 
pottles  of  wine,  the  Turks   had   gone  so  far  into 
Thracia,  that  Amurath,  a  few  years  later,  placed  his 
royal  seat  at  Adrianople.'  Sultan  Orkhan,  perceiving 
the  advantage  of  possessing  a  force  trained  exclu- 
sively for  war,  organised  the  body  of  troops  known 
as  Janizaries  (q.  v.),  and  to  these  his  successor  added 
the   Spahis    (q.  v.)    and  the   Zanis.— Amurath   I. 
(1359—1390),    the    successor    of    Orkhan,    rapidly 
reduced  the  Byzantine  empire  within  the  limits  of 
Constantinople  and  some  neighbouring  districts  in 
Thrace  and  Bulgaria.     A  formidable  confederacy  of 
the   Slavonian   tribes   of   the    Upper  Danube   was 
formed  against  him,  and,  supported  by  multitudes 
of  warriors  from  Hungary  and  Italy,  they  advanced 
into  Servia  to  give  him  battle;  but  their  army, 
amounting,  it  is  said,  to  500,000  men,  was  defeated 
with   dreadful   slaughter   at   Kossova   (1390);   and 
though  the  sultan  was  assassinated  on  the  eve  of 
the  battle,  his  son,  Bajazet  I.  (q.  v.)  (1390-1402), 
followed  up  this  victory  by  ravaging  Servia  and 
Wallachia.      Moldavia    was    also    overrun,   and    a 
second   crusading   army,  under  the  king  of  Hun- 
gary, totally  routed  at  Nicopolis  (1396)  ;  but  the 
defeat  and  capture  of  the  sultan  by  Timur  (q.  v.), 
gave  Constantinople  a  respite  for  half  a  century, 
by  raising  up  numerous  claimants  for  the  Turkish 
throne ;   and    it  was  not   till  1413  that   Bajazet's 
youngest  son,  Mohammed  I.   (1413 — 1422),  estab- 
Hshed  his  claim  to  the  sceptre.     A  war  which  broke 
out  with  the  Venetian  republic  at  this  time  pro- 
duced the  most   disastrous    consequences    to    the 
mercantile  and  maritime    interests   of   the  Turks, 
and  internal  disorders   prevented   any  aggressions 
on  their  neighbours.— Amurath  II.  (1422—1450), 
a  prince  of  considerable  ability,  completed  the  con- 
quest of  the  Greek  empire  by  reducing  Macedonia 
and  Greece  Proper ;  and  finding  that  the  Hungarians 
had  concluded  a  secret  treaty  of  offence  and  de- 
fence with  the  Turkish  sultan  of  Caramania  against 
him,  he  attacked  the  former,  but  was  defeated  by 
Hunyady  (q.  v.),  and  compelled  to  retreat.      Dis- 
heartened at  his  ill  success,  he  resigned  the  throne  ; 
but  on  receiving  news  of  a  formidable  invasion  by 
the  army  of  the  papal  crusade,  resumed  the  direc- 
tion of  affairs,  and  totally  defeated  the  invaders, 
with  whom  were  Hunyady  (q.  v.)  and  Scanderbeg 
(q.  v.),  at  Varna   (1444).— Mohammed   II.    (q.  v.) 
(1450 — 1481),  the  sworn  foe  of  Christianity,  greatly 
enlarged  the  Turkish  territories.     It  was  he  who 
stormed  Constantinople  in  1453,  and  destroyed  the 
last  relic  of  the  empire  of  the  Caesars. — His  son, 
Bajazet  II.  (1481 — 1512),  extended  his  dominions 
to   the   present  limits   of    the   Turkish   empire  in 
Asia    and    Europe,   including,    however,    also    the 
country  to  the  north  of  the  Black  Sea,  as  far  east 
as  the  mouth  of  the  Don,  portions  of  Dalmatia,  and 
Otianto   in   Italy.      Bajazet  was  the  first  to  feel 
the    evil   effects   of    the    military   organisation    of 
Sultan  Orkhan,  but  all  his  attempts  to  get  rid  of 
his    formidable    soldiery   were   unsuccessful.      He 
attempted  the  invasion  of  Egypt,  but  was  totally 
defeated  by  the  Mameluke  sultan  at  Arbela  (1493). 
— His  successors,  Seltm  I.  (q.  v.)  (1512 — 1520),  and 
Solyman  L  (q.  v.),  (1520— 156G),  raised  the  O.  E.  to 
the  height  of  its   power   and   splendour.      During 
their  reigns,  no  ship  belonging  to  a  nation  hostile 
to  the  Turks  dared  then  navigate  the  Mediterranean, 
bo  completely  did  their  fleets  command  that  sea. 
— Selim  II.  (1566 — 1574),  a  pacific  prince,  put  an 


end  to  a  war  with  Austria,  w  hich  had  been  com« 
menced  in  the  previous  >^gn,  by  a  peace  in  which 
it  was  stipulated  that  the  Emperor  Maximilian  II. 
should  pay  a  tribute  of  30,000  ducats  annually  foi 
the  possession  of  Hungary,  and  that  each  nation 
should   retain    its    conquests.      During  his    reign, 
occurred  the  first  collision  of  the  Turks  with  the 
Russians.      It    had    occurred    to    Selim,   that    the 
connection  of  the  Don  and  Volga  by  a  canal  woidd, 
by  allowing  the  passage  of  ships  from  the  Black 
Sea   into  the  Caspian,  be  a  valuable  aid  to  both 
military  and  commercial  enterprise,  and  accordingly 
he   sent  5000  workmen  to  cut  the  canal,  and  an 
army  of  80,000  men  to  aid  and  protect  them.     But, 
unluckily,  the  possession  of  Astrakhan  formed  part 
of  the  programme,  and   the   attack  of   this  town 
brought  down  on  the  Turks  the  vengeance  of  the 
Russians,  a  people  till  then  unknown  in  Southern 
Europe,  and  the  projected  canal-scheme  was  nipped 
in  the  bud.      The  rest  of  thi3  sultan's  reign  was 
occupied  in  petty   wars   with  Venice,  Spain,  and 
his    rebellious    feudatory   of   Moldavia. — His    son, 
Amurath   III.    (1574 — 1595),   such  was  then  the 
prestige  of  the  Turks,  dictated  to  the  Poles  that 
they  should  choose  as  their  king,  Stephen  Batory, 
Waivode  of  Transylvania ;  and  received  the  first 
English  embassy  to  Turkey  in  1589,  the  object  of 
the  embassy  being  to  conclude  an  alliance  against 
Philip  II.  of  Spain.     To  this  the  sultan  agreed ;  but 
the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  Armada  soon  after 
rendered  his  interference   unnecessary.      After  an 
exhausting,    though    successful  war    with    Persia, 
succeeded  a  long  contest  with   Austria,  in  which 
the    Turks    at    first    obtained  the    most  brilliant 
success,  penetrating  to  within  40  miles  of  Vienna, 
but  afterwards  suffered  such  terrible  reverses,  that 
they  were  compelled  to  evacuate  all  Hungary  and 
Transylvania  (hitherto  a  feudatory),  and  were  only 
saved  from  destruction  by  the  Poles,  who  entered 
Moldavia,  and  drove  out  the  Transylvanians  and 
Hungarians,   thus   affording  the   Turks   an   oppor- 
tunity of  rallying,  and   even  recovering  some  of 
their  losses.     The  latter  part  of  this  war  happened 
during  the  reign  of  Mohammed  III.  (1595 — 1604), 
and  afforded  unmistakable  symptoms  of  the  decline 
of  Turkish  prowess ;  and  a  rebellion  of  the  Pasha 
of  Caramania,  in  Asia,  which  was  quelled  not  as 
a    Mohammed   IL    or    a    Bajazet   I.    would    have 
quelled  it,  but  by  yielding  to  the  pasha's  demands, 
afforded  an  equally  convincing  proof  of  the  growing 
weakness  of  the  central  administration,  and  set  an 
example  to  all  ambitious  subjects  in  future.    During 
the  reigns  of  Achmet  I.   (1604—1617),  Mustafa 
(1617—1617, 1622—1623),  Othman  II.  (1617—1622), 
and    Amurath     IV.     (1623— 164U),    Turkey    was 
convulsed   by  internal  dissensions,   nevertheless,  a 
successful  war  was   waged  with    Austria   for  the 
possession  of  Hungary  ;  but  this  success  was  more 
than    counterbalanced    in    the   East,   where   Shah 
Abbas  the  Great  conquered  Mesopotamia,  Kurdistan, 
and  Armenia ;  and  in  the  north,  where  the  Polea 
took  possession  of  some  of  the  frontier  fortresses. 
While  Amurath  was  recovering  his  lost  provinces 
in  the  East,  the  Khan  of  the  Crimea,  countenanced 
by  the  Poles  and  Russians,  threw  off  his  allegiance. 
Mustafa,  the  grand  vizier,  a  man  of  great  ability  and 
integrity,  continued  to  direct  the  helm  of  govern- 
ment under  Ibrahim  (1640 — 1648);  took  from  the 
Poles  their  conquests ;  and  in  a  war  with  the  Vene- 
tians (1645),  obtained  Candia   and  almost  all  the 
Venetian   strongholds   in  the  iEgean   Sea,  though 
with    the    loss    of     some    towns    in    Dalmatia. — 
Mohammed  IV.  (1648 — 1687)  commenced  his  reign 
under   the    most    unfavourable    auspices ;    he   waa 
only  seven  years  of  age,  and  the  whole  power  was 
vested  in  the  Janizaries  and  their  partisans,  who 


OTTOMAN  EMPIRE. 


used  it  to  accomplish  their  own  ends ;  but  luckily 
for  Turkey,  an  individual  of  obscure  birth,  named 
Mohammed  Kbprili,  supposed  to  be  of  French 
descent,  was,  when  over  seventy  years  of  age, 
appointed  vizier ;  and  the  extraordinary  talents 
of  this  man  proved  to  be  the  salvation  of  Turkey 
at  this  critical  juncture.  He  was  succeeded  (16G1) 
in  office  by  his  son,  Achmet,  who,  to  equal  ability, 
added  the  fiery  and  thorough-going  energy  of 
manhood  in  its  prime  ;  and  under  his  guidance  the 
central  administration  recovered  its  control  over  even 
the  most  distant  provinces ;  a  formidable  war  with 
Germany,  though  unsuccessfully  carried  on  (1663), 
was  concluded  by  a  peace  advantageous  to  the  Turks ; 
Crete  was  wholly  subdued,  and  Podolia  wrested 
from  the  Poles,  together  with  the  strong  fortress  of 
Kaminiec  ;  though,  shortly  afterwards,  much  of  this 
last  acquisition  was  reconquered  by  John  Sobieski 
(q.  v.).  Achmet's  successor  as  vizier  was  Kara 
Mustafa,  a  man  of  little  ability,  who,  however,  over- 
ran the  Austrian  territories  at  the  head  of  a  large 
army  and  laid  siege  to  Vienna;  but  the  siege 
was  raised,  and  his  army  defeated,  by  a  combined 
German  and  Polish  army  under  the  Duke  Charles 
of  Lorraine,  and  John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland. 
The  Austrians  followed  up  this  victory  by  repos- 
sessing themselves  of  Hungary,  inflicting  upon  the 
Turks  a  bloody  defeat  at  Mohacz  (16S7) ;  but  their 
extravagant  demaud3  prevented  the  sultan  from 
concluding  a  treaty,  and  the  fortunate  appoint- 
ment of  a  third  Kbprili  as  grand  vizier  by 
Solyman  II.  (1687 — 1691),  was  the  means  of  restor- 
ing glory  and  fortune  to  the  Turkish  arms. — The 
reigns  of  Achmet  II.  (1691 — 1695),  and  Mustafa 
IL  (1695 — 1702),  were  occupied  with  wars  against 
Austria;  but  with  the  death  of  Kbprili  (1691)  at 
Salankement  in  the  moment  of  victory,  fortune 
deserted  the  Turks,  and  the  war  was  closed  by  the 
peace  of  Carlowitz  (q.  v.)  (1699),  which  for  ever  put 
an  end  to  Turkish  domination  in  Hungary. — 
Achmet  III.  (1702 — 1730)  wisely  avoided  involving 
himself  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession;  but 
the  intrigues  of  Charles  XII.  (q.  v.)  of  Sweden, 
while  residing  at  Bender,  forced  him  into  a  war 
with  Russia  ;  a  step  which  was  immediately  followed 
by  an  invasion  of  Moldavia  by  the  Czar  Peter,  at 
the  head  of  80,000  men.  The  Czar,  however,  relying 
on  the  aid  of  the  Woivode  of  Moldavia  to  supply 
him  with  provisions,  found  himself  in  a  dangerous 
strait  with  the  Pruth  behind  him,  an  intrenched 
army  of  150,000  Turks  in  his  front,  and  40,000  irre- 
gular Tartar  cavalry  harassing  his  flanks ;  while  the 
promised  provisions  had  been  seized  by  the  Molda- 
vians, who  preferred  to  supply  the  Turks  with  them. 
From  this  dilemma,  he  was  rescued  by  the  genius  of 
his  queen,  afterwards  Catharine  I.,  and  the  folly  of 
the  grand  vizier,  who  allowed  him  to  retire  on 
extremely  easy  terms — terms  which  the  Czar,  who 
was  no  observer  of  treaties,  did  not  attempt  to  fulfil. 
The  recovery  of  the  Morea  from  the  Venetians,  and 
the  loss  of  Belgrade  and  parts  of  Servia  and  Walachia, 
which  were,  however,  recovered  during  the  subse- 
quent reign  of  Mahmud  L  (1730 — 1754),  and  the 
commencement  of  a  long  war  with  Persia  (see  Nadir 
Shah),  were  the  other  prominent  occurrences  of 
Achmet's  reign.  In  1736,  the  career  of  Russian 
aggression  commenced  with  the  seizing  of  Azof, 
Oczakof,  and  other  important  fortresses ;  but  a 
scheme  for  the  partition  of  Turkey  between  Austria 
and  Russia,  was  foiled  by  the  continued  series  of 
disgraceful  defeats  inflicted  upon  the  Austrian 
armies  by  the  Turks ;  the  Russians,  on  the  other 
hand,  were  uniformly  successful ;  but  the  Czarina 
becoming  very  desirous  of  peace,  resigned  her  con- 
quests in  Moldavia,  and  concluded  a  treaty  at 
Belgrade.    Among  the  benefits  conferred  by  Sultan 


Mahmud  on  his  subjects,  not  the  least  was  the- 
introduction  of  the  art  of  printing,  a^d  the  great 
encouragement  otherwise  given  to  literature  and 
science.— His  successor,  Otiiman  III.  (1754—1757), 
soon  gave  place  to  Mustafa  III.  (1757—1774), 
under  whom,  or  rather  under  whose  vizier,  Raghib 
Kbprili,  the  ablest  statesman,  after  Achmet,  that 
the  Turks  ever  possessed,  the  empire  enjoyed 
profound  tranquillity;  but  after  his  death,  the 
Russians,  in  violation  of  the  treaty  of  Belgrade, 
invaded  Moldavia,  and  took  Choczim  (1769),  their 
fleet,  in  the  following  year,  destroying  the  Turkish 
navy  off  Chios.  Bender  next  fell,  and  the  country 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Danube,  whilst  the  province* 
in  Asia  Minor  were  also  attacked ;  and,  to  crown 
these  misfortunes,  Egypt  revolted. — The  war  with 
Russia  continued  during  the  succeeding  reign  of 
Abdul-Hamid  (1774—1789);  the  fortresses  on  the 
Danube  fell  into  the  hands  of  Romanzof,  Suwarof, 
and  Kamiuski,  the  Russian  generals  ;  and  the 
main  army  of  the  Turks  was  totally  defeated 
at  Shumla.  The  campaign  was  ended  10th  July 
1774,  by  the  celebrated  treaty  of  Kutshouk-Kain- 
ardji.*  The  ink  with  which  this  document  was 
written  was  scarcely  dried  before  its  provisions  were 
infringed  by  the  Czarina,  who,  after  carrying  on 
intrigues  with  the  Crim-Tartars,  took  possession  of 
the  Crimea  and  the  whole  country  eastward  to  the 
Caspian,  and  compelled  the  sultan  to  agree,  in  1784, 
to  this  arrangement.  These  successes  were  accom- 
panied by  proceedings  extremely  insidting  to  the 
Turks  (such  as  the  placing  on  the  gates  of  Kherson 
the  inscription,  'This  is  the  way  to  Byzantium'),  and 
calculated  to  provoke,  in  the  highest  degree,  a  proud 
people,  already  deeply  injured  by  unprovoked  aggres- 
sions, and  the  perfidious  violation  of  solemn  engage- 
ments. The  sultan  was  compelled,  by  his  indignant 
subjects,  to  take  up  arms  in  1787 ;  and  this  was 
followed,  in  1788,  by  another  foolish  attempt  on  the 
part  of  Austria  to  arrange  with  Russia  a  partition 
of  Turkey ;  but,  as  before,  the  Austrian  forces  were 
completely  routed,  and  she  was  compelled  to  agree  to 
a  treaty  at  Sistow.  The  Russians,  however,  with  their 
usual  success,  had  overrun  the  northern  provinces, 
taking  all  the  principal  fortresses,  and  captured 
or  destroyed  the  Turkish  fleet. — The  accession  of 
Selim  III.  (q.v.)  (1789—1807)  was  inaugurated  by 
renewed  vigour  in  the  prosecution  of  the  war  ;  but 
the  Austrians  had  again  joined  the  Russians,  and 
both  armies  poured  down  with  desolating  fury  upon 
the  devoted  Turks.  Belgrade  surrendered  to  the 
Austrians,  while  the  Russians  took  Bucharest,  Bender, 
Akerman,  and  Ismail  (see  Suwarof)  ;  but  the  critical 
aspect  of  affairs  in  Western  Europe  made  it  advisable 
for  Russia  to  terminate  the  war,  and  a  treaty  of 
peace  was  accordingly  signed  at  Jassy,  9th  January 
1792.  By  this  treaty  the  provisions  of  that  of  Kam- 
ardji  were  confirmed;  the  Dniester  was  made  the 
boundary-line,  the  cession  of  the  Crimea  and  the 
Kuban  was  confirmed,  and  Turkey  made  to  pay 
12,000,000  piastres  (£109,000)  for  the  expenses  of  the 
war.     Belgrade  was  restored  to  the  sultan.     Up  to 

*  In  this  treaty,  the  third  article  stipulates  for  the 
entire  independence  of  the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea, 
Kuban,  &c,  and  neither  Russia  nor  Turkey  is  to 
interfere  in  their  domestic,  political,  civil,  and  internal 
affairs,  under  any  pretext  whatever.  The  16th  article 
restores  Bessarabia,  Moldavia,  and  Wallachia,  with  the 
fortress  of  Bender,  on  certain  conditions,  some  of  which 
are,  that  the  Christians  are  not  to  be  obstructed  in  the 
free  exercise  of  their  religion ;  that,  when  occasion  may 
require,  the  Russian  minister  at  Constantinople  may 
remonstrate  in  their  favour ;  and  the  Porte  promises  to 
bsten  to  such  remonstrances  with  all  the  attention 
which  is  due  to  friendly  and  respected  powers.  The  2,'kl 
article  restores  Georgia  and  Mingrelia  to  Turkey. 


OTWAY— OUDE. 


this  period,  the  Turks  had  lagged  far  behind  in  the 
march  of  civilisation;  but  now,  when  tranquility  was 
established,  numberless  reforms  were  projected  for 
the  better  administration  of  the  empire.  The  people 
were,  however,  hardly  prepared  for  so  many  changes, 
and  the  sultan's  projects  cost  him  his  throne  and 
life.  The  occupation  of  Egypt  by  the  French  brought 
on  a  war  between  them  and  the  Turks,  in  which 
the  latter,  by  the  aid  of  the  British,  were  successful 
in  regaining  their  lost  territories.  In  revenge  for 
the  defeat  of  his  Egyptian  expedition,  Napoleon 
contrived  to  entrap  the  sultan  into  a  war  with  liussia 
and  Britain,  which  was  confined  to  a  struggle  in 
Egypt,  in  which  the  British  were  worsted. — After 
the  ephemeral  reign  of  Mustafa  III.  (1807—1808), 
the  ahle  and  energetic  M.AHMUD  II.  (q.  v.)  (1S08 — 
1839)  ascended  the  throne;  and  though  his  domin- 
ions were  curtailed  by  the  loss  of  Greece,  which 
established  its  independence,  and  of  the  country 
between  the  Dniester  and  the  Pruth,  which,  by 
the  treaty  of  Bucharest  in  1812,  was  surrendered 
to  Eussia,  the  thorough  reformation  he  effected 
in  all  departments  of  the  administration  checked 
the  decline  of  the  0.  E.,  and  produced  a  healthy 
reaction,  which  has  been  attended  with  the  most 
favourable  results.  Egypt,  during  his  reign,  threw 
off  the  authority  of  the  sultan  (see  Mehemet  Ali, 
Ibrahim  Pasha),  and  is  now  merely  a  nominal 
dependency. — His  son,  Abdul-Medjid  (1S39— 1S61), 
a  mild  and  generous  prince,  continued  the  reforms 
commenced  in  the  previous  reign  ;  but  the  Czar, 
thinking,  from  the  losses  of  territory  which  the 
Turks  had  lately  sustained,  and  regardless  of  the 
changes  which,  the  last  thirty  years  had  wrought, 
that  the  dissolution  of  the  0.  E.  was  at  hand,  con- 
stantly interfered  with  its  internal  administration  ; 
and  by  a  strained  interpretation  of  former  treaties 
(none  of  which,  it  may  be  remarked,  Eussia  herself 
had  ever  faithfully  observed,  although  she  stringently 
enforced  their  observance  on  the  part  of  the  Porte), 
tried  to  wring  from  the  sultan  some  acknowledg- 
ment of  a  right  of  interference  with  the  internal 
affairs  of  the  country.  It  was  an  attempt  of  this 
sort  to  obtain  the  exclusive  protectorate  of  the 
members  of  the  Greek  Church  in  Turkey,  that 
brought  on  the  'Crimean  War'  of  1853 — 1S55,  in 
which,  for  the  first  time  after  a  long  lapse  of  years, 
the  Turks  were  victorious  over  the  Russians.  (See 
Omar  Pasha  and  other  articles.)  _  By  the  peace 
of  Paris,  Turkey  regained  a  poi'tion  of  territory 
north  of  the  Danube,  between  Moldavia  and  the 
Black  Sea,  and  extending  along  the  coast  to  within 
23  miles  of  the  mouth  of  the  Dniester;  and  was, 
to  some  extent,  emancipated  from  the  subservience 
to  Eussia  into  which  she  had  been  forced  by  pre- 
vious treaties. — In  1861,  Abdul- Aziz  succeeded  to 
the  throne,  and  gives  promise  of  an  energetic  and 
liberal  administration.  In  1S62,  Montenegro  was 
reduced  to  the  condition  of  a  dependent  principality. 
OTWAY,  Thomas,  an  English  dramatist  of  the 
17th  c,  was  the  son  of  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  was  born  March  3,  1651,  at  Trotton, 
near  Medhurst,  Sussex.  He  was  educated  at 
Winchester  and  at  Christchurch  College,  Oxford, 
but  left  the  university  without  taking  a  degree, 
and  proceeded  to  London  in  search  of  fortune  in 
1671.  He  appeared  on  the  stage  in  Sir  William 
Davenant's  company  as  the  ting  in  Mrs  Behn's 
Forced  Marriage;  but  his  failure  was  signal,  and  he 
forsook  the  profession.  For  some  time  afterwards,  he 
led  a  gay  and  dissolute  life,  but  subsequently  applied 
himself  to  dramatic  composition.  In  1675,  Alcibiades, 
his  first  tragedy,  was  printed  ;  and  in  the  following 
year  he  produced  Don  Carlos,  a  play  which  was 
extremely  popular,  and,  according  to  Downes 
(Jtoscius  Antilicanus),   'got  more   money    than   any 


preceding  modern  tragedy.'  Its  popularity  waa 
due,  however,  as  much  to  the  patronage  ot  Lord 
Eochester  as  to  its  intrinsic  merits.  His  first 
comedy,  Friendship  in  Fashion,  appeared  in  1678, 
and,  being  sufficiently  immoral  to  please  the  taste 
of  the  age,  met  with  general  appreciation.  la 
1677,  0.  having  received  a  comet's  commission 
from  the  Earl  of  Plymouth,  went  with  his  regi- 
ment to  Flanders.  The  regiment,  however,  was 
disbanded  in  1678,  and  0.  resuming  his  former 
occupation,  produced  the  tragedy  of  Cuius  Marias 
in  16S0  ;  and  in  the  same  year  The  Orphan,  a  play 
which  met  with  an  extraordinary,  and,  in  some 
respects,  a  deserved  measure  of  success.  In  16S1, 
The  Soldier  of  Fortune,  and  in  the  following  year, 
the  finest  of  all  his  plays,  Venice  Preserved,  were 
produced.  From  this  time  till  his  death,  the  poet 
had  much  to  endure  from  poverty  and  neglect. 
Debts  accumulating  upon  him,  he  retired  to  an 
obscure  public-house  on  Tower  Hill,  for  the  purpose 
of  avoiding  his  creditors,  and  here,  at  the  premature 
age  of  34,  he  died,  April  14,  1685.  The  immediate 
cause  of  his  death  was  a  fever  incurred  by  a  hurried 
and  fatiguing  journey  to  Dover  in  pursuit  of  the 
assassin  of  one  of  his  intimate  friends,  who  had  been 
murdered  in  the  street.  Another  account  of  hia 
death  is  that,  after  a  long  fast,  he  was  choked  by 
eating  a  morsel  of  bread ;  but  this  account  rests 
upon  no  sufficient  authority. 

Although  0.  achieved  a  brilliant  reputation  during 
his  lifetime,  although  he  is  described  by  Dry  den  as 
possessing  a  power  of  moving  the  passions  which 
he  himself  did  not  possess,  and  later  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  as  being  Shakspeare's  equal,  if  not  his  supe- 
rior, in  depicting  the  power  of  affection ;  yet  his 
plots  are  artificial,  and  his  language  is  without 
fancy,  melody,  or  polish.  The  best  edition  of  O.'a 
works  was  published  in  1813. 

OUDE,  or  OUDH,  a  province  of  British  India, 
separated  on  the  north  from  Nepaul  by  the  lower 
ranges  of  the  Himalaya,  whence  it  gradually  slopes 
to  the  Ganges,  which  forms  its  boundary  on  the 
south  and  south-west.  Lat.  25°  34'— 29°  6'  N., 
long.  79°  45'— 83°  ll'  E.  Extreme  length  from 
north-west  to  south-east,  270  miles;  breadth,  160; 
area,  27,890  square  miles,  or  about  twice  that  of 
Belgium.  Population  (1871)  estimated  at  11,220.000, 
or  about  400  to  the  square  mile.  O.  is  one  grpa* 
plain,  the  slope  of  which  from  north-west  to  south- 
east indicates  also  the  direction  of  the  principal 
rivers.  These  are  the  Gumti,  the  Ghagra  (Ghogra), 
and  the  Rapti,  which  swarm  with  alligators.  The 
northern  part,  on  the  edge  of  the  Himalayas,  is  wV 
very  well  known.  It  forms  a  portion  of  the  Terai, 
a  vast  unhealthy  tract  stretching  along  the  borders 
of  Nepaul,  and  covered  with  impassable  forests.  The 
climate  of  ().  is  cool  and  pleasant  from  November  to 
March;  during  the  next  four  months  it  is  hot  and 
sultry,  after  which  follows  the  long  rainy  season, 
but  in  general  it  is  considered  the  healthiest  along 
the  whole  valley  of  the  Ganges.  The  soil  is  light, 
and  except  small  nodules  of  chalk  and  oolite,  called 
kankars,  there  is  hardly  a  loose  stone  to  be  seen.  ( >. 
was  formerly  more  copiously  watered  than  it  is  now, 
the  clearing  of  the  jungles  having  greatly  decreased 
the  moisture  of  the  land.  The  chief  crops  are  wheat, 
barley,  gram,  masure,  mustard,  rice  (of  the  finest 
quality),  millet,  maize,  joar,  bajra,  various  kinds  of 
pulse  and  oil-seeds,  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  indigo, 
hemp,  and  cotton.  The  manufacturing  industry  of 
O.  is  not  important;  soda,  saltpetre,  and  salt  are 
the  only  articles  of  which  more  is  produced  than  is 
requisite  for  home-consumption.  Gunpowder,  and 
all  kinds  of  military  weapons,  guns,  swords,  spears, 
shields,  and  bows  of  bamboo,  or  Lucknow  steel,  are, 
however,   also  made,   besides  some  woollen    £Qoda, 


OUDE-OUDINOT. 


paper,  &c.  Bridges  are  few,  if  any,  and  the  roads 
in  general  bad.  The  principal  is  the  famous  military 
road  from  Cawnpore  to  Lucknow,  which  runs  iu  a 
north -easterly  direction. 

The  people  are  of  a  decidedly  war'ike  disposition. 
The  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  are  Hindus,  though  the 
dominant  race  for  centuries  has  been  Mohammedan. 
The  Brahmans  are  the  most  numerous  class,  hut 
there  are  29  different  Rajput  tribes.  It  is  these 
two  classes  that  mainly  supplied  the  famous 
(or  infamous)  sepoys  of  the  Bengal  army.  The 
language  spoken  is  Hindustani. 

The  most  characteristic  feature  in  the  social 
economy  of  0.  is  its  vUlage-system,  for  a  description 
of  which  see  India.  The  ryots,  or  cultivators  of  the 
Boil,  cling  to  the  land  which  their  fathers  have  tilled 
forages,  with  extraordinary  affection,  and  thoroughly 
believe  that  they  have  a  right  of  property  in  it ; 
and,  in  general,  we  believe  they  are  actually  the 
owners  of  their  farms,  but  in  many  cases  they 
have  been  dispossessed  by  a  class  of  tax-gatherers 
(resembling  the  Roman  publicanl)  called  talukdars, 
who  farmed  from  the  Mogul,  and  afterwards  from 
the  king  of  0.,  the  revenues  of  a  collection  of 
villages  called  a  taluka/t,  and  by  their  extortions  so 
impoverished  the  ryots,  or  peasant-proprietors,  that 
the  latter  were  often  forced  to  execute  deeds  trans- 
ferring their  property  to  the  talukdars.  Many  of 
the  more  spirited  would  not  submit  to  become 
tenants,  and  taking  to  the  jungles,  waged  war  on 
the  new  occupants  of  their  ancestral  lauds,  until 
gradually  they  sank  into  dacoits,  or  professional 
robbers.  The  extortions  of  the  talukdars  continued 
till  the  annexation  of  the  country  in  1856,  and  the 
country  suffered  severely  from  the  retaliatory  raids 
of  the  dispossessed  ryots.  The  East  India  Company 
reinstated  the  ryots  in  their  property,  where  the 
talukdars  could  not  shew  undisputed  possession  for 
12  years— a  proceeding  which  gave  great  offence  to 
the  latter,  who,  in  consequence,  assumed  a  coldly 
hostile  attitude  to  the  British  during  the  great 
mutiny  of  the  following  year. 

The  principal  towns  are  Lucknow  (q.  v.),  Fyzabad, 
Oude,  or  Ayodha,  Roy  Bareily,  and  Shahabad. 

0.  is  believed,  by  Sanscrit  scholars,  to  be  the 
ancient  Kosala,  the  oldest  seat  of  civilisation  in 
India.  The  country  was  conquered  by  a  Moham- 
medan army  in  1195,  and  made  a  province  of  the 
Mogul  empire.  In  1753,  the  vizier  of  0.,  Saffdar 
Jung,  rebelled  against  his  imperial  master,  Ahmed 
Shah,  and  forced  the  latter  to  make  the  governor- 
ship hereditary  in  his  family.  His  son,  Sujah-ud- 
Dowlah,  became  entirely  independent,  and  founded 
a  dynasty  which  ruled  the  country,  generally  in 
a  most  deplorable  manner,  until,  in  the  interests 
of  the  wretched  inhabitants,  the  East  India  Com- 
pany was  forced  to  adopt  the  extreme  measure  of 
annexation,  February  7,  1856.  The  necessity  for 
this  high-handed  but  most  beneficent  act  will 
be  better  understood  if  we  read  the  statistics 
of  crime  in  0.  during  the  last  years  of  its  inde- 
pendence :  one  item  will  suffice — from  1S48  to 
1854,  there  were,  on  an  average,  no  fewer  than  78 
villages  burned  and  plundered  every  year,  while 
murders,  robberies,  abductions,  and  extortions  were 
everyday  occurrences.  A  feeble  king,  a  blackguard 
soldiery,  and  a  lawless  peasantry  had  brought  about 
a  most  helpless  and  ruinous  anarchy.  When  the 
mutiny  of  1857  broke  out,  0.  became  one  of  the  great 
centres  of  rebellion.  Upon  this,  the  confiscation  of 
all  the  estates  of  the  talukdars  was  proclaimed  by 
Lord  Canning  ;  but  when  the  country  was  subdued 
6y  force  of  British  arms,  the  estates  of  all  such  as 
laid  down  their  arms  and  swore  fealty  to  the  British 
government  were  restored.  The  forts  of  the  petty 
chiefs,  however,  were  dismantled,  and  the  inhabitants 


disarmed.  The  province  in  now  administered  by  a 
chief  commissioner.  The  chief  feature  of  the  pi  ent 
condition  of  affairs  in  <  >.  is  the  preservation  in  (heir 

integrity  of  the  estates  of  the  talukdars.    The  a int 

of  government  revenue  paid  by  the  talukdars  is 
£656,495  a  year. 

OUDE,  or  AWAHII,  one  of  the  principal  towns 
of  the  province  Oude  (q.  v.),  stands  amid  nana  on  a 
hilly  site  on  the.  right  hank  of  the  Sarayti  or  I 
River,  80  miles  east  of  Lucknow.  It  is  also  called 
Hanumangd' dhi,  on  account  of  a  temple  erected 
there  in  honour  of  lhinmiiat  (q.  v.),  ihe  fabled 
monkey-ally  of  Rama,  an  incarnation  oi  the  god 
Vish'nu.  The  name  ( ).  is  a  corruption  of  the  Sanskrit 
Ayodhya  (from  a,  not,  and  yodhya,  conquerable, 
hence    'the   invincible'    city);    hut   the   ancient    city 

of  that   name   was  situated   opposite  the    i lern 

0.,  where  its  ruins  may  still  be  seen.  Ayodhyft 
was  one  of  the  oldest  seats  of  civilisation  in  India; 
it  was  the  residence  of  the  solar  dynasty,  or  one  of 
the  two  oldest  dynasties  of  India,  deriving  its  descent 
from  the  sun,  but  it  obtained  special  renown  through 
Rama,  the  son  of  Das'aratha,  a  king  of  that  dynasty. 
Its  great  beauty  and  immense  size  are  dwelt  upon 
iu  several  of  the  Puranas  and  modern  poems,  hut 
more  especially  in  the  R&mdyan'a  (q.  v.),  the  first 
and  last  books  of  which  contain  a  description  of  it. 
According  to  some  Puranas  (q.  v.),  Ayodhya  was 
one  of  the  seven  sacred  cities,  the  living  at  which 
was  supposed  to  free  a  man  from  all  sin,  and  the 
dying  at  which,  to  secure  eternal  bliss.  It  was  also 
called  Saketa,  Kos'ala,  and  Uttara-kos'ala.  See 
Goldstiicker's  Sanskrit  Dictionary,  under  Ayodhya. 

OUDENA'RDE,  a  town  in  the  province  of  East 
Flanders,  Belgium,  is  situated  chiefly  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Scheldt,  16  miles  south-by-east  from 
Ghent.  It  has  a  population  of  8000,  and  possesses 
a  fine  Gothic  council-house,  important  manufactures 
of  linen  and  cotton  fabrics,  and  many  extensive 
tanneries.  The  town  was  taken  by  th*1  French, 
aided  by  an  English  force,  in  1658  ;  it  was  again 
besieged  in  1674^  by  the  stadtholder,  William  (III. 
of  England)  of  Orange  ;  and  in  1706,  it  was  taken 
by  Marlborough.  An  attempt  made  by  the  French 
to  retake  it,  brought  on  the  famous  battle  of 
Oudenarde,  one  of  Marlborough's  most  celebrated 
victories,  which  was  gained,  on  the  11th  July  1708, 
with  the  aid  of  Prince  Eugene,  over  a  French  army 
under  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  Marshal  Villars. 
After  this  battle,  the  French  king  made  offers  of 
peace,  which  were  not  accepted. 

OUDINOT,  Charles  Nicolas,  Duke  of  Reggio, 
and  Marshal  of  France,  was  born  at  Bar-le-Due,  in 
the  department  of  Meuse,  France,  25th  April  1767. 
At  the  age  of  17,  he  entered  the  army,  but  returned 
home  after  three  years'  service.  Having  distinguished 
himself  in  1790  by  suppressing  a  popular  insurrection 
in  his  native  district,  he  was,  after  some  volunteer 
service,  November  1793,  raised  to  the  rank  of  chief 
of  brigade,  in  the  fourth  regiment  of  the  line,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  various  actions  witb  the 
Prussians  and  Austriaus.  He  was  wounded  and 
taken  prisoner  before  Mannheim,  by  the  Austriaus, 
but  was  soon  exchanged,  and  served  in  the  armies  of 
the  Rhine  under  Moreau,  and  in  that  of  Switzerland 
under  Massena.  He  was  promoted  to  be  general  of 
division  (12th  April  1799),  and  for  a  daring  capture 
of  a  battery  at  Pozzola,  was  presented  by  the  First 
Consul  with  a  sabre  of  honour  and  the  cannon  which 
he  had  taken.  In  1805,  he  received  the  Grand 
Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  and  about  the  same 
time  received  the  command  of  ten  battalions  of  the 
reserve,  afterwards  known  as  the  '  grenadiers 
Oudinot.'  At  the  head  of  this  corps,  he  did  good 
service  in  the  Austrian  campaign.     He  was  present 

151 


OUISTITI— OUTLAWRY. 


at  Aiisterlitz  and  Jena,  and  gained  the  battle  of 
Ostrohnka  (16th  February  1807),  for  which  he  was 
rewarded  with  the  title  of  Count,  and  a  large  sum  of 
money.  He  greatly  contributed  to  the  success  of  the 
French  at  Friedland,  and  was  presented  by  Napo- 
leon to  the  Czar  Alexander  as  the  '  Bayard  of  the 
French  army,  the  knight  sans  peur  et  sans  reproclie? 
He  sustained  his  now  brilliant  reputation  in  the 
second  Austrian  campaign  of  1809,  and  on  the  12th 
of  July  was  created  Marshal  of  France,  and  on  15th 
of  August,  Duke  of  Reggio.  In  1810,  he  was  charged 
with  the  occupation  of  Holland,  and  by  his  unswerv- 
ing probity  and  attractive  personal  qualities,  drew 
the  esteem  of  all  classes.  He  was  engaged  in  the 
disastrous  Russian  campaign,  and  subsequently  took 
part  in  the  various  battles  of  1813  between  the 
French  and  the  Russians  and  Austriaus.  He  was 
one  of  the  last  to  abandon  Napoleon,  but  he  did 
bo  for  ever,  and  spent  the  period  known  as  the 
•  Hundred  Days'  on  his  own  estates.  At  the  second 
restoration  he  became  a  minister  of  state,  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  royal  guard  and  of  the  national  guard, 
and  was  created  a  peer  of  France,  Grand  Cross 
of  St  Louis,  &c.  In  1823,  he  commanded  the  first 
division  of  the  army  of  Spain,  and  was  for  some 
time  governor  of  Madrid.  After  the  revolution  of 
July  1830,  0.  retired  to  his  estates,  and  only  at  rare 
intervals  presented  himself  in  the  Chamber  of  Peers. 
He  became  Grand  Chancellor  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour  in  May  1839,  succeeded  Marshal  Moncey  as 
governor  of  the  Invalides  in  October  1842,  and  died 
at  Paris  13th  September  1 S47.  A  statue  was  erected 
in  his  honour  at  Bar,  29th  September  1850. — His 
son,  Charles  Nicolas- Victor  Oudinot,  Duke  of 
Reggio  (born  3d  November  1791),  was  a  general  in 
the  French  army.  He  first  distinguished  himself 
in  Algeria,  and  in  the  Revolution  of  1848 — having 
previously  attained  celebrity  as  a  deputy  (1842 — 
1846)  by  his  admirable  talent  for  dealing  with  ques- 
tions affecting  the  comfort  and  discipline  of  the  sol- 
diery— he  was  chosen  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
of  the  Alps.  In  April,  1849,  be  was  appointed  general 
of  the  French  expedition  against  Rome,  and  forced 
the  city  to  surrender  unconditionally  on  the  1st  of 
July,  in  spite  of  the  heroic  resistance  of  the  republican 
triumvirs — Garibaldi,  Mazzini,  and  Saffi.  He  was, 
however,  not  a  Napoleonist,  and  at  the  coup  d'etat,  2d 
December,  1851,  shared  the  fate  of  every  eminent 
general  who  would  not  violate  his  oath  to  obey  the 
constitution — i.  e.,  he  was  arrested  and  imprisoned. 
After  some  days  he  was  set  at  liberty,  anil  lived  in 
retirement  until  1863,  when  he  died.  O.  wrote 
several  hooks  on  military  matters. 

OUISTITI.    See  Marmoset. 

OUNCE.  The  Latin  uncia  (derived  by  Varro 
from  unus)  was  the  name  of  the  twelfth  part  of  the 
as  or  libra  (pound),  and  also  was  applied  to  the 
twelfth  part  of  any  magnitude,  whether  of  length, 
eurface,  or  capacity.  Hence  inch,  the  twelfth  part 
of  a  foot.  The  modern  ounce  is  a  division  of  the 
pound- weight.     See  Pound. 

OUNCE  (Felis  Uncia,  or  Leopardus  Uncia),  a 
large  feline  animal,  nearly  resembling  the  leopard, 
but  having  much  rougher  and  longer  hair,  a  longer 
and  much  more  bushy  tail ;  the  general  colour  is 
also  paler,  the  rosette-like  spots  are  less  sharply 
denned,  and  there  is  a  black  spot  behind  the  ears. 
Little  is  known  of  the  O.  ;  it  is  described  by 
Buffon,  but  naturalists  were  for  some  time  generally 
inclined  to  regard  it  as  identical  with  the  leopard, 
and  its  name  has  been  transferred  in  South  America 
to  the  Jaguar.  It  is  a  nati-re  of  Asia,  and  probably 
ui  mountainous  districts. 

OU'RARI.     See  Curabl 

OURATEPB.     See  Uratepe. 

152 


OU'RO  PRE'TO,  a  city  of  Brazil,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Minas  Geraes,  stands  among  barren 
mountains,  at  an  elevation  of  4000  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  200  miles  north-north-west  of  Rio  Janeiro. 
It  contains  the  governor's  residence  and  a  college, 
and  consists  mainly  of  narrow  and  irregular  streets. 
In  the  vicinity  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  gold 
mines  in  the  province,  which  has  been  worked  by 
an  English  mining  company  for  upwards  of  20  years. 
A  good  trade  in  coffee,  &c.  is  carried  on  with  Rio 
Janeiro,  but  is  retarded  by  the  want  of  good  roads. 
The  journey  from  O.  P.  to  the  capital  of  the  empire 
is  performed  by  horses  and  mules  only,  aud  ordi- 
narily requires  15  days.     Pop.  about  12,000. 

OUSE,  called  also,  for  the  sake  of  distinction, 
the  Northern  or  Yorkshire  Ouse,  a  river  of 
England,  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Swale 
and  the  Ure  in  the  immediate  viciuity  of  the  village 
of  Boroughbridge,  and  flows  south-east  past  York, 
Selby,  and  Goole.  About  eight  miles  below  the  last 
town,  it  joins  the  Trent,  and  forms  the  estuary  of  the 
Humber.  The  length  of  its  course  from  Borough- 
bridge  is  60  miles,  for  the  last  45  of  which  (from  the 
city  of  York)  it  is  navigable  for  large  vessels.  Its 
principal  affluents  are  the  Wharf  and  the  Aire 
from  the  west,  and  the  Derwent  from  the  north- 
east. The  basin  of  the  O.,  or  the  Vale  of  York, 
commences  from  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
county  near  the  river  Tees,  from  whose  basin  it  is 
separated  by  a  low  ridge  of  hills,  and  extends  south- 
ward, including  almost  the  whole  of  the  county. 
See  Yorkshire. 

OUSE,  Great,  a  river  of  England,  rises  close  to 
the  town  of  Brackley,  in  the  south  of  Northampton- 
shire, and  flows  north-east  through  the  counties  of 
Buckingham,  Bedford,  Huntingdon,  Cambridge,  and 
Norfolk,  and  falls  into  the  Wash  2^  miles  below 
King's  Lynn.  It  is  160  miles  in  entire  length,  and 
is  navigable  for  about  50  miles.  It  receives  from 
the  east  and  south  the  Ivel,  Cam,  Lark,  and  Little 
Ouse. 

OU'TCROP,  a  term  applied  in  Geology  to  the 
edge  of  an  inclined  bed  at  the  place  where  it  rises 
to  the  surface.  The  line  of  the  outcrop  is  called 
the  strike,  which  is  always  at  right  angles  to  the 
dip. 

OUTER  HOUSE.     See  Court  of  Session. 

OUTFIT  ALLOWANCE,  in  the  British  Army, 
is  a  sum  of  £150  for  the  cavalry,  and  £100  for  the 
infantry,  granted  to  non-commissioned  officers  pro- 
moted to  commissions,  to  enable  them  to  meet  the 
heavy  charges  for  uniform  aud  equipments.  The 
larger  sum  is  given  in  the  cavalry,  because  the 
newly-commissioned  officer  has  to  purchase  his 
charger. 

OUTLAWRY,  in  English  Law,  means  putting 
one  out  of  the  protection  of  the  law,  for  contempt  in 
wilfully  avoiding  execution  of  legal  process.  For- 
merly, in  the  common  law  courts,  if  the  defender 
would  not  enter  an  appearance,  certain  proceedings 
were  taken  to  outlaw  him,  so  as  to  allow  the  action 
to  go  on  without  his  appearance.  These  proceedings, 
however,  are  now  abolished,  and,  in  the  majority  of 
cases,  it  is  immaterial  as  regards  the  action  whether 
the  defendant  appear  or  not,  provided  he  was  pro- 
perly served  with  the  original  writ  of  summons. 
After  judgment,  he  may  still  be  outlawed,  as  a 
preliminary  to  seizing  and  selling  his  property.  In 
criminal  proceedings,  outlawry  still  exists  as  part  of 
the  ordinary  practice  to  compel  a  person  against 
whom  a  bill  of  indictment  for  felony  or  misdemea- 
nour has  been  found,  but  who  will  not  come  forward 
to  take  his  trial,  and  who  has  not  been  arrested. 
In  such  a  case,  process  of  outlawry  against  him  is 


OUTPOSTS-  OUTWORKS. 


awarded,  which  is  a  kind  of  temporary  judgment ; 
and  while  this  process  exists,  he  is  out  of  the  pro- 
tection of  the  law,  and  forfeits  all  his  property. 
The  courts  will  not  listen  to  any  complaint  or 
attend  to  his  suit  till  he  reverse  the  outlawry,  which 
la  generally  done  as  a  matter  of  course. —  In  Scot- 
land, outlawry  or  fugitation  is  a  similar  process, 
and  the  defender  must  first  he  reponed  against 
the  sentence  of  outlawry  before  his  trial  can  take 
place. 

OUTPOSTS  are  bodies,  commonly  small,  of 
troops  stationed  at  a  greater  or  less  distance  beyond 
the  limits  of  a  camp  or  main  army,  for  tlie  purpose 
of  preventing  an  enemy  approaching  without  notice, 
and  also  to  offer  opposition  to  his  progress,  while 
the  main  force  prepares  for  resistance.  Outguards 
march  off  to  their  position  silently,  and  pay  no 
compliments  of  any  kind  to  officers  or  others.  As 
soon  as  the  officer  commanding  an  outpost  arrives 
on  his  ground,  he  proceeds  to  carefully  examine  the 
environs,  noting  all  heights  within  rifle-range,  roads 
and  paths  by  which  an  enemy  may  approach,  &c. 
He  also  takes  such  impromptu  means  of  strength- 
ening his  position  as  occur  to  him -felling  a  tree 
here,  cutting  brushwood  there,  blocking  a  path  in 
another  place,  and  resorting  to  any  expedient  which 
may  serve  to  delay  the  foe  at  point-blank  range — 
an  object  of  importance,  as  a  stoppage  at  such  a 
point  is  known  to  act  as  a  great  discouragement  to 
advancing  troops. 

OUTRAM,  Sir  James.  Lieutenant-general. 
G.C.B.,  Indian  soldier  and  statesman,  was  born* 
1803,  at  Butterley  Hall,  Derbyshire,  the  residence 
of  his  father,  Mr  Benjamin  Outram,  a  civil-engineer 
of  note.  His  mother,  the  daughter  of  James 
Anderson  of  Mounie,  Aberdeenshire,  was  descended 
from  Sir  W.  Seton,  Lord  Pitmedden.  0.  was 
educated  at  Udny,  Aberdeenshire,  under  the  Rev. 
Dr  Bisset,  and  afterwards  went  to  Marischal  College, 
Aberdeen.  He  was  sent  to  India  as  a  cadet  in 
1819.  and  was  made  lieutenant  and  adjutant  of  the 
23d  Bombay  Native  Infantry.  He  then  took  com- 
mand of  and  disciplined  the  wild  Bhcels  of  Candeish, 
and  successfully  led  them  against  the  Daung  tribes. 
From  1835  to  1838,  he  was  engaged  in  re-establish- 
ing order  in  the  Mahi  Kfmta.  He  went  with  the 
invading  army  under  Lord  Keane  into  Afghanistan 
as  aide-de-camp  ;  and  his  ride  from  Khelat,  through 
the  dangers  of  the  Bolan  Pass,  will  long  be  famous 
in  Indian  annals.  He  became  political  agent  at 
Guzerat,  and  commissioner  in  Sinde,  where  he  made 
a  bold  and  earnest  defence  of  the  Ameers  against 
the  aggressive  policy  of  General  Sir  Charles  James 
Napier.  He  was  afterwards  resident  at  Sattara  and 
Baroda,  and  upon  the  annexation  of  Oude,  was  made 
resident  and  commissioner  by  Lord  Dalhousie.  His 
health  failing,  he  returned  to  England  in  1856 ;  but 
when  the  war  with  Persia  broke  out,  and  it  became 
necessary  to  send  an  expedition  to  the  Persian  Gulf, 
O.  accompanied  the  forces,  with  diplomatic  powers 
as  commissioner.  He  conducted  several  brilliant 
and  successful  operations  ;  the  campaign  was  short 
and  decisive ;  and  the  objects  of  the  expedition 
having  been  triumphantly  attained,  he  returned  to 
India.  Landing  at  Bombay  in  July  1857,  he  went  to 
Calcutta  to  receive  Lord  Canning's  instructions,  and 
was  commissioned  to  take  charge  of  the  forces 
advancing  to  the  relief  of  Lucknow.  He  chivalrously 
•waived  the  command  in  favour  of  his  old  lieutenant, 
Havelock  (q.  v.),  who  had  fought  eight  victorious 
battles  with  the  rebels,  and,  taking  up  only  his 
civil  appointment,  as  chief-commissioner  of  Oude, 
tendered  his  military  services  to  Havelock  as  a 
rolrnteer.  Lucknow  was  relieved,  and  O.  took 
the   ron  inland,   but    onlj    to   be    iu    turn    besieged. 


He  held  the  Alumbagh  against  almost  overwhelming 
forces,  until  Lord  Clyde  advanced  to  his  relief.  He 
then  made  a  skilful  movement  up  the  left  bank  of 
theGumti,  which  led  to  a  final  and  complete  victory 
over  the  insurgents.  He  was  made  chief-commis- 
sioner of  Oude;  and  though  he  had  strongly  opposed 
its  annexation,  he  was  the  man  who  did  most  to 
restore  British  rule,  and  attach  the  people  to  it. 
For  his  eminent  services,  he  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  1858,  and  received  the 
thanks  of  parliament  in  1860.  He  took  his  seat 
as  a  member  of  the  Supreme  Councd  of  India,  in 
Calcutta,  but  sank  under  the  climate,  and  returned 
to  England  in  1860,  already  stricken  by  the  hand 
of  death.  The  communities  of  India  voted  him  a 
statue  at  Calcutta,  founded  an  institution  to  bis 
honour,  and  presented  him  with  commemorative 
gifts.  A  banquet  was  given  to  him  and  his  chief 
and  companion-in-arms,  Lord  Clyde,  by  the  city  of 
London.  His  English  admirers  determined  to  erect 
a  statue  to  his  honour  in  London,  and  gave  him 
a  valuable  dessert-service  in  silver.  He  spent 
the  winter  of  1861 — 1862  in  Egypt;  and  after  a 
short  residence  in  the  south  of  France,  expired  at 
Paris,  March  11,  1863.  O.  was  styled  by  Sir 
Charles  Napier  the  '  Bayard  of  India.'  Than  his, 
there  is  no  more  gallant  name  in  the  whole  list  of 
distinguished  -Indian  soldiers.  His  services  in  the 
East  as  a  soldier  and  a  diplomatist  extended  over 
the  period  of  forty  years.  He  was  ever  the  generous 
protector  of  the  dark-skinned  races  among  whom 
his  lot  was  thrown,  and  set  a  bright  example  to 
all  future  administrators  of  moderation,  conciliation, 
humanity,  and  practical  Christianity  in  all  his 
dealings  with  the  natives  of  India. 

OU'TRIGGER,  in  its  proper  sense,  is  a  beam 
or  spar  fastened  horizontally  to  the  cross-trees  or 


Fig.  2. 

a,  outrigger  ;  b,  tide  of 

boat. 


Fig.  1. 

otherwise,  for  the  purpose  of  extending  further 
from  the  mast  or  topmast  the  backstay  or  other 
rope  by  which  that  mast  or  topmast  is  supported. 
The  power  of  the  stay  is  thus  increased.  The 
term  is  also  used  improperly —  ,  , 

because  no  'rigging'  is  in 
question — to  denote  the  appa- 
ratus for  increasing  the  leverage 
of  an  oar,  by  removing  the 
resistance,  as  represented  by 
the  side  of  the  boat  (see  Oar), 
further  from  the  power  repre- 
sented by  the  rower's  hand. 
This  is  effected  by  fixing  an 
iron  bracket  to  the  boat's  side, 
the  row-lock  being  at  the 
bracket's  extremity.  The  neces- 
sary leverage  is  thus  obtained  without  adding  to 
the  width  of  the  boat  itself. 

OUTWORKS,  in  Fortification,  are  minor 
defences  constructed  beyond  the  main  body  of  a 
work,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  enemy  at  a 
distance,  or  commanding  certain  salient  points 
which  it  is  undesirable  that  he  should  occupy.  Such 
works  are  ravelins,  lunettes,  hornworks,  crown- 
works,  demi-lunes,  tenailles,  &c.  They  occur  in 
certain  necessary  order,  as  a  ravelin  before  the 
curtain  and  tenaille,  a  hornwork  before  a  ravelin, 

and  so  on. 

163 


OUZEL— OVARIES. 


OTTZEL,  or  OUSEL  (Old  Fr.  oisel,  bird),  an  old 
flame  of  the  black-bird,  as  is  evident  from  the 
descriptive  lines  of  Bottom's  song  in  Midsummer 
NighCs  Dream : 

1  The  ousel  cock,  so  black  of  hue, 
With  orange  tawny  bilL' 

It  is  also  applied  to  other  birds,  chiefly  of  the 
thrush  family.  Thus,  one  British  thrush  is  called  the 
Ring  Ouzel.  The  Dipper  (q.  v.)  is  very  generally 
known  as  the  Water  Ouzel ;  and  the  Rose-coloured 
Pastor  is  also  called  the  Rose-coloured  OuzeL 

OVAL,  the  name  given  to  the  figure  presented 
by  a  longitudinal  section  of  an  egg  through  its 
centre.  The  oval  has  a  general  resemblance  to  the 
ellipse ;  unlike  the  latter,  however,  it  is  not  symme- 
trical, but  is  thicker  at  one  end  than  the  other,  and 
at  the  thin  end,  narrows  almost  to  a  point.  The 
term  '  oval '  is  also  used  indiscriminately  with 
'  nodus,'  '  loop,'  to  denote  the  figure  formed  by  a 
curve  which  either  returns  upon  itself,  as  the  lem- 
niscata,  &c,  or  the  loops  of  the  cubical  and  semi- 
cubical  parabolas  and  other  curves.  In  scientific 
language,  it  is  specially  distinguished  from  the 
term  '  elliptical,'  with  which,  in  common  parlance, 
it  is  usually  confounded. 

OVA'MPOS  and  OVAMPOLAND.  The  Ovam- 
pos  or  Otjiherero  are  a  tribe,  seemingly  a  connecting 
link  between  the  Kaffir  and  Negro  races,  who  inhabit 
the  region  north  of  Great  Namaqualand,  in  South 
Africa,  extending  north  to  the  Cuanene  River,  and 
south  to  the  parallel  of  23°  S.  lat.  The  Ovampo 
tribes  are  described  by  Andersson  as  of  a  very  dark 
complexion,  tall  and  robust,  but  remarkably  ugly. 
He  found  them,,  however,  honest,  industrious,  and 
hospitable.  They  are  not  entirely  pastoral,  but 
cultivate  much  corn.  Living  in  the  same  country 
are  the  Cattle  Damaras,  with  still  more  of  the 
Negro  type,  a  stout,  athletic  people,  very  dirty  in 
their  habits,  and  generally  armed  with  the  bow  and 
arrow.  They  live  in  a  state  of  constant  warfare 
with  the  Ghondannup,  or  Hill  Damaras,  a  nearly 
pure  Negro  race,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Namaqua 
Hottentots,  who  live  south  of  them,  on  the  other. 

Ovampoland  is  a  more  fertile  region  than  Nauia- 
qualand,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  wide  belt 
of  densely-bushed  country.  It  has  but  few  rivers, 
and  these  not  of  a  perennial  nature.  About  50 
miles  from  the  coast,  the  country  rises  to  a  table- 
land about  6000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and 
then  declines  to  the  south  and  east  into  the 
deserts  of  the  Kalihari,  and  the  region  of  Lake 
Ngami.  Many  strong  indications  of  copper-ore 
are  found  in  various  places.  The  principal  rivers, 
or  rather  water-courses,  are  the  Swakop,  Kusip, 
and  their  branches,  which  enter  the  Atlantic  a  few 
miles  north  of  Walfish  Bay.  The  other  rivers  in 
the  interior  seem  to  lose  themselves  in  the  sands. 
The  climate  is  healthy,  except  near  the  coast,  where 
fever  in  some  seasons  prevails.  It  seldom  rains  in 
the  coast  region,  which  is  a  very  desolate  one, 
and  almost  devoid  of  water.  Thunder-storms  are 
very  violent  in  the  summer  season.  All  the 
large  mammalia  are  found,  more  or  less  plentiful, 
according  as  water  may  be  found  at  the  different 
drinking-places.  Elephants,  rhinoceroses,  elands, 
and  other  large  animals  driven  from  the  south  by 
the  march  of  civilisation,  take  refuge  in  the  desert 
region  lying  east  of  Ovampoland,  where  sportsmen 
like  Green  and  Andersson  have  been  known  to  kill 
as  many  as  twelve  elephants  in  a  day.  The  country 
was  first  described  by  Sir  J.  Alexander,  who 
visited  its  south  border.  Mr  Galton  afterwards 
penetrated  much  further  north  ;  and  Mr  0.  J. 
Andersson  has  since  fully  explored  it  nearly  as  far 
164 


north  as  the  Cuanene.  Large  numbers  of  horned 
cattle  are  annually  collected  by  traders  from  the 
Cape  in  these  regions,  and  whales  abound  on  the 
coast.  The  trade  in  ostrich-feathers  and  ivory  is  of 
increasing  importance,  and  several  trading-stations 
are  established  for  the  collection  of  native  products. 
Some  elementary  works  have  been  printed  in  the 
Otjiherero  dialect  by  the  German  missionaries  ; 
two  appear  in  Sir  G.  Grey's  catalogue. 

O' VARIES  are  organs  peculiar  to  the  female, 
and  are  analogous  to  the  testes  in  the  male.  They 
are  two  oblong  flattened  bodies  (about  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  length,  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
width,  and  nearly  half  an  inch  thick  in  the  human 
subject),  situated  on  either  side  of  the  uterus,  to 
which  they  are  connected  by  ligaments  and  by  the 
Fallopian  tube.  On  making  sections  of  an  ovary, 
numerous  vesicles  are  seen.  These  are  the  ovisacs  of 
the  future  ova  or  germs,  and  are  termed  the  Graafian 
vesicles.  Before  impregnation,  they  vary  in  number 
from  ten  to  twenty,  and  from  the  size  of  a  pin's  head 
to  that  of  a  pea ;  but  microscopic  examination  reveals 
the  presence  of  young  vesicles  in  large  numbers.  At 
each  monthly  period,  a  ripe  Graafian  vesicle  bursts, 
and  the  ovum  contained  in  it  makes  its  way  by 
ciliary  motion  along  the  Fallopian  tube  to  the 
uterus,  where,  if  it  is  not  impregnated,  it  is  disin- 
tegrated and  absorbed. 

Solid  tumours  or  cysts,  containing  hair  and  teeth, 
are  developed  in  these  organs,  but  their  principal 
disease  is  that  to  which  the  name  of  Ovarian 
Tumour  is  applied.  This  tumour  may  be  described 
as  consisting  of  an  enormous  enlargement  of  one 
or  more  of  the  Graafian  vesicles  into  a  mass  which 
may  weigh  80  or  100  pounds,  or  even  more ;  and 
it  may  be  either  simple  (that  is  to  say,  composed 
of  natural  structures  much  hypertrophied)  or  can- 
cerous. The  walls  of  the  cysts  (or  enlarged  Graafian 
vesicles)  may  be  thin  and  flexible,  or  thick  and 
cartilaginous ;  and  the  fluid  they  contain  may  be 
clear  and  limpid,  or  thick  and  ropy,  or  grumous  and 
opaque.  The  only  disease  with  which  it  can  be 
confounded  is  ordinary  abdominal  dropsy,  or  Ascites, 
and  when  its  nature  is  clearly  determined,  three 
modes  of  treatment  are  open  for  adoption  :  these 
are  (1)  tapping,  (2)  various  surgical  and  medical 
means  of  producing  atrophy  of  the  tumour,  and  (3) 
extirpation  of  the  organ,  or  ovariotomy. 

1.  Tapping  is  the  simplest  mode  of  relieving  the 
patient ;  but  the  cyst  soon  refills,  and  the  operation 
must  be  often  repeated.  '  Cases  are  extant  in  one 
of  which  the  patient  lived  to  be  tapped  66  times 
at  intervals  of  about  a  month,  and  in  another, 
128  times  at  intervals  of  six  weeks ;  but,  taken 
as  a  general  rule,  it  may  be  affirmed  that  few 
patients  survive  more  than  four  years  after  the 
first  tapping,  a  period  passed  in  the  greatest  misery 
and  suffering.' — Druet's  Surgeon's  Vade-mecum, 
p.  498. 

2.  Under  this  head  are  included  both  numerous 
operations  for  causing  the  tumour  to  waste,  and  its 
internal  walls  to  adhere,  and  the  internal  admini- 
stration of  absorbent  medicines,  with  the  view  of 
producing  atrophy  and  absorption  of  the  tumour. 
The  injection  of  tincture  of  iodine  into  the  pre- 
viously emptied  cyst,  is  sometimes  followed  with 
good  results,  as  in  the  case  <>f  Hydrocele  (q.  v.). 

3.  Ovariotomy,  or  total  extirpation  of  the  morbid 
mass,  is  an  operation  regarding  which  there  has  of 
late  years  been  much  discussion.  Its  opponents 
urge  (1)  the  difficulty  of  diagnosis  ;  (2)  the  frequency 
of  adhesion  of  the  tumour  to  adjacent  parts — a  point 
which  can  often  not  be  ascertained  till  the  abdomen 
has  been  opened ;  and  (3)  the  great  mortality  that 
follows  it:  while  in  favour  of  the  operation  it  is 
urged  (1)  that  the  mortality  is  not  greaSer  than  from 


OVARY— OVER  DARWEN. 


Some  other  surgical  operations  which  are  regarded 
ns  justifiable;  (2)  that  n<>  other  plan  of  treatment 
can  effect  a  radical  enre  ;  (3)  that  if  the  Burgeon,  in 
order  to  complete  his  diagnosis,  first  makes  a  small 
incision,  to  enable  him  to  ascertain  the  existence  of 
adhesions,  and  closes  it  again  with  suture,  if  he 
finds  this  to  be  the  ease,  no  great  harm  is  likely  to 
result;  and  (4)  that  considering  the  miserable  lives 
these  patients  lead  during  a  course  of  tapping,  &c, 
it  is  the  most  merciful  course  to  adopt  in  patients 
who  are  young  and  otherwise  healthy.  For  a 
description  of  the  mode  of  performing  the  operation, 
and  oi  the  cautions  to  be  observed,  we  may  refer  to 
a  series  of  papers  on  Ovariotomy  by  Mr  Spencer 
Wells  in  The  Medical  Times  and  Gazette  for  1858 
and  1859. 

OVARY,  in  Botany.     See  Germen. 

OVATION".     See  Triumph. 

OVEN,  Field  or  Barrack,  is  a  necessary  appa- 
ratus in  military  economy  to  preserve  the  health  of 
troops.  l>y  enabling  them,  at  a  comparatively  small 
expenditure  of  fuel,  to  cook  many  rations  together. 
In  the  British  army,  little  attention  was  paid  to 
such  subjects,  until,  in  1S58,  the  inquiries  of  Mr 
Sidney  Herbert  (afterwards  Lord  Herbert)  brought 
to  limit  the  excessive  mortality  among  soldiers, 
which  was  partly — and,  as  the  event  has  shewn, 
justly — attributed  to  the  bad  cookery  of  their  food. 
Captain  Giaut  has  bestowed  much  attention  to 
army  cookery,  and  has  invented  ovens  for  barrack 
use  and  for  the  field.  While  great  improvements  on 
the  system — or  want  of  system — which  preceded 
them,  these  ovens  are  still  admitted  to  be  far  from 
perfect  in  their  arrangements. 

Fig.   1  shews  his  barrack- stove  for  baking  and 


Fig.  1. — Barrack-stove. 

A,  boiler  over  flue;  B,  oven;  C,  movable  boilers  for  moat; 

D,  potato -steamer. 

boiling;  fig.  2,  his  boiler-wagon  for  the  field,  its 
functions  being  the  manufacture  of  soap  and  boiling 
of  potatoes  in  nets  in  it.  For  boding  meat,  &c, 
in  the  field,  he  employs  detached  cylinders,  which, 
when  em;  iy,  he  proposes  to  join  and  floor  over  for 
use  as  pr-utoons ;  when  in  use  they  are  united  cross- 
wise, Ob  in  fig.  \  one  in  the  middle  serving  for  a 


chimney.      One    or   more    empty   barrelfl    can    be 


\jssWfw,  %s 


Fig.  2. — Field  oooking-wagon. 
(Drawing  the  >uup.| 

attacned  for  steaming  potatoes,  and  the  roasting  ol 


Fig.  3. — Field-oven. 
A,  empty  cask  used  is  :>  potiitosteamer  j  B,  coffee-roaster  i 
C,  detached  boiler. 

coffee  is  performed,  though  not  altogether  success' 
fully,  in  another  cylinder  made 
to  revolve  over  the  chimney. 

O'VER  DA'RWEN  is  a  very 
flourishing  town  of  Lancashire, 
situated  amid  moorland  hills, 
34  miles  south  of  Blackburn, 
and  194  miles  north-west  of 
Manchester,  with  which  towns 
it  is  connected  by  the  Lanca- 
shire and  Yorkshire  Railway. 
It  has  risen  into  wealth  prin- 
cipally by  a  trade  with  India 
in  calicoes.  At  present  there 
are  ahont  250,000  spindles  and 
15,000  looms  at  work  in  it,  con- 
tained in  upwards  of  40  mills 
and  manufactories.  The  '  India 
Mill,'  containing  100,000  spin- 
dles, is  in  many  respects  the 
finest  in  the  country.  It  is  a 
first-class  stone  building  in  the 
Italian  style,  with  engine-house, 
chimney,  &c.,  highly  orna- 
mented, is  100  feet  high,  and 
covers  nn  area  of  31,000 
square  feet.  (See  illustration 
of  chimney.)  The  town  also 
contains  5  paper  manufactories, 
the  most  extensive  paper-staining  works  ir  England, 

155 


OVERBECK— OVERBURY. 


2  calico  printing  establishments,  as  well  as  works  for 
iron  founding,  bleaching,  machine  and  reed  making, 
&c  There  is  an  abundance  of  coal  and  stone  in 
the  neighbourhood,  and  the  mines  and  quarries 
find  employment  for  a  considerable  number  of  the 
inhabitants.     The  places  of  worship  are — 4  churches, 

3  Independent  chapels,  a  Baptist  and  a  Wesleyan 
Methodist  chapel,  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel,  and  3 
other  dissenting  chapels.  There  are  large  and  com- 
modious schools  for  elementary  education.  There  is 
also  a  Mechanics'  Institution,  a  market  house,  and 
public  baths;  and  a  large  public  hall  which  accom- 
modates 1500  people.  Top.,  1851,  7020;  1861,  16,- 
492;    1871,21,278. 

OVERBECK,  Friedrich,  bom  at  Ltibeck,  July 
3,  1789,  a  distinguished  painter,  to  whom  has  been 
justly  awarded  a  large  share  of  the  merit  of  the  move- 
ment in  the  early  part  of  this  century,  from  which 
arose  the  modern  German  school  of  art.  He  com- 
menced his  studies  as  an  artist  at  Vienna  in  1806  ; 
but  having  adopted,  and  continued  to  persist  in 
carrying  out  certain  notions  on  art,  and  the  mode 
of  studying  it,  essentially  different  from  those  incul- 
cated in  the  academy,  he  was  expelled  along  with 
certain  other  students  who  entertained  the  same 
views,  and  in  1809  set  out  for  Rome.  Here  he  was 
soon  afterwards  joined  by  Cornelius  and  Schadow  ; 
and  these  three,  atiimated  with  similar  ideas,  and 
mutually  encouraging  one  another,  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  a  school  that  now  holds  a  high  rank,  and  has 
in  no  small  degree  influenced,  the  taste  for  art  in 
Europe  at  the  present  time.  A  picture  of  the 
Madonna,  which  O.  painted  at  Rome  in  1811,  brought 
him  into  marked  notice.  He  was  next  employed 
along  with  Cornelius  and  others,  by  the  Prussian 
consul,  General  Barthoidi,  to  execute  certain  frescoes 
illustrating  the  history  of  Joseph,  the  'Selling  of 
Joseph'  and  the  '  Seven  lean  Years'  being  the  sub- 
jects assigned  to  him.  After  completing  these,  he 
painted  in  fresco,  iu  the  villa  of  the  Marchese  Mas- 
eimi,  five  large  compositions  from  Tasso's  Jerusalem 
Delivered.  In  1814,  along  with  some  of  his  artistic 
brethren,  he  abjured  Lutheranism,  and  embraced 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  O.'s  chief  work  is  a 
fresco  at  Assisi,  'The  Miracle  of  Roses  of  St 
Francis.'  His  oil  pictures  are  inferior  to  his  frescoes, 
being  dry  and  weak  in  colour.  His  great  picture, 
'  The  Influence  of  Religion  on  Art,'  preserved  in 
the  Stadel  Institute  at  Frankfurt,  and  well  known  j 
from  the  engraving,  is  an  admirable  composition, 
and  is  indeed  the  most  favourable  specimen  of  his 
powers  as  a  painter  in  oil  colours.  He  also  executed 
a  great  many  drawings  remarkable  for  high  feeling, 
most  of  which  have  been  engraved.  One  of  his  last 
undertakings,  a  series  of  designs  from  the  Evan- 
gelists, delicately  engraved  in  the  line  manner,  is  a 
work  of  high  excellence.  Overbeck  adhered  closely 
to  those  ideas  of  art  which  he  started  with — namely, 
entire  devotion  to  the  style  of  the  Italian  artists 
prior  to  the  period  of  the  renaissance,  particularly 
Fra  Angelico  (b.  1387 — d.  1455),  and  a  strong  im- 
pression that  form  or  drawing  iu  the  style  of  Greek 
or  classic  art  is  inadmissible  in  works  embodying 
religious  subjects:  although  many  of  his  compatriots 
-  -Cornelius,  for  instance — have  modified,  or  perhaps 
enlarged,  these  ideas,  and  study  the  works  of  Michael 
Angelo  and  those  of  Raphael's  later  style  executed 
under  the  influence  of  classic  art.  O.  made  Rome  the 
place  of  his  al>ode  from  his  first  visit  until  his  death 
in  1869. 

OVERBURY,  Sir  Thomas,  an  English  author 
and  courtier,  whose  mysterious  death  has  given  a 
peculiar  interest  to  his  history,  was  the  son  of 
Nicholas  Overbury,  a  Gloucestershire  squire,  and 
was  born  at   Cbmpton   Scorfen,  Warwickshire,  the 


residence  of  his  maternal  grandfather  in  1581.  At 
the  age  of  fourteen  he  entered  Queen's  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  highly  distinguished  himself  in 
logic  and  philosophy,  and  where  he  took  the  degree 
of  BA.  in  1598.  He  then  joined  the  Middle  Temple, 
but  soon  after  set  out  for  the  continent,  from  which 
he  returned  with  the  reputation  of  being  a  finished 
gentleman.  While  on  a  visit  to  Scotland  in  1601, 
he  met  for  the  first  time  with  his  future  murderer, 
Robert  Carr  (properly  Ker),  then  a  page  in  the 
service  of  the  Earl  of  Dunbar.  An  intimacy  unfor- 
tunately sprung  up  between  the  two,  and  Carr — 
a  handsome  ignoramus,  sensual  and  unprincipled 
— followed  his  scholarly  friend  to  London.  On  the 
accession  of  James  to  the  English  throne  (1603), 
Carr  rose  rapidly  into  royal  favour,  and  was  created 
Viscount  Rochester.  Through  his  influence,  O.  was 
knighted  in  1608,  and  his  father  appointed  a  judge 
for  Wales.  In  return,  O.  gave  his  patron  the  benefit 
of  his  wit  and  judgment,  both  of  which  were  singu- 
larly excellent ;  and,  according  to  Hume,  it  was 
owing  to  0.  that  Carr  enjoyed  for  a  time  the  highest 
favour  of  the  prince  without  being  hated  by  the 
people.  The  circumstances  that  led  to  a  rupture 
of  their  intimacy,  and  turned  the  earl  into  O.'s 
secret  and  relentless  enemy,  form  one  of  the  most 
flagrant  scandals  in  the  history  of  the  English  court. 
A  brief  outline  of  these  circumstances  is  all  that 
can  be  given  here. 

At  the  age  of  thirteen,  Frances  Howard,  daughter 
of  the  Earl  of  Suffolk,  was  married  (1606)  to  the 
Earl  of  Essex,  himself  only  a  year  older.  On 
account  of  their  youth,  it  was  reckoned  advisable 
by  their  friends  that  they  should  not  live  together 
for  some  time.  The  boy-husband  went  away  on 
his  travels,  and  the  wedded  girl  to  her  mother. 
After  the  lapse  of  nearly  five  years,  Essex  came 
home,  and  found  his  wife,  now  a  splendid  beauty  of 
eighteen,  the  idol  of  all  the  court  gallants.  But 
there  was  not  a  touch  of  virtue  or  goodness  in  her 
whole  soul.  She  had  the  disposition  of  a  Messalina 
(q.  v.)  or  a  Brinvilliers  (q.  v.).  For  her  husband 
she  shewed  the  greatest  aversion,  and  only  con- 
sented to  live  in  his  house  at  the  command  of  the 
king.  It  was  well  known  that  she  had  had  intrigues 
with  more  than  one  lover,  but  in  particular  with 
Rochester,  for  whom  she  now  cherished  a  fierce 
passion.  O.  had  been  instrumental  in  bringing 
about  their  guilty  intercourse,  and  was  now  to 
reap  the  reward  due  to  a  pander.  Rochester  having 
told  him  that  he  purposed  to  get  Lady  Essex 
divorced  from  her  husband,  and  then  to  marry 
her,  O.  strongly  deprecated  the  idea,  and  de- 
clared that  it  would  be  disgraceful  to  form  a 
union  with  so  depraved  a  creature — she  might  do 
for  a  mistress,  but  not  for  a  wife !  The  earl  told 
Lady  Essex  what  O.  had  said  of  her ;  she  became 
furious  for  revenge,  and  offered  Sir  David  Wood 
(between  whom  and  O.  there  was  a  standing 
quarrel)  £1000  to  assassinate  him,  which  that  canny 
Scot  declined  to  do.  Rochester  himself  was  now 
persuaded  by  his  mistress  to  join  privately  in  a  plot 
against  O.,  who  on  a  most  trivial  and  illegal  pretext 
was  thrown  into  the  Tower,  April  21,  1613.  It  was 
some  time  before  he  could  bring  himself  to  believe 
that  his  friend  and  patron  was  the  cause  of  his 
imprisonment ;  but  when  he  had  assured  himself 
of  Rochester's  treachery,  he  threatened  to  divulge 
certain  secrets  in  his  possession,  whereupon  it  was 
determined  by  the  earl  and  hie  mistress  that  he 
should  be  poisoned.  This,  after  several  trials,  was 
successfully  accomplished,  and  O.  expired  on  the 
15th  of  September.  Rochester  (now  created  Earl 
of  Somerset),  and  his  paramour  were  married  on  the 
26th  of  December  with  great  pomp,  the  brazen-faced 
beauty  wearing  her  hair  '  as  a  virgin,'  and  the  whole 


OVERLAND  ROUTE— OVERSEERS. 


affair  was  soon  to  appearance  forgotten  ;  but  after 
George  Villiers  had  supplanted  the  earl  in  the  royal 
favour,  an  inquiry  was  instituted;  Somerset  anil  his 
wife  were  tried  and  found  guilty  of  poisoning,  but 
were,  by  an  amazing  and  infamous  stretch  of  the 
royal  prerogative,  pardoned.  The  motive  for  Jamea'a 
extraordinary  clemency  has  never  been  ascertained  ; 
but  the  prevailing  opinion  is,  that  it  was  to  prevent 
the  disclosure  of  some  discreditable,  if  not  criminal, 
incidents  in  the  private  life  of  that  monarch. 

O.  wrote  several  works,  all  of  which  were  posthu- 
mously published.  The  principal  are.  The  Wife 
(1614),  a  didactic  poem  ;  Characters  (1G14),  the  wit, 
ingenuity,  precision,  and  force  of  which  have  long 
been  admitted  ;  Crumms  Fallen  from  Kin;/  James's 
Table  (1715).  The  latest  edition  of  O.'s  works  is 
that  by  E.  F.  Rinibault  with  Life  (185G). 

OVERLAND  ROUTE  to  India,  the  route  gene- 
rally chosen  by  those  to  whom  time  is  a  more 
important  consideration  than  expense.  The  manage- 
ment of  the  route  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Peninsular 
and  Oriental  Steam  Company,  who  present  the 
traveller  with  a  choice  of  lines  of  route  to  Alex- 
andria in  Egypt.  He  may  sail  from  Southampton 
via  Gibraltar  and  Malta,  reaching  Alexandria  in 
13  days,  a  very  convenient  route  for  those  who 
have  much  luggage,  as  no  shifting  is  required  till 
Alexandria  is  reached ;  or  he  may  travel  overland 
by  railway  and  steamer  to  either  of  the  ports  of 
Marseille  or  Trieste.  The  shortest  route  from 
London  to  the  former  is  via  Dover,  Calais,  and 
Paris,  Alexandria  being  reached  in  11  days;  and  to 
the  latter  in  14  clays,  via  Dover,  Calais,  Paris,  Turin, 
and  Venice.  The  shortest,  route  to  India  at  present 
is  via  Paris,  Lyons,  the  Mt  Cenis  tunnel,  Modena, 
to  Brindisi,  on  the  Adriatic,  in  the  heel  of  the 
Italian  boot,  thence  by  steamer  to  Port  Said,  and  via 
the  Suez  Canal  and  the  Red  Sea  to  Bomlmy.  From 
Alexandria,  passengers  may  still  he  conveyed  by 
rail  to  Suez,  where  they  again  embark  on  board  the 
Peninsular  and  Oriental  Company's  steamers,  and 
are  conveyed  to  Bombay,  Madras,  Calcutta,  &c. 
The  time  occupied  in  travelling  from  Alexandria 
to  Bombay  is  13  days,  to  Madras  24  days,  and 
to  Calcutta  29  days.  Thus  a  traveller  can  reach 
Calcutta  from  London  in  40  days ;  at  an  expense, 
however,  of  more  than  £100.  The  long  sea-route 
round  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  cannot  be  accom- 
plished by  steamer  in  less  than  94  days,  and  by 
sailing  vessels  it  takes  more  than  four  months,  but 
the  cost  is  much  less. 

OVERSEERS  are  officers  appointed  annually 
in  all  the  parishes  in  England  and  Wales,  whose 
primary  duty  it  is  to  rate  the  inhabitants  to  the 
poor-rate,  collect  the  same,  and  apply  it  towards 
giving  relief  to  the  poor.  These  officers  occupy  an 
important  position  in  all  English  parishes.  They 
were  first  ordered  to  be  appointed  in  each  parish  by 
the  statute  of  43  Eliz.  c.  2,  the  leading  Poor-law 
Act,  which  directed  four,  three,  or  two  substantial 
householders  in  the  parish  to  be  nominated  yearly, 
and  a  later  statute  fixed  the  time  of  nomination  to 
be  25th  March,  or  a  fortnight  thereafter.  The 
courts  have  held  that  not  more  than  four,  nor  less 
than  two,  can  be  appointed,  the  object  being,  pro- 
bably, that  so  much  responsibility  should  not  be 
thrown  on  any  one  individual.  Though  it  is  usual 
for  the  vestry  of  the  parish  to  nominate  two  persons 
to  be  overseers,  still  those  who  really  appoint  them 
are  the  justices  of  the  peace  who  are  not  bound  to 
regard  the  wishes  of  the  vestry  in  this  respect.  It 
is  only  householders  in  the  parish  who  are  qualified 
for  the  office,  and  though  it  is  not  necessary  that 
they  should  actually  reside  in  the  parish,  still  they 
must  occupy  oi  rent  a  house  there.     Several  classes 


of  persons  are  exempt  from  serving  the  office,  such 
as  peers,  members  of  parliament,  clergymen,  d 
ing  ministers,  barristers,  attorneys,  doctors,  officers 
of  the  army  and  navy,  Ac.  But  all  who  are  not 
specially  exempted  by  some  statute  are  liable  to 
serve  the  office,  and  even  women  may  be  appointed, 
though  they  scarcely  ever  are  so  in  practice.  The 
office  is  compulsory,  and  entirely  gratuitous ;  and  so 
necessary  is  it  that  some  one  shall  fill  the  office, 
that  it  is  an  indictable  misdemeanour  to  refuse, 
without  cause,  to  serve  when  duly  appointed. 
Though  overseers  are  the  proper  managers  of  the 

f>oor  for  each  parish,  yet  some  parishes,  esj>ecially  in 
arge  overgrown  towns,  have  been  regulated  by 
local  acts,  and  guardians  of  the  poor  provided  ;  and 
other  parishes  are  under  what  is  called  a  select 
vestry.  In  such  cases,  the  overseers,  though  still 
appointed,  are  only  allowed  to  give  relief  to  paupers 
in  certain  urgent  and  exceptional  cases,  the  ordinary 
regulation  of  poor-law  affairs  being  contiued  to  the 
guardians  or  the  select  vestry.  The  primary  duty 
of  the  overseers  consists  in  making,  collecting,  ami 
applying  the  poor-rate  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  of 
the  parish,  but,  as  will  be  seen,  advantage  has  been 
taken  by  the  legislature  of  the  existence  of  these 
officers  always  representing  the  parish,  to  throw 
upon  them  various  miscellaneous  duties  which  are 
not  directly  connected  with  poor-law  affairs. 

1.  Of  the  duties  connected  with  the  management 
of  the  poor.  The  overseers  along  with  the  church, 
wardens  are  to  make  a  rate  once  or  twice  a  year ;  L  e.t 
a  list  of  all  the  occupiers  of  lands  and  houses  in  the 
parish,  specifying  their  names  and  the  property 
occupied  by  each,  and  the  ratable  value  and  amount 
due  by  each.  The  next  thing  to  be  done  is  to  go 
before  two  justices  of  the  peace,  and  get  the  rate 
allowed — L  e.,  signed  by  them — and  then  it  la 
published  on  the  church-door  on  the  following 
Sunday.  The  overseers  must  collect  the  rate  also  ; 
but  in  all  large  parishes  there  is  a  collector  of  poor- 
rates  who  is  specially  appointed  and  paid  for  the 
purpose  of  collecting  it.  If  a  party  refuses  to  pay 
the  rate,  the  overseers  must  take  proceedings  before 
justices  to  compel  payment,  which  is  done  by  dis- 
training the  goods  of  the  party,  or,  if  there  are  no 
sufficient  goods,  by  getting  a  warrant  to  imprison 
hun.  The  party  may,  however,  appeal  against  the 
rate  to  the  Court  of  Quarter  Sessions.  When  the 
money  is  collected,  the  overseers  have  to  apply  it 
towards  the  relief  of  the  poor,  and  many  other 
purposes  of  a  kindred  nature.  Relief  must  be  given 
to  all  the  poor  in  the  parish  who  are  in  a  destitute 
state  ;  but  it  is  the  duty  of  the  overseers,  when  the 
pauper  has  not  a  settlement  in  the  parish,  to  obtain 
an  order  of  removal,  i.  e.,  to  get  an  order  of  justices, 
under  which  the  pauper  is  taken  by  force,  and  sent 
to  the  parish  where  he  has  a  settlement.  See 
Removal  of  the  Poor.  Relief  is  given,  in  general, 
only  in  the  workhouse,  and  according  to  certain 
rules  and  conditions.  Where  the  parish  is  included 
in  a  poor-law  union,  as  is  now  generally  the  case, 
then  the  duty  of  overseers  in  giving  relief  is 
entirely  confined  to  certain  urgent  cases  ;  for  the 
guardians  of  the  union  administer  the  ordinary 
business  of  the  workhouse,  and  of  relief  generally. 
Another  duty  incident  to  overseers  of  a  parish  in  a 
union  is  the  duty  of  making  out  valuation  fists — 
L  e.,  a  new  valuation  of  the  property  in  the  parish — 
which  list  is  ordered  by  the  guardians  with  a  view 
to  produce  some  uniformity  in  assessing  the  burdens 
on  the  various  occupiers.  Formerly,  the  mode  of 
valuing  property  for  the  pivrposes  of  the  poor-rate 
was  not  subject  to  any  uniform  rule,  and  in  some 
parishes  the  valuers  made  a  larger  deduction  from 
the  actual  value  than  in  others  ;  but  in  1862,  a 
statute  pissed,  called  the  Union  Assessment  Act, 

167 


OVERSEER— OVERSTONE. 


the  object  of  which  was  to  enable  new  valuations  to 
be  made  on  a  uniform  plan,  till  the  occupiers  in  all 
the  parishes  are  treated  alike.  At  the  end  of  the 
year  of  office,  the  accounts  of  the  overseers  of 
parishes  in  unions  are  audited  by  a  poor-law 
auditor,  who  is  a  paid  officer,  and  who  examines  the 
vouchers,  and  sees  that  no  illegal  payments  have 
been  made. 

2.  The  miscellaneous  duties  now  imposed  by 
statute  on  overseers,  over  and  above  their  original 
duty  of  relieving  the  poor,  are  numerous.  The  most 
prominent,  perhaps,  is  that  of  making  out  the  list  of 
voters  for  members  of  parliament.  This  duty  is 
done  in  obedience  to  certain  precepts  issued  by  the 
clerk  of  the  peace  each  year,  who  gives  the  overseers 
full  instructions  how  to  make  out  the  lists,  and 
what  claims  and  objections  to  receive,  and  how  to 
deal  with  them.  The  overseers  must  also  attend 
the  court  of  the  revising  barrister,  when  he  revises 
the  lists,  and  disposes  of  legal  objections.  Another 
duty  of  the  overseers  is  to  make  out  the  list  of 
persons  in  the  parish  qualified  to  serve  as  jurors. 
So  they  must  make  out  the  burgess  lists  when  the 
parish  is  situated  within  a  borough.  They  must 
also  make  out  the  list  of  persons  qualified  to  serve 
as  parish  constables.  They  are  also  bound  to 
appoint  persons  to  enforce  the  Vaccination  Acts  ; 
they  must  give  notice  to  justices  of  all  lunatics 
within  the  parish,  and  pauper  lunatics  are  removed 
to  the  county  asylum,  or  in  some  cases,  if  it  is  safe 
in  the  opinion  of  the  medical  officer,  may  be  kept  in 
the  workhouse.  The  overseers  must  also  perform 
certain  duties  as  to  the  election  of  guardians  for  the 
union.  They  must  also  bury  the  dead  bodies  of 
persons  cast  on  shore,  and  of  all  paupers  who  die  in 
the  parish.  They  also  are  the  proper  parties  to 
protect  village  greens  from  nuisances ;  and  in  general, 
where  there  is  no  local  Board  of  Health,  the  over- 
seers are  the  parties  bound  to  act  in  carrying  out 
the  Nuisances  Removal  Acts  (see  Nuisance)  within 
the  parish,  which  of  itself  is,  an  onerous  duty.  In 
general,  whenever  overseers  are  bound  to  do  miscel- 
laneous duties  of  this  kind,  they  are  authorised  to 
pay  the  necessary  expenses  and  disbursements  out  of 
the  poor-rate  ;  but,  as  already  stated,  their  services 
are  gratuitous.  The  duties  which  in  England  are 
performed  by  overseers,  devolve,  in  Scotland,  upon 
the  parochial  board,  the  sheriif-clerk  of  the  county, 
session-clerk,  and  others. 

OVERSEER,  Assistant.  An  assistant  overseer 
is  a  paid  officer,  whose  services  have  generally  been 
found  necessary  in  the  larger  parishes,  in  order  to 
relieve  the  annual  overseers  of  their  burdensome 
office  to  some  extent.  Accordingly,  the  ratepayers, 
in  vestry  assembled,  appoint  a  person  as  assistant 
overseer  with  a  salary,  who  performs  most  of  the 
same  duties  as  the  overseers.  In  many  cases,  how- 
ever, a  collector  of  poor-rates  has  been  appointed, 
who  is  also  paid  by  salary,  and  in  such  a  case  he 
discharges  like  duties.  Both  the  assistant  overseer 
and  the  collector  of  poor-rates  are  bound  to  find 
security  for  the  faithful  discharge  of  their  duties, 
and  for  duly  accounting  for  moneys  in  their  hands. 

OVERSTONE,  Samuel  Jones  Loyd,  Lord,  one 
of  the  most  skilful  political  economists,  and  the 
ablest  writer  on  banking  and  financial  subjects  that 
this  country  has  produced.  He  was  born  in  1796, 
being  the  only  son  of  Mr  Lewis  Loyd,  descended 
from  a  respectable  Welsh  family,  and  a  leading 
partner  in  the  eminent  banking  house  of  Jones, 
Loyd,  and  Co.  of  London  and  Manchester.     Having 

fone  through   a  regular  course  of  instruction   at 
!ton,   young  Loyd   was   sent  to   Trinity   College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  had  Dr  Blomfield,  late  Bishop 
of  London,  for  tutor,  and  where  he  acquired  a  very 
15S 


extensive  acquaintance  with  classical  literature,  and 
with  the  history  and  literature  of  his  own  country 
and  of  Europe  generally.  On  leaving  Cambridge, 
Loyd  entered  the  banking-house  as  a  partner  along 
with  his  father,  and  on  the  retirement  of  the  latter, 
he  became  its  head.  He  distinguished  himself 
highly  in  his  capacity  of  banker.  He  had  a  pro- 
found knowledge  of  the  principles  of  banking,  and 
these  he  applied  on  all  occasions  in  conducting  the 
business  in  which  he  was  engaged.  Far-sighted 
and  sagacious,  he  was  seldom  deceived  by  appear- 
ances or  pretensions,  however  specious.  Perhaps, 
if  anything,  he  was  too  cautious  ;  but  he  was  neither 
timid  nor  irresolute.  He  was  eminently  successful 
in  the  employment  of  the  very  large  deposits  at  his 
command,  and  while  he  eschewed  hazardous  trans- 
actions, he  did  not  shrink  from  engaging  in  very 
extensive  operations  when  he  believed  they  could 
be  undertaken  with  a  due  regard  to  that  safety 
which  should  always  be  the  first  consideration  in 
the  estimation  of  a  banker. 

Loyd  entered  parliament  in  1819  as  member  for 
Hythe,  which  he  continued  to  represent  till  1826. 
He  made  several  good  speeches  in  the  House  ;  and 
was  one  of  a  small  minority  that  voted  for  the 
proposal  to  make  bankers  issuing  note3  give  security 
for  their  payment.  Though  opposed  to  all  changes 
of  a  dangerous  or  revolutionary  character,  Loyd  has 
been  always  a  consistent  liberal.  Having  either 
withdrawn,  or  being  on  the  eve  of  withdrawing 
from  business,  Loyd  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
in  1850,  by  the  title  of  Baron  Overstone  and  Fother- 
inghay,  county  Northampton  ;  and  if  great  wealth, 
consummate  intelligence  in  regard  to  matters  of 
great  public  importance,  and  the  highest  degree  of 
integrity  and  independence,  be  qualifications  for  a 
seat  in  the  Lords,  few  peers  have  had  a  better  title 
to  be  enrolled  in  that  august  assembly. 

The  first  of  Lord  O.'s  famous  tracts  on  the 
management  of  the  Bank  of  England  and  the  state 
of  the  currency  was  published  in  1837,  and  was 
followed  by  others  between  that  period  and  1857. 
The  proposal  for  making  a  complete  separation 
between  the  banking  and  issue  departments  of  the 
Bank  of  England,  introduced  by  Sir  Robert  Peel 
into  the  act  of  1844,  was  first  brought  forward 
in  these  tracts,  and  its  adoption  has  been  the 
greatest  improvement  hitherto  effected  in  our 
banking  system.  Having  been  collected,  these 
tracts  were  published  in  1857,  with  extracts  from 
evidence  given  by  Lord  0.  before  committees  of  the 
Lords  and  Commons.  And  it  would  not  be  easy 
to  exaggerate  the  value  of  this  volume.  Lord  O. 
has  also  reprinted,  at  his  own  expense,  four  volumes 
of  scarce  and  valuable  tracts  on  metallic  and  paper 
money,  commerce,  the  funding  system,  &c,  which 
he  has  extensively  distributed. 

An  inquiry  took  place  before  a  committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1857  into  the  practical 
working  of  the  act  of  1844,  and  Lord  O.  was  the 
principal  witness  who  came  forward  in  defence  of 
the  act ;  but  several  leading  members  of  the 
committee  being  hostile  to  it,  exerted  themselves  to 
overthrow  his  lordship's  theories  and  opinions,  and 
subjected  him  to  a  severe  cross-examination  ;  which 
gave  Lord  0.  the  opportunity  of  successfully  vin- 
dicating the  principles  and  practical  working  of  the 
act.  This  evidence  was  published  in  a  separate 
volume  in  1857. 

Lord  0.  does  not  often  speak  in  the  House  of 
Lords.  His  speech  on  the  late  commercial  treaty 
with  France  is  probably  the  best  of  his  parlia- 
mentary appearances.  He  has  also  been  a  zealous 
opponent  of  the  principle  of  limited  liability.  He 
was  a  leading  member  of  the  commission  appointed 
to  inquire  into  the  proposal  for  the  introduction  ol 


OVERTURE-OVID. 


a  decimal  system  of  arithmetic,  and  powerfully 
advocated  the  opinion  that  it  would  be  injurious 
rather  than  beneticiaL 

All  whd  have  the  privilege  of  knowing  Lord  O. 
regard  him  as  one  of  the  most  honourable,  high- 
Dninded,  and  upright  men  in  the  empire.  But  his 
rigid  adherence  to  principle  in  bis  writings,  his 
dealings,  and  Ins  conversation,  and  bis  undisguised 
contempt  for  twaddle  and  pretension  of  all  sorts, 
have  made  him  be  generally  Looked  upon  as  austere 
and  without  sympathy.  Such,  however,  is  not 
the  fact.  When  proper  cases  for  the  display  of 
sympathetic  and  generous  feelings  are  brought 
before  him,  none  evince  them  more  strongly.  We 
may  add  that  his  conversational  talents  are  of  the 
highest  order. 

O'VKRTURF  (from  Fr.  ouverture,  opening),  a 
musical  composition  for  a  full  instrumental  band, 
introductory  to  an  opera,  oratorio,  cantata,  or  ballet. 
It  originated  in  France,  and  received  its  settled 
form  at  the  bands  of  Lulli.  Being  of  the  nature 
of  a  prologue,  it  ought  to  be  in  keeping  with  the 
piece  which  it  ushers  in,  so  as  to  prepare  the 
audieuce  for  the  sort  of  emotions  which  the  author 
wishes  to  excite.  Such  is  to  a  great  extent  the 
character  of  the  beautiful  overtures  by  Mozart  to 
ZauberflUte  and  Don  Giovanni,  by  Weber  to 
FreiM-huiz,  and  by  Mendelssohn  to  bis  Midsummer 
NiyhVs  Dream,  which  are  enriched  by  snatches  of 
the  more  prominent  airs  in  these  operas.  In  the 
end  of  last  century,  overtures  were  written  by 
Haydn,  Pleyel,  and  other  composers,  as  independent 
pieces  to  be  played  in  the  concert  room ;  this  sort  of 
overture  being,  in  fact,  the  early  form  of  what  was 
afterwards  developed  into  the  Symphony  (q.  v.). 
The  overture,  as  well  as  the  symphony,  is  desig- 
nated by  the  name  sinfonia  in  Italian. 

OVERY'SSEL,  a  province  of  the  Netherlands,  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Friesland  and  Drenthe  ;  E. 
by  Hanover  and  Westphalia;  S.  and  S.-W.  by 
Gelderland ;  and  W.  by  the  Zuider  Zee.  It  has 
an  area  of  1274  square  miles;  and  (1871)  a  popu- 
lation of  260.680.  The  soil  is  Randy,  with  clay 
lands  by  the  Yssel,  rich  pastures  along  the  Zuider 
Zee  and  rivers,  tracts  of  peat-land  in  various 
parts,  and  extensive  heaths  which  are  gradually 
being  brought  into  cultivation.  From  south  to 
north  the  province  is  intersected  by  an  unbroken 
chain  of  sand-hills.  The  chief  cities  are  Zwolle, 
Deventer,  and  Kampen  ;  important  manufacturing 
towns  of  less  note  being  Almelo,  Avereest,  Dalfsen, 
Haaksbergen,  Hardenberg,  Hellendorn,  Lonneker, 
Losser,  Raalte,  Staphorst,  Steenwykerswold,  Tub- 
bergen,  Weerselo,  Wierden,  Zwollerkerspel,  &c. 
The  principal  employments  are — agriculture,  manu- 
factures of  various  kinds,  fishing,  making  peat, 
shipping,  and  merchandise.  In  lt62,  of  128,709£ 
acres  under  cultivation,  05,526  were  in  rye,  2-4,453 
in  potatoes,  1S,3o7  in  buckwheat,  7630 £  in  oats, 
4460  in  barley ;  wheat,  colza,  beans,  flax,  carrots, 
&c,  occupying  smaller  breadths.  The  stock  con- 
sisted of  16,582  horses,  117,067  horned  cattle,  30,352 
sheep,  22,318  swine,  and  8265  goats. 

At  the  five  leading  markets,  Zwolle,  Deventer, 
Kampen,  Almelo,  and  Steenwyck,  besides  the  ground 
produce,  were  sold  3, 007, 98  H  lbs.  of  butter,  of  17| 
oz.  avoirdupois  per  lb.  In  ().,  331,114  acres  are 
still  waste  lands,  261,926  are  in  pasture,  and  73884, 
in  wx)d. 

Carpets  are  manufactured  at  Deventer  and 
Kampen,  leather  at  Blokzyl,  cali  x>es  and  other 
cotton  fabrics  at  Kampen,  Almelo,  Dalfsen,  Ominen, 
and  many  other  towns.  There  are  extensive  brick- 
works at  Ryssen,  Zwollerkerspel,  Markelo,  and 
Diepenveen.  producing  i\u  average  yearly  aggregate 


of  43.760.000.  Shipbuilding  is  carried  on  at  Zwarts- 
luis,  Vollenhove,  Steenwykerwold,  Avereest,  &c. 

There  are  74  Dutch  Reformed  clergymen,  98 
Roman  Catholic  priests,  and  a  few  churches  belong- 
ing to  smaller  Protestant  sects.  The  attendance 
at  school  is  about  1  to  9  of  the  population.  In  1862, 
the  births  amounted  to  7318,  of  which  206  were 
illegitimate,  or  about  1  to  351  ;  the  deaths  wer»» 
5673,  or  about  4>*  to  the  1000  of  the  population. 

The  principal  livers  are  the  Yssel,  into  which  tho 
Schipbeek  runs,  and  the  Overysselsehe  Vecht, 
which  falls  into  the  Black  Water.  Other  important 
water-ways  are  the  Dedems- Vaart  and  the  willem* 
Vaart  canals.  The  island  of  Scbokland,  in  the 
Zuider  Zee,  belongs  to  Overyssel. 

O'VID  (Pubuus  Ovimus  Naso),  the  descendant 
of  an  old  equestrian  family,  was  born  on  the  20th 
March  43  b.  c,  at  Sulmo,  in  the  country  of  the 
Peligni  He  was  educated  for  the  bar,  and  under 
his  masters,  Arellius  Fuscus  and  Porcius  Latro,  he 
became  highly  proficient  in  the  art  of  declamation. 
His  genius,  however,  was  essentially  that  of  the 
poet,  and  the  writing  of  verses  began  to  absorb  the 
time  that  should  have  been  spent  in  the  study  of 
jurisprudence.  His  father,  having  but  a  scanty 
patrimony  to  divide  between  two  sons,  discouraged 
this  tendency  in  the  younger,  but  in  vain.  By  the 
death  of  bis  elder  brother,  O.  inherited  all  bis 
father's  property,  and  went,  for  the  completion  of 
bis  education,  to  Athens,  where  he  acquired  a 
perfect  mastery  of  the  Greek  language.  He  after- 
wards made  a  tour  in  Asia  and  Sicily  aloug  with 
the  poet  Macer.  It  is  uncertain  whether,  on  his 
return  to  Rome,  he  ever  practised  as  advocate. 
Although  by  birth  entitled  to  aspire  to  the  dignity, 
he  never  entered  the  senate  ;  bis  weakness  of  body 
and  indolence  of  habit  prevented  him  from  ever 
rising  higher  than  from  the  position  of  triumvir 
capitalis  to  that  of  a  decemvir,  who  convened  and 
presided  over  the  court  of  the  centumviri.  While 
bis  public  life  was  unimportant,  his  private  was 
that  of  a  gay  and  licentious  man  of  letters.  The 
restraint  of  the  matrimonial  tie  was  always  distaste- 
ful to  him  ;  twice  married  in  early  life,  he  soon 
divorced  each  of  bis  wives  ;  while  be  carried  on  an 
intrigue  with  a  lady  whom  he  celebrated  as  Corinna, 
and  who  is  believed  to  have  been  no  other  than 
Julia,  the  accomplished  daughter  of  Augustus. 
Before  bis  thirtieth  year,  be  married  a  third  time, 
and  became  the  father  of  Perdla,  of  whom  he  was 
tenderly  fond.  Up  till  his  fiftieth  year,  he  resided 
chiefly  at  Rome,  in  a  house  near  the  Capitol,  and 
occasionally  visited  bis  Pelignan  estate.  His  society 
was  much  courted,  and  his  large  circle  of  distin- 
guished friends  included  Augustus  and  the  imperial 
family.  By  an  edict  of  the  emperor,  however,  he 
was,  in  9  a.  d.,  commanded  to  leave  Rome  for  Tomi, 
a  town  near  the  delta  of  the  Danube,  and  en  the 
very  limit  of  the  empire.  The  sentence  did  not 
condemn  him  to  an  exsilium,  but  to  a  relegatlo — or 
in  other  words,  he  did  not  lose  his  citizenship,  nor 
was  he  cut  off  from  all  hope  of  return.  The  cause 
of  this  sudden  banishment  has  long  divided  the 
opinion  of  scholars,  since  the  one  mentioned  in  the 
edict — the  publication  of  his  Ars  Amatoria — was  a 
mere  pretext,  the  poem  having  been  in  circulation 
for  ten  years  before.  His  intrigue  with  Julia,  or 
with  Julia's  daughter,  and  the  consequent  displeasure 
of  Augustus  or  of  Livia,  have  been  adduced  with 
various  degrees  of  plausibility,  as  the  cause  of  a 
sentence  to  which  O.  himself  only  mysteriously 
refers.  The  misery  of  his  life  on  the  inhospitable 
and  barbarous  shore  of  the  Euxine  is  commemo- 
rated by  the  poems  in  the  composition  of  which 
he  found  his  solace.  He  became  a  favourite  with 
the  Tomitae,  whose  language  he  learned,  and  before 

1S9 


OVIEDO— OVULE. 


whom  he  publicly  recited  some  poems  in  honour 
of  Augustus.  But  his  devotion  to  the  emperor, 
and  the  entreaties  addressed  to  the  imperial  court 
by  himself  and  his  friends,  failed  to  shorten  the 
term,  or  to  change  the  scene  of  his  banishment ; 
so  he  died,  an  honoured  citizen  of  Tomi,  18  A.  D., 
in  his  sixtieth  year.  His  works  which  have 
come  down  to  us,  either  in  whole  or  in  part, 
appeared  in  the  following  order :  1.  Amorum 
Libri  III.,  a  revised  and  abridged  edition  of  an 
early  series.  2.  Twenty-one  Epistolce  Heroidum. 
3.  The  Ars  Amatoria.  4.  Remedia  Amoris.  5. 
Nux,  the  remonstrance  of  a  nut-tree  against  the 
ill-treatment  it  receives  from  the  wayfarer,  and  even 
from  its  owner.  6.  Metamorphoseon  Libri  X  V.  This 
is  deservedly  O.'s  best-known  work.  It  seems  to 
have  been  written  between  the  poet's  fortieth  and 
fiftieth  years,  and  consists  of  all  the  transformations 
recorded  in  legend  from  the  creation  down  to  the 
time  of  Julius  Cffisar,  whose  change  into  a  star 
forms  the  last  of  the  series.  7.  Fastorum  Libri 
XII.,  the  first  six  of  which  are  all  that  remain. 
The  poem  is  a  Roman  calendar  versified,  and 
describes  the  appropriate  festivals  and  mythic 
legends  from  materials  supplied  by  the  old  annalists. 

8.  Tristium  Libri  V.,  written  in  elegiac  metre, 
during  the  first  four  years  of  the  poet's  banishment. 
They  are  mainly  descriptive  of  his  miserable  fate, 
and  are  full  of  appeals  to  the  clemency  of  Augustus. 

9.  Epistolarum  ex  Ponto  Libri  IV.,  also  written 
in  elegiac  metre,  and  similar  in  substance  to  the 
Tristia.  10.  Ibis,  a  short  satire  against  some 
traducer  of  the  poet's.  11.  Gohsolatio  ad  Liviam 
A  ugustam,  held  spurious  by  some  critics.  12.  Medi- 
camina  Faciei  and  Halieuticon,  dubiously  genuine, 
and  of  which  we  possess  but  fragments.  Several 
of  his  works  are  entirely  lost,  the  one  best  known 
to  antiquity  being  Medea,  a  tragedy. 

The  poetical  genius  of  0.  has  always  been  admired. 
A  masterly  facility  of  composition,  a  fancy  vigorous 
and  rarely  at  fault,  a  fine  eye  for  colour,  and  a 
versification  very  musical  in  its  flow,  are  the  merits 
which  have  made  him  a  favourite  of  poets  from 
Milton  downwards,  in  spite  of  his  occasional  sloven- 
liness and  falsity  of  thought.  The  best  editions  of 
O.'s  entire  works  areBurmann's  (Amsterdam,  1727), 
and  the  recent  one  of  Merkel ;  whde  excellent 
commentaries  on  one  or  other  of  his  poems  have 
been  published  by  Haupt,  Ramsay,  and  Paley. 
A  good  translation  of  his  Metamorphoses  is  that 
edited  by  Garth,  with  the  assistance  of  Dryden, 
Addison,  Congreve,  and  others  ;  while  special  pass- 
ages of  the  same  poem  have  been  admirably  rendered 
by  Mr  D'Arcy  Thompson. 

OVIE'DO,  a  pleasant  and  healthy  city  of  Spain, 
capital  of  the  modern  province  of  the  same  name 
(the  ancient  Asturias,  q.  v.),  stands  on  a  plain 
between  the  rivers  Nalon  and  Nora,  61  miles  north- 
north-west  of  Leon,  and  22  mdes  south-south-west 
of  Gijon,  on  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  In  the  centre  of 
the  city  is  a  handsome  square,  from  which  four 
principal  streets,  terminating  in  alamedas  or  prome- 
nades, branch  off  toward  the  north,  south,  east, 
and  west,  respectively.  These  main  streets  are 
connected  by  others,  and  all  are  clean  and  well- 
paved.  Pure  water  is  abundantly  supplied  by 
means  of  a  long  aqueduct,  and  is  delivered  in  the 
city  by  eleven  public  fountains.  The  cathedral, 
a  beautiful  cruciform  specimen  of  Gothic,  the  orna- 
mentation of  which  is  as  rich  as  it  is  elegant, 
contains  (in  the  Chapel  of  the  Virgin)  the  remains 
of  many  of  the  early  kings  and  princes  of  Asturias, 
and  has  a  fine  old  library.  Some  curious,  but 
eminently  questionable  relics,  are  to  be  found  in 
the  church  of  San  Miguel,  which  is  the  second 
oldest  Christian  building  after  the  Moorish 
160 


invasion.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  city 
there  are  other  churches  in  the  early  Saxon  style, 
which  are  among  the  oldest  churches  in  the  penin- 
sula. The  convent  of  San  Vincente,  founded  in 
1281,  has  been  secularised,  and  is  now  occupied  by 
government  offices,  &c.  Linens,  woollens,  hats,  and 
firearms  are  manufactured.     Pop.  28,225. 

0.  was  known  during  the  middle  ages  as  Civitaa 
.Episcoporum,  because  many  of  the  Spanish  prelates 
who  had  been  dispossessed  of  their  sees  by  the 
Moors,  took  refuge  here.  This  city,  which  is  thd 
see  of  a  bishop,  was  twice  plundered  of  its  ecclesi* 
astical  and  other  treasures  during  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence ;  first  by  Soult,  and  subsequently  by 
Bonnet. 

OVIEDO  Y  VALDES,  Gonzalo  Feb.  De,  a 
Spanish  chronicler,  born  at  Madrid  in  1478,  was 
sent  by  Ferdinand  to  St  Domingo,  in  the  West 
Indies,  in  1514,  as  intendant  and  inspector-general 
of  the  trade  of  the  New  World.  During  his  long 
residence  in  St  Domingo,  he  spent  his  leisure  in 
acquiring  an  extensive  knowledge  of  the  West 
Indies ;  and  after  his  return  to  Spain  published  at 
Toledo,  in  1526,  a  Summario  de  la  Hisioria  General 
y  Natural  de  las  Indias  Occidentales,  which  he  dedi- 
cated to  Charles  V.  He  afterwards  made  some 
additions  to  the  work,  which  was  republished  at 
Seville  in  1535,  in  21  vols.,  under  the  title  of  La 
Historia  General  y  Natural  de  las  Indias  0cciden~ 
tales.  He  left  other  29  books  in  manuscript.  A 
complete  edition  is  now  being  prepared  at  Madrid. 
0.  died  at  Valladolid  in  1557.  Besides  his  History 
of  the  West  Indies,  he  wrote  Las  Quinquagenas,  a 
valuable,  gossiping,  and  anecdotical  account  of  all 
the  principal  personages  of  Spain  in  his  time,  which 
still  remains  in  MS.  in  the  royal  library  at  Madrid  ; 
and  chronicles  of  Ferdinand,  Isabella,  and  Charles 
V.  A  life  of  Cardinal  Ximenes  is  also  attributed 
to  him. 

OVI'PAROUS,  a  term  applied  to  animals  in 
which  reproduction  takes  place  by  eggs  (ova). 
Except  the  mammalia,  all  animals  are  eithei 
Oviparous  or  Ovo viviparous  (q.  v.) ;  the  latter  mode— 
which  is  not  essentially  different  from  the  former — ■ 
being  comparatively  rare.  Even  those  invertebrate 
animals  which  multiply  by  gemmation  and  divi- 
sion, have  also  a  true  reproduction  by  ova.  See 
Egg  and  Reproduction. 

O'VOLO,  a  convex  moulding  much  used  in  classic 
architecture.  See  Moulding.  In  Roman  architec- 
ture, the  ovolo  is  an  exact  quarter  of  a  circle ;  in 
Greek  architecture,  the  curve  is  sharper  at  the  top 
and  quirked.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  Decorated 
Gothic. 

OVOVIVI'PAROUS,  a  term  applied  to  animals 
of  which  the  egg  is  hatched  within  the  body  of  the 
mother,  so  that  the  young  is  excluded  alive,  although 
the  foetus  has  been  enclosed  in  an  egg  almost  to  the 
time  of  parturition.  It  is  probable  that  the  egg  is 
often  broken  in  parturition  itself.  Some  fishes  are 
ovoviviparous,  and  some  reptiles ;  also  the  Mono- 
tremata.  The  Common  Lizard  and  the  Viviparous 
Lizard,  both  natives  of  Britain,  are  illustrations  of 
the  near  resemblance  which  may  subsist  between 
oviparous  and  ovoviviparous  animals.  The  dis- 
tinction is  much  less  important  than  might  be 
supposed. 

O'VULE  (Lat.  a  little  egg),  in  Botany,  the  rudi- 
mentary seed  The  Germen  (q.  v.)  or  ovary  some- 
times contains  only  one  o\ule,  sometimes  a  small 
definite  number,  sometimes  a  large  indefinite  num- 
ber. Ovules  are  to  be  regarded  as  metamorphosed 
buds.  '  The  single  ovule  contained  in  the  ovaries  of 
Compositae  and  Grasses  may  be  called  a  terminal 
bud,  surrounded  by  a  whorl  of  adhering  leaves  ox 


OWEN. 


carpels,  in  the  axil  of  one  of  which  it  is  produced.' 
Balfour,  Manual  of  /Int'in;/.  The  ovule  is  not 
always  contained  in  an  ovary.  In  Gymnogens  (q.  v.) 
it  is  wanting,  ami  the  ovule  is  naked  hut  the  plants 
possessing  this  character  are  comparatively  few. 
The  ovule  is  attached  to  the  Placenta  (q.  v.),  and  by 
it  to  the  Carpel  (q,  v.),  from  which  it  is  developed. 
The  attachment  to  the  placenta  is  either  immediate, 
when  the  ovule  is  said  to  be  sessile,  or  by  means 
of  an  umbilical  cord  {funiculus),  which  sometimes 
elongates  very  much  after  fecundation.  The  ovule 
is,  in  teneral,  essentially  formed  of  a  cellular  nucleus 
enclosed  by  two  membranes,  the  outer  of  which  is 
called  the  primine,  and  the  inner  the  secundine.  At 
one  end  of  the  nucleus  there  is  an  opening  of  both 
membranes — the  foramen — through  which  the  access 
of  the  pollen  in  Fecundation  (q.  v.)  takes  place.  The 
Ohalaza  (q.  v.)  unites  the  nucleus  and  these  mem- 
branes at  the  base.  When  the  ovule  is  so  developed 
that  the  chalaza  is  at  the  base,  and  the  foramen  at 
the  apex,  it  is  said  to  be  orthotropal  (Gr.  orthos, 
straight,  tropoa,  a  mode).  When  the  ovule  is  bent, 
so  that  the  foramen  is  brought  near  to  the  base, 
it  is  called  campylotropal  (Gr.  kampijlos,  curved). 
When  by  increasing  on  one  side  more  rapidly  than 
on  the  other,  the  ovule  has  its  foramen  close  to 
the  base,  the  chalaza  being  carried  round  to  the 
opposite  extremity,  the  ovule  is  anatropal  (Gr.  ana- 
trepo,  to  turn  upside  down).  Anatropal  ovules  are 
very  common.  When  the  ovule  is  attached  to  the 
placenta,  so  that  the  foramen  and  chalaza  are  at 
opposite  ends,  the  base  being  in  the  middle,  it  is 
called  amphitropnl  (Gr.  ampin,  around). — When  the 
ovule  arises  from  the  base  of  the  germen,  it  is  said 
to  be  erect;  when  it  hangs  from  the  apex  of  the 
cavity  of  the  germen,  it  is  pendulous ;  when  it  arises 
from  the  side  of  the  germen  above  the  base,  it  is 
ascending;  when  it  hangs  from  the  side  of  the 
germen  below  the  apex,  it  is  suspended.  When  two 
or  more  ovules  are  found,  not  only  in  the  same 
ovary,  but  in  the  same  cell,  they  generally  exhibit 
different  modes  of  attachment.  See  Chalaza, 
Embryo,  Fecundation,  Germen,  Placenta,  Seed. 
OWEN,  Dr  John,  an  eminent  Nonconformist 
divine,  descended  from  an  ancient  Welsh  family, 
was  the  son  of  the  Rev.  Henry  Owen,  vicar  of  Stad- 
ham,  in  Oxfordshire,  and  was  born  at  the  vicarage 
in  1616.  In  his  12th  year  he  was  entered  of  Queen's 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  worked  with  amazing 
diligence ;  for  years  taking  no  more  than  four  hours' 
sleep  anight.  In  1635  he  '  commenced '  M.A.  At 
this  period  (if  his  own  statement  does  not  exag- 
gerate) his  great  ambition  was  to  acquire  celebrity 
either  in  church  or  state,  he  didn't  particularly  care 
which ;  and  he  affirms  the  irreligiousness  and  world- 
liness  of  his  motives  with  entire  frankness.  Yet  he 
appears,  for  all  that,  to  have  been  agitated  even  during 
his  student-life  by  the  qucestiones  vexatcR  of  ecclesias- 
tical politics,  and  made  himself  so  conspicuous  by 
his  Anti-Laudianism,  that  he  was  forced  to  leave 
Oxford.  In  fact,  his  Puritanism  had  become  so 
decided,  that  most  of  his  former  friends  had 
abandoned  his  society.  The  next  live  or  six  years 
of  his  life  were  spent,  speaking  generally,  in  a  state 
of  anxious  and  melancholy  introspection.  When 
the  civil  war  finally  broke  out,  0.  was  living  as 
chaplain  with  Lord  Lovelace  of  Hurley,  in  Berk- 
shire. His  lordship  was  a  royalist,  and  went  to 
join  the  king's  army,  whither  0.,  who  had  warmly 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  parliament,  could  not 
accompany  him.  About  the  same  time,  his  uncle,  a 
gentleman  of  property  in  Wales,  who,  having  no 
children  of  his  own,  meant  to  have  made  0.  his  heir, 
indignant  at  the  zealous  Puritanism  of  his  nephew, 
settled  his  estate  upon  another,  and  died  without 
leaving  him  a  farthing.  The  almost  friendless 
323 


scholar  now  removed  to  London,  where  a  casual 
sermon,  preached  by  a  stranger  in  Calamy's  church, 
had  the  effect  of  imparting  to  his  soul  the  peace  ha 

so  ardently  desired.  In  1642,  lie  pul dished  1 1 is 
Display  of  Armtnianiam,  a  work  that  proved  very 
acceptable  to  the  Puritan  party,  and  drew  upon  him 
the  favourable  regards  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
Soon  after,  the  'Committee  for  Purging  the  Church 
of  Scandalous  Ministers'  presented  him  with  the 
living  of  Fordham,  in  Essex.  His  ministrations 
were  exceedingly  popular,  people  coming  from  n  at 
distances  to  hear  him  preach.  While  residing  at 
Fordham  he  married  a  lady  named  Rooke,  by  v.  Imm 
he  had  several  children.  Not  long  after  he  removed 
to  Coggeshall,  where  his  views  of  church 
ment  underwent  a  modification.  Up  to  this  point 
he  had  been  a  Presbyterian,  but  he  now  became 
a  moderate  Independent  or  Congregationalist.  It 
is  almost  superfluous  to  add  that  the  Presbyterian 
ministers  —intolerant,  dogmatical,  and  acrimonious 
to  a  degree  that  is  scarcely  credible — fell  upon  him 
at  once  for  his  apostasy,  but  failed  to  perturb  his 
sober  temper.  At  Coggeshall  he  wrote  his  Salus 
Electorum,  Sanguis  Jesu  ('  The  Blood  of  Jesus,  the 
Salvation  of  the  Elect'),  a  work  the  result  of  seven 
years'  study,  and  of  which  he  himself  said  that  '  he 
did  not  believe  he  should  live  to  see  a  solid  answer 
given  to  it.'  His  fame  still  increasing,  he  was*sent 
for  in  1646  to  preach  before  the  parliament.  To  his 
discourse,  entitled  A  Vision  of  Free  Mercy,  he  added 
an  Appendix,  in  which  he  pleads  for  liberty  of  con- 
science in  matters  of  religion.  He  was  again  chosen 
to  preach  before  the  House  of  Commons  the  day 
after  the  execution  of  King  Charles  I.  (January  31, 
1649),  but  discreetly  avoided  a  vindication  of  the 
act.  About  this  time  Cromwell  made  his  acquaint- 
ance, and  thought  so  highly  both  of  his  preaching 
and  character,  that  he  insisted  on  0.  accompanying 
him  to  Ireland,  where  the  latter  remained  about 
half  a  year.  In  1650,  he  went  with  Cromwell  to 
Scotland,  and  resided  in  Edinburgh  for  several 
months  ;  in  1651,  the  House  of  Commons  appointed 
him  dean  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford;  and  in  1652, 
when  only  in  his  36th  year,  he  was  admitted  vice- 
chancellor  of  the  university.  The  manner  in  which 
he  discharged  his  duties  reflects  the  highest  credit 
on  the  impartiality  of  his  disposition.  Though  him- 
self an  Independent,  and  owing  his  honours  directly 
to  the  Independent  party,  0.  never  shewed  himself  a 
partisan.  Most  of  the  vacant  livings  in  his  patronage 
were  bestowed  on  Presbyterians ;  and  Episcopalians 
were  allowed  to  celebrate  divine  worship  in  their 
own  way,  nor  could  the  vice-chancellor  ever  be 
induced  to  offer  them  the  slightest  molestation. 
While  at  Oxford,  the  'Atlas  of  Independency,'  as 
Wood  grandiloquently  dabs  0.,  wrote  his  Diatriba 
de  Divina  Justitia,  his  Doctrine  of  the  Saints  Per- 
severance, his  V indictee  Evangelkce — against  Biddle 
(q.  v.)  and  the  Socinians— and  his  Mortification  oj 
Sin  in  Believers.  He  was  one  of  the  well-known 
'tryers'  appointed  to  'purge'  the  church  of 'scan- 
dalous' (i.e.,  royalist)  'ministers,'  and  in  this  capa- 
city signalised  himself  by  his  friendly  offices  on 
behalf  of  men  of  learning  and  merit,  among  whom 
may  be  mentioned  the  celebrated  Dr  Edward 
Pococke,  professor  of  Arabic.  A  coldness  now 
appears  to  have  sprung  up  between  him  and  Crom- 
well. 0.  is  said  to  have  been  opposed  to  what 
many  people  call  the  '  ambitious '  designs  of  the 
Protector,  and  in  1657  he  was  succeeded  as  vice- 
chancellor  of  the  university  by  Dr  Conant.  The 
year  after  Cromwell's  death,  he  was  ejected  from 
his  deanery,  and  retired  to  Stadham,  in  Oxfordshire, 
where  he  had  purchased  an  estate,  and  where  he 
formed  a  congregation,  to  which  he  ministered  until 
his  removal  to  London  shortly  after  the  restoration. 
J  161 


OWEN. 


The  writings  belonging  to  this  period  of  retirement, 
if  we  may  so  call  it,  are,  Communion  with  God  ;  On 
the  Divine  Original,  Authority,  Self- Evidencing  Light 
and  Power  of  the  Scriptures  ;  Theologoumena,  or  De 
Natura,  Ortu,  Progressu,  et  Studio  verm  Theologies; 
and  an  uncritical,  irreflective,  and  unscholarly 
diatribe  against  Walton's  Pobjglott,  in  which  the 
different  readings  of  Scripture  were  learnedly  set 
forth.  In  1662,  he  published  Animadversions  to 
Fiat  Lux,  a  treatise  written  by  a  Franciscan  friar 
in  the  interests  of  Roman  Catholicism.  It  was 
followed  by  works  on  Indwelling  Sin,  on  the  130th 
Psalm,  and  on  '  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,'  the  last 
of  which  began  to  appear  in  166S,  and  is  usually 
reckoned  O.'s  Magnum  Opus.  In  1669  he  published 
Truth  and  Innocence  Vindicated,  a  reply  to  Samuel 
(afterwards  Bishop)  Parker's  Discourse  on  Eccle- 
siastical Policy,  and  in  1673  became  pastor  of  a 
large  congregation  in  Leadenhall  Street.  His  last 
publications  of  importance  were  a  Discourse  Con- 
cerning the  Holy  Spirit  (1674) ;  Doctrine  of  Justification 
by  Faith  (1677),  a  treatise  still  much  admired  by 
many  ;  and  Christologia,  or  Glorious  Mystery  of  the 
Person  of  Christ. 

O.  in  his  later  years  was  held  in  the  highest 
esteem  by  many  of  the  most  influential  personages 
in  tbe  land,  such  as  the  Earl  of  Orrery,  the  Earl 
of  Anglesea,  Lord  Willoughby,  Lord  Berkley,  Sir 
Johi#  Trevor.  When  drinking  the  waters  at  Tun- 
bridge,  even  the  Duke  of  York  and  Charles  II.  paid 
him  particular  attention,  and  had  long  conversations 
with  him  on  the  subject  of  Nonconformity.  0.  died 
at  Ealing,  24th  August  16S3,  and  was  buried  in 
Bnnhill  Fields.  His  funeral  was  attended  by  no  less 
than  sixty  noblemen.  0.  was  the  most  voluminous, 
but  by  no  means  the  most  powerful  writer  among 
the  Puritan  divines.  His  prolix  and  passionless 
disquisitions,  his  dull,  tedious,  and  exhausting  argu- 
mentations, his  lack  of  subtle  spiritual  perception, 
his  ponderous  and  lumbering  style,  make  his  writ- 
ings the  reverse  of  interesting  ;  and  one  can  almost 
pardon  the  irreverent  criticism  of  Robert  Hall,  who 
is  said  to  have  pronounced  them  'a  continent  of 
mud.'  Yet  0.  deserves  respect  for  his  learning  and 
moderation.  The  best  edition  of  his  works  was 
published  at  Edinburgh  (1856,  et  seq.). 

OWEN,  Richard,  was  born  at  Lancaster,  July 
20,  1804.  Having  received  his  elementary  education 
at  the  grammar-school  of  that  town,  he  became,  at 
the  age  of  twenty,  a  student  in  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity. Under  the  guidance  of  the  third  Monro, 
Alison,  Jameson,  and  Hope  in  the  university,  and  of 
Barclay  in  the  outdoor  school,  his  natural  talents 
early  developed  themselves.  He  was  an  active 
student,  and  with  others  of  kindred  spirit,  formed 
the  Hunterian  Society,  of  which  he  was  chosen  pre- 
sident in  1825.  In  1S26,  he  removed  to  London, 
joining  the  medical  school  of  St  Bartholomew's 
Hospital ;  and  to  the  Medical  Society  of  this  institu- 
tion he  communicated  his  earliest  published  paper : 
*  An  Account  of  the  Dissection  of  the  Parts  con- 
cerned in  the  Aneurism,  for  the  Cure  of  which 
Dr  Stevens  tied  the  Internal  Iliac  Artery,'  which 
appeared  in  the  Medico-Chirurgical  Transactions  for 
1830.  It  was  doubted  whether  so  deep-seated  an 
artery  coidd  have  been  reached,  but  he  shewed  that 
the  ligature  had  been  applied  to  the  internal  iliac, 
and  the  aneurism  had  in  this  way  been  obliterated. 

It  had  been  his  intention  to  enter  the  navy ;  but 
when  he  finished  his  education,  he  accepted  an 
appointment  as  assistant  to  Mr  Clift,  the  Curator  of 
the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  and 
helped  him  in  the  preparation  of  his  catalogues  of 
'Pathological  Specimens'  (1830),  'Monsters  and 
Malformations'  (1831),  but  chiefly  of  the ' Specimens 
of   Natural    History  .in  Spirits'   (1830).     He  had, 

162 


about  this  time,  the  fortune  to  obtain  a  specimen 
of  Nautilus  pompilius,  an  animal  almost  unknown, 
and  of  great  importance  not  only  in  itself,  but  also 
and  chiefly  because  of  its  numerous  fossil  allies. 
The  results  of  his  careful  dissection  of  this  specimen 
were  published  in  an  elaborate  Memoir,  which  at 
once  gave  him  a  high  position  amongst  naturalists, 
for  the  advanced  views  on  structure  and  affinities 
it  contained. 

The  continued  examination  of  Hunter's  extensive 
collections  in  the  College  of  Surgeons'  Museum  wan 
his  great  work.  This  resulted  in  the  enlargement 
and  arrangement  of  the  collections,  and  in  the  pub- 
lication of  his  Descriptive  and  Illustrated  Catalogue 
of  the  Physiological  Series  of  Comparative  A  natumy, 
which  was  issued  in  sections  during  1833 — 1840; 
of  his  Palaiontological  Catalogue,  of  which  the 
Mammals  and  Birds  were  published  in  1S45,  and 
the  Reptiles  and  Fishes  in  1854 ;  and  of  his 
Catalogue  of  Recent  Osteology  (1854),  in  which  he 
describes  5906  specimens.  The  collections,  which  in 
1828  were  contained  in  one  small  badly-lighted 
room,  in  1856,  when  O.'s  connection  with  them 
terminated,  filled  ten  times  the  original  space — 
three  large  galleries  having  been  specially  erected  to 
contain  them. 

O.'s  position  as  curator  of  the  Hunterian  Museum, 
to  which  he  succeeded  on  the  death  of  Clift, 
awakened  in  him  a  special  interest  in  its  famous 
founder.  In  1837,  he  published  a  new  edition  of 
Hunter's  Animal  Economy,  adding  to  it  all  the 
known  published  papers  of  its  author ;  and  giving 
in  the  preface,  for  the  first  time,  a  descriptive  narra- 
tive of  Hunter's  real  discoveries.  He  afterwards 
edited  two  volumes  of  Essays  and  Observations  on 
Natural  History,  Anatomy,  &c,  by  John  Hunter 
(1861),  which  had  been  saved  from  Home's  unprin- 
cipled and  barbarous  destruction  of  Hunter's  manu- 
scripts, by  having  been  transcribed  by  Clift,  who 
was  the  last  articled  apprentice  of  Hunter.  In  the 
preface  to  these  volumes,  O.  shewed  the  advanced 
views  which  Hunter  entertained  in  Geology  and 
Palaeontology. 

The  iirst  appointment  of  O.  as  public  lecturer  was 
to  the  chair  of  Comparative  Anatomy  in  St  Bar- 
tholomew's Hospital  in  1834.  Two  years  afterwards, 
he  succeeded  Sir  Charles  Bell  as  Professor  of 
Anatomy  and  Physiology  in  the  College  of  Surgeons, 
and  was  in  the  same  year  appointed  by  the  College 
as  first  '  Hunterian  Professor.'  For  twenty  years 
he  continued  to  illustrate  the  recent  and  fossd 
treasures  of  the  museum,  until,  in  1856,  he  was 
appointed  Superintendent  of  the  Natural  History 
Department  of  the  British  Museum,  when  hia 
connection  with  the  College  of  Surgeons  ceased. 

We  have  not  space  to  record  eveu  the  principal  of 
O.'s  numerous  published  papers.  His  earliest  com- 
munications to  the  Royal  Society  were  papers  on 
the  generation  of  the  ornithorhynchus  and  of  the 
kangaroo.  In  numerous  Memoirs  between  1S35  and 
1862,  he  expounded  the  structure  and  affinities  of 
the  higher  quadrumana  ;  and  in  these  and  other 
papers,  he  proposed  the  use  of  the  brain-structure,  as 
an  important  element  in  classification.  It  has  been 
objected,  that  the  particular  parts  to  which  he 
referred  in  characterising  his  highest  class,  are  found 
in  the  lower  classes  ;  but  the  objectors  forget  that 
he  does  not  use  the  existence  of  the  parts  as  hia 
characters,  but  only  their  remarkable  development. 
A  similar  objection  may  be  urged  ago-inst  every 
system  of  classification,  for  no  decided  line  can  be 
drawn  around  any  group,  the  whole  animal  world 
being  united  by  a  graduation  of  structure. 

His  exposition  of  the  recent  and  fossd  birds  of 
New  Zealand  is  well  known.  He  first  published 
two  elaborate  papers  on  the  anatomy  of  the  Apteryx, 


OWEN- OWL. 


nnd  then  followed  at  intervals  seven  or  eight  mono- 
-  on  the  gigantic  Btruthioua  Birds  which  once 
existed  in  these  distant  islands.  His  descriptions 
and  restorations  of  extinct  animals  are  perhaps  the 
most  important  of  all  his  labours.  ECe  has  published 
a  monograph  of  the  British  Fossil  Mammalia  and 
Birds,  and  six  parts  of  an  elaborate  systematic 
history  of  British  fossil  Reptiles.  In  describing  the 
fragmentary  fossil  relics  brought  home  by  Darwin 
Imiii  Smith  America,  he  established  many  remark- 
able forms  from  very  scanty  materials,  and  shewed 
that  there  existed  in  America,  diving  the  Tertiary 
period,  a  mammalian  Fauna,  the  individuals  of 
which  were,  for  the  most  part,  of  gigantic  size, 
yet  similar  in  type  to  the  existing  animals  of  that 
continent.  Subsequently,  he  clearly  expounded  the 
various  genera  of  huge  sloths  from  the  same  region, 
whose  remains  were  previously  confounded  or 
misunderstood.  A  series  of  fossds  from  Australia 
revealed  to  him  a  remarkable  group  of  gigantic 
marsupials,  resembling  in  tvpe  the  present  tenants 
of  that  island-continent.  His  latest  pakeontological 
paper  is  his  elaborate  Memoir  on  the  singular  long- 
tailed  bird  from  Solenhofen,  in  which  lie  for  the 
first  time  expounded  the  structure  and  affinities  of 
that  anomalous  creature.  But  we  cannot  even 
record  the  titles  of  his  multitudinous  researches  on 
extinct  animals,  and  must  refer  our  readers,  for  a 
summary  of  them,  to  his  recent  work,  Palceontology 
(Edin.,  Black,  1861). 

His  great  work  on  the  microscopic  structure  of  the 
teeth  must  be  named.  The  Odontography,  published 
in  1840 — 1845,  contains  descriptions  and  exquisite 
drawings  of  the  minute  structure  of  a  very  extensive 
series  of  the  teeth  of  every  class  of  animals.  In  1866 
— 1868,  appeared  his  Anatomy  of  the  Vertebrates,  in 
3  vols. 

He  has  published  original  papers  on  every  branch 
of  the  animal  kingdom,  living  and  fossil ;  and  it  has 
been  justly  said  of  him,  that  '  from  the  sponge  to 
man,  he  has  thrown  light  over  every  subject  he  has 
touched.'  Some  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  his  labours 
may  be  formed  from  the  fact,  that  his  published 
productions  amount  to  more  than  300  different 
papers  and  works,  many  of  them  being  of  the  most 
voluminous  and  laborious  character. 

0.,  in  1S35,  married  the  only  daughter  of  Clift, 
his  colleague  at  the  College  of  Surgeons.  In  1858, 
he  resumed  his  position  as  Fullerian  Professor  of 
Physiology  in  the  Boyal  Institution  of  Britain, 
which,  some  20  years  before,  he  had  filled  for  two 
sessions  ;  and  in  the  following  year,  he  was  appointed 
Reade  Lecturer  by  the  University  of  Cambridge. 
He  is  a  Fellow  and  active  member  of  most  of  the 
metropolitan  scientific  societies,  and  an  honorary 
member  of  many  foreign  societies.  In  1858,  he  was 
elected  one  of  the  eight  foreign  Associates  of  the 
Institute  of  France,  in  the  room  of  the  great  botanist, 
Kobert  Brown.  From  France  he  also  received  the 
order  of  the  Legion  of  Honour ;  from  Prussia,  the 
Ordre  pour  le  Merite  ;  and  from  Italy,  the  Order  of 
St  Maurice  and  St  Lazare. 

OWEN,  Robert,  a  social  theorist  and  schemer, 
was  born  on  the  14th  of  May  1771,  at  Newton,  in 
Montgomeryshire.  He  does  not  appear  to  have  had 
any  more  than  a  merely  commercial  education  to  fit 
him  for  common  business.  The  point  from  which 
his  peculiar  destiny  in  life  may  be  said  to  have 
started,  was  his  marriage  in  1799  to  the  daughter  of 
David  Dale,  the  owner  of  the  celebrated  cotton 
mills  at  New  Lanark,  on  the  Clyde.  This  establish- 
ment was  very  successful  as  a  money  speculation, 
and  it  is  curious  that  Jeremy  Bentham  made  a  small 
fortune  by  investing  in  it.  Mr  Dale  was  known  to 
be  a  thorough  man  of  business,  but  whether  O.,  by 
his  peculiar  faculties  for  organisation,  contributed  to 


the  prosperity  of  the    establishment  in  its  early 
stages,  is  a  doubtful  question,     it  is  certain  that  as 
his   larger  schemes  d<  veloped  tie 
felt  to  be.  a  dangerous  partner  in  a  good  bv 

and  he  was  gradually  elbowed  out  of  any  voice  n,  the 

ment,  and  he  finally  di  his  share  uj 

the  property. 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  of  a  man 

whose  life  will  go  down  to  posterity  as  one  long 
absurdity,  that  in  his  connection  with  New  Lanark 
Mills  he  did  real  practical  good  on  a  scale  by  Q0 
means  limited.  He  was  naturally  active  and  inter- 
fering, and  being  a  humane  man,  it  struck  him  that 
much  degradation,  vice,  and  suffering  arose  from 
the  disorganised  manner  in  which  the  progress  of 
machinery  and  manufactures  was  huddling  the  maim. 
facturing  population  together.  He  introduced  into 
the  New  Lanark  community  education,  sanitary 
reform,  and  various  civilising  agencies,  which  phil- 
anthropists at  the  present  day  are  but  imperfectly 
accomplishing  in  the  great  manufacturing  districts. 
The  mills  became  a  centre  of  attraction.  They  were 
daily  visited  by  every  illustrious  traveller  in  Britain, 
from  crowned  heads  downwards,  and  it  was  delight* 
ful  not  only  to  see  the  decency  and  order  of  every- 
thing, but  to  hear  the  bland  persuasive  eloquence  of 
the  garrulous  and  benevolent  organiser. 

A  factory  was,  however,  far  too  limited  a  sphere 
for  his  ambition.  He  wanted  to  organise  the  world; 
and  that  there  might  be  no  want  of  an  excuse  for 
his  intervention,  he  set  about  proving  that  it  was 
in  all  its  institutions  — the  prevailing  religion 
included  — in  as  wretched  a  condition  as  any  dirty 
demoralised  manufacturing  village.  Such  was  the 
scheme  with  which  he  came  out  on  the  astonished 
world  in  1816,  in  his  New  Views  of  Society,  or 
Essays  on  the  Formation  of  the  Human  Character  ; 
and  he  continued,  iu  books,  pamphlets,  lectures,  and 
other  available  forms,  to  keep  up  the  stream  of  excit- 
ation till  it  was  stopped  by  his  death.  He  had  at 
least  three  grand  opportunities  of  setting  up  limited 
communities  on  his  own  principles — one  at  Bomney, 
in  America  ;  a  second  at  Orbiston,  in  Lanarkshire  ; 
the  third  at  Harmony  Hall,  in  Hampshire,  so  lately 
as  the  year  1844.  They  were,  of  course,  all  failures, 
and  O.  attributed  their  failure  to  their  not  being 
sufficiently  perfected  on  his  principles.  His  life  was 
a  remarkable  phenomenon,  from  the  preternatural 
sanguineness  of  temperament  which,  in  the  face  of 
failures,  and  a  world  ever  growing  more  hostile, 
made  him  believe  to  the  last  that  all  his  projects 
were  just  on  the  eve  of  success.  In  the  revolution 
of  1S48  he  went  to  Paris,  with  hopes  of  course  on 
the  highest  stretch;  but  his  voice  was  not  loud 
enough  to  be  heard  in  that  great  turmoil.  He 
appeared  at  the  meeting  of  the  Social  Science 
Association  at  Liverpool  in  the  autumn  of  1S58, 
with  all  his  schemes  as  fresh  and  complete  as  ever, 
but  it  was  their  last  resuscitation.  He  died  a  few 
weeks  afterwards,  on  17th  November  1S5S. 

OWL,  a  numerous  and  extremely  well-defined 
group  of  birds,  constituting  the  Linnsean  genus  titriz, 
now  the  family  Striyidce,  the  whole  of  the  noclurnat 
section  of  Birds  of  Prey.  The  aspect  of  the 
owls  at  once  distinguishes  them  from  all  other 
birds,  being  rendered  very  peculiar  by  the  large  size 
of  their  heads,  and  by  their  great  eyes,  directed 
forwards,  and  surrounded  with  more  or  less  perfect 
discs  of  feathers  radiating  outwards,  whilst  the 
small  hooked  bill  is  half  concealed  by  the  feathers 
of  these  discs,  and  by  bristly  feathers  which  grow 
at  its  base.  The  bill  is  curved  almost  from 
its  base ;  the  upper  mandible  not  notched,  but 
much  hooked  at  the  tip.  The  claws  are  sharp  aud 
curved,  but,  like  the  bill,  less  powerful  than  iu  the 
Falconidce.     The  outer  toe  is  generally  reversible  at 

163 


OWL. 


pleasure,  so  that  the  toes  can  lie  opposed  two  and 
two,  to  give  greater  security  of  grasp.  The  wings, 
although  generally  long,  are  less  adapted  for  rapid 
and  sustained  flight  than  those  of  the  diurnal  birds 
of  prey,  and  the  bony  framework  by  which  they  are 
supported,  and  the  muscles  which  move  them,  are 
less  powerful ;  the  owls  in  general  taking  their  prey, 
not  by  pursuit,  but  by  surprise,  to  which  there  is  a 
beautiful  adaptation  in  the  softness  of  their  plumage, 
and  their  consequently  noiseless  flight ;  the  feathers 
even  of  the  wings  being  downy,  and  not  offering  a 
firm  resisting  surface  to  the  air,  as  in  falcons.  The 
soft  and  loose  plumage  adds  much  to  the  apparent 
size  of  the  body,  and  also  of  the  head ;  but  the  head 
owes  its  really  large  size  to  large  cavities  in  the 
skull  between  its  outer  and  inner  tables  or  bony 
layers,  which  cavities  communicate  with  the  ear, 
and  are  supposed  to  add  to  the  acuteness  of  the 
sense  of  hearing.  This  sense  is  certainly  very  acute, 
and  the  ear  is,  in  many  of  the  species,  very  large. 
It  is  furnished  with  an  external  conch,  which  is 
found  in  no  other  birds.  It  is,  however,  concealed 
by  the  feathers,  being  situated  on  the  outside  of  the 
disc  which  surrounds  the  eye ;  but  the  feathers 
immediately  surrounding  the  ear  are  arranged  in  a 
kind  of  cone,  serving  a  purpose  like  that  of  an  ear- 
trumpet.  In  some  species,  the  ear  is  furnished  with 
a  remarkable  lid  or  operculum,  which  the  bird  has 
the  power  of  opening  and  shutting  at  pleasure.  The 
disc  which  surrounds  the  eye  serves  to  collect  rays 
of  light  and  throw  them  on  the  pupil ;  and  owls 
can  see  well  in  twilight  or  moonlight,  but  are  gener- 
ally incapable  of  sustaining  the  glare  of  day,  many 
of  them  becoming  quite  bewildered  when  exposed 
to  it,  and  evidently  suffering  pain,  which  they 
instinctively  seek  to  relieve  by  frequent  motion  of 
the  third  eyelid  or  nictitating  membrane  of  the  eye. 
The  legs  and  feet  of  owls  ai-e  feathered  to  the  toes, 
and  in  many  species  even  to  the  claws. 

The  digestive  organs  much  resemble  those  of  the 
Falconida?,  but  there  is  no  crop,  and  the  stomach  is 
more  muscular.  The  gullet  is  very  wide  through- 
out, and  owls  swallow  their  prey  either  entire  or  in 
very  large  morsels.  The  largest  species  feed  on 
hares,  fawns,  the  largest  gallinaceous  birds,  &c.  ; 
others  on  small  mammalia,  reptiles,  birds,  and 
sometimes  fishes;  some  feed  partly  or  chiefly  on 
large  insects. 

The  owl  has  from  early  times  been  deemed  a  bird 
of  evil  omen,  and  has  been  an  object  of  dislike  and 
dread  to  the  superstitious.  This  is  perhaps  partly 
to  be  ascribed  to  the  manner  with  which  it  is  often 
seen  suddenly  and  unexpectedly  to  flit  by  when 
the  twilight  is  deepening  into  night ;  partly  to  the 
fact,  that  some  of  the  best-known  species  frequent 
ruined  buildings,  whilst  others  haunt  the  deepest 
solitudes  of  woods ;  but,  no  doubt,  chiefly  to  the 
cry  of  some  of  the  species,  hollow  and  lugubrious, 
but  loud  and  startling,  heard  during  the  hours  of 
darkness,  and  often  by  the  lonely  wanderer.  It 
is  evidently  from  this  cry  that  the  name  owl  is 
derived,  as  well  as  many  of  its  synonymes  in  other 
languages,  and  of  the  names  appropriated  in  diffe- 
rent countries  to  particular  species,  in  most  of  which 
the  sound  Oo  or  Ow  is  predominant,  with  great 
variety  of  accompanying  consonants.  Many  of  the 
owls  have  also  another  and  very  different  cry,  which 
has  gained  for  one  of  them  the  appellation  screech 
owl,  and  to  which,  probably,  the  Latin  name  strix 
and  some  other  names  are  to  be  referred. 

Some  of  the  owls  have  the  discs  of  the  face  imper- 
fect above  the  eyes,  the  whole  aspect  somewhat 
approaching  to  that  of  falcons ;  the  conchs  of  the 
ears  small,  and  the  habits  less  nocturnal  than  the 
rest  of  this  family.  These  constitute  one  of  the  three 
generally  received  divisions  in  which  the  species  are 
161 


arranged.  Another  division,  with  more  perfect  discs 
around  the  eyes,  is  characterised  by  the  presence 
of  two  feathery  tufts  on  the  head,  popularly  called 
horns,  or  ears,  and  sometimes  egrets  or  aigrettes. 
The  third  division  is  destitute  of  these  tufts,  the 
discs  of  the  face  are  perfect,  and  the  ears  are  very 
large.  On  these  distinctions,  and  on  the  feathered 
or  unfeathered  toes,  and  other  points  not  of  great 
importance,  are  founded  the  genera  into  which  the 
Linnrean  genus  Strix  has  been  broken  down  by 
recent  ornithologists.  See,  for  example,  the  charac- 
ters of  Bubo  in  the  article  Eagle  Owl. 

Owls  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  in 
all  climates,  and  are  arboreal  or  terrestrial  in  habits, 
Seventeen  species  are  reckoned  as  natives  of  North 
America,  and  about  fifteen  are  natives  of  Europe. 
Some  of  the  species  have  a  very  wide  geographical 
range.  One  of  the  most  j'kmtiful  British  species 
is  the  White  Owl,  or  Barn  Owl,  or  Screech  Owl 
(Strix  flammed),  one  of  those  having  perfect  discs 
around  the  eyes,  and  no  aigrettes.  It  is  about 
fourteen  inches  in  its  whole  length.  The  tail  is,  as 
in  most  of  the  owls,  rather  short  and  rounded  ;  the 


1.  Great  or  Eagle  Owl  (Bubo  maximus) ;  2.  Snowy  Owl  (Xycten 
iiivea);  3.  Virginian  Eared  Owl  (Bubo  Virginianus);  4. 
White  or  Bun  Owl  (Strix  flammed)  ;  5.  Long-eared  Owl 
(Otus  vulgaris) ;  6.  Foot  uf  Snowy  Owl. 

wings  reach  rather  beyond  the  taiL  The  toes 
are  not  feathered.  The  head  and  upper  parts  are 
of  a  pale  orange  colour,  marked  by  a  multitude 
of  small,  scattered  chestnut- coloured  spots,  and 
gray  and  brown  ziz-zag  lines;  the  face  and 
throat  white.  This  owl  very  generally  frequents 
old  buildings  and  outhouses.  It  destroys  great 
numbers  of  rats  and  mice,  and  deserves  the 
protection  of  the  farmer.  The  voracity  of  owls  is 
wonderful,  and  they  kill,  if  possible,  more  than 
they  need,  storing  it  up  for  future  use.  The  barn 
owl  is  easily  tamed  if  taken  young.  When  irritated, 
it  has,  like  some  other — perhaps  all— owds,  a  habit 
of  hissing  and  snapping  its  mandibles  together.  It 
almost  never  leaves  its  retreat  by  day,  unless  driven 
out ;  and  when  this  is  the  case,  all  the  little  birds 
of  the  neighbourhood  congregate  about  it  as  an 
enemy  which  may  then  be  safely  annoyed,  and  the 
grimaces  of  the  poor  owl,  blinded  oy  the  too  strong 
light,  are  very  grotesque  and  amusing.  This  species 
has  been  said  to  be  an  inhabitant  of  almost  all  parts 
of  the  world,  but  there  is  reason  to  think  that  simi- 
lar species  have  been  confounded. — The  Tawny  Owl, 
Brown  Owl,  or  Ivy  Owl  (Strix,  orSyrniwn,  stridula 
or  aluco)  is  another  of  the  most  common  European  owls. 


*»WLGkASS— CX. 


n  species  about  the  Bize  of  the  barn  owl,  or  rather 
larger,  with  rather  longer  tail,  and  comparatively 
short  wings,  the  feet  feathered  to  the  claws;  the 
upper  parts  mostly  ash-gray  mottled  with  brown, 
the  under  parts  grayish-white  and  mottled.  —  The 
BAKED  Owl  (Strix  otus,ot  Otus  vulgaris)  and 
the  Shout-eared  Owl  (A  or  0.  brachyotos),  spe- 
cies with  aigrettes,  are  common  in  America.  The 
Eagle  Owl  (q.  v.)  occurs  in  Europe. — of  the  Bpe- 
cies  with  imperfect  discs  around  the  eyea  and  more 
falcon-like  aspect,  the  moat  interesting  in  the  Amer- 
can  fauna  is  the  Snowy  Owl  (Strix,  or  Surnia, 
nyctea),  the  Harfang  of  the  Swedes,  a  species  oc- 
casionally seen  in  the  Shetland  Islands,  and  very 
rarely  in  more  southern  regions  in  winter,  hut  well 
known  in  aU  the  very  northern  parts  of  the  world. 
It  is  from  22  to  21  inches  in  length,  Cecils  on 
every  kind  of  animal  food  which  it  can  obtain,  and 
nas  white  plumage  spotted  and  barred  with  brown, 
the  legs  densely  leathered  to  the  claws. — Of  owls 
not  natives  ot  Britain,  one  of  the  most  interesting  is 
tin  BURROWING  Owl  {Strix,  or  Athene,  cunicula- 
ria),  a  western  American  spec.es,  which,  when  neces- 
sarj ,  excavates  a  burrow  for  itself,  but  prefers  to 
take  possession  of  those  of  the  marmot,  called  the 
Prairie  Dog  (q.  v.).  It  is  not  the  only  species  of  owl 
which  inhabits  holes  in  the  ground. — The  Boobook 
or  IJookbook:  of  Australia  (Strix,  or  Noctua,  Boo- 
book) is  a  species  of  owl,  which  frequently  repeats 
during  the  night  the  cry  represented  by  its  name, 
as  it'  it  were  a  nocturnal  cuckoo.  Some  of  the  spe- 
cies of  owls  are  small  birds ;  among  the  rarer  Amer- 
ican species  are  one  of  8^  inches,  and  one  scarcely 
more  than  7  inches  long.  Some  owls  are  at  least 
partially  birds  of  passage,  of  which,  among  American 
species,  the  short-eared  owl  is  an  example. 

OWLGLASS  (Ger.  Eulenspiegel),  Tyll,  the 
prototype  of  all  the  knavish  '  fools '  of  later  time, 
is  said  to  have  been  born  in  the  village  of  Kneittin- 
gen,  in  Brunswick.  His  father  was  called  Klaus 
Eulenspiegel,  and  his  mother  Anna  Wortbeck.  In 
youth,  we  are  told,  he  wandered  out  into  the  world, 
and  played  all  manner  of  tricks  on  the  people  whom 
he  met  with.  His  tomb  is  shewn  at  Mblln,  about 
four  leagues  from  Lubeck,  where  tradition  makes  him 
die  about  1350  ;  but  the  inhabitants  of  Damme,  in 
Belgium,  also  boast  of  having  his  bones  in  their 
churchyard,  and  place  his  death  in  1301,  so  that 
several  critics  regard  Eulenspiegel  as  an  altogether 
imaginary  person,  a  mere  nominis  umbra  afiixed  to 
a  cycle  of  medieval  tricks  and  adventures.  The 
opinion,  however,  considered  most  probable  is  that 
Eulenspiegel  is  not  a  myth,  but  that  there  were  two 
historical  individuals  of  that  name,  father  and  son, 
of  whom  the  former  died  at  Damme,  and  the  latter 
at  Molln.  The  stories  that  circulate  in  Germany 
under  Eulenspiegel' s  name  wrere  not  collected,  as 
the  book  containing  them  itself  informs  us,  till  after 
Eulenspiegel's  death,  and  without  doubt  were  origin- 
ally written  in  the  Low  German  tongue ;  from 
Low  German,  they  were  translated  into  High  Ger- 
man by  the  Franciscan  Thorn.  Murner,  and  this 
translation  was  followed  iu  all  the  old  High  German 
editions  of  the  work.  At  a  later  period,  it  under- 
went considerable  alterations,  at  the  hands  of  both 
Protestants  and  Catholics,  who  made  it  a  vehicle 
for  the  expression  of  their  own  likings  and  dislikings. 
The  oldest  known  edition  is  that  printed  at  Stras- 
burg  in  1519.  The  verdict  of  modern  times  has  been 
unfavourable,  not  only  to  the  aesthetic,  but  to  the 
moral,  value  of  the  book;  yet  although  indecencies 
may  be  found  abundantly  in  it,  they  may  perhaps  in 
large  measure  be  attributed  to  the  age  in  which 
Eulenspiegel  or  the  author  of  Eulenspiegel  lived. 
For  centuries  it  has  been  a  favourite  people's  book, 
not  only  in  Germany,  but  in  many  other  countries. 


Translations  of  it  exist  in  Bohemian,  i'oiisn,  Italian, 
English  (as  a  Miracle  Play)    Dutch,  Danish,  French, 

and     Latin;     it     has    been     frequently    imitated,    and 

reprinted  times  without  number  down  to  the  most 
recent  years.  .Max  Miillcr,  in  bis  Lectures  on  the 
Science  of  Langua^  m  that  Eulenspiegel  is 

the  origin   of    the    French    word   espiigle,    wi 
When   the   stories  about    Eulenspiegel   were 
bated  into  French,  he  was  called  [Jlespiegle,  'which 
name,  contracted  afterwards  into  Espiigle,  became  a 
general  name  for  every  wag.' 

OWNERSHIP  is  not  a  legal  term,  though  it  u 
used  frequently  in  law  to  denote  the  highest  degree 
or  kind  of  property  which  one  can  have  in  anything. 
Owner  is  often  used  in  this  sense  as  contradistin- 
guished fn.m  an  occupier,  who  has  only  a  temporary 
interest  in  the  property.  Thus  a  freeholder,  or  one 
who  holds  a  freehold  estate  in  land,  is  an  owner ; 
though,  in  common  parlance,  it  is  not  unusual  also  to 
describe  as  owner  any  one  who  has  a  lonij  lease  of 
the  property.  When  a  person  is  owner  in  fee  of  land, 
he  has  certain  rights  more  or  less  absolute  as  inci- 
dental thereto ;  for  example,  he  may  build  on  his 
land  as  high  as  he  pleases,  subject  only  to  doing  no 
direct  injury  to  his  neighbour,  such  as  darkening 
his  windows  ;  and  he  may  dig  as  deep  as  lie  pleases, 
or,  as  it  is  said,  to  the  centre  of  the  earth.  There 
are  certain  things  which  are  said  to  be  incapable  of 
ownership,  such  as  the  air,  the  sea,  and  the  water  of 
navigable  rivers,  as  to  each  of  which  every  indi- 
vidual member  of  the  public  has  the  right  merely 
of  using  it,  but  no  one  lias  the  ownership— i.  e.,  the 
exclusive  right  of  property  as  well  as  possession 
thereof.  As  to  things  wild,  such  as  birds,  beasts, 
fishes,  the  rule  is  that  he  who  tirst  catches  the 
animal  becomes  the  owner  thereof,  and  acquires 
such  a  property  in  it,  that  any  one  who  takes  it 
from  him  against  his  will  commits  larceny.  But 
though  the  person  who  first  catches  a  wild  animal 
is  entitled  to  it,  penalties  are  sometimes  imposed 
upon  the  person  catching  it,  as  to  which  see  Game, 
Poaching.  In  regard  to  lost  property — i.  e.,  property 
which  had  once  been  appropriated  and  possessed  by 
some  one,  but  who  has  casually  lost  or  abandoned 
it — the  rule  is  that  he  who  finds  it  is  entitled  to  keep 
it,  provided  at  the  time  of  finding  it  he  had  no 
means  of  ascertaining  the  owner.  But  the  true 
owner,  if  he  discover  and  can  identify  the  property, 
can  always  iu  general  reclaim  it  from  the  tinder. 
See  Lost  Property. 

OX  (Bos  taunts),  a  ruminant  quadruped  of  the 
family  Bovldce  (q.  v.),  the  most  useful  to  man  of  all 
domesticated  animals.  The  species  is  distinguished 
by  a  flat  forehead,  longer  than  broad ;  and  by 
smooth  and  round  tapering  horns,  rising  from  the 
extremities  of  the  frontal  ridge.  But  among  the 
many  varieties  or  breeds  which  exist,  there  are  gre-.t 
diversities  in  the  length  and  curvatuve  of  the  horns, 
and  some  are  hornless.  It  is  probable  that  the  ox 
is  a  native  both  of  Asia  and  of  Euiope,  perhaps 
also  of  Africa  ;  and  not  improbable  that  it  may 
have  been  domesticated  at  different  times  and  in 
different  countries,  It  cannot  be  confidently  a  sserted 
that  it  now  exists  anywhere  in  a  truly  wild  stats  ; 
wild  oxen  are  nowhere  so  abundant  as  on  the  pampas 
or  great  grassy  plains  of  South  America,  where 
it  is  certain  that  they  are  not  indigenous  ;  and  it 
is  not  impossible  that  the  wild  oxen  still  existing  in 
the  parks  of  a  few  noblemen  in  Britain  may  be  also 
descended  from  domesticated  animals.  Whether  or 
not  the  Urus,  described  by  ancient  authors  as  an 
inhabitant  of  Central  Europe,  was  the  original  of  the 
domestic  ox,  will  be  considered  in  the  article  Urus. 
The  very  early  domestication  of  the  ox  is  attested 
by  the  mention  made  of  it  in  the  writings  of  Moses, 


ox. 


»nd  by  the  worship  of  it  in  Egypt,  which  the 
Israelites  imitated  in  making  their  golden  calf  at 
Mount  Sinai.  Yet  oxen  do  not  appear  to  have 
formed  any  part  of  the  wealth  of  the  patriarchs. 
The  ox  was  probably  used  as  a  beast  of  burden  or 
draught  before  it  was  valued  for  its  milk.  It  is 
mentioned  by  Ctesar  as  a  principal  part  of  the 
wealth  of  the  Britons  at  the  time  of  the  Roman 
invasion. 

The  ox  is  more  frequently  employed  as  a  beast  of 
burden  and  of  draught  in  some  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe  than  in  Britain.  From  the  earliest 
historic  timas,  the  horse  has  been  more  generally 
thus  employed  in  Britain,  and  has  now  almost 
entirely  superseded  the  ox.  The  gait  of  the  ox  is 
slow  and  plodding,  but  its  strength  enables  it  to 
perform  a  great  amount  of  work,  and  it  is  not  easily 
exhausted.  It  needs,  however,  intervals  of  rest 
inconvenient  for  the  farmer  ;  and  it  is  not  capable 
of  exertion  at  all  equal  to  that  of  the  horse  on  any 
occasion  of  emergency. — The  ox  is  chiefly  valuable 
for  its  flesh  and  its  milk  ;  but  almost  every  part  of 
the  animal  is  useful — the  fat,  skin,  hair,  horns, 
intestines. 

The  period  of  gestation  of  the  ox  is  nine  months, 
or  270  days.  It  rarely  produces  more  than  one  calf 
at  a  birth.  It  attains  maturity  in  two  or  three 
years,  becomes  evidently  aged  at  ten,  and  seldom 
lives  more  than  fourteen.  Cows  are  seldom  kept  for 
the  dairy  after  they  are  seven  or  eight  years  old, 
as  after  that  age  they  yield  less  milk  and  of  infe- 
rior quality.  Modern  husbandry  has  also  found 
means  to  fatten  cattle  for  the  market  at  an  earlier 
age  than  was  formerly  usual ;  and  although  the  beef 
is  not  quite  so  good  in  quality,  the  profit  is  great, 
both  to  the  farmer  and  to  the  community,  through 
the  increased  productiveness  of  the  land. 

The  ox  is  gregarious,  and  where  circumstances 
permit,  as  in  the  South  American  plains,  associates 
in  very  large  herds.  Herds  of  oxen  defend  them- 
selves with  great  vigour  against  the  large  feline 
animals  and  other  assailants,  the  younger  and 
weaker  animals  being  placed  in  the  middle,  whilst 
the  bulls  in  the  outer  rank  confront  the  adversary 
with  their  horns. 

The  varieties  or  breeds  differ  very  much  in  size. 
Among  those  which  occur  in  the  British  Islands,  the 
Shetland  breed  is  not  much  larger  than  a  calf  of 
some  of  the  others.  Some  of  the  breeds  of  the 
torrid  zone  are  also  very  small ;  but  the  fatty 
hump  on  the  back  may  probably  be  regarded  as 
indicating  a  connection  with  the  Indian  ox  or  Zebu 
(q.  v.),  which,  although  it  has  been  generally 
regarded  as  a  variety  of  the  common  ox,  is  perhaps 
a  distinct  species. — The  '  wild  ox,'  now  existing  only 
in  a  few  parks,  as  at  Chillingham  and  Hamilton, 
seems,  whatever  its  origin,  to  have  been  formerly  an 
inhabitant  of  many  forest  districts  in  Britain,  parti- 
cularly in  the  north  of  England  and  south  of  Scot- 
land. The  Chillingham  wild  oxen  are  of  a  creamy 
white  colour,  much  smaller  than  many  of  the 
domestic  breeds,  of  a  graceful  form,  with  sharp 
horns,  which  are  not  very  long,  and  not  very  much 
curved.  The  uniform  white  colour  is  to  be  ascribed 
to  the  care  taken  to  destroy  every  calf  which  is  not 
perfect  in  this  respect.  The  habits  of  these  wild 
oxen  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  domestic  races. 
— The  West  Highland  breed,  or  Kyloe,  differs  very 
little  from  the  Chillingham  or  Hamilton  wild  ox, 
except  in  being  generally  black.  It  has  short  mus- 
cular limbs,  a  wide  and  deep  chest,  well-arched  ribs, 
and  a  straight  back  ;  the  horns  are  often  somewhat 
long ;  the  muzzle  is  short  but  not  broad;  the  skin  is 
closely  covered  with  shaggy  hair.  The  milk  is  very 
rich,  but  the  quantity  is  so  small,  that  this  breed 
is  very  unsuitable  for  dairy  farming.  The  beef, 
166 


however,  is  of  the  finest  quality ;  and  great  numbers 
of  cattle,  reared  in  the  Highlands  and  Hebrides,  are 
annually  conveyed  to  other  parts  of  the  country,  to 
be  fattened  on  rich  pastures.  The  breed  is  a  very 
hardy  one,  and  peculiarly  suited  to  the  region  in 
which  it  prevails. — The  Galloway  breed  is  very  liki 
the  preceding,  but  larger  and  destitute  of  horns  ; 
and  many  cattle  reared  in  the  hilly  parts  of 
Galloway  are  fattened  on  English  pastures  for  the 
London  market. — The  Pembroke  and  other  Welsh 
breeds  are  not  unlike  the  West  Highland ;  bu<« 
the  cows  yield  milk  more  abundantly. — The  diminu- 
tive Slielland  breed  is  very  hardy,  and  is  celebrated 
f'^r  the  tine  quality  of  its  beef.  The  Shetland  ox 
is  easily  fattened,  even  on  scanty  pasturage.  The 
milk  which  the  cows  yield  is  also  remarkably 
abundant  in  proportion  to  their  small  size. — The 
Ayrshire  breed  is  particularly  celebrated  for  the 
abundance  and  excellence  of  its  milk,  but  the  beef 
is  of  inferior  quality,  and  the  animal  is  not  easily 
fattened.  Great  care  has  been  bestowed  on  this 
breed  in  Ayrshire  and  neighbouring  counties, 
where  dairy  farming  is  much  practised.  The  horns 
are  smaller  than  those  of  the  West  Highland 
breed,  the  hair  much  smoother,  and  the  colour 
chiefly  brownish-red,  with  large  patches  of  white. 
— The  Alderney  breed  much  resembles  the  Ayrshire, 
but  the  milk  is  comparatively  small  in  quantity,  and 
remarkable  for  the  richness  of  the  cream,  on  which 
account  Alderney  cows  are  often  kept  for  the  supply 
of  private  dairies.  The  milk  of  an  Alderney  cow, 
mixed  with  that  of  a  dozen  other  cows,  will  sensibly 
improve  the  quality  of  the  butter.  But  this  breed 
is  worthless  for  the  purposes  of  the  grazier. — The 
Suffolk  Dun  is  a  polled  or  hornless  breed,  of  clumsy 
form,  and  of  little  value  to  the  grazier,  but  yielding 
a  very  large  quantity  of  milk,  on  which  account 
Suffolk  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  dairy 
produce. — The  North  Devon  is  a  pretty  large  breed, 
with  rather  short  horns,  very  muscular  and  powerful, 
and  also  very  gentle  and  docile,  so  that  it  is  parti- 
cularly adapted  for  draught ;  and  much  agricultural 
labour  is  still  performed  in  Devonshire  by  teams  of 
oxen  of  this  breed.  The  North  Devon  breed,  how- 
ever, is  surpassed  by  others,  both  for  the  purposes 
of  the  dairy  farmer  and  of  the  grazier. — The  Here- 
ford breed,  of  stouter  form  than  the  Ayrshire,  but 


Bull  (short-horn). 

in  some  respects  not  unlike  it,  has  long  been  in 
great  repute  both  for  its  beef  and  its  milk  ;  but  in 
the  districts  where  it  once  prevailed,  it  is  now 
giving  place  to  the  Short-horn  breed,  one  of  the  new 
breeds  which  are  the  result  of  care  and  attention. 
The  Short-horn  breed,  so  called  because  the  Lorns 
are  shorter  than  in  almost  any  other,  originated 
about  the  beginning  of  the  19th  c.  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tees,   and  has    spread  very    widely   both 


ox. 


in  England  and  in  Scotland,  in  the  districts  of 
richest  pasturage.  The  colour  varies  from  pure 
white  to  bright  rod ;  the  head  is  short  and  very 
broad ;  the  chest  is  wide,  deep,  and  projecting  ; 
the  fore-legs  are  short,  the  back  straight,  and  not 
very  long,  the  'barrel'  full.  The  ease  with  which 
oxen  of  this  breed  are  fattened  is  one  of  its  great 
recommendations.  The  beef  is  also  of  excellent 
quality.  For  dairy  purposes,  the  Short-horn  is 
8  irpassed  by  some  other  breeds ;  but  a  cross  between 
a  &hovt-horn  bull  and  an  Ayrshire  cow  is  found  useful 
both  for  beef  and  milk.  The  Short-horn  breed  is 
now  cherished  in  Britain  with  peculiar  care  ;  genea- 
logies are  registered,  and  prodigious  prices  are 
given  for  lirst-rate  animals.  It  is  also  in  great 
esteem  in  many  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe, 
and  in  America. — The  Long-horn  breed,  long  preva- 
lent in  the  midland  counties  of  England,  and.  still 
prevalent  iu  Ireland,  was  brought  to  great  perfec- 
tion by  Bakewell,  one  of  the  first  to  shew  what 
could  be  done  in  the  improvement  of  cattle  ;  but  is 
rapidly  giving  place  to  the  Short-horn,  by  which  it  is 
much  excelled.  The  length  of  the  horns  in  this  breed 
is  very  remarkable. 

Of  foreign  races  of  oxen,  one  of  the  most  notable, 
on  account  of  its  large  size,  is  that  iu  possession  of 
the  Kalmuck  Tartars  ;  another  is  that  prevalent  in 
the  Roman  states,  generally  of  a  bluish-ash  colour, 
with  remarkably  large  and  spreading  horns.  A 
large  white  breed  was  long  kept  in  Egypt ;  and  a 
similar  breed,  without  the  hump  characteristic  of 
the  Indian  Ox,  is  found  in  South  Africa,  where, 
however,  it  has  become  partially  intermixed  with 
European  breeds.  Oxen  are  much  employed  by  the 
Kaffirs  as  beasts  of  burden ;  they  were  also  formerly 
trained  by  the  Hottentots  to  aid  them  in  battle. 
Peter  Kolben,  in  his  account  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  written  in  1705,  gives  an  interesting  descrip- 
tion of  these  trained  fighting  oxen,  which,  he 
says,  are  called  Backeleyers.  'In  the  wars  of  the 
Hottentots  with  one  another,'  he  says,  '  these  backe- 
leyers make  very  terrible  impressions.  They  gore, 
and  kick,  and  trample  to  death  with  incredible 
fury.'  He  ascribes  to  them  also  great  docility,  and 
states  that  they  know  every  inhabitant  of  the  kraal, 
and  are  perfectly  inoffensive  towards  them,  but  ready 
to  run  with  fury  at  strangers.  The  readiness  with 
which  the  draught  oxen  of  South  Africa  observe  the 
words  of  the  driver,  is  said  to  be  almost,  if  not 
quite,  equal  to  that  of  the  dog.  In  the  training  of 
them,  however,  severe  measures  are  often  requisite, 
and  particularly  by  a  hooked  stick  inserted  through 
the  cartdage  which  separates  the  nostrils,  as  bulls  ! 
are  ringed  when  sent  to  exhibitions  of  cattle  in 
Britain.  Trained  oxen  are  also  employed  in  the 
training  of  their  younger  fellows.  In  some  parts 
of  Africa  the  ox  is  used  for  riding  as  well  as  for 
draught.  The  horns,  which  are  very  long,  are  split 
into  ribbons,  or  curved  in  various  directions,  to  pre- 
vent their  points  from  coming  in  contact,  by  any 
accident,  with  the  person  of  the  rider.  The  pace 
of  the  ox  scarcely  exceeds  four  or  five  miles  an 
hour. 

A  very  remarkable  conformation  of  skull  occurs 
iu  some  of  the  herds  of  South  American  oxen,  the 
bones  of  the  nose  and  the  jaw-bones  being  very 
much  shortened  ;  yet  there  is  no  question  that  this 
is  a  mere  accidental  variation,  which  has  become 
perpetuated  as  one  of  race.  Importance  has  been 
attached  to  it  in  the  discussions  regarding  species. 

The    cow  has    been    for    ages    tended    by   man  : 
on  account  of  the  agreeable  and  highly  nutritious 
fluid  which  is  obtained  from  it.     Milk  is  manufac- 
tured into  cheese  and  butter,  which  are   capable  ', 
•f  being  preserved  for  a  considerable  time.     The 
processes     by    which     these     are     obtained     are  ^ 


described  under  the  article  Dairy.  Cows,  under 
our  modern  systems  of  agriculture,  a 
either  for  their  properties  of  giving  hrge  quantities 
of  milk,  or  fur  raising  stock  which  are  well  suited 
for  grazing  and  fattening.  For  milking  properties, 
the  Ayrshire  breed  stands  undoubtedly  at  the  head 
of  the  list.  Iu  comparison  with  some  of  the  other 
breeds,  the  Ayrshire  is  rather  deficient  in  size,  with 
the  flesh  spread  thinly  over  its  body.  In  the  male 
animals  these  characteristics  are  all  the  more 
prominent,  and  for  this  reason  the  breed  ia  not 
much  liked  by  graziers.  It  is  capable,  however,  of 
thriving  on  secondary  or  even  inferior  pastures. 
Wherever,  therefore,  it  is  found  most  profitable  to 
follow  dairy  husbandry  in  Scotland,  the  Ayrshire 
cow  is  preferred.  A  considerable  variety  of  breeds 
are  cultivated  both  for  milking  and  grazing  in  the 
western  parts  of  England,  the  principal  of  which 
are  the  Herefords  and  Devons.  In  the  eastern 
counties,  again,  where  arable  culture  and  the  rearing 
and  feeding  of  cattle  are  chiefly  followed,  the  Ayr- 
shire give3  place  to  the  Aberdeen,  the  Angus,  and 
the  Teeswater.  The  cow  is  there  selected  for  its 
massive  and  square-built  frame,  soft  skin,  and  meat- 
producing  qualities.  For  more  than  a  century 
vast  care  has  been  bestowed  on  the  improvement  of 
the  short-horns.  In  this  breed  the  pedigrees  of  the 
sire  and  the  dam  are  traced  back  for  many  gener- 
ations, and  purity  of  blood  is  quite  essential  in 
herds  of  any  pretensions.  The  larg<#  sums  which 
particular  cowts  and  bulls  of  this  breed  realise,  attest 
the  value  which  modern  breeders  set  upon  animals 
which  are  considered  to  approach  perfection  iu  their 
form  and  style.  In  no  department  of  British  agri- 
culture are  the  results  of  care  and  attention  more 
strongly  marked  than  in  the  noble  figure  of  the 
short-horned  cow  or  bull. 

The  rearing  and  fattening  of  the  ox  is  one 
of  the  most  important  branches  of  agriculture. 
Since  the  prices  of  butcher-meat  have  become  so 
much  higher  relatively  to  corn  in  this  country,  the 
breeding  and  feeding  of  cattle  have  received  a  great 
impetus.  Fifty  years  ago,  many  of  our  old  breeds 
of  cattle  were  kept  tdl  they  were  four  or  five  years 
old  before  they  were  sent  fat  to  the  butcher.  The 
demand  for  meat  was  so  limited  then  in  the  north, 
that  most  of  the  cattle  were  sent  south  lean,  to 
be  fattened  on  the  pastures  and  turnips  of  the 
eastern  counties  of  England.  The  introduction  of 
steam  -shipping,  followed  by  railways,  has  given 
the  Scotch  breeder  and  feeder  great  facilities  for 
disposing  of  fatted  cattle,  and  now  there  are  no  lean 
cattle  sent  to  the  south.  Indeed,  the  extension  of 
green  crops  in  Scotland  has  been  so  .great,  that  large 
numbers  of  lean  cattle  are  imported  from  England, 
as  well  as  Ireland,  to  be  fed  in  the  stalls  and  courts 
during  winter.  This  appbes  to  the  arable  districts, 
where  the  laud  does  not  remain  more  than  one  year 
in  grass.  In  Aberdeenshire,  where  the  land  rests  from 
three  to  four  years  in  grass,  more  cattle  are  bred 
and  turned  out  fat,  which  is  by  far  the  most  profit- 
able system,  seeing  the  breeder  often  gets  a  larger 
share  of  the  profits  than  the  feeder.  The  short- 
horned  blood  is  in  great  request  to  cross  with  the 
native  breeds,  rendering  the  progeny  much  easier 
fattened,  as  well  as  causing  them  to  grow  to  a  larger 
size.  It  is  now  the  most  approved  method  to  feed 
the  calf  from  the  time  it  is  dropped  till  it  is  sent  to 
the  butcher.  Oil-cake  is  generally  considered  the 
best  aud  most  healthy  auxiliary  food  for  stock, 
whether  old  or  young.  In  the  pastoral  districts  of 
England,  where  little  of  the  land  is  cultivated,  the 
rearing  of  cattle  to  be  sent  into  the  arahle  districts 
is  carried  out.  The  young  animals  are  fed  with 
hay  in  winter  instead  of  straw  and  turnips.  Large 
numbers   of    cattle    are    fattened   on   turnips   and 

167 


OXALIC  ACID— OXALIDEJE. 


mangold  in  winter  in  Norfolk  and  eastern  counties. 
Large  allowances  of  cake  and  com  are  there  given  in 
addition  to  the  roots. 

OXA'LIC  ACID  (C2H2O4.2II2O)  was  first  obtained 
by  Savary  by  heating  salt  of  sorrel.  It  occurs  in  co- 
lourless, transparent.,  oblique,  rhombic  prisms,  which 
have  an  intensely  sour  taste,  and  are  soluble  in  nine 
parts  of  cold  water,  and  much  more  freely  in  boiling 
water.  Crystallised  oxalic  acid  melts  at  about  208'4° 
F.  in  its  water  of  crystallisation;  on  continued  heat- 
ing, part  of  it  sublimes  as  dry  oxalic  acid,  C2H2O4, 
nhile  the  greater  part  suffers  decomposition.  It  also 
gradually  gives  off  its  water  over  oil  of  vitriol  at  68° 
F.,  being  completely  dehydrated  in  the  course  of  a  few 
weeks.  When  the  crystallised  acid  is  rapidly  heated 
to  about  300°,  it  is  decomposed  into  a  final  mixture  of 
carbonic  anhydride  and  formic  acid;  the  formic  acid 
produced  being  again  decomposed  in  the  process  into 
carbonic  oxide  and  water. 

Oxalic  Acid.     Carbonic  Anhydride.     Formic  Acid.     Carb.  Oxide.    'Water. 


CsH20* 
C2H2O4 


C02 
CO2 


+     CH2O2 

+ 


CO     +  H2 


The  formic  acid,  when  heated,  yielding  carbonic  acid 
and  water.  When  warmed  with  strong  sulphuric  acid, 
it  is  decomposed  into  equal  volumes  of  carbonic  anhy- 
dride and  carbonic  oxide,  and  into  water;  according 
to  the  equation : 

Hydrated  Oxalic       Carbonic       Carbonic         tt  » 

Acid.  Anhydride.       Oxide.  "  ater. 

CzH^   =   Col   +   CO    +   H2O 

This  reaction  affords  one  of  the  best  means  of  ob- 
taining carbonic  oxide  for  use  in  the  laboratory.  Oxi- 
dising agents,  such  as  peroxide  of  manganese,  peroxide 
of  lead,  nitric  acid,  &c,  convert  oxalic  into  carbonic 
anhydride,  and  on  this  property  is  based  a  good 
method  of  determining  the  commercial  value  of  the 
black  oxide  of  manganese. 

Oxalic  acid  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the 
organic  acids,  and  expeis  carbonic  acid  and  many 
other  acids  from  their  salts.  The  acid  itself,  and 
its  soluble  salts,  are  poisonous.  This  acid  is  very 
widely  diffused  throughout  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
Sometimes  it  occurs  in  a  free  state  (as  in  Boletus 
sulphur? us),  but  much  more  frequentlyas  a  salt,  either 
of  potash,  as  in  the  different  species  of  Oxalis  (from 
which  genus  the  acid  was  originally  obtained  and 
derives  its  name),  and  of  Rumex  ;  or  of  soda,  as  in 
various  species  of  Salicornia  and  Salsola ;  or  of 
lime,  as  in  Rhubarb  and  many  Lichens.  In  the 
animal  kingdom,  it  never  occurs  except  in  minute 
quantity  and  in  combination  with  lime.  Oxalate  of 
lime  is  found  in  a  crystalline  shape,  both  in  healthy 
and  morbid  urine.  In  the  latter,  it  constitutes  the 
leading  symptom  of  the  affection  termed  Oxaluria 
(q.  v.),  while  in  the  former  it  occurs  after  the  use  of 
wines  and  beer  containing  much  carbonic  acid,  of 
sorrel,  rhubarb-stalks,  &c,  and  after  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  alkaline  bicarbonates.  It  is  the 
constituent  of  the  urinary  calculus,  known  from  its 
rough  exterior  as  the  mulberry  calculus.  Crystals 
of  oxalate  of  lime  have  also  been  found  in  the 
mucus  of  the  gall-bladder,  on  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  impregnated  uterus,  and  in  morbid 
blood.  They  have  likewise  been  detected  in  the 
biliary  vessels  and  excrements  of  caterpillars.  In 
the  mineral  kingdom  these  crystals  have  been 
detected  in  association  with  crystals  of  calcareous 
spar. 

Oxalic  acid  is  produced  by  the  action  of  either 
hydrate  of  potash  or  of  nitric  acid  upon  most 
organic  compounds  of  natural  occurrence.  Its  most 
16S 


common  mode  of  preparation  is  by  the  oxidation  of 
starch  or  sugar  by  nitric  acid.  The  organic  compound 
and  the  nitric  acid  are  heated  in  a  flask  till  all  effer- 
vescence has  ceased,  after  which  the  solution  is  evap- 
orated, and  the  oxalic  acid  separates  in  crystals  on 
cooling. 

This  acid  forms  three  series  of  salts,  viz.,  neutral, 
acid,  and  hyper-acid,  which,  if  M  represents  the  metal 
entering  into  the  salt,  may  be  represented  by  the  for- 
mulae: 


Neutral  Salt.  Acid  Salt. 


Hyper-acid  Salt. 


C2M2O4,  C2HMO4,  and  C2HKO4.C2H2O4,  or  CdlaKOi, 
the  last  being  a  compound  of  the  acid  salt  and  the 
acid.  Oxalate  of  calcium  (C2Ca404)  and  ordinary 
(neutral)  oxalate  of  ammonium  (C2(NH4)204.H20) 
are  examples  of  the  first ;  binoxalate  of  potassium 
or  salt  of  sorrel  (C2HKO4)  is  an  example  of  the  sec- 
ond; while  the  salt  usually  termed  quadroxalate  of 
potassium  (C4H3KO8.2H2O)  is  an  example  of  the 
third  class.  Of  the  numerous  oxalates,  the  most 
important  are  the  oxalate  of  calcium  (in  consequence 
of  its  physiological  and  pathological  relations);  the 
neutral  oxalate  of  ammonium,  which  is  the  best  test 
for  the  detection  of  lime  in  solution  (in  conse- 
quence of  the  extreme  insolubility  of  the  resulting 
oxalate  of  calcium) ;  and  the  acid  oxalate  of  potas- 
sium, which  is  contained  in  the  j  uices  of  oxalis  and 
rumex,  and  is  employed  in  various  manufacturing 
processes. 

The  best  test  for  this  acid  is  the  production  of  a 
white  precipitate  (of  oxalate  of  calcium),  on  the 
addition  of  any  soluble  salt  of  calcium.  The  pre- 
cipitate is  insoluble  in  water,  in  solution  of  potash, 
and  in  acetic  acid,  but  dissolves  in  the  mineral 
acids.  A  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  also  gives  a 
white  precipitate  of  oxalate  of  silver,  which  explodes 
when  heated. 

In  consequence  of  its  employment  in  cotton 
printing,  bleaching  straw,  &c,  oxalic  acid  is  more 
accessible  to  the  general  public  than  many  other 
poisons ;  and  on  this  account  instances  of  suicide 
from  the  swallowing  of  this  acid  are  by  no  means 
uncommon.  Cases  of  accidental  poisoning,  moreover, 
sometimes  occur  by  its  being  sold  by  mistake  for 
Epsom  salts.  Large  doses  destroy  life  very  rapidly. 
Dr  A.  Taylor  mentions  a  case  in  which  a  man  died 
in  20  minutes  after  taking  two  ounces  of  the  acid. 
Dr  Christison  records  a  case  in  which  an  ounce 
killed  a  girl  in  30  minutes,  and  another  case  in 
which  the  same  quantity  destroyed  life  in  ten 
miuutes ;  and,  as  a  general  rule  (liable  to  exceptions), 
when  the  dose  is  half  an  ounce  or  upwards,  death 
commonly  takes  place  within  the  hour.  The 
symptoms  are  a  hot  or  burning  acid  taste,  with  a 
sense  of  constriction  or  suffocation  ;  vomiting,  great 
pain  in  the  region  of  the  stomach,  convulsions,  cold 
perspirations  and  general  collapse  speedily  follow ; 
and  respiration  shortly  before  death  becomes  slow 
and  spasmodic.  With  the  view  of  converting  the 
free  acid  in  the  stomach  into  an  insoluble  and  inert 
salt,  chalk,  whiting,  or  lime-water,  with  full  draughts 
of  milk,  should  be  administered  with  the  least 
possible  delay.  Salt  of  sorrel  is  almost  as  poisonous 
as  the  pure  acid. 

OXALI'DEvE,  or  OXALIDA'CE.E,  a  natural 
order  of  exogenous  plants,  allied  to  Geraniacece ; 
including  herbaceous  plants,  shrubs,  and  trees ;  with 
generally  compound  alternate  leaves  ;  calyx  of  five 
equal  persistent  sepals ;  corolla  of  five  equal 
uuguiciuate  petals,  spirally  twisted  in  bud-,  ten 
stamens,  usually  more  or  less  united  by  the 
filaments,  in  two  rows  ;  the  ovary  usually  5-celled, 
with  five  styles ;  the  fruit  a  capsule  opening  by  as 
many  or  twice  as  many  valves  as  it  has  cells,  or 


OXALIDE^-OXENSTIERNA. 


more  rarely  a  berry  ;  the  seeds  few,  attached  to  the 
axis.      There  are  upwards  of  300  known  species, 
natives  of  warm  and  temperate  climates.     They  are 
particularly  abundant  in  North  America  and  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.     The  flora  of  Britain  includes 
only  two  small  species  of  Oxalis.     An  acid  juice  is 
very   characteristic   of    this   order.      Some   of  the 
tropical  species  produce  agreeable  acid  fruits,  as  the 
Carambola  (q.  v.). — The  genus  Oxalis  has  a  capsular 
fruit,   and  the    seeds  have   an  elastic   integument, 
which  at  last  hursts  open  and  projects  the  seed  to  a 
distance.     The  species  are  mostly  herbaceous  plants 
with  ternate  or  digitate—  rarely  simple  or  pinnate — 
leaves ;  a  few  are  shrubs.     The  steins  and  leaves 
generally  contain  a  notable  quantity  of  Binoxalate 
of  Potash,  and  have  therefore   a  BOUT  taste. — The 
Common  Wood-Sorrel  (0.  acetosella),  very  abun- 
dant in  shady  woods  and  groves  in  Britain  and  most 
part  of  Europe,  and  introduced  into  North  Anient  a,  is 
a  beautiful  little  plant,  often  covering  the  ground 
with  its  green  leaves,  amidst  which  the  white  or 
shghtly  roseate  flowers  appear.     Its  leaves  all  grow 
from    the    root,   a    long    leaf-stalk    bearing    three 
obovate  leaflets ;    the  scape  bears  a  single  flower. 
There    is    a    subterranean    scaly    root-stock.     On 
account  of  their  grateful  acid  taste,  the  leaves  are 
used  in  salads  and  sauces.     The  plant  is  extremely 
abundant  in    Lapland,   and  is  much  used   by  the 
Laplanders.    It  is  antiscorbutic  and  refrigerant,  and 
an  infusiou  of  it  is  a  grateful  drink  in  fevers.     Bin- 
oxalate of  potash  is  obtained  from  the  leaves  by 
expressing  the  juice,  and  crystallising ;  and  is  sold 
not  only  under  the  name  of  Salt  of  Sorrel,  but  also 
of  Essential  Salt  of  Lemons,  and  is  used  for  extract- 
ing spots,  and  particularly  iron-marks,  from  linen, 
and  for  other  purposes.    Much  of  it  is  now,  however, 
obtained  from  a  very  different  source.     See  Oxalic 
Acid. — 0.  corniculata,  rare  in  Britain,  and  almost 
confined  to  the  south  of  England,  but  a  plant  of 
very  extensive  distribution,  being  found  in  Europe, 
North   America,    India,   Japan,   and   some   of   the 
African  islands,  has  a  branched  stem,  with  decum- 
bent branches,  leaves  very  similar  to  those  of  the 
common    wood-sorrel,     and    yellow    flowers.      Its 
properties  agree  with  those  of  the  common  wood- 
Borrel.     Many  other  species  much  resemble  these. in 
their  general  appearance  aud  properties.     Some  of 
the  species  exhibit  an  irritability  like  that  of  the 
Sensitive  Plant ;  generally,  as  in  the  two  British 
species,  iu  a  slight  degree,  and  notably  only  in  hot 
sunshine,  but  0.  sensitiva,  an  East  Indian  species, 
with  piunate  leaves,  possesses  this   property  in   a 
high  degree.     Some  species  of  Oxalis,  as  0.  cernua, 
a  native  of  South  Africa,  are  remarkable  for  pro- 
ducing large  bulbils  in  the  axils  of  the  lower  leaves. 
Several  species  have  tuberous  roots,  and  are  culti- 
vated on  account  of  their  tubers  ;  as  0.  crenata  and 
O.   tuberosa,   natives   of  Peru   and   Bolivia,  where 
they  are  much  esteemed,  and  both  receive  the  name 
Oca.     The  tubers,  when  cooked,  become  mealy  like 
potatoes.      They  have  a  slightly  acid  taste.      O. 
crenata  has  been  cultivated  in  gardens  in  Britain  for 
about   thirty  years,    but   continues   to  be    almost 
exclusively  an  object  of  curiosity,  being  too  tender 
fc  tr  the  climate,  and  its  produce  very  inconsiderable 
in  quantity.      Its   tubers  are  yellow,   in   size  and 
shape  like  small  potatoes.     The  succulent  stalks  of 
the  leaves  abound  in  a  pleasant  acid  juice,  and  make 
excellent  tarts  and  preserves.     0.  tuberosa  produces 
numerous  small  tubers.     The  Bolivians  often  expose 
.  them  for  a  long  time  to  the  sun,   by  which  they 
lose  their  acidity,  become  saccharine,  and  acquire  a 
taste  aud  consistence  like  dried  figs.     O.  Deppei  is  a 
Mexican  species,  with  a  root  somewhat  like  a  small 
parsnip,  quite  free  of  acidity.     It  is  much  cultivated 
in    its    native    country,   and  succeeds   well    in    the 


southern  parts  of  En-land.  O.  te.traphjUa  and  O. 
crasskaiili-:,  natives  of  Mexico,  and  <).  ameapkytta,  a 
native  of  the  Falkland  islands,  also  have  eatable 
roots.  Many  species  of  Oxalit  are  much  esteemed 
as  ornaments  of  gardens  and  green-bouses. 

OX ALU'RIA,  or  THE  OXAXIC  ACID  DIA'- 
THESIS,  is  a  morbid  condition  of  the  system,  io 
which  one  of  the  most  prominent  symptoms  is  the 
persistent  occurrence  of  crystals  of  oxalate  of  lime 
in  the  urine.  These  crystals  most  commonly  occui 
as  very  minute  transparent  octahedra,  but  some- 
times in  the  form  of  dumb-bells;  in  order  to  detect 
them,  the  urine,  which  usually  in  ,.3  pre- 

sents a  mucous  cloud,  should  be  allowed  to  stand 
for  some  hours  in  a  conical  glass,  and  after  the 
crystals  have  gradually  subsided,  the  greater  part 
of  the  fluid  should  be  poured  away,  and  the  drops 
remaining  at  the  bottom  examined  with  a  power  of 
not  less  than  200  diameters.  These  crystals,  which 
are  insoluble  in  acetic  acid,  may  occur  either  in  acid 
or  in  alkaline  urine.  Persons  who  secrete  this  form 
of  urine  are  usually  dyspeptic,  hypochondriacal,  and 
liable  to  attacks  of  boils,  cutaneous  eruptions,  and 
neuralgia.  The  oxalic  acid,  in  these  cases,  is  not 
introduced  into  the  system  with  the  food,  but  is  a 
product  of  the  disintegration  of  the  tissues,  and  is 
due  to  the  imperfect  oxidation  of  compounds,  which 
should  normally  have  been  converted  into  carbonic 
acid.  (Anhydrous  oxalic  acid,  C2H2O4,  requires  1 
equivalent  of  oxygen  to  convert  it  into  carhonic  an- 
hydride and  water,  2(CU2)  -f-H20.  Hence,  if  these  two 
equivalents  of  oxygen  are  wanting  in  the  system, 
in  consequence  of  imperfect  oxygenation  of  the 
blood,  oxalic  acid,  in  combination  with  lime,  appears 
as  a  final  excretion  in  place  of  carbonic  acid)  The 
occurrence  of  oxalic  acid  as  a  persistent  sediment 
in  the  urine,  is  not  only  an  indication  of  an  existing 
morbid  condition  of  the  system,  but  may  give  rise 
to  two  perfectly  distinct  dangerous  complications ; 
(1)  a  concretion  of  oxalate  of  lime  (mulberry 
calculus)  may  be  formed  either  in  the  kidney  or 
the  bladder ;  and  (2)  bad  consequences  may  arise 
from  the  poisonous  action  of  the  oxalic  acid  on  the 
digestive  organs,  on  the  heart,  and  on  the  nervous 
system. 

The  treatment  is  simple.  Care  must  be  taken 
that  the  patient  should  avoid  articles  of  diet  con- 
taining oxalic  acid  (such  as  sorrel,  rhubarb,  tomatoes, 
&c),  or  readily  converted  into  it  (such  as  sugar),  and 
all  drinks  containing  much  carbonic  acid  ;  while  he 
should  take  plenty  of  exercise  in  the  open  air,  with- 
out fatiguing  himself  ;  should  use  the  shower-bath, 
unless  he  feels  chilled  and  depressed  after  its 
application,  in  which  case  he  should  rub  the  body 
all  over  daily  with  a  horse-hair  glove  ;  and  should 
employ  as  a  tonic  medicine  either  a  little  nitro- 
muriatic  acid  in  a  bitter  infusion  (20  minims  of  the 
acid  in  au  ounce  and  a  half  of  Infusion  of  Chyretta), 
or  five  grains  of  citrate  of  iron  and  quinine  three 
times  daily.  Under  this  treatment,  the  oxalates 
usually  almost  entirely  disappear  from  the  urine 
iu  two  or  three  weeks. 

OXENSTIERNA,  Axel,  Count,  an  illustricna 
Swedish  statesman,  was  born  at  Fano,  in  Upland^ 
16th  June  1583.  He  was  originally  educated  for 
the  church,  and  studied  theology  as  well  as  juris- 
prudence at  Rostock,  Jena,  and  Wittenberg,  iu  the 
last  of  which  universities  he  took  his  degrees. 
Although  he  afterwards  devoted  himself  to  public 
affairs,  he  continued  all  bis  life  to  take  a  deep 
personal  interest  in  religious  questions,  and  laboured 
zealously  for  the  extension  of  the  Protestant 
doctrines.  After  leaving  the  university,  he  visited 
most  of  the  German  courts,  but  returned  to  Sweden 
in  1603,  and  soon  afterwards  entered  the  service 

169 


OXENSTIERNA— OXFORD. 


of  Charles  IX,  who,  in  1606,  despatched  him  as 
ambassador  to  the  court  of  Mecklenburg.  He 
became  a  senator  in  1608 — a  dignity  which  had 
been  enjoyed  by  thirteen  of  his  predecessors  in 
uninterrupted  succession.  Having  displayed  great 
prudence  and  wisdom  in  the  settlement  of  certain 
disputes  between  the  Livonian  nobles  and  the  town 
of  Reval,  he  was  appointed  by  Charles — now  infirm 
from  age — guardian  of  the  royal  family,  and  head  of 
the  regency.  On  the  accession  of  Gustavus  Adolpbus 
(q.  v.),  in  1611,  O.  was  made  chancellor;  and  in 
1613,  acted  as  minister-plenipotentiary  in  tbe 
negotiations  for  peace  between  Sweden  and  Den- 
mark. In  the  following  year  he  accompanied  bis 
sovereign  to  Poland,  and  by  the  peace  of  Stolbova, 
in  1617,  terminated  hostilities  between  Sweden  and 
Russia.  His  political  sagacity  was  not  less  con- 
spicuously shewn  in  bis  successful  efforts  to  prevent 
Gustavus  from  marrying  Ebba  Brahe,  a  Swedish 
beauty,  and  in  bringing  about  a  match  between  his 
master  and  the  Princess  Maria-Eleonora  of  Branden- 
burg. In  1621,  on  the  departure  of  the  king  for  the 
Polish  war,  he  was  charged  with  the  administration 
of  affairs  at  home,  which  be  conducted  with  bis 
invariable  felicity ;  subsequently,  he  was  appointed 
governor-general  of  the  conquered  districts  ;  and  in 
1629,  concluded  peace  witb  the  Poles  on  highly 
favourable  conditions.  For  a  while  0.  strongly 
opposed  the  desire  of  Gustavus  to  take  part  in  the 
'Thirty  Years'  War;'  bis  hope  being  to  see  the 
latter  arbiter  of  the  north  of  Europe  ;  but  when  he 
found  that  the  Protestant  sympathies  of  the  king 
were  irrepressible,  be  set  about  collecting  money 
and  troops  for  the  perilous  enterprise,  with  all  the 
quiet  but  wonderful  activity  and  persistency  that 
so  remarkably  characterised  him.  After  Gustavus 
bad  fairly  entered  on  the  bloody  struggle,  0.  joined 
bim,  and  conducted  most  of  the  extensive  and  com- 
plicated diplomacy  which  the  course  of  events 
entailed  on  Sweden.  The  deatb  of  Gustavus  for 
a  moment  paralysed  bim,  but  be  instantly  recovered, 
and  heroically  resolved  to  continue  the  contest  witb 
the  imperialists,  in  spite  of  the  visible  disaffection 
of  many  of  the  German  Protestant  princes,  among 
others,  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony.  Tbe  will  of  the 
dead  monarch  was  sent  to  Stockholm ;  according  to 
its  conditions,  the  government — during  the  minority 
of  Christina  (q.  v.) — was  intrusted  to  five  nobles, 
wbo  empowered  the  chancellor  to  prosecute  the 
war.  His  difficulties  were  enormous,  yet  by  inde- 
fatigable efforts  he  managed  partly  to  allay  tbe 
discontents,  jealousies,  and  rivalries  of  the  Protest- 
ant leaders.  The  disastrous  defeat  of  the  Swedes 
at  Nordlingen  in  1634,  and  the  perplexities  wbich 
followed  it,  would  have  stupified  most  men  in  the 
position  of  0.,  but  it  only  called  out  more  energetic- 
ally bis  splendid  diplomatic  genius.  Transferring 
tbe  leadership  of  the  Protestant  forces  to  Duke 
Bernbard  (q.  v.)  of  Weimar,  he  proceeded,  in  1635, 
to  France  and  Holland,  and  formed  alliances  with 
these  countries.  Returning  to  Germany,  he  assisted 
in  quelling  a  mutiny  among  the  Swedish  troops  at 
Magdeburg;  put  Pomerania  in  a  state  of  defence,  to 
resist  the  meditated  attack  of  the  Elector  of  Bran- 
denburg ;  .renewed  the  treaty  with  Poland  ;  and 
leaving  Baner  in  command  of  the  Swedes,  returned 
to  Stockholm  in  1636,  where  he  was  received  witb 
the  liveliest  enthusiasm.  He  still  continued,  bow- 
ever,  to  direct  ably  the  policy  of  the  Protestants  in 
Germany,  till  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  in  1618,  put 
an  end  to  the  war.  O.'s  son  was  one  of  the  Swedish 
envoys  wbo  signed  the  treaty,  and  it  is  in  a  letter  to 
him  that  the  famous  sentence  of  the  statesman 
occurs,  Nescis,  mi  fill,  quantilla  prudentia  famines 
regantur — ('  You  do  not  yet  know,  my  son,  with  how 
little  wisdom  men  are  governed ').  Christina,  wbo 
170 


bad  been  declared  of  age  in  1644,  did  not  shew 
a  proper  respect  for  the  advice  of  0.  ;  and  after  she 
had — through  mere  feminine  wilfulness — abdicated 
in  spite  of  all  his  protestations,  he  withdrew  from 
public  life,  and  died  28th  August  1654,  shortly  after 
she  had  left  Sweden.  He  entertained  a  genuine 
affection  for  the  daughter  of  his  noble  master,  and 
in  his  last  moments  her  name  was  upon  his  lips. 
Some  treatises  and  historical  fragments  are  attributed 
to  him,  and  his  'Journal'  has  been  published  in  the 
'  Stockholm  Magazine.'  See  Lundblad's  Svensk 
Plutarch  (2  vols.  Stock.  1824)  ;  Fryxell's  History 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus;  and  Geijer's  History  oj 
Sweden. 

OX-EYE.    See  Chrysanthemum. 

O'XFORD,  an  ancient  and  famous  city  and  seat 
of  learning  in  England,  the  chief  town  of  the  county 
of  Oxford,  is  situated  on  the  north-east  bank  of  the 
Isis,  a  tributary  of  the  Thames,  a  little  above  the 
point  where  it  is  met  by  the  Cherwell.  Both 
streams  are  crossed  by  numerous  bridges,  of  which 
the  finest  are  Folly  Bridge  over  the  Isis,  and 
Magdalen  Bridge  over  the  Cherwell.  Lat.  of  the 
city,  51°  45'  55"  N.,  long.  1°  15'  29"  W.  Distance 
from  London,  55  miles  west-north-west.  Pop.  (1871) 
34,482.  0.  occupies  an  undulating  site,  is  sur- 
rounded by  rich  and  wooded  meadows,  and  presents 
to  tbe  eye  of  the  approaching  visitor  a  scene  of 
unequalled  architectural  magnificence — spires,  and 
towers  and  domes  rising  as  thickly  as  chimney- 
stalks  in  the  manufacturing  towns  of  Lancashire 
or  Yorkshire.  The  four  main  streets  of  0.  meet  at 
right  angles  near  the  centre  of  the  town,  at  a  place 
still  called  Carfax,  a  corruption  of  Quatre  votes, 
and  which  appears  in  A  gas's  map  (temp.  Elizabeth) 
as  Cater  voys.  These  are— Cornmarket  Street, 
leading  into  St  Giles's,  and  running  due  north ; 
Queen  Street,  leading  to  the  railway-stations,  and 
running  west;  St  Aldate's  Street,  leading  to  the 
Isis,  and  running  due  south ;  and  High  Street, 
wbich  is  the  chief  street  of  the  city,  gracefully 
curving  in  an  easterly  direction,  and  conducting  to 
the  river  Cherwell,  a  smaller  river  joining  the  Isis 
soon  after  it  has  passed  Oxford. 

The  western  half  of  the  town  is  the  most  uninter- 
esting ;  and  it  is  a  misfortune  that  the  railway- 
stations  are  placed  here,  as  travellers,  ou  arriving, 
are  introduced  to  the  meanest  parts  of  the  city 
first.  The  county  courts  and  jail,  and  the  remains 
of  the  castle,  from  which  the  Empress  Maud  escaped 
while  it  was  besieged  by  King  Stephen,  will  be 
observed  in  passing.  There  is  one  good  street 
in  this  part — viz.,  Beaumont  Street,  built  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Beaumont  Palace,  in  which 
Richard  I.  was  born.  At  the  end  of  this  street 
stands  Worcester  College.  Passing  to  the  north 
from  Carfax,  along  the  Cornmarket,  the  old  tower 
of  St  Michael's  Church  is  seen,  against  which  stood 
formerly  the  north  gate  of  the  city ;  next  St  Mary 
Magdalen  Church ;  then  the  Martyr's  Memorial, 
with  the  Taylor  and  Randolph  Buildings  on  the 
left,  and  part  of  Balliol  College  and  St  John's 
College  on  the  right.  St  Giles's  Church  is  at  the 
north  end  of  this  street,  which  is  very  wide,  and  has 
a  row  of  elm-trees  on  each  side,  forming  a  pictur- 
esque avenue  like  a  foreign  boulevard.  Beyond 
this,  to  the  north,  is  the  Radcliffe  Observatory  and 
Infirmary.  The  High  Street  is  about  11)00  yards 
in  length  ;  it  is  reckoned  one  of  the  noblest  streets 
— architecturally  considered — in  Europe,  and  con- 
tains, among  other  edifices,  part  of  the  buildings 
of  Magdalen  College,  Queen's  College,  All-Souls' 
College,  University  College,  ami  St  Mary's  and  All- 
Saints'  Churches.  Parallel  to  it  is  Broad  Street,  in 
which   are   situated   Balliol,    Trinity,   and    Exetei 


OXFORD— OXFORD  UNIVERSITY. 


Colleges,  the  Ashraolean  Museum,  the  Clarendon 
Booms,  the  Sheldonian  Theatre,  and  close  l>y  are 
the  Academical  Schools,  the  Bodleian  Library,  and 
the  Picture  Gallery.  In  -St  Ahlate's  Street,  which 
forms  the  southern  part  of  the  series  of  streets 
already  mentioned  as  funning  one  line,  and  winning 
north  and  south,  is  Christ  Church  College  (the 
entrance  tower  of  which  contains  the  great  bell 
'Tom  of  Oxford,'  weighing  upwards  of  17,000  lbs.) 
and  St  Ahlate's  Church.  The  other  colleges  and 
important  buildings  connected  with  the  University 
of  O.  lie  back  from  the  principal  streets.  To 
attempt  particularising  the  architectural  char- 
acteristics of  each  of  these  edifices  is  impossible 
within  our  limits.  It  may  suffice  to  say,  that  though 
there  is  nothing  extraordinarily  fine  about  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  colleges,  regarded  individually,  yet 
the  vast  number  of  the  structures  and  variety  of 
styles  present  a  tout-ensemble  that  is  altogether 
sublime.  The  effect  is  wonderfully  heightened 
by  the  interspersion  of  gardens,  meadows,  and 
venerable  trees — old  as  the  buildings  that  tower 
above  them.  Christ  Church  is  celebrated  for  its 
magnificent  hall,  picture  gallery,  and  library,  as 
well  as  for  its  extensive  grounds ;  its  chapel,  the 
cathedral  church  of  0.,  is  Norman  in  style,  but 
is  inferior,  both  in  size  and  beauty,  to  most  English 
cathedrals.  Mcrton  College  is  situated  a  little  to 
the  south  of  the  High  Street,  and  still  retains  the 
original  chapel  and  part  of  the  other  buildings 
erected  by  Walter  de  Merton  in  the  13th  century. 
Magdalen  College  retains  its  celebrated  cloister  and 
tower  of  the  loth  c,  and  the  buildings  here  are  the 
most  complete  of  any  college  in  Oxford.  Oriel 
College,  a  comparatively  modern  structure,  is  very 
picturesque,  but  far  from  chaste  in  its  design ; 
New  College  ranks  among  the  noblest  buildings  in 
the  city — '  the  chapel,  the  hall,  the  cloisters,  the 
groiued  gateways,  and  even  some  original  doors 
and  windows  remain,  in  their  exterior  at  lekst,  as 
they  came  from  the  hand  of  their  master  archi- 
tect,' William  of  Wykeham,  500  years  ago  ; 
Queen's  College  is  built  in  the  Grecian  style  of 
architecture,  with  a  spacious  and  handsome  chapel 
and  a  fine  library ;  so  is  Trinity  College ;  Uni- 
versity College  is  a  not  unpleasing  mixture  of 
Gothic  and  Italian ;  Exeter  College  has  a  splendid 
frontage  on  the  west,  and  its  chapel  (built  1857 — 
1858),  in  the  Gothic  style,  is  the  finest  modern 
building  in  the  city ;  it  has  also  an  excellent  hall, 
and  a  beautiful  library ;  Balliol  College  has  a 
remarkably  fine  chapel,  built  only  a  few  years  ago. 
Among  the  other  churches  in  O.,  besides  the 
cathedral  church  and  the  college  chapels,  are— St 
Mary's,  which  is  attended  by  the  members  of  the 
university  ;  St  Martin's,  the  church  of  the  corpora- 
tion of  O.  ;  St  Peter's-in-the-East,  with  a  Norman 
crypt ;  St  Michael's,  with  a  Saxon  tower ;  and  St 
Ahlate's.  The  chief  buildings  connected  with  the 
university,  besides  the  Bodleian  and  the  Ashmo- 
lean  Museum  already  mentioned,  are  the  Radcliffe 
Library,  a  circular  structure,  adorned  with  Corinth- 
ian columns  and  surmounted  by  a  dome  ;  the  Rad- 
r.liffe  Observatory,  crowned  by  an  octagonal  tower, 
in  imitation  of  the  Temple  of  the  Winds  at  Athens  ; 
the  University  Printing-Office,  and  the  Taylor  and 
Randolph  Institution,  founded  'for  the  teaching  the 
European  languages,'  a  very  handsome  and  exten- 
sive range  of  buildings.  The  Botanic  Gardens  are 
not  far  from  the  Cherwell,  and  nearly  opposite 
Magdalen  College.  Other  notable  buildings,  not 
connected  with  the  university,  are— the  Town  Hall, 
the  Radcliffe  Infirmary,  the  County  Gaol,  and 
one  or  two  dissenting  places  of  worship,  such  as  the 
Wesleyan  Chapel  in  New  Inn  Hall  Lane,  and  the 
Independent  Chapel  in  George  Lane. — The  city  of 


O.  is  a  mart  for  the  disposal  of  the  agricultural 
produce  of  the  neighbouring  country,  but  has  little 
Bade  <>f  its  own,  and  is  dependent  for  its  pro 
chiefly  on  the  university.  It  is  a  municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough,  and  governed  by  a  mayor, 
nine  aldermen,  and  thirty  councillors,  whose  juris- 
diction, however,  does  not  embrace  the  university. 
Both  the  city  and  the  university  send  two  members 
to  parliament. 

0.,  by  the  Saxons  called  Oxnaford,  and  in  the 
Domesday  Book,  Oxeneford  (probably  from  its  having 
been  originally  a  ford  for  the  passage  of  oxen),  is  a 
place  of  great  antiquity.  The  date  of  its  origin  is 
unknown,  but  as  early  as  the  8th  c.  there  was  a 
nunnery  established  here ;  and  in  802,  an  act  of 
confirmation  by  Pope  Martin  II.  describes  it  as  an 
ancient  seat  of  learning.  It  is  said  to  have  been  a 
residence  of  King  Alfred,  and  also  of  Canute,  who 
held  several  parliaments  within  its  walls.  The 
townsmen  closed  their  gates  against  William  the 
Conqueror,  who  stormed  the  town  in  1067,  and  gave 
it  to  one  of  his  followers,  Robert  d'Oyley,  who  built 
a  castle  here  to  overawe  the  disaffected  Saxons, 
some  ruins  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen.  The 
paction  that  terminated  the  strife  between  Stephen 
and  Henry  II.  was  drawn  up  at  Oxford.  In  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.,  the  preaching  of  Wickliffe 
excited  great  commotion  among  the  students,  and 
threatened  well-nigh  the  dissolution  of  the  uni- 
versity. In  the  reign  of  the  '  Bloody  Mary,'  it 
witnessed  the  martyrdoms  of  Ridley,  Latimer,  and 
Cranmer ;  and  during  the  great  civil  war  of  the 
17th  c,  it  was  for  a  while  the  headquarters  of  the 
Royalist  forces,  and  was  conspicuous  for  its  adher- 
ence to  Charles  I.  Ever  since  that  period  the  city 
— or,  at  any  rate,  the  university— has  been  in  general 
characterised  by  an  extreme  devotion  to  the 
'  church  '  and  the  '  king.' 

OXFORD  UNIVERSITY  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  King  Alfred.  Without  claiming  for  it  an 
origin  quite  so  ancient,  it  is  certain  that  from  very 
early  times  students  resorted  to  Oxford  in  order  to 
attend  lectures  there  delivered  by  learned  men,  and 
that  they  lived  in  the  houses  of  the  townspeople.  In 
some  cases  they  combined  together,  so  as  to  secure 
the  service  of  a  common  teacher,  with  whom  they 
lived  in  a  large  tenement  called  an  inn,  hostel,  or 
hall.  For  a  long  time,  however,  the  great  majority 
of  the  students  lodged  in  rooms  hired  from  the 
citizens  ;  and  as  late  as  the  year  1512,  regulations 
were  made  for  the  governance  of  such  students. 
As  their  numbers  increased,  the  halls  were  multi- 
plied. Anthony  Wood  states  that  he  could  shew 
the  names  and  places  of  more  than  a  hundred.  A 
great  diminution  in  the  numbers  of  the  students  took 
place  about  the  middle  of  the  15th  century.  This, 
among  other  causes,  led  to  the  gradual  disappear- 
ance of  the  halls,  which  were  bought  up  by  the 
wealthier  colleges.  Only  five  of  the  halls  now 
exist,  which  differ  from  the  colleges  only  in  that 
they  are  unincorporated,  and  have  little  or  no 
endowments.  Residence  in  private  lodgings  had 
also  fallen  into  disuse  ;  and  by  the  time  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  it  had  become  a  compulsory  rule  that  all 
undergraduates  shoidd  reside  in  some  college  or 
hall,  at  least  for  the  first  twelve  terms  of  residence. 

The  colleges  were  founded  at  various  periods, 
from  the  end  of  the  13tfi  c.  to  the  beginning  of  the 
18th.  Fourteen  out  of  the  19  were  founded  before 
the  Reformation.  Their  object  originally  was  to 
support  limited  societies  of  students,  who  were  to 
devote  their  lives  to  study — by  no  means,  as  at 
present,  to  educate  large  classes  of  the  community. 
Students,  other  than  those  on  the  foundation,  seem 
not  to  have  been  regarded  by  the  founders  as 
an    essential  part    of    the    college.      The  colleges 

171 


OXFORD  UNIVERSITY. 


arost,  as  has  been  already  said,  partly  instead 
of  the  old  halls,  and  were  partly  at  first  connected 
•with  the  monasteries,  it  being  by  means  of 
these  institutions  that  benevolent  persons  were 
enabled  to  give  permanent  support  to  poor 
secular  scholars.  University  and  Balliol,  which 
now  rank  as  the  oldest  colleges,  were  in  point 
of  fact  halls  supported  by  endowments  held  in 
trust  for  the  maintenance  of  their  students.  The 
originator  of  the  collegiate  system,  in  anything 
like  its  present  form,  was  Walter  de  Merton,  who, 
besides  having  founded  Merton  College,  is 
entitled  to  the  honour  of  having  mainly  con- 
tributed to  fix  the  university  in  its  present  site. 
All  those  on  the  foundation  of  the  colleges  before 
the  Reformation  were  called  Clerici.  The  great 
majority  of  the  fellows  were  required  to  take 
priest's  orders  within  a  certain  period  after  their 
election.  This  requirement  of  course  involved 
celibacy,  which,  besides,  was  expressly  imposed  in 
Borne  colleges  ;  and  practically,  in  old  times  as  now, 
was  enforced  by  the  rule  of  life  and  the  obligation 
of  residence.  The  colleges  are  now,  and  for  long 
have  been,  the  university.  All  students  must  belong 
to  some  college  or  hall ;  and  the  members  of  these 
societies  furnish  the  governors  and  teachers,  and 
learned  men  of  the  university.  With  a  few  excep- 
tions, the  professors,  even  since  the  recent  extension 
of  the  professoriate,  are,  or  have  been,  fellows  of 
colleges. 

Previous  to  the  statute  17  and  18  Vict.  c.  SI,  the 
constitution  of  the  university  was  as  follows :  1. 
The  Hebdomadal  Board,  or  Weekly  Meeting,  con- 
sisting of  the  Heads  of  Houses  and  the  two  Proctors, 
which  body  exercised  the  chief  share  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  university,  and  possessed  the  exclusive 
power  of  initiating  legislation ;  2.  Congregation, 
consisting  of  certain  university  dignitaries,  which 
met  merely  for  the  purpose  cf  conferring  degrees; 
3.  Convocation,  consisting  of  all  Masters  of  Arts,  a 
body  whose  consent  was  necessary  before  any  of 
the  measures  proposed  by  the  Hebdomadal  Board 
could  become  law,  which  elected  the  chancellor,  the 
two  representatives  of  the  university  in  parliament, 
several  of  the  professors,  and  dispensed  the  ecclesi- 
astical patronage  of  the  university.  The  statute 
referred  to  introduced  important  changes.  The 
Hebdomadal  Board  has  been  changed  into  the 
Hebdomadal  Council,  consisting  of  the  chancellor, 
the  vice-chancellor,  the  proctors,  six  heads  of  houses, 
six  professors,  and  six  members  of  convocation  of 
not  less  than  five  years'  standing — such  heads, 
professors,  and  members  of  convocation,  being 
elected  by  congregation,  and  holding  office  for  six 
years.  Congregation,  again,  now  consists  of  all  the 
great  officers  of  the  university,  the  professors,  the 
public  examiners,  and  all  residents  ;  and  on  this 
body  is  now  bestowed  the  power  of  accepting  or 
rejecting,  and  of  amending  any  statute  framed  by 
the  Hebdomadal  Council. .  The  composition  and 
powers  of  Convocation  remain  unchanged.  The 
students  not  on  the  foundation  are,  or  rather  were 
divided,  according  to  their  rank  or  wealth,  into 
Peers  and  the  eldest  sons  of  Peers,  Fellow-Com- 
moners, Commoners,  and  Servitors.  The  latter, 
properly  so-called,  have  disappeared  from  every 
college  but  Christ  Church,  though  at  several  of  the 
other  colleges  there  is  an  inferior  class  nearly  resem- 
bling them,  called  '  clerks,'  '  Bible-clerks,'  &c.  The 
distinction  between  commoners  and  fellow-com- 
moners, resting  merely  upon  money,  has  been  long 
disapproved  of  by  those  best  able  to  judge  of  its 
effects,  and  is  gradually  disappearing.  The  privi- 
leges of  Peers,  &c,  may  be  waived  at  pleasure,  and 
6ome  colleges  will  only  receive  men  of  rank,  on 
condition  that  these  privileges  are  to  be  waived. 


Indeed,  the  best  colleges,  such  as  Balliol,  have  long 
refused  to  recognise  any  of  the  above  distinctions. 
It  is  very  difficult  to  ascertain  the  actual  number 
of  students  at  any  one  time  in  Oxford,  but  now  it 
is  probably  seldom  above  1400. 

There  are  four  terms  in  each  year — viz.,  Michael- 
mas Term,  which  begins  on  the  10th  of  October 
and  ends  on  the  17th  of  December ;  Hilary  Term, 
which  begins  on  the  14th  of  January  and  ends  the 
day  before  Palm  Sunday ;  Easter  Term,  which 
begins  on  the  10th  day  after  Easter  Sunday  and 
ends  on  the  day  before  Whitsunday  ;  Trinity  Term, 
which  begins  on  the  Wednesday  after  Whitsunday 
and  ends  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  July.  Full  Term, 
as  it  is  called,  does  not  begin  till  the  first  day  of 
the  week  after  the  first  congregation  is  held.  By 
undergraduates,  Michaelmas  and  Hilary  Terms  are 
kept  by  six  weeks'  residence,  and  Easter  and 
Trinity  Terms  by  three  weeks  each ;  but  more 
than  this  is  required  by  most  of  the  colleges. 
Twenty-six  weeks  may  be  taken  as  the  ordinary 
length  of  the  academic  year.  Twelve  terms  of  resi- 
dence are  required  for  the  degree  of  B.A.  from  all 
except  peers,  baronets,  knights,  &c. ;  and  their 
eldest  sous,  if  matriculated  as  such,  who  are  allowed 
to  go  up  for  their  degree  after  eight  terms'  resi- 
dence, but  not  until  their  twelfth  term  from  matri- 
culation. The  degree  of  M.A.  is  obtainable  in  the 
twenty-seventh  term  after  matriculation ;  in  the 
privileged  cases,  in  the  twenty-third.  By  a  statute 
passed  in  1S50,  the  following  examinations  were 
made  necessary  for  a  degree  in  arts.  1.  Responsions, 
called  '  Little  Co'  or  '  Smalls'  in  the  familiar  language 
of  undergraduates,  to  be  passed  previous  to  the  Gth 
term.  Subjects  :  one  Latin  and  one  Greek  author 
— or  portions  of  them,  as  rive  books  of  Homer,  rive 
of  Virgil,  two  Greek  plays,  &c. — with  a  paper  of 
grammatical  questions ;  a  piece  of  English  to  be 
translated  into  Latin  ;  two  books  of  Euclid,  or 
algebra  up  to  simple  equations  inclusive ;  and 
arithmetic.  2.  The  First  Public  Examination,  or 
Moderations,  to  be  passed  between  the  7th  and  10th 
terms.  Subjects  :  the  Four  Gospels  in  Greek  (except 
in  the  case  of  persons  not  members  of  the  Church 
of  England,  when  some  one  Greek  author  is  to  be 
substituted) ;  one  Greek  and  one  Latin  author,  not 
the  same  as  those  offered  for  responsions,  and  one 
must  be  a  poet,  the  other  an  orator;  a  piece  of 
English  into  Latin,  and  a  paper  of  grammatical 
questions ;  logic,  or  three  books  of  Euclid,  and 
algebra.  Honours  are  awarded  at  this  examination 
both  in  classics  and  pure  mathematics.  Candidates 
are  recommended  to  take  up  especially  poets  and 
orators.  Verses,  as  well  as  Greek  and  Latin  prose- 
writing,  are  required,  and  a  paper  of  grammatical 
and  philological  questions  is  set.  In  the  mathe- 
matical school,  which  in  this  examination  exists  aa 
a  separate  school  for  honours  only,  candidates  are 
examined  in  pure  mathematics  up  to  the  Integral 
Calculus  and  the  Calculus  of  Finite  Differences 
inclusive.  The  main  design  of  this  examination  was 
to  improve  pure  scholarship  in  Oxford,  but  it  is 
understood  not  to  have  answered  its  purpose  very 
successfully.  3.  The  Public  Examination,  held 
twice  a  year,  to  be  passed  as  early  as  the  12th; 
and  for  honours;  not  later  than  the  18th  term  of 
standing.  There  are  Four  Schocls,  in  Oxford 
phraseology,  at  this  examination,  two  of  which 
must  be  passed  to  obtain  the  degree  of  B.A 
The  First  8chool,  to  be  passed  lirst,  and  by  all,  is 
called  the  School  of  Litera3  Humaniores.  Subjects  : 
the  Four  Gospels  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apcetles  in 
Greek ;  the  subjects  of  the  Books  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  ;  the  evidences  and  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  with  Scripture  proofs  (in  the  case  of 
persons  not  members  of  the  Church  of  England,  an 


OXFORD  UNIVERSITY. 


extra  author,  Greek  or  Latin,  may  be  substituted 

for  divinity)  ;    one   Greek  and  one  Latin    1 Ic,   a 

philosopher  and  a  historian,  not  the  same  as 
had  been  hrouLcLt  up  at  responsiona  Candidatea 
for  honours  in  this  school — which  are,  par  excellence, 
t>\e  honours  of  the  university — take  up  'the  Greek 
and  Latin  languages,  Greek  and  Roman  history, 
chronology,  geography,  antiquities,  rhetoric  and 
poetics,  moral  and  political  philosophy.'  These 
subjects  may  be  illustrated  by  modern  authors. 
Butler  and  Bacon  are  the  favourite  modern  books 
taken  up.  The  poets  and  orators  having  been  taken 
up  at  moderations,  the  ancient  historians  and  phil- 
osophers form  the  bulk  of  the  books  in  this  school. 
Plato  has  of  late  years  been  much  taken  up. 
1  Questions  to  be  answered,  passages  to  be  tran- 
slated, and  subjects  to  be  treated  in  Q  reek,  Latin,  and 
English  will  be  proposed  by  the  examiners.'  Second 
School — Mathematics.  For  'a  pass,'  the  first  six 
books  of  Euclid,  or  the  first  part  of  algebra ;  for 
honours,  mixed  as  well  as  pure  mathematics. 
Third  School— of  Natural  Science.  For  'a  pass,'  an 
acquaintance  with  the  principles  of  two  of  the 
following  branches  of  science— mechanical  phd- 
osophy,  chemistry,  physiology ;  for  honours,  an 
acquaintance  with  the  principles  of  the  three 
branches  of  science  named  above,  and  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  some  one  branch  of  science.  Fourth 
School — Law  and  Modern  History.  For '  a  pass,'  either 
(first  period)  History  of  England  from  the  Conquest 
to  the  accession  of  Henry  VIII.,  with  the  first 
volume  of  Stephen's  Blackstone  ;  or  (second  period) 
History  of  England  from  the  accession  of  Henry 
VIII.  to  that  of  Queen  Anne,  with  the  second 
volume  of  Stephen's  Blackstone.  Justinian  may  be 
taken  up  instead  of  Blackstone.  Candidates  for 
honours  are  expected  to  add,  for  the  first  part, 
appropriate  parts  of  Gibbon,  Guizot,  Sismondi, 
William  of  Malniesbury,  and  Milman's  Latin  Chris- 
tianity ;  for  the  second  part,  portions  of  Clarendon, 
Robertson,  Ranke,  and  Sismondi.  In  law,  candi- 
dates for  honours  are  expected  to  add  Wheaton, 
Vattel,  or  Grotius.  In  1S64,  a  statute  was  passed 
introducing  a  slight  but  important  modification. 
Candidates  for  degree,  instead  of  being  required 
to  pass  through  two  schools  at  the  final  examin- 
ation, will  now  be  allowed  their  degree  after 
passing  through  one  school  only :  provided,  1,  that 
they  shall  have  obtained  a  third  class  in  some  one 
school ;  and  2,  that  they  shall  have  taken  up  at 
least  three  books  at  moderations.  The  beneficial 
effects  anticipated  from  this  change  are  twofold : 
1,  at  the  end  of  a  year  and  a  half  any  man  whose 
tastes  lead  him  to  a  special  line  of  study,  may  give 
up  classics  if  he  will  read  for  honours  in  something 
else  ;  and  2,  a  far  greater  number  of  men  will,  it  is 
hoped,  be  induced  to  read  for  honours  than  at  pre- 
sent, and  reading  for  honours  i3  a  totally  different 
thing  from  reading  for  a  pass.  Examinations  also 
take  place  for  degrees  in  law,  medicine,  divinity, 
and  music  ;  but  these  are  in  great  measure  formal. 
The  examinations  for  degrees  in  arts  are  the  proper 
work  of  the  university. 

Besides  these  honours,  various  distinctions  are 
conferred  by  the  university.  There  are  several  uni- 
versity scholarships,  more  particularly  the  Vinerian 
law  fellowships  and  scholarships  ;  the  Eldon  Law 
scholarship  ;  two  Sanscrit  and  five  Hebrew  scholar- 
ships ;  two  mathematical  scholarships ;  the  Hertford 
scholarship,  for  the  encouragement  of  the  study  of 
Latin,  and  the  Ireland  scholarship,  for  the  encour- 
agement of  the  study  of  Greek.  There  is  also  the 
Newdigate  prize  for  the  best  composition  in  English 
verse ;  and  the  three  chancellor's  prizes  for  the 
best  compositions  in  Latin  verse,  Latin  prose, 
and  English  prose;  the  Gaisford  prizes  for  Greek 


composition  ;  and  the  Arnold  and  Stanhope  ori/ec  foi 
the  best  essays  on  an  historical  subject  But  the 
great  prizes  arc  the  scholarships  and  the  fellowships. 
By  the  commissioners  under  17  and  is  Vi  t.  c.  81, 

these  have  been  for  the  most  part  thrown  open,  and 
are  now  awarded  after  examination  without 
tions  as  to  kin  or  place  of  birth.     At  All-Souls,  and 
also  at  St  John's  College,  since  the  labours  of  the 
commissioners,  an  attempt  has  b 
up  the   former    exclusiveness.       i  rships, 

which  are  so  numerous  as  to  be  within  the  reach 
of  any  young  man  of  ability,  range  from  £60  to  £80 
a  year,  with  rooms  free,  which,  together  with  au 
exhibition  from  school,  would  go  a  considerable 
way  towards  defraying  the  expense  of  a  uni 
education.  At  the  close  of  this  education  come 
the  fellowships;  and  it  has  been  calculated  that 
when  the  arrangements  of  the  commissioners  are 
complete,  there  will  be  between  20  and  30  fellow- 
ships, varying  from  £200  to  £300  per  annum,  open 
yearly  to  competition. 

Oxford  is,  of  course,  chiefly  fed  from  the  great 
English  schools — of  late  years,  perhaps,  more  espe- 
cially from  Eton  and  Rugby.  A  close  connection 
subsists,  by  the  terms  of  the  foundation,  between 
Winchester  and  New  College,  between  Westminster 
and  Christ  Church,  and  between  Merchant  Taylor's 
and  St  John's.  For  the  nature  of  this  connection,  see 
under  these  colleges.  A  student  desirous  of  going 
to  Oxford,  must  apply  to  the  Head  of  the  College 
to  which  he  wishes  to  belong.  Application  should 
be  made  early,  as  all  the  good,  colleges  are  filled  up 
for  several  years  in  advance.  But  the  Heads  are 
understood  to  reserve  to  themselves  the  power  of 
giving  rooms  at  once  to  any  young  men  who  may 
have  distinguished  themselves  at  the  yearly  examin- 
ation for  scholarships,  even  though  their  names 
may  not  have  been  before  on  the  list.  There  is 
no  university  examination  at  matriculation ;  but 
all  the  good  colleges  have  such  an  examination 
before  they  receive  any  one— the  standard  of  the 
examination,  of  course,  varying  with  the  college. 
After  being  received  into  the  college,  each  under- 
graduate is  assigned  to  a  college  tutor,  who  exercises 
a  special  control  over  his  reading ;  but  he  also 
attends  the  instruction  of  the  other  college  tutors 
or  lecturers,  as  the  course  of  his  studies  may  require. 
The  cost  of  tuition  varies  at  different  colleges, 
but  an  average  of  £65  may  be  given  as  paid  by  the 
undergraduate  during  his  whole  career.  This  pay- 
ment is  at  some  colleges  distributed  over  three,  at 
others  over  four  years.  Besides  this,  almost  every 
undergraduate  finds  it  necessary,  at  some  period 
before  taking  his  degree,  to  read  with  a  private 
tutor,  whom  he  chooses  for  himself.  Private  tuition 
has  grown  to  be  quite  an  institution  in  Oxford, 
though  not  formally  recognised.  Many  of  the  ablest 
young  men,  after  taking  their  degree,  remain  in 
Oxford  for  a  year  or  two,  taking  private  pupils. 
Much  discussion  has  taken  place  on  the  merits  and 
fatdts  of  this  system ;  but,  on  the  whole,  it  must 
be  allowed  to  be  useful  for  the  tutor,  as  clearing 
up  and  concentrating  his  knowledge,  while,  at  least 
to  undergraduates  who  read  for  honours  (with  a  few 
rare  exceptions),  it  may  be  considered  as  absolutely 
necessary.  Private  tutors  usually  charge  £10  a 
term  for  three  hours  a  week.  Previous  to  1852, 
the  professoriate  of  Oxford  was  strictly  ornamental. 
A  great  effort  was  then  made  to  stir  it  into  life, 
which  has  been  partially  successful.  New  pro- 
fessoi-ships  were  created,  and  the  endowments  of  old 
ones  were  increased  by  the  commissioners,  under 
17  and  18  Vict.  c.  81.  But  the  former  of  these 
measures,  at  least,  whatever  it  may  have  done  for 
the  interests  of  science,  has  produced  but  little 
effect  on  the  undergraduates.     They  still  limit  their 

173 


OXFORD  UNIVERSITY— OXIDES. 


range  of  studies  by  the  requirements  of  the  examina- 
tions of  the  schools,  and  it  were  hard  to  expect 
them  to  do  otherwise.  But  professorial  teaching 
has  undoubtedly  become  more  popular  in  the  ordi- 
nary branches  of  study.  Lectures  by  the  professors 
of  Law  and  Modern  History,  of  Moral  Philosophy, 
Logic,  Greek,  and  Latin  are  felt  to  be  useful,  and 
are  therefore  well  attended.  With  regard  to  the 
expenses  of  Oxford,  it  is  difficult  to  say  anything 
very  definite.  They  vary  at  different  colleges,  not 
only  indirectly  from  the  tone  of  the  society,  but 
even  directly  from  the  charges  made  for  necessaries. 
A  man  should  be  exceedingly  comfortable  at  Oxford 
with  £300  a  year ;  on  £200,  he  can  manage  with 
economy.  Very  few  young  men  could,  with  pru- 
dence, be  exposed  to  the  difficulties  of  living  in 
Oxford  on  less  than  the  latter  sum.  There  have 
indeed  been  instances  of  men  passing  creditably 
through  the  university  course  on  £100  a  year;  but 
these  are  exceptional  cases,  and  require  great  firmness 
to  resist  temptations.  The  necessary  expenses,  how- 
ever, do  not  exceed  that  sum  ;  the  habits  of  the  young 
men  themselves  cause  a  great  part  of  the  expenses. 
Discipline  inside  the  college  is  maintained  by  the  head 
of  the  house  and  the  tutors ;  in  the  town  and  its 
neighbourhood,  by  the  proctors,  who  are  university 
officers  invested  with  great  authority.  The  former 
cannot  be  very  strict  without  a  system  of  espionage, 
and  of  giving  weight  to  what  are  called  '  privileged 
communications ' — un  worthy  means  too  often  resorted 
to  even  in  good  colleges.  Men  have  been  often 
punished  without  being  heard  in  defence— the  names 
of  their  accusers  being  kept  from  them,  the  very 
nature  of  their  offence  not  being  mentioned.  Such 
injustice  often  gives  rise  to  great  and  well-founded 
discontent.  Doubtless  the  matter  is  attended  with 
difficulty ;  but  anything  like  unfairness  or  secrecy 
should  be  always  avoided  in  dealing  with  young  men. 
Perhaps  the  tutors  at  Oxford  interfere  too  much 
with  the  private  life  of  the  undergraduates.  Such 
matters  are  best  regulated  by  the  general  tone  of 
the  place,  which  is,  on  the  whole,  good.  At  the  best 
colleges,  a  young  man  may  perhaps  be  led  iuto 
folly ;  very  seldom  into  vice  or  meanness.  As  a 
rule,  the  proctorial  authority  is  openly  and  wisely 
exercised.  The  aggregate  revenue  of  the  colleges 
and  the  university  considerably  exceeds  £400,000  a 
year,  that  for  1871  having  been  £413,000. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  colleges  and  halls  as 
they  rank  in  the  university ;  an  account  of  each  will 
be  found  in  its  alphabetical  place :  University,  Balliol, 
Merton,  Exeter,  Oriel,  Queen's,  New  College,  Lincoln, 
All  Souls,  Magdalen,  Brasenose,  Corpus  Christi, 
Christ  Church,  Trinity,  St  John's,  Jesus,  Wadham, 
Pembroke,  Worcester,  St  Mary  Hall,  Magdalen  Hall, 
New  Inn  Hall,  St  Alban  Hall,  St  Edmund  Hall.  To 
these  may  be  added  Litton's  Hall,  being  a  private 
hall  imder  the  mastership  of  the  Rev.  Edward 
Arthur  Litton,  in  virtue  of  a  statute  passed  in  1855, 
empowering  any  M.A.  of  a  certain  standing  to  open 
a  private  hall  on  his  obtaining  a  licence  from  the 
vice-chancellor.  The  idea  has  not  proved  popular ; 
neither  this  hall,  nor  one  which  was  some  time  ago 
opened  by  the  Rev.  George  Butler  can  be  said  to 
have  succeeded. 

Among  the  books  which  may  be  consulted  with 
regard  to  Oxford  are — Ayliffe's  History  of  Oxford, 
Wood's  Annals,  the  University  Calendar,  and  above 
all,  the  Report  of  the  Royal  Commissioners  for  1852. 
The  ordinances  issued  by  the  commissioners  under 
16  and  17  Vict.  c.  11,  have  been  lately  published  by 
Macmillan  &  Co.,  in  an  accessible  form,  and  will  be 
found  to  contain  the  latest  information  as  to  the 
government  of  the  colleges. 

OXFORD  BLUES.  See  Horse  Guards, 
Royal. 

171 


OXFORD  CLAY,  the  principal  member  of  the 
Middle  Oolite  series,  is  a  bed  of  stiff  dark-blue  or 
blackish  clay,  sometimes  reaching  a  thickness  of 
600  feet.  There  occur  in  its  lower  portion  in  some 
places  layers  of  tough  calcareous  sandstone,  called 
Kelloway  Rock,  from  a  place  in  Wiltshire,  where  it 
is  quarried.  The  O.  C.  lies  beneath  the  plain  on 
which  Oxford  is  built,  and  extends  south-west  and 
north-east  from  the  shore  at  Weymouth  to  the  fen 
lands  south  of  the  Wash,  thence  it  may  be  traced 
through  Lincoln  into  Yorkshire,  until  it  disappears 
under  the  sea  at  Scarborough.  The  close  packing  of 
the  fossils  in  the  fine  compact  clay  has  caused 
them  to  be  beautifully  preserved ;  the  shells  fre- 
quently retain  their  iridescence,  and  even  the  softer 
parts  of  the  cephalopods  have  sometimes  left  with 
tolerably  clear  definition  their  form  in  the  clay. 
The  fossils  are,  however,  often  filled  with  iron 
pyrites,  which,  on  exposure  to  the  atmosphere, 
readily  decomposes  and  destroys  all  traces  of  the 
beautiful  organism.  The  remains  of  chambered 
shells  of  the  genera  belemnites  and  ammonites  are 
very  abundant,  and  with  them  are  associated  other 
shells,  interesting  Crustacea,  and  the  species  of 
fishes  and  reptiles  which  are  characteristic  of  the 
oolite. 

OXFORDSHIRE,  an  inland  county  of  England, 
bounded  on  the  S.  by  the  river  Thames,  on  the  E. 
by  Bucks,  and  on  the  W.  by  Gloucestershire.  Area, 
472,717  acres.  Pop.  (1871)  177,975.  The  surface, 
where  it  is  not  level,  is  undulating.  In  the  north- 
west the  hills  rise  in  Broom  Hill  to  836  feet  above 
sea-level,  and  in  the  south-east  of  the  county  are 
the  Chiltern  Hills  (q.  v.),  rising  near  Nuffield  to 
820  feet  in  height.  It  is  watei'ed  along  its  southern 
border  by  the  Thames,  and  the  other  chief  rivers 
are  the  Windrush,  Evenlode,  Cherwell,  and  Thame, 
affluents  of  the  Thames.  By  means  of  the  Oxford 
Canal,  which  joins  the  Thames  at  Oxford,  the  towns 
and  districts  lower  down  the  river  (Abingdon, 
Wallingford,  &c),  are  supplied  with  coal  from  the 
Leicestershire  coal-fields.  The  soil  is  fertile  ;  the 
state  of  agriculture  is  advanced,  about  400,000 
acres  are  either  under  crop  or  in  pasture ;  and  the 
county  may  be  considered  one  of  the  most  produc- 
tive in  the  country.  Three  members  are  returned 
to  the  House  of  Commons  for  the  county. 

OXIDA'TION  is  the  term  applied  to  the  union 
of  any  body  with  oxygen,  the  body  being  then  said 
to  be  oxidised,  and  the  resulting  compound  being 
termed  an  oxide.  Many  bodies  possess  the  property 
of  entering  into  several  distinct  combinations  with 
oxygen.  For  example,  manganese  (Mn)  forms  no 
less  than  six  compounds — viz.,  MnaO,  MnaO'2,  Mn40s, 
Mn202,  Mn203,  M112O7,  which  represent  different 
stages  of  oxidation. 

O'XIDES,  Metallic,  are  the  most  important 
of  all  the  compounds  of  the  metals,  and  in  many 
cases  occur  naturally  as  abundant  and-  valuable 
ores.  They  are  conventionally  divided  into  three 
classes — viz.,  (1)  basic  oxides  or  bases.  (2)  saline  or 
indifferent  oxides,  and  (3)  acid  oxides  or  metallic 
acids.  The  different  oxides  of  the  same  metal 
usually  afford  illustrations  of  two,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  of  all  three,  of  these  classes.  Thus  (to  take 
the  case  of  manganese  referred  to  in  the  last  article) 
the  protoxide  (Mn20)  is  a  powerful  base,  the  red 
oxide  (Mns02)  is  a  saline  or  indifferent  oxide,  shew- 
ing little  tendency  to  combine  either  with  acids  or 
alkalies,  while  permanganic  acid  (MmO?)  presents 
all  the  properties  of  an  acid.  'As  a  genei-al  rule, 
the  greater  the  number  of  atoms  of  oxygen  winch 
an  oxide  contains,  the  less  is  it  disposed  to  unite 
with  the  acids;  on  the  contrary,  it  frequently 
possesses  acid  properties,  and  then  unites  with  base? 


OXLEY  A— OXYGEN. 


to  form  sails.  Protoxides  generally  are  strong 
salifiable  bases  ;  they  require  one  equivalent  of  a 
monobasic  acid  to  form  neutral  salts.  Sesquioxides 
are  weaker  bases  ;  their  salts  are  usually  unstable  ; 
they  require  three  atoms  or  equivalents  of  a  mono- 
basic acid  to  form  a  s;ilt  which  is  neutral  in  com- 
position, though  it  may  not  he  neutral  to  test-paper; 
and  in  general,  all  oxides  require  as  many  equivalents 
of  acid  as  tiny  contain  atoms  of  oxygen  in  their 
composition.  Some  of  the  metallic  acids,  like  the 
stannic  and  titanic,  contain  two  atoms  of  oxygen  to 
one  atom  of  metal,  but  most  of  them  contain  three 
atoms  of  oxygen — sucb,  for  example,  as  the  manganic, 
ferric,  chromic,  tungstic,  molybdic,  and  vanadic 
acids  ;  whilst  in  a  few  cases,  such  as  the  arsenic, 
antimonic,  and  permanganic,  the  proportion  of 
oxygen  is  still  higher.' — Miller's/Mor^awic  Chemistry, 
2d  edit.  p.  .'{14. 

Of  the  basic  oxides,  which  form  by  far  the  most 
important  class,  it  may  be  observed  that  they  are 
devoid  of  all  metallic  appearance,  and  present  the 
characters  of  earthy  matters,  and  that  six  only  of 
them  are  soluble  in  water  to  any  considerable 
extent — viz.,  the  three  alkalies,  and  baryta,  strontia, 
ami  lime.  All  the  oxides  are  solid  at  ordinary 
temperatures,  and  as  a  general  rule,  the  addition  of 
oxygen  to  a  metal  renders  it  much  less  fusible  and 
soluble  ;  the  protoxide  of  iron,  the  sesquioxide  of 
chromium,  and  molybdic  acid  being  the  only  oxides 
that  melt  more  readily  than  the  metal  from  which 
they  are  produced. 

OXLEY'A,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Cedrelacuv,  of  which  one  species,  0.  xanthoxyla,  the 
Yellow  Wood  of  Eastern  Australia,  is  a  very  large 
tree,  100  feet  high,  valuable  for  its  timber,  which 
is  yellow,  and  is  used  for  building  boats,  and  for 
various  kinds  of  carpentry. 

O'XPECKER.    See  Beef-eater. 

O'XUS,  the  ancient  name  of  a  great  river  in 
Central  Asia,  which  is  called  by  the  Turks  and 
Persians  Jihun,  and  Amu  or  Amu-Daria  by  the 
ittatives  of  the  country  through  which  it  flows.  The 
•0.  rises  in  Lake  Sari-kol,  in  or  near  the  Bolar 
Mountains ;  flows  first  west,  and  then  in  a  general 
■north-westerly  direction  through  the  countries  of 
Buddukshan,  Bokhara,  and  Khiva,  and  empties 
itself  by  several  mouths  into  the  Sea  of  Aral  at  its 
southern  extremity.  In  the  first  part  of  its  course, 
its  volume  is  increased  by  numerous  affluents,  but 
it  receives  no  tributaries  after  entei'ing  Khiva,  from 
which  point  its  coarse  is  wholly  through  a  dry 
sandy  desert.  Its  total  length  is  about  1150  miles, 
and  it  drains  an  area  estimated  at  221,250  English 
square  miles.  A  very  remarkable  fact  in  connection 
with  this  river  is  the  unanimous  testimony  of 
antiquity  (with  the  exception  of  Pomponius  Mela)  to 
the  fact  of  its  flowing  into  the  Caspian  Sea.  Strabo 
and  Ptolemy,  the  two  great  geographers  of  ancient 
times,  distinctly  assert  this  ;  and  the  former  states 
that  merchandise  from  the  interior  of  Eastern  Asia 
was  brought  down  by  this  river  to  the  Caspian  Sea, 
and  thence  to  the  Euxine  by  land-transit ;  and 
others  state  that  they  have  discovered  traces  of 
the  debouchure  of  a  large  river  (which  could  be  no 
other  than  the  O.)  in  the  Bay  of  Balkan,  an  inlet  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  supposed 
course  of  the  O.  coincides  with  its  present  one  as 
far  as  lat.  40°  30'  N.,  and  long.  61°  30'  E.,  near 
Hazarasp,  from  which  point  it  took  a  west-south- 
west direction,  and  joined  the  Caspian  by  three 
mouths,  the  most  northerly  and  largest  of  which 
skirted  the  south  of  the  great  Balkan  range,  and 
fell  into  the  Bay  of  Balkan  ;  while  the  most  southerly 
fell  into  tne  Bay  of  Adji  Bojar,  70  miles  south  of 


the  former.  The  O.  was  the  boundary  of  the  empires 
of  Cyrus  and  Alexander. 

OXVA'CIDS.  When  Lavoisier,  in  1789,  gave  t he 
name  of  oxygen  to  the  Dephlogistteated  Air  i 
end,  in  1774,  by  Priestley,  lie  believed  thai  the 
presence  of  that  body  was  essentia]  to  the  existence  of 
an  acid,  ami  this  view  w.-is  supported  by  the  composi- 
tion of  the  principal  acids  which  were  then  I 
such  as  sulphuric,  nitric,  carbonic,  and  phosphoric 
acids.  But,  by  degrees,  acids  were  discovered  into 
which  no  oxygen  entered,  but  which  always  contained 
hydrogen,  and  hence  acids  were,  divided  into  t\\  : 

classes,  the  oxyaddn  and  the  hydradds;  oxygen  being 
supposed  to  he  the  acidifying  principle  in  the  former, 
and  hydrogen  in  the  latter.  At  the  present  day, 
scientific  chemists  usually  restrict  t lie  term  acid  tC 
compounds  into  which  hydrogen  enters,  and  the  acids 
are  regarded  as  salts  of  the  last-named  element ;  thus, 
sulphuric  acid  (HjO.SOs)  and  nitric  add  (H2O.N2O*) 
are  the  sulphate  and  nitrate  of  oxide  of  hydrogen: 
hydrochloric  acid  (HC1)  is  chloride  of  hydrogen,  &C. 

OXYCIILO' HIDES,  compounds  of  metallic  chlo- 
rides with  the  basic  oxides  of  the  same  metals.  They 
are  produced  by  imperfect  precipitation  of  a  metallic 
chloride  with  an  alkali.  Chloride  of  calcium,  2CaCl. 
3Ca20  -4-  15II2O,  and  the  oxychlorides  of  lead  (native 
Matlockite)  2PbCl2.Pb20,  "and  (Turner's  yellow), 
2PbCl2.6PbO,  are  examples. 

O'XYGEN  (symbol  O,  equivalent  16,  specific 
gravity  1T056)  is  a  colourless,  inodorous,  tasteless 
gas,  which  has  never  been  reduced  by  cold  and 
pressure  to  a  liquid  or  solid  condition.  Its  chemical 
affinities  for  other  elementary  substances  are  very 
powerful ;  with  most  of  them,  it  is  found  in  combi- 
nation, or  may  be  made  to  combine,  in  more  than 
one  proportion;  with  several  in  four,  five,  or  six 
proportions  ;  and  there  is  only  one  element  (fluorine) 
with  which  it  does  not  enter  into  any  combination. 
Owing  to  the  intensity  with  which  many  of  these 
combinations  take  place,  this  gas  has  the  power  of 
supporting  Combustion  (q.  v.)  in  an  eminent  degree. 
Of  all  known  substances,  it  exerts  the  smallest 
refracting  power  on  the  rays  of  light.  It  possesses 
weak  but  decided  magnetic  properties,  like  those  of 
iron,  and  like  this  substance,  its  susceptibility  to 
magnetisation  is  diminished  or  even  suspended  by 
a  certain  elevation  of  temperature.  It  is  only 
slightly  soluble  in  water ;  100  cubic  inches  of  that 
liquid  dissolving  4*1 1  cubic  inches  of  gas  at  32°,  and 
only  2"  99  inches  at  59°. 

Oxygen  gas  is  not  only  respirable,  but  is  essential 
to  the  support  of  animal  life ;  and  hence  it  was 
termed  vital  air  by  some  of  the  older  chemists.  A 
small  animal  placed  in  a  bell-glass  containing  pure 
oxygen  will  not  be  suffocated  so  soon  as  if  it  were 
placed  in  the  same  glass  tilled  with  atmospherio 
air.  For  further  details  on  this  property  of  oxygen, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  Respiration. 

Oxygen  is  the  most  abundant  and  the  most  widely 
distributed  of  all  the  elements.  In  its  free  state 
(mixed  but  not  combined  with  nitrogen),  it  consti- 
tutes about  a  fifth  of  the  bulk,  and  considerably 
more  than  a  fifth  of  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere. 
In  combination  with  hydrogen,  it  forms  eight-ninths 
of  all  the  water  on  the  globe ;  and  in  combination 
with  silicon,  calcium,  aluminium,  &c.,it  enters  largely 
into  all  the  solid  constituents  of  the  earth's  crust ; 
silica  in  its  various  forms  of  sand,  common  quartz, 
flint,  &c. — chalk,  limestone,  and  marble — and  all 
the  varieties  of  clay,  containing  about  half  their 
weight  of  oxygen.  It  is,  moreover,  found  in  the 
tissues  and  fluids  of  all  forms  of  animal  and  veget- 
able life,  none  of  which  can  support  existence 
independently  of  this  element. 

There  are  various  modes  of  obtaining  oxygen,  the 

175 


OXYGEN— OYSTER. 


simplest  of  which  consists  in  the  exposure  of  certain 
metallic  oxides  to  a  high  temperature.  It  was 
originally  obtained  by  its  discoverer,  Dr  Priestley, 
from  the  red  oxide  of  mercury,  which,  when  heated 
to  about  750°,  resolves  itself  into  metallic  mercury 
and  oxygen  gas.  It  may  be  similarly  obtained  from 
red  oxide  and  peroxide  of  lead,  the  resulting  pro- 
ducts in  these  cases  being  protoxide  of  lead  and 
oxygen.  The  following  are  the  chief  methods  now 
employed:  (1.)  The  black  oxide  (or  peroxide)  of 
manganese  (Mn202)  is  much  employed  as  a  source 
of  this  gas.  The  mineral  is  reduced  to  small  pieces 
of  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  introduced  into  an 
iron  bottle,  with  a  pipe  through  which  the  gas  may 
escape.  When  the  bottle  is  placed  in  a  furnace,  and 
attains  a  red  heat,  the  mineral  parts  with  one-third 
of  its  oxygen,  and  the  red  oxide  of  manganese  (Mn20 
MmOs)  remains  behind ;  the  reaction  being  explained 
by  the  equation : 


Black  oxide 
of  Manganese. 

3(Mn202) 


Red  oxide  n„™. 

of  Manganese.  Oxygen. 

Mn20,Mru03     4-     20 


(2.)  A  very  pure  and  abundant  supply  of  oxygen  may 
be  obtained  by  heating  chlorate  of  potassium  (KCIO3), 
which  yields  up  all  its  oxygen  (amounting  to  39.16 
per  cent.),  and  leaves  a  residue  of  chloride  of  potas- 
sium. One  ounce  of  this  salt  yields  nearly  two  gal- 
lons of  oxygen  gas.  It  is  found  by  experiment,  that 
if  the  chlorate  of  potassium  is  mixed  with  about  a 
fourth  of  its  weight  of  black  oxide  of  copper,  or  of 
peroxide  of  manganese,  the  evolution  of  the  gas  is 
greatly  facilitated,  although  the  oxides  do  not  seem 
to  undergo  any  change  during  the  process.  (3.)  Oxy- 
gen is  readily  obtained  by  heating  strong  sulphuric 
acid  with  about  half  its  weight  of  powdered  black 
oxide  of  manganese,  or  chlorate  of  potassium,  in  a 
glass  retort;  the  reaction  in  the  former  case  being 
expressed  by  the  equation : 


Black  oxide 
of  Manganese. 

Mn202      + 


Sulphuric  acid. 

H20,S03     = 

Water.  Oxygen. 

Mn20,S03     +     H20     +     0 


Sulphate 
of  Manganese. 


and  in  the  latter  case,  being  of  a  more  complicated 
character.  (4.)  Various  processes  have  been  proposed 
for  obtaining  the  gas  on  a  large  scale:  (1.)  That  rec- 
ommended by  St  Claire  Deville  and  Debray,  by  which 
the  vapour  of  hydrated  sulphuric  acid  is  passed  over 
red-hot  platinum,  and  decomposed  into  oxygen  and 
sulphurous  acid ;  (2.)  That  more  recently  proposed,  by 
which  a  current  of  superheated  steam  is  passed  over 
manganate  of  sodium  heated  to  a  dull  heat  in  a  retort. 
Oxygen  is  thereby  withdrawn  from  the  soda,  and  being 
led  into  a  refrigerator  is  condensed  and  collected  in  a 
suitable  receiver.  The  manganate  of  sodium  is  re- 
oxygenised  by  passing  heated  air  over  it,  and  may  be 
again  used  as  before;  (3.)  The  process  by  wood 
charcoal,  in  which  its  greater  absorptive  affinity  for 
oxygen  than  for  nitrogen  is  taken  advantage  of :  the 
gases  being  pumped  from  the  charcoal  and  repeatedly 
re-exposed  to  it  until  a  nearly  pure  oxygen  is  obtained. 
Oxygen  was  discovered  almost  simultaneously,  in 
the  year  1774,  by  Priestley  and  by  Scheele,  the  Eng- 
lish chemist  having  the  precedence  by  a  few  weeks. 
Priestley  gave  it  the  name  of  Depldogisticated  Air ; 
Scheele  termed  it  Empyreal  Air;  Condorcet  shortly 
afterwards  suggested  Vital  Air,  as  its  most  appropriate 
designation;  and  in  1789,  Lavoisier,  who,  by  a  series 
of  carefully  conducted  and  very  ingenious  experi- 
ments, proved  that  the  combustion  of  bodies  in  the 
air  consisted  essentially  in  their  chemical  combination 
with  oxygen,  and  thus  overthrew  the  Phlogiston  (q. 
v.)  theory,  gave  it  the  name  which  it  now  retains,  in 
consequence  of  his  (erroneously)  believing  that  it  pos- 
176 


sessed  a  certain  property  which  is  described  in  the 
article  Oxyacids.     See  Ozone. 

OXYHY'DROGEN  MICROSCOPE.  See  Solab 
Microscope. 

OXYRHY'NCHUS,  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
Egyptian  fish,  said  to  be  reverenced  throughout 
Egypt,  and  sacred  to  the  goddess  Athor.  Its  name 
in  Egyptian  is  kha,  and  the  fish  in  the  hieroglyphs 
was  used  for  this  syllable,  and  particularly  ex- 
pressed the  idea  of  the  body.  In  the  ritual,  the 
deceased  particulaidy  stated  that  he  hud  not  caught 
this  fish.  The  name  appears  to  have  comprised  the 
genus  Mormyrus,  distinguished  by  its  pointed  nose 
and  long  dorsal  fin.  The  fish  was  worshipped  in  one 
of  the  nomes,  which  was  called  after  it,  and  the 
inhabitants  held  it  in  such  reverence  that  the} 
would  not  touch  any  fish  captured  by  a  hook.  When 
the  portions  of  the  body  of  Osiris  were  flung  into 
the  Nile,  this  fish  alone  ate  one  portion  of  his  body. 
The  O.  was  not  eaten  in  Egypt,  except  by  the 
natives  of  the  Cynonopolites  Nomos.  Its  modern 
name  is  Mizeleh,  which  seems  retained  in  the  Coptic 
Peinge,  the  name  of  the  city  of  Oxyrhynchus.  It  is 
represented  both  in  the  sculptures  and  on  the  coins  of 
the  Nome,  and  was  anciently  embalmed. — The  city 
of  Oxyrhynchus  is  the  modern  Behnesseh,  lying  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Nile,  in  Lower  Egypt,  near  the 
Bahr-el-Jusuf. 

OXYU'RIS  VERMICULA'RIS  is  the  name 
now  assigned  by  most  zoologists  to  the  intestinal 
worm  described  as  Ascaris  (q.  v.)  vermicularis,  yet 
it  is  the  original  and  true  Ascaris.  For  the  mode  of 
recognising  the  presence  of  this  worm,  and  treating 
patients  suffering  from  its  presence,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  articles  Vermifuges  and  Worms. 

O'YER  and  TE'RMINERjFr.  oiar,  to  hear; 
terminer,  to  determine).  A  commission  of  oyer  and 
terminer  is  granted  by  the  crown  to  the  judges  and 
others  to  hear  and  determine  all  treasons,  felonies, 
and  trespasses ;  and  it  is  by  virtue  of  this  commission 
that  the  judges  on  circuit  dispose  of  criminal  cases 
in  the  various  circuits.  Sometimes  a  special  com- 
mission of  the  same  kind  is  issued,  authorising 
the  judges  to  go  and  try  prisoners  at  other  than  the 
ordinary  times. 

O'YSTER  (Ostrea),  a  genus  of  lamellibranchiate 
molluscs,  of  the  section  with  a  single  adductor 
muscle.  See  Lamellibranchiata.  The  shell  con- 
sists of  two  unequal  and  somewhat  irregularly 
shaped  valves,  of  laminated  and  coarsely  fcliated 
structure ;  and  the  hinge  is  without  tooth  or 
ridge,  the  valves  being  held  together  by  a  ligament 
lodged  in  a  little  cavity  in  each.  The  animal  is, 
in  its  organisation,  among  the  lowest  and  siuqilest 
of  lamellibranchiate  molluscs.  It  has  no  foot ;  and, 
except  when  very  young,  no  power  of  locomotion, 
or  organ  of  any  kind  adapted  to  that  purpose.  Its 
food  consists  of  animalcules,  and  also  of  minute 
vegetable  particles,  brought  to  it  by  the  water,  a 
continual  current  of  which  is  directed  towards 
the  mouth  by  the  action  of  the  gills.  The  gills  are 
seen  in  four  rows  when  the  valves  of  the  shell  are 
separated,  a  little  within  the  fringed  edge  of  the 
mantle.  In  the  most  central  part  is  the  adductor 
muscle ;  towards  the  hinge  is  the  liver,  which  is 
large ;  and  between  the  adductor  muscle  and  the 
liver  is  the  heart,  which  may  be  recognised  by 
the  brown  colour  of  its  auricle.  The  mouth — 
for,  as  in  the  other  lamellibranchiata,  there  is  no 
head— is  situated  beneath  a  kind  of  hood,  formed 
by  the  union  of  the  two  edges  of  the  mantle 
near  the  hinge.  It  is  jawless  and  toothless.  The 
ovaries  are  very  large  during  the  season  of  repro- 
duction, which  extends  over  certain  months  in 
summer,  when  oysters  are  out  of  season  for  the 


OYSTER. 


table.  Oysters  are  hermaphrodite.  Tiny  produce 
vast  numbers  of  young.     Leeuwenhdek  calculated 

that  from  3000  to  4000  exist  within  an  (>.  at  » 

when  'rick,'  'milky'  or  full  of  spawn  ;  ami  accord- 
ing to  Poli,  one  0.  produces  about  1,201),00(>  eges. 
The  eggs  are  hatched  within  the  shell  and  mantle 
of  the  parent,  and  the  young  are  to  be  seen  swim- 
ming slowly  in  a  whitish  and  mucous  or  creamy 
lluid  surrounding  the  gills,  which  becomes  darker 
and  of  a  muddy  appearance  when  they  are  about 
to  be  expelled.  Each  young  0.  is  then  about 
yl-jth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  about  two  millions 
are  capable  of  being  closely  packed  in  the  space 
of  a  cubic  inch.  Winn  the  parent  0.  expels  the 
young,  and  this  is  done  simultaneously  by  multi- 
tudes on  an  oyster-bank,  the  water  becomes  Idled 
as  with  a  thick  cloud,  and  the  spawn— called 
spat  by  fishermen — is  wafted  away  by  currents  ; 
the  greater  part,  of  course,  to  be  generally  lost,  by 
being  driven  to  unsuitable  situations,  as  exposed 
rocks,  muddy  ground,  or  sand  to  which  it  cannot 
adhere,  or  to  be  devoured  by  fishes  and  other  marine 
animals,  but  some  to  find  an  object  to  which  it 
can  attach  itself  for  life.  The  young  come  forth 
furnished  with  a  temporary  organ  for  swimming, 
ciliated,  and  provided  with  powerful  muscles  for 
extending  it  beyond  the  valves  and  withdrawing 
it  at  pleasure ;  and  when  the  O.  has  become  fixed 
in  its  permanent  place  of  abode,  this  organ,  being 
no  longer  of  any  use,  has  been  supposed  to  drop 
off,  or  gradually  to  dwindle  away  and  disappear. 
But  Dr  F.  Buckland  has  recently  expressed  the 
opinion,  that  the  swimming  organ  of  the  young 
oyster  is  the  '  lungs,'  and  remains  as  the  '  lung3 ' 

/.fa 


mmm, 


in  the  mature  oyster.  The  four  figures  here 
given  represent  the  young  oyster  much  magni- 
fied. Figs.  1,  3,  4  are  views  of  the  upper  and  under 
side ;  fig.  2  is  an  edge  view.  In  very  favourable 
situations,  oysters  grow  rapidly,  so  that  the  Corn- 


Fig,  a 


Fig.  4. 


mon  0.  is  ready  for  the  table  in  a  year  and  a  half 
or  two  years  ;  but  in  other  places,  a  longer  time 
is  required,  often  about  five  years. 
324 


The  species  of  O.  are  numerous,  and  are  found  in 
the  seas  of  all  warm  and  temperate  climates.  None 
have  been  found  in  the  coldest  parte  of  the  world 
The  Common  <  >.  [O.  editUs)  is  the  only  British 
species.  Like  it,  the  other  ipeciea  are  generally 
found  where  the  water  is  of  no  great  depth  ;  and 
some  of  them,  also  like  it,  are  very  abundant  in 
estuaries,  where  the  water  is  not  very  salt.  The 
mangrove  swamps  of  warm  climates  often  abound 
in  oysters  of  excellent  flavour  [0.  parasitica,  &c.) 
adhering  to  the  roots  and  branches  of  the  trees, 
within  the  reach  of  the  tide.  Some  of  the  species 
differ  from  the  Common  O.  not  a  little  in  foim,  as 
the  Lonc;-iiin<;i-:i>  0.(0.  Virginiana)  oi  \<  r\\i  Ame- 
rica, which  is  very  elongated:  and  Borne  of  them 
far  exceed  it  in  size.  Sir  J.  E.  Tennent  states  that 
he  measured  the  shell  of  an  edible  0.  in  Ceylon, 
and  found  it  a  little  more  than  11  inches  in  len^h 
by  half  as  many  in  breadth  ;  '  thus  unexpectedly 
attesting  the  correctness  of  one  of  the  stories  related 
by  the  historians  of  Alexander's  expedition,  that  in 
India  they  had  found  oysters  a  foot  long.'  Some 
species  of  O.  have  the  valves  plaited  with  strong 
longitudinal  plaits. — For  the  illustrations  here 
given,  we  are  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  the  editor 
of  the  Field. 

Young  oysters  readily  attach  themselves  to  the 
shells  of  old  ones,  and  thus,  in  favourable  circura- 
stances,  oyster-banks  increase  rapidly,  so  as  to  fill 
up  shallow  parts  of  the  sea,  and  to  form  walls  which 
effectually  resist  the  waves  and  tide.  This  is  very 
remarkably  the  case  on  the  alluvial  shores  of  Georgia 
and  some  other  parts  of  North  America,  where 
these  banks  are  called  Racoon  Banks,  because  the 
racoon,  among  other  animals,  visits  them  to  feed 
upon  the  oysters.  Marshy  land  extends  inwards 
from  12  to  18  miles  from  the  sea,  with  tidal  rivers 
meandering  through  it,  and  these  rivers  are  kept 
pretty  constant  to  their  channels  by  the  walls  of 
living  oysters  on  both  sides.  Lar^e  bunches  of 
oysters  may  even  be  found  among  the  long  grass. 
It  is  not  unusual  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood to  light  a  fire,  and  roast  a  bunch  of  oysters 
on  the  spot.  So  abundant  are  the  oysters  in  many 
places,  that  a  vessel  of  100  tons  might  be  loaded 
within  three  times  her  own  length.  American 
oysters,  which  are  of  excellent  flavour,  are  an 
important  article  of  commerce  in  America,  and 
have  begun  to  be  imported  (alive)  into  Britain. 

Notwithstanding  the  prodigious  fecundity  of  the 
0.,  however,  the  beds  or  banks  which  yield  it  for 
the  markets  of  Britain  and  other  European  coun- 
tries are  not  sufficiently  productive  to  satisfy  the 
demand,  and  it  is  not  so  much  an  article  of  ordinary 
food  for  all  classes,  as  a  luxury  of  the  wealthy. 
The  usual  mode  of  taking  oysters  by  dredging  is 
destructive,  although,  for  oyster-beds,  which 
are  at  all  states  of  the  tide  covered  with  a 
considerable  depth  of  water,  nothing  better 
has  been  devised,  and  the  anxiety  of  fisher- 
men to  make  the  most  of  the  present 
opportunity  has  caused  many  beds  to  be 
almost  ruined  by  over-dredging.  But  the 
artificial  formation  of  oyster-beds  has  been 
resorted  to  with  great  promise  of  success. 
It  is  indeed  no  novelty,  having  been  prac- 
tised by  the  Romans.  Pliny  says  that '  the 
first  person  who  formed  ai'tificial  oyster- 
beds   was    Sergius   Orata,  who    established 

them  at  Baias This  was  done  by 

him,  not  for  the  gratification  of  gluttony, 

but  for  the  sake  of  gain,  as  he  contrived 

to  make  a  large  income  by  the  exercise  of 

his  ingenuity.'     Sergius  Orata  lived  in  the  time  of 

Augustus.     Among  the   vivaria   of  later   emperors 

and  other  wealthv  Romans  were  oscrearia,  specially 

177 


OYSTER. 


devote-d  to  oysters;  and  oyster-culture  has  never 
ceased  to  be  practised  in  Italy,  although  to  an 
inconsiderable  extent,  and  particularly  in  Lake 
Fusaro,  the  Acheron  of  Virgil,  a  muddy  salt- 
water pond  nowhere  more  than  two  yards  deep. 
In  Britain,  it  has  also  long  been  practised  to  some 
extent,  particularly  on  the  coasts  of  Kent  and 
Essex,  for  the  supply  of  the  London  market. 
There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  this 
branch  of  industry  is  capable  of  vast  develop- 
ment, and  that  many  thousands  of  acres  along  the 
British  coasts  might  be  profitably  occupied  in  the 
production  of  oysters,  which  might  become,  far 
more  than  hitherto,  a  common  article  of  food  The 
subject  has  recently  received  much  attention  from 
the  French  government,  and  most  successf  id  experi- 
ments have  been  made,  not  only  by  the  government, 
but  also  by  private  individuals.  The  shores  of  the 
Isle  of  Re  have  within  these  few  years  been  in 
great  part  converted  into  oyster-beds,  the  successful 
enterprise  of  an  old  soldier  having  led  many  of  his 
neighbours  to  follow  his  example,  so  that  now  more 
than  3000  men  are  employed  in  oyster-culture  in 
that  island  alone. 


The  accompanying  figure  represents  a  piece  of  wood  with  oysters 
attached  to  it  of  different  ages.  Those  marked  A,  are  from  twelve 
to  fourteen  months  old;  those  marked  B,  are  five  or  six  months; 
those  marked  C,  are  three  or  four  months  ;  those  marked  D,  are  one 
or  two  months ;  those  marked  E,  from  fifteen  to  twenty  days. 


left  dry  by  the  retiring  tide.  In  the  latter  kind  of 
situations,  they  instinctively  keep  their  valves  closed 
when  the  water  deserts  them.  It  is  in  such  situ- 
ations that  oyster-culture  can  be  most  easily  and 
profitably  carried  on.  Our  space  will  not  admit  of 
details,  which  we  would  gladly  give.  Various 
methods  are  adopted  of  preparing  the  artificial 
oyster-bed,  by  providing  suitable  solid  objects  for  the 
oysters  to  attach  themselves  to.  Stones  are  piled 
together,  and  in  such  a  way  that  there  are  many 
open  spaces  among  them ;  stakes  are  driven  into 
the  mud  or  sand;  bundles  of  small  sticks  are 
fastened  to  stones  or  stakes ;  floors  of  planks  are 
formed,  at  a  little  height  above  the  bottom,  with 
alleys  between  them,  the  under  surface  of  the 
planks  being  roughened  by  the  adze  ;  and  tiles  are 
arranged  in  various  ways,  so  as  to  turn  to  account 
the  whole  spiace  at  the  disposal  of  the  oyster- 
cultivator  as  high  as  the  ordinary  tides  reach.  The 
method  must  be  varied  in  accordance  with  the 
situation,  and  the  probable  violence  of  winds  and 
waves  ;  but  sheltered  situations  are  best  in  all 
respects  ;  and  experience  in  France  seems  to  prove, 
that  tiles  covered  with  cement  are  preferable  to 
everything  that  has  yet  been  tried  as 
convenient  for  the  cultivator,  presenting 
a  surface  to  which  oysters  readily  attach 
themselves,  and  from  which  they  can 
easily  be  removed,  whilst  the  larger  sea- 
weeds do  not  grow  on  it  so  readily  as  on 
stones  or  wood.  By  the  use  of  tiles, 
covered  with  cement,  the  cultivator  is 
also  able  easily  to  remove  young  oysters 
from  breeding-grounds  to  feeding-grounds ; 
the  best  breeding-grounds  being  by  no 
means  those  in  which  the  oyster  most 
rapidly  attains  its  greatest  size,  and  that 
greenish  tinge  which  Parisian  epicures  so 
much  desire  to  see,  and  which  is  owing 
to  the  abundant  confervae  and  green 
monads  of  quiet  muddy  waters. — It  has 
been  long  known  that  the  oysters  of  par- 
ticular localities  are  finer  than  those  pro- 
duced elsewhere.  Nowhere,  perhaps,  are 
finer  oysters  produced  than  on  some  parts 
of  the  British  coasts.  Those  of  Rutupiceae, 
now  Richborough,  in  Kent,  were  highly 
esteemed  by  the  Romans,  whose  epicurism 
in  oysters  exceeded  that  of  modern 
nations. 

The  species  of  O.  most  esteemed  m  the 
United  States  are  the  0.  Yirginiana,  or 
Chesapeake  0.,  and  the  0.  borealis,  or  the 
New  York  O.  The  first  is  distinguished  by 
its  narrow  elongated  shell,  gradually  widen- 
ing, with  a  long  or  pointed  beak  at  the 
apex,  and  rounded  at  the  other  extremity. 
The  surface  presents  leaf-like  scales  of  a 
leaden  colour.'  It  often  measures  12  to  15 
inches  in  length,  but  is  seldom  more  than  3 
inches  in  breadth.  The  shell  of  0.  borcalis 
is  somewhat  obliquely  rounded,  ovate,  usu- 
ally curved,  the  beak  never  greatly  pro- 
longed, the  surface  very  irregular,  with 
loosely  arranged  flakes  of  a  greenish  colour, 
the  margins  more  or  less  plaited  or  scol- 
loped. It  grows  to  a  great  size,  and  may 
reach  6  inches  in  breadth.  The  New  York 
oyster  was  once  abundant  in  Massachusetts 
Bay,  but  died  out  in  1780.  It  still  occur* 
in  great  abundance  near  Sandwich,  Buz- 
zard's Bay.  The  O.  of  the  Atlantic  coast 
are  believed  by  some  authorities  to  be  but 


forms  of  one  species. 

Oysters  live  equally  well  in  situations  where  they  ,      A  large  trade  in  O.  has  sprung  up  in  the  United 
are  constantly  under  water,  and  in  those  which  are    States,  the  consumption  having  reached  an  enormous 
173 


OYSTERS— OZJAW. 


amount  Thai  of  Baltimore,  for  I860,  exclusive  of 
il  trade,  was  estimated  at  $3,500,000,  and  that 
of  the  whole  Chesapeake  Bayat  upwards  of  $20,000,- 
000.  An  aggregate  of  10,000,000  bushels  is  taken 
from  tlif  beds  of  Maryland  annually.  These  beds 
extend  over  .'573  square  miles,  and  afford  profitable 
employment  to  10,000  men.  The  0.  trade  in  the 
Delaware  Bay  is  very  valuable,  and  is  estimated  at 
about  $3,000,000.  Oysters  are  grown  chiefly  on  the 
Bhores  of  Cumberland  and  Cape  May  counties,  N.  J., 
ami  extend  over  m. duo  acres,  known  as  Maurice 
River  Cove.  The  total  ( >.  trade,  from  Maine  to  Texas, 
has  been  valued  at  $50,000,000  annually. 

Fossil  Oysters.— A  single  species  occurs  in  the  Car- 
boniferous Limestone,  and  as  we  rise  in  the  crust  of 
the  earth,  the  genus  becomes  more  and  more  common, 
no  less  than  200  species  having  been  recorded,  many  of 
them  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  living  species. 
The  Bub-genus  Gryphsea  was  a  free  shell,  with  a  large 
thick  left  valve  and  small  concave  right  valve.  Thirty 
species  have  been  found  in  beds  of  the  Oolite  and 
Chalk  periods.  In  the  same  beds  there  occurs  another 
form  of  ( )strea  with  Bubspiral  reversed  umbones,  to 
which  the  Bubgeneric  name  Exogyra  has  been  given. 
Forty  species  of  this  form  have  been  described. 

OYSTERS,  LAW  AS  to.  By  the  law  of  the  state 
of  New  Jersey,  enacted  April  14,  1846,  section  (1) 
prohibits  raking  or  gathering  oysters  or  shells  on  any 
bank  or  beds  from  the  first  day  of  May  until  the  first 
day  of  September  annually,  under  a  penalty  of  ten 
dollars,  and  (2)  any  person  dredging  for  O.,  or  on 
board  any  vessel  employed  in  raking  with  a  dredge,  is 
liable  to  a  penalty  of  fifty  dollars,  except  residents  of 
the  state  fishing  in  Delaware  Bay.  (4)  Persons  selling 
or  offering  <  >.  for  sale  in  the  state  during  the  above 
term  shall  forfeit  and  pay  five  dollars.  (5)  Forbids 
to  rake  or  gather  oysters  for  burning  or  for  industrial 
uses,  under  penalty  of  fifty  dollars.  (7)  Forbids  non- 
residents, or  those  who  have  not  been  residents  for  six 
months,  to  rake  or  gather  clams,  oysters,  &c,  under 
penalty  of  twenty  dollars  fine,  and  forfeiture  of  the 
vessel  and  furniture,  &c.  so  engaged.  By  supplement 
to  the  law,  March  19,  1851,  the  penalty  was  increased 
to  fine  or  imprisonment,  or  both,  the  fine  not  to  ex- 
ceed $150,  or  imprisonment  for  a  term  not  exceeding 
6  months.  (10)  Active  resistance  to  officers  or  other 
persons  seizing  the  said  vessel  renders  the  party  liable 
to  a  fine  of  thirty  dollars.  (11)  Owners  of  meadows, 
ditches,  &c,  where  O.  will  grow,  and  not  used  as  pub- 
lic landings,  may  plant  O.,  and  preserve  them  by 
erecting  a  fence,  gates,  or  locks,  to  prevent  the  en- 
trance of  other  persons,  and  (12)  any  person  found 
therein  with  any  craft,  without  permission  from  the 
owner  or  occupant,  or  who  shall  break  or  destroy  the 
fence,  gate,  &c,  shall  forfeit  fifty  dollars;  but  the 
free  navigation  of  any  thoroughfare  to  any  accustomed 
landing-place  shall  not  be  impeded.  By  sup.,  1851,  the 
penalty  was  increased  to  fine  or  imprisonment,  or  both, 
the  imprisonment  not  to  exceed  6  months,  nor  fine 
$100.  (13 — 18)  Permit  owners  of  coves,  flats,  &c,  to 
mark  out  and  stake  the  boundaries  of  their  beds  of 
planted  oysters  within  the  bounds  of  ordinary  low 
water  mark.  (19)  The  time  within  which  the  taking 
and  vending  O.  is  prohibited,  is  extended  to  the  first 
day  of  October  in  every  year  in  the  counties  of  Bur- 
lington and  Monmouth  and  Atlantic ;  but  planted 
oysters  may  be  taken  up  at  any  time  by  the  person 
owning  them.  (20)  Prohibits  the  removal  of  its  shells 
from  any  natural  oyster-bed  not  planted,  under  pen- 
alty of  ten  dollars.  Supplement,  March  31,  1864, 
(30,  Prohibits  taking  O.  from  their  natural  beds  in  the 
counties  of  Burlington,  Atlantic,  and  Ocean  between 
the  first  day  of  May  and  sunrise  of  the  first  day  of 
October,  and  during  the  first  ten  days  of  October  only 
by  daylight,  under  a  penalty  of  $25.  (31)  Prohibits 
tekirg  O,  in  the  waters  of  Ocean  and  Burlington  coun- 


tics  unless  the  <  >.  shall  be  of  a  size  that  a  bushel  will 
contain  no  more  than  850,  under  a  penalty  of 
Oysters  planted  in  navigable  rivers  of  New  Jersey,  or 
where  they  do  not  naturally  grow,  and  bo  designated 
by  stakes  or  otherwise  thai  they  can  be  readily  distin- 
guished, remain  private  property.  By  a  law  of  Vir- 
ginia, approved  March  15.  1871,  a  tax  was  imposed 
on  vessels  at  the  rate  of  about  >".  per  ton  ;  reaidenti 
and  non-residents  must  be  licensed,  and  the  lattex 
pay  a  tax  of  1  cent  per  bushel,  under  a  heavy  penalty. 

OYSTER-CATCHER  (llama  top  tut),  a  genus  of 
birds  of  the  family  CharadriadcB  (q.  v.),  chiefly 
inhabiting  sea-coasts,  where  they  feed  on  molluscs, 
crustaceans,  annelids,  and  other  marine  animals  — 
sometimes  even  on  small  fishes.  Their  legs  are  of 
moderate  length,  like  those  of  the  plovers,  and,  like 
them,  they  have  no  hind-toe.  The  most  remarkable 
generic  distinction  is  found  in  the  bill,  which  is 
long,  strong,  straight,  much  compressed  and  wedge- 
like  towards  the  point.  They  are  generally  said  to 
make  use  of  the  bill  for  opening  the  shells  of  oysters 
and  other  molluscs;  but  the  late  Mr  James  Wilson 
expresses  a  very  reasonable  doubt  on  this  point. 
The  habits  of  the  British  species  (II.  ostralegus),  so 
far  as  they  have  been  accurately  observed,  agree  with 
those  of  the  American.     It  is  the  only  European 


Oyster-catcher  (Hcematopus  ostralegus). 

species,  and  is  common  on  rJl  parts  of  the  British 
coasts,  on  those  of  continental  Europe,  the  north  of 
Africa,  and  of  the  north  of  Asia.  Its  whole  length 
is  about  16  inches.  Its  finely-contrasted  black  and 
white  colours  have  gained  it  the  name  of  Sea  Pie. 
It  is  most  abundant  on  the  sea-coast,  but  often 
visits  inland  regions,  and  sometimes  breeds  in  them. 
It  does  not  make  a  nest,  but  lays  its  eggs— usually 
four_on  the  shingly  beach  or  bare  ground.  On 
some  of  the  sandy  fiat  coasts  of  Lincolnshire,  the 
O.  is  so  abundant,  that  a  bushel  of  the  eggs  have 
been  collected  in  a  morning  by  a  single  fisherman. 
The  American  O.  is  a  bird  of  passage,  deserting  the 
northern  regions  in  winter.  It  is  rather  larger  than 
the  Europeau  species,  and  differs  from  it  in  colours, 
and  in  greater  length  and  slenderness  of  bill. 

OZ^'NA  (from  the  Gr.  ozo,  I  smell)  signifies  a 
discharge  of  foetid,  purulent,  or  sanious  matter 
from  the  nostrils.  It  is  a  symptom  rather  than  a 
disease,  and  may  arise  from  ulceration  of  the  mem- 
brane lining  the  nostrils,  or  from  caries  of  the 
adjacent  bones,  and  may  accompany  syphilitic, 
scorbutic,  scrofulous,  or  cancerous  affections  of 
these  or  adjacent  parts.  A  slighter  form  of  oza?na 
sometimes  follows  chronic  coryza  (or  cold  in  the 
head),  malignant  scarlatina,  and  erysipelas  of 
the  face.  The  discharge  is  seldom  accompanied 
by    acute    pain,  unless  when  caused   by   cancer; 


OZJENA— OZONE. 


Bometimes,  however,  an  aching  is  complained  of. 
The  prognosis  must  depend  upon  the  nature  of 
the  iisease,  of  which  the  discharge  is  a  symptom. 
The  treatment  may  he  divided  into  the  general 
or  constitutional,  and  the  local.  The  general 
treatment  should  consist  of  tonics  combined  with 
altciatives,  as  the  preparations  of  bark  with 
the  alkalies,  or  with  the  mineral  acids ;  a  dry, 
bracing  air,  or  a  temporary  removal  to  the  seaside, 
is  also  usually  of  service.  If  the  discharge  arises 
from  syphilis  or  scurvy,  the  treatment  siiitable  to 
those  diseases  should  be  prescribed.  The  local 
treatment  consists  in  the  inhalation,  once  or  twice 
ft  day,  of  the  steam  of  boiling  water,  to  which  a 
little  creosote  or  carbolic  acid  has  been  added  ;  and 
in  more  severe  cases,  in  the  thorough  syringing  of 
the  nostrils,  so  as  to  wash  away  all  collections  of 
matter  with  a  copious  stream  of  warm  water,  to 
which  a  little  chloride  of  zinc  has  been  added 
(about  30  minims  of  Burnett's  solution  to  half  a 
pint  of  w7ater). 

O'ZONE  (Gr.  020, 1  smell).  It  was  remarked  long 
ago  that  a  peculiar  odour  was  produced  by  the  work- 
ing of  an  electrical  machine.  Van-Marum  found 
that,  when  electric  sparks  were  passed  through  a 
tube  containing  oxygen,  the  gas  became  powerfully 
impregnated  with  this  odour — which  he  therefore 
called  the  '  smell  of  electricity.'  Subsequent  writers 
attributed  the  phenomenon  to  the  formation  of 
nitric  acid,  due  to  a  trace  of  nitrogen  mixed  with 
the  oxygen  ;  especially  as  the  gas  was  found  to  act 
energetically  upon  mercury.  Thus  supposed  to  be 
explained,  these  curious  results  were  soon  forgotten. 
But  in  1840,  Schonbein  (q.  v.)  with  remarkable 
acuteness,  made  a  closer  investigation  of  the  ques- 
tion, and  arrived  at  many  most  curious  results, 
which  have  not  even  yet  been  satisfactorily 
accounted  for.  The  problem  remains,  in  fact,  one 
of  the  most  perplexing,  as  well  as  interesting, 
questions  unsolved  in  chemistry. 

The  earlier  results  of  Schonbein  were  as  follow  : 
(1.)  When  water  is  decomposed  by  the  voltaic 
current,  the  electrodes  being  of  gold  or  platinum, 
the  oxygen  (which  appears  at  the  positive  pole) 
possesses  in  a  high  degree  the  smell  and  the  oxidis- 
ing power  developed  by  Van-Marum  by  means  of 
friction- electricity.  (2.)  When  the  positive  electrode 
is  formed  of  an  oxidisable  metal,  these  results  are 
not  observed,  but  the  electrode  is  rapidly  oxidised. 
(3.)  The  oxygen  collected  at  a  platinum  electrode 
retains  these  properties  for  an  indefinite  period,  if 
kept  in  a  closed  vessel ;  but  loses  them  by  heating, 
by  the  contact  of  an  oxidisable  substance,  and  even 
by  contact  with  such  bodies  as  charcoal  and  oxide 
of  manganese.  To  the  substance,  whatever  it  may 
be,  which  possesses  such  powerful  chemical  affini- 
ties, Schonbein  gave  the  name  ozone,  from  its  pecu- 
liar smell. 

In  1845,  he  shewed  that  the  same  substance  can 
be  produced  by  the  action  of  phosphorus  on  moist 
air  ;  and  suggested  that  it  might  be  a  higher  oxide 
of  hydrogen. 

De  la  Hive  and  Marignac  shortly  afterwards, 
repeating  the  experiments  of  Van-Marum,  shewed 
that  electric  sparks  produce  ozone  even  in  pure  and 
dry  oxygen;  and  came  to  the  conclusion,  that  ozone 
i3  oxygen  in  an  allotropic  state,  as  diamond  is  a 
form  of  coke  or  charcoal. 

Baumert,  in  1853,  endeavoured  to  shew  that  there 
are  two  kinds  of  ozone — one  formed  from  pure 
oxygen  by  electric  sparks,  which  he  allowed  to  be 
allotropic  oxygen  ;  the  other  formed  in  the  voltaic 
decomposition  of  water,  which  he  endeavoured  to 
prove  to  be  a  teroxide  of  hydrogen  (H03).  But 
Andrews,  in  1856,  completely  refuted  this  view,  by 
shewing  that  no  such  oxide  of  hydrogen  (at  least 
180 


in  a  gaseous  form)  is  produced  in  the  electrolysis  of 
water ;  and  that  ozone,  from  whatever  source  obtained, 
is  the  same  body;  and  is  not  a  compound,  but  an  allo- 
tropic form  of  oxygen. 

Schonbein  has  more  recently  tried  to  shew  that 
whenever  ozone  is  produced,  another  remarkable 
body  (called  antozone)  is  also  produced  ;  and  that 
these  are  simply  oxygen  in  different  electrical 
states.  The  facts  on  which  these  ideas  are  founded 
are,  however,  capable  of  other  explanations. 

In  1860,  Andrews  and  Tait  published  the  results 
of  a  series  of  volumetric  experiments  on  this  subject, 
which  led  to  some  remarkable  conclusions — among 
which  are  the  following :  When  the  electric  dis- 
charge is  passed  through  pure  oxygen,  it  contracts. 
If  ozone  be  oxygen  in  an  allotropic  form,  it  must 
therefore  be  denser  than  oxygen.  It  was  found  also 
that  a  much  greater  amount  of  contraction,  and  a 
correspondingly  greater  quantity  of  ozone,  were  pro- 
duced by  a  silent  discharge  of  electricity  between 
fine  points,  than  by  a  brdliant  series  of  sparks. 
The  contraction  due  to  the  formation  of  the  ozone 
is  entirely  removed  by  the  destruction  of  the  ozone 
by  heat ;  and  this  process  can  be  repeated  indefi- 
nitely o§  the  same  portion  of  oxygen. 

In  attempting  to  determine  the  density  of  ozone, 
they  used  various  bodies  to  take  up  the  ozone  from 
the  oxygen  containing  it ;  and  met  with  many  very 
curious  results.  Thus,  if  mercury  be  introduced,  it 
is  immediately  attacked  and  oxidised,  and  yet  the 
oxygen  increases  in  volume.  If  iodine  be  employed, 
it  is  immediately  oxidised,  and  no  change  of  volume 
is  observed,  though  the  apparatus  would  have  at 
once  rendered  visible  a  change  to  the  amount  of 
c  0  0  o  (^h  °f  *he  bulk  of  the  oxygen.  By  measuring 
the  contraction  produced  by  electricity  in  the 
oxygen,  then  the  effect  of  introducing  a  solution  of 
iodide  of  potassium,  and  determining  the  amount  of 
oxygen  taken  up  from  the  quantity  of  iodine  set  free, 
Andrews  and  Tait  shewed  that  the  density  of  ozone, 
if  it  be  allotropic  oxygen,  must  be  practically  infinite 
— i.  e.,  that  ozone  must  have  the  density  of  a  liquid 
or  a  solid  at  least,  although  existing  in  the  gaseous 
form.  This  conclusion  is  inevitable,  unless  we  make 
the  very  improbable  assumption,  that  when  iodine, 
&c,  are  exposed  to  ozone,  exactly  one  half  of  the 
ozone  combines  with  the  iodine,  and  the  other  half 
is  restored  to  the  form  of  oxygen.  The  paper  from 
whose  statements  we  have  quoted  concludes  with  a 
suggestion  that  it  is  possible  that,  in  the  formation 
of  ozone,  oxygen  may  be  decomposed  This  is, 
of  course,  contrary  to  all  the  received  notions 
of  chemistry — but  such  a  supposition  would  at 
once  reconcile  all  the  apparently  contradictory 
facts  connected  with  this  singular  body.  Soret  and 
Von  Babo  have  recently  repeated  and  verified  a 
few  of  these  results  ;  but  in  spite  of  the  wonderful 
sagacity  of  Schonbein,  and  the  laborious  experi- 
mental inquiries  of  many  chemists,  the  nature  of 
ozone  is  still  utterly  unknown. 

It  is  not  even  proved  that  ozone  exists  in  the  atmo- 
sphere, except  as  the  immediate  result  of  electricity, 
though  of  late  years  the  attention  of  meteorologists 
has  been  directed  to  the  effect  which  is  (almost  inva- 
riably, and  sometimes  in  fine  weather  powerfully)  pro- 
duced by  the  air  on  what  are  called  ozone-test-papers, 
the  best  of  which  is  probably  Houzeau's,  a  litmus 
paper  slightly  reddened  and  impregnated  with  iodide 
of  potassium,  which  turns  blue  in  the  presence  of 
ozone  by  the  production  of  potassium  and  separation 
of  iodine.  The  experiments  of  M.  Houzeau  indicate 
that  ozone  cannot  exist  in  the  atmosphere  of  a  crowded 
city  or  in  a  badly  ventilated  room.  The  invigorating 
nature  of  country  air,  and  that  of  the  mountains  and 
the  sea-side,  is  believed  to  be  due  to  the  presence  of 
ozone,  or  modified  oxygen.  • 


p 


THE  sixteenth  letter  of  the  English 
and  other  western  European  alpha- 
hets,  was  in  Hebrew  called  Pe,  i.  e., 
month,  and  was  most  likely,  in  its  origi- 
nal form,  a  nide  sketch  of  a  mouth.  P 
is  the  thin  letter  of  the  labial  series  (p,  b, 
v)  and  is  interchangeable  with  the  other 
letters  of  the  series.  P,  in  Sanscrit,  Greek,  and 
Latin,  is  replaced  by/ in  the  Teutonic  tongues. 
8ee  F.  Words  beginning  with  p  in  English,  and  its 
kindred  Teutonic  tongues,  are  almost  all  of  foreign 
origin  (Slavic,  Celtic,  Latin),  as  pain  (Fr.  peine,  Lat. 
prena),  plough  (Pol.  plug),  pit  (Lat.  puteus,  a  well). 
The  Greek  prep,  apo  (Sans,  apa)  became  in  Lat.  ab  ; 
Gr.  hitpo,  Lat.  sub  ;  Sans,  upa,  Lat.  ob  ;  but  before 
sharp  letters,  as  t  and  «,  the  original  p  was  retained 
in  pronunciation,  as  is  shewn  by  inscriptions  (aps- 
tulit,  optinui).  There  are  remarkable  interchanges 
of  p  with  the  sharp  guttural  k  or  q.  Thus,  for  Lat. 
guvs,  quod,  quam,  the  Oscan  dialect  had  pis,  pod, 
pain  ;  Lat.  equus,  coqito,  corresponded  to  Gr.  hippos 
{JEo\.  hikkos),  pepo ;  similarly,  Gaelic  mac  (son), 
ceathair  (Lat.  quatuor,  four),  coig  (Lat.  quinque, 
five),  correspond  to  Welsh  map,  pedwar  (Gr.  pet- 
tores),  pump  (Gr.  pente  or  pempe).  In  Gr.,  p  is 
sometimes  replaced  by  t,  as  tis,  tessares,  for  pis, 
pettores.  In  such  words  as  redemption,  consumption, 
p  has  been  introduced  as  an  intermediary  between 
the  incompatiMe  sounds  m  and  t.  The  initial  p  of 
Latin  words  has  for  the  most  part  passed  into 
French  unaltered  ;  in  other  positions,  p  has  become 
v ;  thus,  Fr.  eveque,  cheveu,  decevoir,  pauvre,  from 
Lat.  episcopus,  capilius,  decipere,  pauper. 

PA'CA  (Coelogenys),  a  genus  of  rodent  quadru- 
peds, allied  to  the  agoutis,  cavies,  and  capybara, 
and  inhabiting  BrazU,  Guiana,  and  some  of  the 
West  India  Islands.  The  dentition  very  nearly 
resembles  that  of  the  agoutis.  The  cheek-bones 
are  prodigiously  developed,  in  a  way  of  which  no 
example  exists  in  any  other  mammalian  animal,  so 
that  the  zygomatic  arches  enclose  a  large  hollow 
space,  whilst  the  bone  also  descends  to  an  unusual 
depth  from  the  arch,  even  below  the  lower  jaw- 
bone. Within  this  structure,  which  gives  an  extra- 
ordinary breadth  and  peculiar  aspect  to  the  face,  is 
a  sac  in  each  cheek,  opening  in  front,  and  lined  with 
a  fold  of  the  skin  of  the  face.  The  whole  of  this 
seems  to  be  intended  to  preserve  the  true  cheek- 
pouches  from  external  shocks.  The  cheek-pouches 
open  from  the  mouth  in  the  usual  way,  and  are 
capable  of  very  great  distention.  The  lip  is  cloven  ; 
the  ears  are  small ;  the  eyes  are  large  and  full ;  the 
neck  is  short ;  the  tail  is  a  mere  tubercle  ;  the  feet 
have  each  five  toes  ;  the  legs  are  thick  ;  the  back  is 
rounded.  The  form  and  gait  are  clumsy,  yet  the  P. 
(C.  paca)  is  very  quick  and  active.  It  lives  in  moist 
grounds,  burrowing  like  the  rabbit,  but  not  so  deeply ; 
its  burrow,  however,  is  always  provided  with  three 
rpeniugs.  It  feeds  on  vegetable  substances,  and 
often  does  great  damage  to  plantations  of  sugar- 
cane It  is  one  of  the  largest  rodents,  being  about 
two  feet  long.     It  is  generally  of  a  dark   brown 


colour,  with  four  rows  of  white  spots  Along  the 
sides,  the  throat  and  belly  white.  A  lighter* 
coloured  species  has  been  described,  but  is  perhaps 
a  mere  variety.  The  flesh  of  the  P.  is  much 
esteemed,  and  is  very  fat. 

PACAY  (Prosopis  dulcis),  a  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminosa',  sub-order  Mimosew  ;  a  native  of 
Peru,  of  rather  large  size,  with  a  broad  head ;  pro- 
ducing pods  from  twenty  inches  to  two  feet  long, 
which  contain  black  seeds  imbedded  in  a  sweet 
flaky  substance  as  white  as  snow.  This  flaky 
substance  is  used  as  an  article  of  food  and  much 
relished  by  the  Peruviana. 

PACE  (Lat.  pasms),  in  its  modern  acceptation,  is 
the  distance,  when  the  legs  are  extended  in  walking, 
between  the  heel  of  one  foot  and  that  of  the  other. 
Among  disciplined  men  the  pace  becomes  of  constant 
length,  and  as  such  is  of  the  utmost  value  in  deter- 
mining military  movements,  the  relative  distances 
of  corps  and  men  being  fixed  by  the  number  of 
paces  marched,  and  so  on.  The  pace  in  the  British 
army  is  2 4  feet  for  ordinary  marching,  and  3  feet 
for  'double-quick'  or  running  time. — With  the 
Romans,  the  pace  had  a  different  signification,  and 
it  is  important  to  bear  the  distinction  in  mind,  when 
reading  of  distances  in  Latin  works  ;  the  single 
extension  of  the  legs  was  not  with  them  a  pace, 
(passus),  but  a  step  (gradus)  ;  their  pace  (passus) 
being  the  interval  between  the  mark  of  a  heel  and 
the  next  mark  of  the  same  heel,  or  a  double  step. 
This  pace  was  equivalent  to  4-S4  English  feet.  The 
pace  was  the  Etonian  uuit  in  itinerary  measure  ;  the 
mile  being  1000  paces,  or  5000  Ilomau  feet,  equal 
to  *917  of  an  English  mile.  See  Mile.  Whether 
measurements  were  effected  by  actually  counting 
the  paces,  or  by  the  time  occupied,  is  not  clear ;  but 
either  method  would,  with  disciplined  troops,  give  a 
safe  residt. 

In  the  middle  ages,  writers  confuse  accounts  of 
distances  by  allusion  to  a  geometrical  pace,  a 
measure  which  varied  with  different  authors. 

PACHO'MIUS,  an  Egyptian  monk  of  the  4th 
c,  is  held  in  high  estimation  by  the  Pioman  Catholic 
church,  as  being  the  first  to  substitute  for  the  free 
asceticism  of  the  solitary  recluse,  a  regular  cceno- 
bitic  system.  He  was  born  towards  the  close  of  the 
3d  c,  was  brought  up  as  a  pagan,  but  converted  to 
Christianity  by  the  kindness  of  certain  Christiana 
whom  he  encountered  at  Thebes.  About  310  A.  !>., 
at  Tabenna,  an  island  in  the  Nile,  he  founded  the 
first  monastic  institution.  The  members  agreed  to 
follow  certain  rules  of  life  and  conduct  drawn  up  by 
P.,  and  to  subject  themselves  to  his  control  and 
visitation.  He  also  established  the  first  convent 
for  nuns,  which  was  under  the  presidency  of  his 
sister,  and  laboured  with  so  much  diligence  and 
zeal,  that  at  his  death,  according  to  Palladius,  not 
fewer  than  7000  monks  and  nuns  were  under  his 
inspection.  The  various  writings  extant  under 
the  name  of  P.  are — Eegulce  Monastics  (of  doubtful 
genuineness),  Monita,  SS.  PP.  Pachomii  et  Theodori, 

181 


PACHYDERMATA— PACIFIC  OCEAK 


Eplstolce  et  Verba  Mystica  (a  farrago  of  unintelligible 
allegory),  and  Prcecepta  S.  Pachomii.  See  Acta 
Sanctorum,  vol.  iii. 

PACHYDERMATA  (Gr.  thick-skins),  in  the 
system  of  Cuvier,  an  order  of  Mammalia,  including 
part  of  the  Bruta  (Rhinoceros,  Elephant),  and  all 
the  Belluoz  (Horse,  Hippopotamus,  Tapir,  Hog,  &c.) 
of  Linnaeus,  besides  one  genus  (Hyrax  or  Daman)  of 
the  Linnatan  Glires.  It  has  been  often  described 
as  less  natural  than  any  other  of  Cuvier's  mam- 
malian orders,  as  it  consists  of  animals  among  which 
there  are  wide  diversities,  and  the  associating  char- 
acters are  rather  negative  than  positive ;  but  it  is 
now  universally  received  by  naturalists  as  indicating 
a  real,  though  not  a  close  affinity ;  and  when  we 
extend  our  view  from  existing  to  fossil  species, 
numerous  connecting  links  present  themselves.  As 
defined  by  Cuvier,  the  order  consists  of  those  hoofed 
mammalia  ( Ungulata)  which  are  not  ruminants ; 
all  of  which  possess,  as  a  more  positive  character,  a 
remarkable  thickness  of  skin.  This  order  he 
divides  into  three  sections— (1.)  Proboscidea,  having 
a  prolonged  snout  or  proboscis,  through  wlrich  the 
nostrils  pass  as  elongated  tubes,  a  powerful  organ  of 

Ijrehension,  and  a  delicate  organ  of  touch,  and 
laving  also  five  toes  on  each  foot,  enclosed  in  a  very 
firm  horny  skin  ;  (2.)  Ordinaria,  destitute  of  pro- 
boscis, although  in  some  (Tapirs),  there  is  such  an 
elongation  of  the  upper  lip  and  nostrils  as  approxi- 
mates to  it ;  and  the  nose  is  employed  by  hogs,  &c, 
in  seeking  their  food,  not  only  as  an  organ  of  smell, 
but  as  an  instrument  for  turning  up  the  ground,  and 
as  an  organ  of  touch ;  the  number  of  toes  varies, 
four,  three,  or  two  on  each  foot ;  those  with  an  even 
number  of  toes,  having  in  the  cleft  foot  a  resem- 
blance to  the  Ruminantia ;  and  (3.)  Solidungula,  in 
which  the  foot  has  but  one  apparent  toe,  enclosed 
in  a  hoof.  Some  naturalists  have  thought  it  better 
to  separate  the  Solidungula  or  Eqxudaz  (q.  v.)  from 
the  P.,  as  a  distinct  order ;  whilst  others  have 
enlarged  instead  of  restricting  the  limits  of  the 
order,  by  adding,  as  a  fourth  section,  the  Herbiv- 
orous Gelacea. 

Those  P.  which  have  a  number  of  toes  differ 
completely  from  the  mammalia  having  claws 
(Unguiculata)  in  their  inability  to  bend  their  toes 
in  order  to  seize  any  object.  Some  of  the  Edentata 
have  very  large  hoof-like  claws,  but  this  difference 
still  subsists.  The  fore-limbs  of  the  P.  are  also 
incapable  of  any  rotatory  motion,  serving  for  support 
and  locomotion  only,  not  at  all  for  prehension  ;  the 
metatarsal  and  metacarpal  bones  being  consolidated 
as  in  the  Ruminantia,  and  they  have  no  clavicles. 

The  largest  terrestrial  mammalia  belong  to  this 
order.  Most  of  the  P.  are  of  large  size,  although 
the  damans  ure  a  remarkable  exception,  and  some 
of  the  hog  family  are  also  comparatively  small. 
Most  of  them  have  a  clumsy  form,  with  a  slow  and 
awkward  gait ;  but  they  are  .capable  of  activity 
beyond  what  might  be  supposed,  and  sometimes 
move  at  a  pretty  rapid  pace.  Gracefulness  and 
fleetness  are  characteristics  of  the  otherwise  excep- 
tional Solidungula.  The  P.  Ordinaria  have  gener- 
ally great  strength,  and  the  larger  ones  push  their 
way  through  the  entangled  thickets  of  tropical 
forests,  bending  or  breaking  the  lianas,  small  trees, 
and  branches  which  oppose  their  progress,  their 
thick  hides  resisting  the  spines  and  broken  branches 
by  which  the  skins  of  other  animals  would  be 
pierced.  The  horse  and  other  Solidungula  are  not 
inhabitants  of  forests  and  j  ungles,  but  generally  of 
grassy  plains,  and  their  hides  are  much  less  thick 
and  hard  than  those  of  most  of  the  Pachydermata. 

The  physiognomy  of  the  P.  in  geueral  is  rather 
dull  and  unexpressive,  the  eyes  being  small,  and 
having  that  character  of  which  a  familiar  example 
182 


is  found  in  the  common  hog.  When  enraged, 
however,  they  manifest  their  fierceness  in  their 
eyes ;  and  although,  in  general,  mild  and  gentle, 
they  are  capable  of  being  aroused  to  great  fury. 

The  skeleton  of  the  P.  Ordinaria  and  Proboscidea 
is  strong  and  massive  ;  the  neck  short,  the  processes 
of  its  vertebra?  strongly  developed ;  the  skull  afford- 
ing a  large  surface  for  the  muscles  which  support 
and  move  it. 

The  P.  generally  feed  on  vegetable  substances. 
Some  are  omnivorous.  The  digestive  organs  are 
more  simple  than  in  the  Ruminantia,  but  exhibit 
considerable  diversity.  The  stomach  is  simple  it 
some,  and  in  others  is  more  or  less  completely 
divided  into  sacs,  approaching  to  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  characters  of  the  Ruminantia.  The 
intestines  are  generally  longer  than  in  the  RumU 
nantia.  The  dentition  exhibits  considerable  diver- 
sity ;  the  adaptation  to  vegetable  food  being  the 
most  prevalent  character.  The  most  important 
peculiarities  of  the  dentition  and  digestive  organs 
are  noticed  in  the  articles  on  particular  families  and 
genera. 

PACI'FIC  OCEAN,  the  largest  of  the  five  great 
Oceans  (see  Ocean),  lies  between  America  on  the 
east,  and  Asia,  Malaisia,  and  Australasia  on  the 
west.  The  name  '  Pacific,'  given  to  it  by  Magellan, 
the  first  European  navigator  who  traversed  its  wide 
expanse,  is  doubtless  very  appropriate  to  certain 
portions  of  this  ocean ;  but,  as  a  whole,  its  special 
claims  to  the  epithet  are  at  the  least  doubtful, 
though  the  name  has  by  long  usage  become  too  well 
established  to  be  easily  supplanted  by  any  other. 

The  greatest  length  of  the  P.  0.  from  the  Arctic 
(at  Behring's  Strait)  to  the  Antarctic  circles  is  9200 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth,  along  the  parallel  of 
latitude  5°  N.,  about  10,300  miles  ;  while  its  area  may 
be  roughly  estimated  at  80,000,000  English  square 
miles,  or  about  fths  of  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth. 
Its  form  is  rhomboidal,  with  one  corner  incomplete 
(at  the  south),  and  its  surface  is  studded  with  num- 
berless islands,  either  scattered  or  in  groups ;  these, 
however,  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  western  side, 
and  to  the  limits  of  30°  N.  lat.  and  30°  S.  lat.,  where 
the  depth  of  the  ocean  is  not  great.  Along  the 
whole  eastern  side,  from  Behring's  Strait  to  Cape 
Horn,  there  is  a  belt  of  sea  of  varying  width,  which, 
with  a  very  few  exceptions,  is  wholly  free  from 
islands. 

The  coasts  of  the  P.  O.  present  a  general  resem- 
blance to  those  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the  similarity  in 
the> outline  of  the  western  coasts  of  each  is  even  strik- 
ing, especially  north  of  the  equator;  but  the  shores 
of  the  former,  unlike  those  of  the  latter,  are  sinuous, 
and,  excepting  the  north-east  coast  of  Asia,  little  in- 
dented with  inlets.  The  shore  on  the  American  side 
is  bold  and  rocky,  while  that  of  Asia  varies  much  in 
character. 

Though  the  P.  O.  is  by  far  the  largest  of  the  five 
great  oceans,  being  about  equal  to  the  other  four  in 
extent,  the  pi-oportion  of  land  drained  into  it  is  com- 
paratively insignificant.  Its  basin  includes  only  the 
narrow  strip  of  the  American  continent  to  the  west  of 
the  Ancles  and  Rocky  Moimtains;  Melanesia,  with 
the  exception  of  almost  the  whole  of  Australia,  which 
contains  few  rivers,  and  none  of  them  of  large  size; 
the  Indo-Chinese  states,  China  Proper,  with  the  east 
part  of  Mongolia,  and  Maschuria  in  the  Asiatic  con- 
tinent. 

Winds.  —  The  trade-winds  of  the  Pacific  have 
certain  peculiarities,  which  have  only  lately  been 
discovered.  In  general,  they  are  not  found  to  pre- 
serve their  peculiar  characteristics  except  within 
certain  limits,  thus,  the  south-east  trades  are 
found  to  blow  steadily  only  between  92°  and  140° 
of    west    longitude;     while    the    north-east    trades 


PACIFIC  OCEAN-PACK  FOVQ. 


are  similarly  fluctuating,  except  between  long.  115° 
W.  and  214°  W.  Beyond  these  limits,  their  action 
is  in  whole  or  in  part  neutralised  by  the  monsoons 

and  other  periodical  winds  peculiar  to  the  tropical 
regions  of  the  Pacific.  In  Polynesia,  especially  near 
the  New  Bebridea  group,  hurricanes  are  of  frequent 
occurrence  from  November  to  April,  but  they 
exhibit  few  of  the  terrible  characteristics  which 
distinguish  the  hurricanes  of  the  West  Indies  and 
Indian  Ocean.  North  and  south  of  the  tropical 
zone,  the  winds  exhibit  little  periodicity,  being  found 
to  blow  from  all  parts  of  the  compass  at  any  given 
Season  of  the  year,  though  a  general  westerly  direc- 
tion is  most  frequent  among  them.  On  the  coast  of 
Patagonia  and  at  Cape  Horn,  west  winds  prevail 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  while  in  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk  they  are  of  rare  occurrence.  The  frightful 
Typhoon  (q.  v.)  is  the  terror  of  mariners  in  the 
Chinese  seas,  and  may  occur  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year.  There  are  many  other  winds  and  storms, 
such  as  white  squalls,  cyclones,  '  tempestades,'  &c, 
which  are  conlined  to  particular  localities,  and  will 
be  found  noticed  under  other  heads,  and  also  under 
Storms. 

Currents. — The  currents  of  the  P.  0.,  though 
less  marked  in  character  and  effects  than  those  of 
the  Atlantic,  are  yet  of  sufficient  importance  to 
require  a  brief  notice.  The  Southern  Pacific  current 
takes  its  rise  south  of  Van  Piemen's  Land,  and 
flows  eastward  at  the  rate  of  half  a  mile  per  hour, 
dividing  into  two  branches  about  long.  9S3  W.,  the 
northern  branch  or  Current  of  Mentor  turning  north- 
ward, and  gradually  losing  itself  in  the  counter 
equatorial  current ;  the  southern  branch  continuing 
its  eastward  course  till  it  is  subdivided  by  the  oppo- 
sition of  Cape  Horn  into  two  branches,  one  of  which, 
the  cold  Current  of  Peru  or  Humboldt's  current, 
advances  northward  along  the  west  coast  of  South 
America,  becoming  finally  absorbed  in  the  equatorial 
current ;  the  other  washing  the  coast  of  Brazil,  and 
becoming  an  Atlantic  current.  The  P.  0.,  like  the 
Atlantic,  also  possesses  its  equatorial  current,  sepa- 
rated into  a  northern  and  southern  current  by  the 
equatorial  counter-current.  It  sweeps  across  the 
whole  ocean  from  east  to  west.  Two  subdivisions 
of  the  southern  current,  called  respectively  the 
'  current  of  Kossel '  and  the  '  warm  current  of 
Australia,'  flow,  the  one  through  the  Polynesian 
Archipelago  to  New  Guinea,  and  the  other  along 
the  east  coast  of  Australia.  The  northern  equatorial 
current,  after  reaching  the  coast  of  Asia,  turns  north- 
east, washing  the  shores  of  China  and  Japan,  under 
the  name  of  the  Black  or  Japan  current;  it  then  sends 
off  a  branch  along  the  coast  of  Kamtchatka,  and 
advances  eastward  till  it  becomes  lost  on  the  north- 
west coast  of  North  America.  There  are  other 
minor  currents,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  is 
that  of  Fleurieu,  which  describes  a  kind  of  irregular 
circle  with  a  radius  of  about  240  miles.  It  is  situated 
in  lat.  25°— 40°  N.,  and  long.  133°— 155°  W.  All 
these  currents  have  their  corresponding  counter- 
currents. 

There  are  two  '  sargassos'  or  weedy  seas  of 
considerable  extent  in  the  P.  0.,  one  lying  15° 
east-south-east  of  New  Zealand ;  the  other,  and  by 
far  the  larger,  about  15°  west  of  San  Francisco  in 
California.  There  is  also  a  large  region  lying  nearly 
half-way  between  Cape  Horn  and  New  Zealand, 
which  seems  to  correspond  to  the  deserts  on  land,  as 
mariners  report  it  almost  wholly  destitute  of  any 
signs  of  life  either  in  sea  or  air. 

History. — The  existence  of  this  ocean  first  became 
known  to  Europeans  through  Columbus,  who  had 
received  accounts  of  it  from  some  of  the  natives 
of  America,  though  it  was  first  seen  by  Balboa. 
September  29,  1513,  and  first  traversed  by  Magellan 


eight  years  afterwards ;  but  its  size,  limits,  and  the 
number  and  position  of  its  islands,  to.,  were  little 
known  till  long  afterwards,  and  even  now  it  presents 
a  rich  field  for  the  labours  of  discoverers.  Captain 
Cook  deserves  the  first  place  among  those  who  have 
devoted  themselves  to  the  investigation  of  the  P.  0. ; 
and  after  him  come  Anson,  the  two  Bougainville*, 
La  Perouse,  D'Entrecasteaux,  Carteret,  Vancouver, 
Kruzenstern,  Kotzebue,  &c 

PACI'NIAN  CORPUSCLES  are  very  remark- 
able structures  appended  to  the  nerves.  In  the 
human  subject,  they  are  found  in  great  numbers  in 
connection  with  the  nerves  of  the  hand  and  foot, 
and  sparingly  on  other  spinal  nerves,  and  on  the 
plexuses  of  the  sympathetic,  but  never  on  nerves  of 
motion.  They  always  present  a  proximal  end, 
attached  to  the  nerves  by  a  stalk  of  fibrous  tissue 
prolonged  from  the  neurilemma,  and  occasionally 
one-tenth  of  an  inch  long ;  and  a  distal  end,  lying  free 
in  the  connective  or  areolar  tissue.  In  the  human 
subject,  the  corpuscles  vary  in  length  from  one- 
twentieth  to  one-tenth  of  an  inch.  They  are  usually 
seen  very  readily  in  the  mesentery  of  the  cat, 
appearing  as  pellucid  oval  grains,  rather  smaller 
than  hemp-seed.  The  microscopic  examination  of 
these  bodies  discloses  an  internal  structure  of  a  very 
remarkable  kiud.  They  consist,  first,  of  a  series  of 
membranous  capsules,  from  thirty  to  sixty  or  more 
in  number,  enclosed  one  within  the  other ;  and 
secondly,  of  a  single  nervous  fibre,  of  the  tubular 
kind,  enclosed  in  the  stalk,  and  advancing  to  the 
central  capsule,  which  it  traverses  from  beginning 
to  end,  and  where  it  finally  terminates  in  a  fixed 
swollen  extremity.  The  ten  or  fifteen  innermost 
capsules  are  in  contact  with  one  another,  while  the 
rest  are  separated  by  a  clear  space  containing  fiuid, 
which  is  so  abundant  as  to  constitute  far  the  largest 
portion  of  the  bulk  of  the  entire  corpuscle.  Such 
are  the  views  of  Pacini  (as  given  in  his  Nuovi 
Organi  Scoperte  nel  Corpo  Umano,  1840),  who  is 
usually  regarded  as  their  discoverer,  although  they 
had  been  noticed  and  roughly  described  nearly  a 
century  before  by  Vater,  of  Henle,  and  of  Todd  and 
Bowman  ;  but  later  observations  made  by  Huxley, 
Leydig,  Kolliker,  and  others,  shew  that  the  question 
of  their  true  nature  is  still  an  open  one.  Huxley 
asserts  that  their  central  portion  is  solid,  and  not 
hollow ;  that  in  birds,  and  in  the  human  hand, 
there  is  no  fluid  between  the  laminae — ami  indeed, 
that  the  laminae  themselves  have  no  real  existence — 
the  Pacinian  corpuscle  being  merely  a  solid  mass  of 
connective  tissue  (a  thickened  process  of  the  neuri- 
lemma of  the  nerve  to  which  it  is  attached),  whose 
apparent  lamination  depends  on  the  regular  disposi- 
tion of  its  elastic  elements.  If  Pacini's  view  of 
these  structures  be  correct,  there  is  probably  some 
general  analogy  between  the  electric  organs  of  the 
torpedo  and  these  corpuscles ;  at  present,  we  know 
nothing  with  certainty  regarding  their  office. 

PACKFO'NG,  or  PETO'NG,  a  Chinese  alloy  or 
white  metal,  consisting  of  arsenic  and  copper.  It  is 
formed  by  putting  two  parts  of  arsenic  in  a  crucible 
with  five  parts  of  copper  turnings,  or  finely  divided 
copper ;  the  arsenic  and  copper  require  to  be  placed 
in  alternate  layers,  and  the  whole  is  covered  with  a 
layer  of  common  salt,  and  pressed  down.  When 
melted,  the  alloy  contains  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
arsenic,  and  is  yellowish-white  in  colour  when  in 
the  rough  state,  but  takes  a  fine  white  polish  resem- 
bling silvei  It  is  not  very  ductde,  and  cannot  be 
fused  without  decomposition,  as  the  arsenic  is  easily 
dissipated.  It  was  formerly  much  used  in  this 
country,  as  well  as  China  and  India,  for  making 
the  pans  of  small  scales,  dial-plates,  and  a  variety 
of  other  articles  requiring  nicety  of  make,  such  as 

183 


PACKHORSE— PADANG. 


graduated  scales  for  philosophical  instruments.  It 
is  probably  never  imported  now,  the  nickel  alloys 
of  Europe  having  quite  superseded  its  use  ;  in 
China,  however,  it  is  still  extensively  employed. 

PA'CKHORSE,  a  horse  employed  in  the  carriage 
of  goods,  which  are  either  fastened  on  its  back  in 
bundles,  or,  if  weighty,  are  placed  in  panniers,  slung 
one  on  each  side  across  the  horse's  back.  The 
saddle  to  which  the  bundles  were  fastened  consisted 
of  two  pieces  of  wood,  curved  so  as  to  fit  the  horse's 
back,  and  joined  together  at  the  ends  by  other  two 
straight  pieces.  This  frame  was  well  padded  under- 
neath, to  prevent  injury  to  the  horse's  back,  and 
was  firmly  fastened  by  a  girth.  To  each  side  of  the 
saddle,  a  strong  hook  was  attached,  for  the  purpose 
of  carrying  packages,  panniers,  &c.  Panniers  were 
sometimes  simply  slung  across  the  horse's  back  with 


Packhorse  and  Panniers. 

*  pad  under  the  band.  The  panniers  were  wicker 
baskets,  and  of  various  shapes,  according  to  the 
nature  of  their  usual  contents,  being  sometimes  long 
and  narrow,  but  most  generally  having  a  length  of 
three  feet  or  upwards,  a  depth  of  about  two-thirds 
of  the  length,  and  a  width  of  from  one  to  two  feet 
(see  fig.).  The  packhorse  with  panniers  was  at  one 
time  in  general  use  for  carrying  merchandise,  and 
for  those  agricultural  operations  for  which  the  horse 
and  cart  are  now  employed  ;  and  in  the  mountainous 
regions  of  Spain  and  Austria,  and  in  other  parts 
of  the  world,  it  still  forms  the  sole  medium  for 
transport  ;  though  the  mule  has,  especially  in 
Europe,  been  substituted  for  the  horse. 

An  army  requires  to  be  accompanied  by  several 
thousand  pack-animals,  sometimes  horses,  but  pre- 
ferably mules ;  and  in  Asia,  commonly  camels,  or 
even  elephants.  Pack-saddles  are  variously  fitted, 
according  to  the  objects  to  be  carried  :  some  for 
provisions  or  ammunition  ;  others  for  carrying 
wounded  men,  tents,  and,  in  mountain-warfare,  even 
small  cannon.  In  battle,  the  immediate  reserves 
of  small-arm  ammunition  are  borne  in  the  rear  of 
divisions  by  pack-animals  ;  the  heavy  reserves 
being  in  wagons  between  the  army  and  its  base  of 
operations. 

PACOURY-UVA,  a  sweet  and  delicious  Brazi- 
lian fruit,  a  large  berry,  produced  by  the  Platonia 
insir/nis,  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  Clusiacece.  The 
seeds  have  the  taste  of  almonds. 

PACTO'LUS,  anciently  the  name  of  a  small 
brook  of  Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor,  which  rises  on  the 
northern  slope  of  Mount  Tmolus  (modern  Buz  Dayh), 
flows  north  past  Sardis,  and  empties  itself  into  the 
Hermus  (modern  Koclus),  It  is  never  more  than 
ten  feet  broad,  and  one  foot  deep.  The  sands  or 
mud  of  P.  were  long  famous  in  antiquity  for  the 
particles  of  gold  dust  which  they  contained,  and 
which  are  supposed  to  have  been  carried  down  by 
184 


its  waters  from  the  bosom  of  Tmolus — a  hill  rich 
in  metals.  The  collection  of  these  particles,  accord- 
ing to  legend,  was  the  soiu-ce  of  Croesus's  vast 
wealth.  But  as  early  even  as  the  time  of  Strabo, 
P.  had  ceased  to  yield  any  of  the  precious  dust. 
The  brook  is  now  called  Sarabat, 

PACTUM    ILLI'CITUM    is,    in   the    law  of 

Scotland,  a  contract  or  agreement  for  some  illegal 
purpose,  i.  e.,  a  purpose  either  expressly  prohibited 
by  statute,  or  by  the  general  policy  of  the  law. 
Thus,  an  immoral  contract  between  a  man  and 
woman  would  be  held  void  on  the  ground,  that  the 
law  discountenances  practices  contra  bonos  mzres. 
A  contract  between  a  client  and  agent,  called  a 
pactum  de  quota  litis,  whereby  a  share  of  the 
property  which  is  the  subject  of  litigation  is  given 
to  the  agent  instead  of  his  usual  fees,  is  void  in  most 
cases ;  though  it  is  often  difficult  to  determine  what 
contracts  fall  within  this  rule.  The  courts,  however, 
have  construed  very  jealously  every  contract  which 
tends  to  corrupt  the  administration  of  the  law,  and 
hence  an  agreement  between  a  town  and  country 
agent  to  divide  the  profits  has  been  held  a  pactum 
illicitum.  So  agreements  by  a  client  to  give  an 
excessive  sum  to  his  law-agent  as  a  gift  have  been 
often  set  aside. — In  England,  similar  doctrines 
prevail,  though  the  phrase  pactum  illicitum,  which 
was  borrowed  from  the  Roman  law,  is  not  used, 
contracts  of  this  description  being  technically 
described  as  illegal  contracts. 

PADA'NG,  the  capital  of  the  Dutch  government 
of  the  west  coast  of  Sumatra,  is  situated  in  1°  S. 
hit.,  and  100°  1=1  E.  long.,  and  has  about  12,000 
inhabitants.  The  river  Padang  flows  through  the 
town,  but  is  only  navigable  for  small  vessels,  the 
larger  requiring  to  anchor  in  the  roadstead,  about 
three  miles  distant.  On  the  left  bank,  stand  the 
houses  of  the  natives,  unsightly  bamboo  erections, 
elevated  about  eight  feet  from  the  ground  by 
posts  of  the  cocoa-nut  tree,  and  covered  with 
leaves.  The  government  buildings,  houses  of  the 
Europeans  and  Chinese,  &c.,  are  on  the  right,  and 
mostly  built  of  wood  or  stone,  and  roofed  with  tile. 
P.  is  picturesquely  enclosed  by  a  semicircle  of 
mountains,  behind  which  rises  a  loftier  chain,  two 
being  volcanoes.  There  are  a  Protestant  church, 
a  Roman  Catholic  church,  nourishing  schools,  a  fort, 
military  hospital,  government  workshops,  large 
warehouses,  &c.  An  agent  of  the  Netherlands 
Trading  Company  (q.  v.)  resides  at  Padang.  Being 
the  centre  of  the  exports  and  imports  of  Sumatra's 
west  coast,  P.  has  a  lively  trade,  not  only  with 
Java,  the  other  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago, 
and  Europe,  but  also  with  the  interior  of  the  island. 

The  climate  is  considered  healthy,  although  the 
heat  is  great.  Colonel  Nahuys  found  the  thermometer 
range  from  70°  to  80°  at  6  a.m.,  from  82°  to  SS°  at 
noon,  84°  to  90°  at  2  p.m.,  78°  to  84°  at  6  p.m.,  and 
from  72°  to  80°  at  10  in  the  evening. 

The  governor  resides  at  a  country-house  about  two 
and  a  half  miles  above  P.,  and  rules  over  a  territory 
stretching,  from  the  Residency  of  Bencoolen,  which 
has  a  population  of  136,000  soids,  and  stands  imme- 
diately under  the  government  at  Batavia,  north- 
west over  seven  degrees  of  latitude.  It  is  divided 
into  the  residencies  of  Lower  Padang,  Upper  Padang, 
and  Tapanoeli;  the  population,  in  1870,  being  1,600,-* 
730  natives,  2178  Europeans,  and  nearly  3000  Chi- 
nese. 

Lower  Pabang  was  the  first  district  of  the  west 
coast  of  Sumatra  which  submitted  to  the  Dutch, 
who  had  formed  a  settlement  at  Padang  as  early  as 
1660,  and  by  repeated  wars,  gradually  extended 
their  territory. 

Upper  Padang  lies  to  the  north-west  of  the  lower 


PADDLE-PADDLE-WHEEL 


I)rovince,  from  which  it  is  separated  l>y  a  chain  of 
ofty  mountains,  some  of  winch,  ai  Hie  Singalang, 
Merapie,  and  Sago,  attain  to  nearly  10,000  feet  in 
height ;  Merapie  being  an  active  volcano,  the  last 
eruptions  of  which  were  in  1845  and  1855,  though  it 
Bent  forth  volumes  of  smoke  in  lStfl.  This  residency 
possesses  the  most  lovely  districts  of  the  island,  or 
of  any  tropic  land,  the  mountain  slopes  being 
studded  with  villages,  rice-fields,  cocoa-nut  and 
coffee  trees,  of  which  last,  it  is  calculated  that  there 
are  82,000,000  in  Upper  Padang.  In  addition  to 
the  coffee-culture,  gambier,  cassia,  pepper,  ratans, 
indigo,  caoutchouc,  &c.,  .are  largely  produced,  and 

fold,  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  quicksilver  are  found. 
D  the  district  of  Tanah  Datar  is  the  town  of 
Paggeroejong,  formerly  the  capital  of  the  powerful 
kingdom  of  Menangkabo,  and  the  residence  of  the 
king. 

Tapanoeli,  the  remaining  residency  under  the  gov- 
ernment of  Sumatra's  west  const,  lies  north-west  from 
Upper  Padang.  The  independent  spirit  of  the  inland 
natives  has  caused  the  Netherlander^  much  trouble, 
but  each  fresh  outbreak  only  extends  their  territory  and 
power  further  into  the  interior,  and  towards  the  north- 
west of  the  island. 


a 


PADDLE,  probably  the  precursor  of  the  Oar 
(q.  v.),  and  still  its  substitute  among  barbarous 
nations,  is  a  wooden  implement,  consisting  of  a  wide 
flat  blade  with  a  short 
handle,  by  means  of 
which  the  operator 
spoons  the  water  towards 
him.  In  canoes  for  only 
one  sitter,  a  double 
paddle  is  generally  used, 
which  is  dipped  alter- 
nately on  either  side  : 
the  inhabitants  of  Green- 
land are  especially  skil- 
ful in  this  operation. 
The  action  of  the  paddle 
is  the  same  as  that  of 
Paddle.  Double  Paddle,  the  oar.  The  paddle  has, 
however,  one  advantage 
— viz.,  that  the  rower  faces  the  bow  of  his  boat,  and 
therefore  sees  what  is  before  him.  In  threading  nar- 
row streams,  &c,  this  is  an  appreciable  gain. 

PADDLE-WHEEL  — one  of  the  appliances  in 
steam-vessels  by  which  the  power  of  the  engine  is 
made  to  act  upon  the  water  and  produce  locomotion 
■ — is  a  skeleton  wheel  of  iron,  on  the  outer  portion  of 
whose  radii  flat  boards,  called  floats  or  paddles,  are 
fixed,  which  beat  upon  the  water,  and  produce, 
continuously,  the  same  effect  as  is  given,  in  an 
intermittent  manner,  by  the  blades  of  oars.  The 
use  of  paddle-wheels  in  conjunction  with  steam  as  a 
motive-power  dates  from  about  the  commencement 
of  the  present  century,  but  the  employment  of  the 
paddle-wheel  itself  is  as  ancient  as  the  time  of  the 
Egyptians.  A  specimen  is  also  known  to  have  been 
tried  in  Spain  in  the  16th  century. 

The  fig.  shews  the  usual  form  of  paddle-wheel, 
that  called  the  radial,  in  which  the  floats  are  fixed. 
It  wdl  be  seen  that  a  certain  loss  of  power  is 
involved,  as  the  full  force  of  the  engine  on  the 
water  is  only  experienced  when  the  float  is  vertical, 
and  as  on  entering  and  leaving  the  water  the  power 
is  mainly  devoted  to  respectively  lifting  and  drawing 
down  the  vessel.  This  objection  has  great  force  at 
the  moment  of  starting,  or  when  progress  is  very 
slow,  as  is  illustrated  by  the  small  power  a  paddle- 
steamer  evinces  when  trying  to  tug  a  stranded 
vessel  off  a  sandbank ;  but  when  in  full  progress, 
«,he  action  is  less  imped  3d  by  this  circumstance,  the 
water  in  front  of  the  wheel  being  depressed,  and 


that  abaft  being  thrown  into  the  form  of  a  wave,  so 
as  in  each  case  to  ofTer  a  nearly  vertical  resistance 
to  the  float.     The  extent  of  the  immersion  much 


Ordinary  Paddle-wheel. 

influences  the  economy  of  power,  as  when  the  water 
reaches  to  the  centre  of  the  wheel  or  above  it,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  greatest  waste  must  take  place. 
From  this  it  is  advantageous  to  give  the  wheel  as 
large  a  diameter  as  possible,  and  to  place  the  axis 
at  the  highest  available  point  in  the  vessel. 

To  overcome  the  drawbacks  to  the  radial  wheel, 
Elijah  Galloway  patented,  in  182!),  the  Featured 
Paddle-wheel,  in    which   the    floats    are    mounted 


Feathered  Paddle-wheel. 

on  axes,  and  are  connected  by  rods  with  a  common 
centre,  which  is  made  to  revolve  eccentrically  to 
the  axis  of  the  paddle-wheel.  By  this  method, 
the  floats  are  kept,  while  immersed,  at  right  angles 
to  the  surface  of  the  water.  So  long  as  the 
water  is  smooth,  and  the  immersion  constant,  the 
gain  is  great ;  consequently,  feathered  floats  are 
much  used  in  river-steamers ;  but  for  ocean  -steamer*, 
the  liability  to  derangement,  perhaps  at  a  critical 
period,  and  the  variable  depth  of  immersion,  prevent 
them  from  becoming  favourites. 

A  recent  wheel,  called  the  Cycloidal,  has  the  floats 
divided  into  smaller  sections,  in  order  that  the 
action  on  the  water  may  reach  the  maximum  of 
uniformity. 

From  various  causes,  the  wheel  slips  somewhat  in 
the  water — L  e.,  revolves  more  rapidly  than  the  ship 
makes  way.  The  difference  between  the  two  speeds 
is  called  the  slip,  and  amounts  sometimes  to  one-lif  t'a 
of  the  actual  speed. 


PADDY— PADUA. 


PADDY,  or  PADDIE,  the  name  commonly 
applied  in  India  to  rice  in  the  husk.  It  is  the 
Tamul  and  the  Malay  name.     See  Rice. 

PADE'LLA  (Ital.  a  frying-pan ;  plur.  paddle),  a 
shallow  vessel  of  metal  or  earthenware  used  in 
illuminations.  The  illumination  of  St  Peter's  at 
Pome,  and  other  large  buildings  in  Italy,  is  effected 
by  the  tasteful  arrangement  of  large  numbers  of 
these  little  pans,  which  are  converted  into  lamps 
by  partly  filling  them  with  tallow  or  other  grease, 
and  placing  a  wick  in  the  centre.  This  mode  of 
illumination  was  first  adopted  on  a  large  scale  in 
Great  Britain  on  the  occasion  of  the  marriage  of 
the  Prince  of  Wales  with  the  Princess  Alexandra, 
when  the  inhabitants  of  Edinburgh  produced  by 
this  means  a  most  magnificent  illumination  of  their 
city. 

PA'DERBORN,  the  chief  town  of  a  district  in 
the  Prussian  province  of  Westphalia,  situated  in  51° 
43'  N.  lat..  and  8°  45'  E.  long.,  in  a  pleasant  and 
fruitful  district,  is  built  at  the  source  of  the  Pader, 
which  bursts  forth  from  below  the  cathedral  with 
sufficient  force  to  drive  mills  within  20  paces  of  its 
point  of  exit.  Pop.  13,727.  P.  has  narrow,  dark, 
old-fashioned  streets,  presenting  no  special  attrac- 
tions, although  it  has  some  interesting  buildings,  as, 
for  instance,  the  fine  old  cathedral,  completed  in 
1 143,  with  its  two  magnificent  facades,  and  containing 
the  silver  coffin  in  which  are  deposited  the  remains 
of  St  Liborius.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop  and 
chapter,  and  of  an  administrative  court.  The 
manufactures  of  P.,  which  are  not  very  considerable, 
include  tobacco,  starch,  hats,  and  wax-cloths,  and 
there  are  several  breweries,  distilleries,  and  sugar- 
refineries  in  the  town,  which  carries  on  a  consider- 
able trade  in  cattle,  corn,  and  oils.  P.  is  one  of  the 
important  stations  on  the  Great  Westphalia  Rail- 
way. P.,  which  ranked  till  1803  as  a  free  imperial 
bishopric,  owes  its  foundation  to  Charlemagne,  who 
nominated  the  first  bishop  in  795.  Several  diets 
were  held  during  the  middle  ages  at  P.,  which  at 
that  period  ranked  as  one  of  the  most  flourishing  of 
the  Hanseatic  Cities,  while  it  was  also  numbered 
among  the  Free  Imperial  Cities.  In  1604,  it  was 
forcibly  deprived  by  the  prince-bishop,  Theodor 
of  Fiirstenburg,  of  many  of  the  special  rights  and 
prerogatives  which  it  had  enjoyed  since  its  foun- 
dation, and  compelled  to  acknowledge  the  Roman 
Catholic  as  the  predominant  church,  in  the  place  of 
Protestantism,  which  had  been  established  during 
the  time  of  Luther.  In  1803,  P.  was,  in  accord- 
ance with  a  decree  of  the  imperial  commissioners, 
attached  as  an  hereditary  principality  to  Prussia, 
which  had  taken  forcible  possession  of  the  territory 
of  Paderborn  ;  and  after  being  for  a  time  incor- 
porated in  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  it  was 
restored  to  Prussia  in  1813,  and  incorporated  in 
the  Westphalian  circle  of  Minden. 

PA'DIHAM,  a  rising  manufacturing  town  in 
Lancashire,  near  the  Calder,  3  miles  west-north- 
west of  Burnley,  and  17  miles  east-north-east  of 
Preston.  The  older  portion  is  ill-built,  and  has  a 
mean  appearance,  but  the  more  modern  quarter 
contains  a  number  of  good  buildings.  P.  is  the 
Beat  of  active  cotton  manufactures.  Population  of 
the  town,  within  the  lighting  district  (1871),  6675. 

PADILLA,  Juan  de,  one  of  the  most  popular 
heroes  in  Spanish  history,  was  a  scion  of  a  Toledan 
family,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  illustrious  in 
Spain,  and  was  appointed  by  the  Emperor  Charles 
V.  military  commandant  of  Saragossa.  While  he 
was  so  employed,  a  formidable  rebellion,  caused  by 
the  excessive  taxes  which  the  emperor  imposed  on 
the  Spaniards,  to  defray  the  cost  of  his  various  wars 
in  Italy,  Germany,  and  the  Low  Countries,  broke  out 
186 


among  the  towns  (communidades)  of  Castile,  and  th« 
rebels,  who  were  known  as  communeros,  called 
upon  P.  to  put  himself  at  their  heath  The  intro- 
duction of  the  religious  element  into  the  quarrel 
tended  greatly  to  strengthen  the  insurgents,  and 
for  an  instant  P.  was  the  ruler  of  Spain,  and  formed 
a  new  junta  to  carry  on  the  government.  He  was 
successful  in  a  number  of  enterprises  undertaken 
against  the  royalist  party ;  but  on  23d  April  1521, 
was  completely  beaten  by  the  royalists  at  Villalos. 
This  conflict  decided  the  fate  of  the  rebellion  and 
of  P.  himself,  who  was  taken  prisoner,  and  next 
day  beheaded. 

His  wife.  Dona  Maria  de  Pacheco,  rallied  th« 
wrecks  of  the  rebel  army,  and  for  a  long  time  held 
Toledo  against  the  royalist  besieging  army,  and 
after  its  fall,  retired  to  Portugal,  where  she  died 
soon  afterwards.  With  P.  and  his  wife  expired  the 
last  remnant  of  the  ancient  freedom  of  Spain. 
Numerous  poems  and  dramas  celebrate  their  deeds. 

PADI'SHAH,  in  Turkish  Padishag  (Persian 
padi,  protector  or  throne,  shah,  prince),  one  of  the 
titles  of  the  Sultan  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  and  of 
the  Shah  of  Persia.  Formerly,  this  title  was  accorded 
only  to  the  kings  of  France  among  European 
monarchs,  the  others  being  called  Krai,  king. 
It  was  subsequently  allowed  to  the  Emperor  of 
Austria,  and  still  later,  by  a  special  article  in  the 
treaty  of  Kutshuk-Kainardji  (10th  January  1775), 
to  the  autocrat  of  All  the  Russias.  Padishah  was 
the  title  assumed  by  Baber  and  his  successors  on 
the  throne  of  Delhi. 

PA'DUA  (Ital.  Padova),  capital  of  the  province 
of  the  same  name  in  Northern  Italy,  stands  on  a 
beautiful  plain  on  the  Bacchiglione,  23  miles  by 
railway  west-south-west  of  Venice.  It  is  surrounded 
by  walls  and  ditches,  and  is  fortified  by  bastions. 
Its  houses  are  lofty,  supported  for  the  most  part  on 
long  rows  of  arches,  generally  pointed ;  and  most  of 
its  streets,  especially  in  the  older  quarters,  are 
narrow,  dark,  dirty,  and  ill-paved.  There  are, 
however,  several  handsome  gates,  as  those  of  San 
Giovanni,  Savonarola,  and  Falconetto  ;  a  number  of 
fine  squares,  of  which  the  Prato  della  Valle  is  the 
largest  and  the  finest,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  stream, 
and  planted  with  trees  ;  and  several  magnificent 
buildings.  Of  these,  the  Cafe  Pedrocchi  is  esteemed 
the  finest  edifice  of  the  kind  in  Italy.  Portions  of 
a  Roman  edifice  were  discovered  while  the  founda- 
tions of  this  building  were  being  made,  and  the 
marbles  found  now  adorn  the  pavement,  &c,  of 
the  salone.  The  Palazzo  della  Municipality,  built 
1172 — 1219,  is  the  most  peculiar  and  most  national 
in  the  city.  It  is  an  immense  building,  forming 
one  side  of  the  market-place,  rests  wholly  on 
arches,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  loggia  (q.  v.). 
Its  east  end  is  covered  with  shields  and  armorial 
bearings,  and  its  roof  is  said  to  be  the  largest 
unsupported  by  pillars  in  the  world.  Its  hall  is 
267|  *eek  l°ng,  and  89  feet  wide,  is  covered 
with  mystical  and  metaphorical  paintings,  and  con- 
tains a  monument  of  Livy,  the  Roman  historian, 
and  a  bust  of  Belzoni,  the  traveller,  both  natives 
of  this  city.  The  other  chief  edifices  are  the 
cathedral,  the  church  of  Sant'  Antonio,  a  beauti- 
ful building  in  the  Pointed  style,  with  several 
Byzantine  features,  and  remarkably  rich  and 
splendid  in  its  internal  decorations ;  and  the 
churches  of  San  Giorgio  and  of  Santa  Guistina ;  all 
of  them  richly  decorated  with  paintings,  sculptures, 
&c.  The  university  of  P.,  the  most  famous  estab- 
lishment in  the  city,  was  celebrated  as  early  as  the 
year  1221.  It  embraces  46  professorships,  and  is 
attended  by  from  1500  to  2000  students.  Connected 
with  the  university  are  an  anatomical  theatre  and 


PADUCAH— PAGANISM. 


a  botanic  garden,  both  dating  from  the  10th  a,  and 
each  the  first  of  its  kind  in  Europe.  There  is  also 
a  museum  of  natural  history,  an  observatory,  B 
chemical  laboratory,  and  a  library  of  100,000 
volumes,  and  1500  manuscripts.  There  are  also 
numerous  palaces,  theatres,  and  hospitals.  Pop. 
(18721  66,107. 

P.,  the  Roman  Patavium,  is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  towns  of  Italy.  According  to  a  wide-spread 
belief  of  antiquity,  alluded  to  by  Virgil,  it  was 
founded  by  the  Trojan  chief  Antenor,  but  we  really 
know  nothing  of  its  history  until  it  became  a 
Roman  town.  During  the  iirst  centuries  of  the 
empire,  it  was  the  most  flourishing  city  in  the  north 
of  Italy,  on  account  of  its  great  woollen  manufac- 
tures, and  could  return  to  the  census  more  persons 
wealthy  enough  to  be  ranked  as  equites  than  any 
other  place  except  Home.  But  in  452  Attila 
utterly  razed  it  to  the  ground.  It  was  rebuilt  by 
Narses,  destroyed  by  the  Lombards,  rose  again  from 
its  ashes,  became  famous  ill  the  middle  ages;  was  con- 
quered by  Venice  in  1405,  and  eventually  subjected  to 
Austria.  In  1866  it  was  ceded  to  Napoleon  III.,  and 
by  him  transferred  to  theK.  of  Italy,  subject  to  a  vote 
of  the  people,  who  approved  of  the  annexation. 

PADU'CAH,  a  city  of  Kentucky,  TJ.  S.,  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Ohio  Paver,  just  below  the  mouth 
of  the  Tennessee  raver,  347  miles  below  Louisville. 
It  is  the  entrepot  of  a  fertile  countiy,  and  has  a 
large  trade  by  the  rivers,  and  the  New  Orleans  and 
Ohio  Railway,  of  which  it  is  the  northern  terminus. 
It  contains  county  buildings,  three  banks,  three 
shipyards,  steam  saw-mills,  extensive  manufacturing 
establishments,  and  ten  churches.     Pop.  (1 880)  8376. 

PiE'AN  (of  doubtful  etymology),  the  name  given 
by  the  ancient  Greeks  to  a  kiud  of  lyric  poetry 
originally  connected  with  the  worship  of  Apollo. 
The  oldest  paeans,  as  we  learn  from  Homer,  appear 
to  have  been  cither  hymns,  addressed  to  that 
deity  for  the  purpose  of  appeasing  his  wrath  (Iliad, 
i.  473),  or  thanksgiving  odes,  sung  after  danger 
was  over  and  glory  won  (Iliad,  xxiii.  391).  Never- 
theless, at  a  later  period,  they  were  addressed  to 
other  deities  also.  Thus,  according  to  Xenophon, 
the  Lacedajmonians  sung  a  pcean  to  Poseidon  after 
an  earthquake,  and  the  Greek  army  in  Asia  one  to 
Zeus. 

PJEDO-BAPTISM.    See  Baptism,  Infant. 

PJE'ONY  (Pwonia),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Ilanunculacea ;  having  large  flowers, 
with  rive  persistent,  unequal,  leafy,  and  somewhat 
leathery  sepals,  5 — 10  petals,  many  stamens,  and 
2 — 5  germens,  which  are  crowned  with  a  fleshy 
recurved  stigma.  The  leaves  are  compound,  the 
leaflets  often  variously  and  irregularly  divided. 
The  fibres  of  the  root  are  often  thickened  into 
tubers.  The  species  are  large  herbaceous  perennials, 
or  rarely  half-shrubby ;  natives  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  the  north-west  of  America.  None  of  them  are 
truly  indigenous  in  Britain,  although  one  (P. 
eorallina)  has  found  admittance  into  the  English 
Flora.  On  account  of  the  beauty  of  their  flowers, 
some  of  them  are  much  cultivated  in  gardens,  parti- 
cularly the  Common  P.  (P.  officinalis),  a  native  of 
the  mountain-woods  of  the  south  of  Europe,  with 
carmine  or  blood-red  flowers.  A  variety  with 
double  flowers  is  common. — The  White  P.  (P.  albi- 
flara)  is  another  favourite  species.  It  is  a  native  of 
the  central  parts  of  Asia.  Its  flowers  are  fragrant. 
— The  Tree  P.,  Chinese  P.,  or  Moutan  (P.  Moutari), 
is  a  half-shrubby  plant,  a  native  of  China  and  Japan. 
In  favourable  circumstances,  it  attains  a  very  large 
size,  and  a  height  of  twelve  feet  or  more.  It  has 
been  long  cultivated  in  China  and  Japan  ;  and  is 


now  also  a  favourite  ornamental  plant  it  the  south 
of  Europe,  and  in  the  south  of  England  and  Ireland | 

but  the  late  spring- frosts  of  most  parts  of  Blitain 
are  injurious  to  it,  although  it  can  bear  severe  frost 
in  winter,  when  vegetation  is  at  a  stand,      it  (lowers 

in  spring.   The  varieties  in  cultivation  are  numerous. 

It  IB  propagated  by  cuttings,  and  also  by  grafting 
lis  germens  are  snrrounded  by  a  rap-shaped  laci- 
mated  membrane.— The  roots  of  moel  of  the  pasonies 
have  a  nauseous  smell  when  fresh,  and  those  of  the 
Common  L\  were  in  nigh  repute  among  the  ancients 
as  an  antispasmodic — hence  the  same  Pawray,  from 
Paion,  a  Greek  name  of  Apollo,  the  god  of  medicine 
-  but  their  medicinal  properties  are  now  utterly 
disregarded.  The  globose,  shining  black  seeds  of 
pseonies  were  formerly,  in  some  countries,  strung 
into  necklaces,  and  hung  round  the  necks  of  children, 
as  anodyne,  necklaces,  to  facilitate  dentition.  The 
Dauriaos  and  Mongolians  use  the  root  of  P.  albiflora 
in  their  soups,  and  grind  the  seeds  to  mix  with  their 
tea. 

PiE'STUM,  anciently  a  Greek  city  of  Lucania, 
in  Mie  present  Neapolitan  province  of  Principato 
Citeriore,  on  the  Sinus  Pcextanus,  now  the  Gulf  of 
Salerno,  and  not  far  from  Mount  Alburnus.  It 
was  founded  by  the  Trcezenians  and  the  Sybarites, 
some  time  between  650  and  G10  B.C.,  and  was 
originally  called  Poseidonia  (of  which  Pceslum 
is  believed  to  be  a  Latin  corruption),  in  honour 
of  Poseidon  (Neptuue).  It  was  subdued  by  the 
Samnites  of  Lucania,  and  slowly  declined  in  pro- 
sperity after  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans, 
who  established  a  colony  here  about  273  B.C.  Tho 
Latin  poets  celebrate  the  beauty  and  fragrance  of 
its  flowers,  and  particularly  of  its  roses,  which 
bloomed  twice  a  year.  Wild  roses,  it  is  said,  still 
grow  among  its  ruins,  which  retain  their  ancient 
property,  and  flower  regularly  both  in  May  and 
November.  P.  was  burned  by  the  Saracens  in  the 
10th  c,  and  there  is  now  only  a  small  village  called 
Pesto,  in  a  marshy,  unhealthy,  and  desolate  district; 
but  the  ancient  greatness  of  the  city  is  indicated  by 
the  ruins  of  temples  and  other  buildings.  These 
appear  to  have  been  first  noticed  in  the  early  part 
of  the  ISth  c,  by  a  certain  Count  Gazola,  in  the 
service  of  the  king  of  Naples ;  they  were  next 
described  by  Antonini,  in  a  work  on  the  topography 
of  Lucania  (1745),  and  have  since  been  visited  by 
travellers  from  all  parts  of  Europe. 

PAGANINI,  Nicolo,  a  famous  violinist,  son  of  a 
commission-broker  at  Genoa,  where  he  was  born  in 
1784.  His  musical  talent  shewed  itself  in  his  child- 
hood ;  in  his  ninth  year,  he  had  instructions  from 
Costa  at  Genoa,  and  afterwards  from  Holla  at  Parma, 
and  from  Ghiretti.  In  1801,  he  began  his  pro- 
fessional tours  in  Italy;  in  1828,  he  created  a  great 
sensation  on  appearing  for  the  first  time  in  the 
principal  towns  of  Germany ;  and  in  1831,  his 
violin-playing  created  an  equal  furore  in  Paris  and 
London.  His  mastery  over  the  violin  has  never 
been  equalled,  but  he  was  too  much  addicted  to 
using  it  in  mere  feats  of  musical  legerdemain,  such 
as  his  celebrated  performance  on  a  single  string.  His 
execution  on  the  guitar  was  also  very  remarkable  ; 
for  four  years  he  made  that  instrument  his  constant 
study.  P.  died  at  Nice  in  1840,  leaving  a  large 
fortune. 

PA'GANISM,  another  name  for  Heathenism  or 
Polytheism.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
paganus,  a  designation  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country  (pagus),  in  contradistinction  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  towns,  the  more  educated  and  civilised 
inhabitants  of  towns  having  been  the  first  generally 
to  embrace  Christianity,  whilst  the  old  polytheism* 
lingered  more  in  remote  rural  districts. 

&  187 


PAGE— PAGODA. 


PAGE  (derivation  variously  assigned  to  Gr.  pais, 
a  boy,  and  Lat.  pagus,  a  village),  a  youth  employed 
in  the  service  of  a  royal  or  noble  personage.  The 
practice  of  employing  youths  of  noble  birth  in 
personal  attendance  on  the  sovereign,  existed  in 
early  times  among  the  Persians,  and  was  revived  in 
the  middle  ages  under  feudal  and  cbivalric  usages. 
The  youug  nobleman  passed  in  courts  and  castles 
through  the  degree  of  page,  preparatory  to  being 
admitted  to  the  further  degrees  of  esquire  and 
knight.  The  practice  of  educating  the  higher 
nobility  as  pages  at  court,  began  to  decline  after  the 
15th  c,  till  pages  became  what  they  are  now,  mere 
relics  of  feudal  usages.  Four  pages  of  honour,  who 
are  personal  attendants  of  the  sovereign,  form  part 
of  the  state  of  the  British  court.  They  receive  a 
salary  of  £200  a  year  each,  and  on  attaining  a 
suitable  age,  receive  from  her  Majesty  a  commission 
in  the  Foot  Guards  without  purchase. 

PAGET,  Family  or.  This  noble  family,  though 
said  to  be  of  Norman  extraction,  do  not  trace  their 
descent  further  back  than  the  reign  of  Henry  VII., 
in  whose  time,  one  William  P.  held  the  office  of  one 
of  the  sergeants-at-mace  of  the  city  of  London.  His 
son  William,  who  was  educated  at  St  Paul's  School, 
and  at  Cambridge,  was  introduced  into  public  life  by 
Stephen  Gardiner,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  early  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  sent  him  abroad  to 
obtain  the  opinions  of  foreign  doctors  as  to  his  con- 
templated divorce  from  Catharine  of  Aragon.  From 
this  time  forth  his  rise  was  rapid,  and  he  was 
constantly  employed  in  diplomatic  missions  until  the 
death  of  the  king,  who  appointed  him  one  of  his 
executors.  He  now  adhered  to  the  party  of  the 
Protector  Somerset,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
in  1552,  as  Lord  Paget  of  Beaudesert.  He  shared  in 
the  power,  and  also  in  the  fall,  of  the  Protector,  and 
was  heavily  fined  by  the  Star  Chamber,  who  also 
deprived  him  of  the  insignia  of  the  Order  of  the 
Garter.  His  disgrace,  however,  was  not  of  long 
continuance,  and  a  change  taking  place  in  the 
councils  of  his  opponents,  he  soon  obtained  his 
pardon.  On  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary,  he  was 
sworn  a  member  of  the  privy  council,  and  obtained 
several  large  grants  of  lands.  He  retired  from 
public  life  on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  who 
regarded  him  with  much  favour,  though  he  was  a 
strict  Roman  Catholic.  The  representative  of  the 
family  adhered  to  the  cause  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots, 
and  suffered,  in  consequence,  the  confiscation  of  his 
property.  The  fifth  Lord  P.  so  far  departed  from 
the  traditionary  policy  of  the  family  as  to  accept 
from  the  parliament  the  lord-lieutenancy  of  Bucking- 
hamshire ;  but  he  returned  to  his  allegiance  shortly 
afterwards,  and  held  the  command  of  a  regiment 
under  the  royal  standard  at  the  battle  of  Edgehdl. 
His  grandson  was  advanced  to  the  earldom  of 
Uxbridge,  but  this  title  becoming  extinct,  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  family  devolved  on  a  female,  who 
carried  the  barony  of  Paget  by  marriage  into  the 
house  of  Bayly.  The  son  of  this  marriage,  however, 
having  assumed  the  name  of  Paget,  obtained  a 
renewal  of  the  earldom  of  Uxbridge,  and  the  second 
earl,  for  his  gallantly  at  Waterloo,  was  advanced  to 
the  marquisate  of  Anglesey.  Of  late  years,  the  P. 
family  have  usually  held  three  or  four  seats  in  every 

Earliament,  and  they  have  constantly  supported  the 
beral  party. 

PA'GING-MACHINE.  Several  machines  have 
been  made  for  paging  books  and  numbering  bank- 
notes, cheques,  railway-tickets,  and  other  similar 
papers.  The  great  object  of  these  machines  is  to 
prevent  the  chance  of  error  or  fraud  by  making 
it  impossible  that  a  page,  cheque,  &c.  can  be 
abstracted  or  lost  without  detection.  Messrs 
1S3 


Waterlow  and  Sons  of  L.ondon  perfected  an  inge- 
nious machine,  by  which  pages  of  books,  such  as 
ledgers  and  other  commercial  books,  and  bank- 
notes, &c,  are  numbered  in  regular  succession.  1  he 
numbers  are  engraved  on  metal  rowels,  usually  of 
steel  or  brass.  A  series  of  these  rowels  are  so 
arranged,  that  when  the  machine  is  worked,  the 
numbers  must  be  impressed  on  the  paper  in  regular 
succession  from  i  to  99,999;  and  it  is  impossible 
to  produce  a  duplicate  number  until  the  whole 
series  has  been  printed.  The  instrument  is  made  to 
supply  ink  to  the  types,  so  that  it  may  be  locked  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  admit  of  being  worked  without 
the  chance  of  its  being  tampered  with. 

An  extremely  ingenious  modification  of  this 
machine  has  been  perfected  by  M.  Auguste  Trouillet 
of  Paris,  under  the  name  of '  Numerateur  MScanique,' 
which  is  not  only  more  simple,  but  admits  of  wider 
amplication ;  for  it  not  only  pages  books  and  numbers 
notes,  tickets,  &c,  but  can  also  be  used  for  number- 
ing bales  and  other  packages  of  merchandise.  The 
instrument  has  six  rowels,  on  each  of  which  is  a 
set  of  engraved  numbers,  so  arranged,  that  their 
revolutions  produce  in  regular  succession  the 
required  numbers,  by  the  action  of  a  lever  which 
moves  horizontally,  and  supplies  the  type  with  ink 
as  it  moves  backwards  and  forwards. 

PA'GO,  an  island  belonging  to  the  Austrian 
crownland  of  Dalmatia,  separated  from  Croatia  by 
the  Morlacca  Canal,  a  channel  from  two  to  three 
miles  in  width.  It  is  long  and  narrow,  runs  parallel 
to  the  Croatian  Coast,  and  has  an  area  of  84  square 
miles.  Pop.  4910,  who  are  most  industrious,  and 
support  themselves  by  vine-culture,  the  manufacture 
of  salt  and  fishing. 

PAGODA  (according  to  some,  a  corruption  of 
the  Sanscrit  word  bhdgavata,  from  bJwtgavab,  sacred ; 
but  according  to  others,  a  corruption  of  put-gada, 
from  the  Persian  put,  idol,  and  gada,  house)  is  the 
name  of  certain  Hindu  temples,  which  are  amongst 
the  most  remarkable  monuments  of  Hindu  archi- 
tecture. Though  the  word  itself  designates  but 
the  temple  where  the  deity — especially  S'iva,  and 
his  consort  Durga  or  Parvati — was  worshipped,  a 
pagoda  is  in  reality  an  aggregate  of  various  monu- 
ments, which,  in  their  totality,  constitute  the  holy 
place  sacred  to  the  god.  Sanctuaries,  porches, 
colonnades,  gateways,  walls,  tanks,  &c,  are  gener- 
ally combined  for  this  purpose,  according  to  a  plan, 
which  is  more  or  less  uniform.  Several  series  of 
walls  form  an  enclosure ;  between  them  are  alleys, 
habitations  for  the  priests,  &c,  and  the  intei-ior  is 
occupied  by  the  temple  itself,  with  buildings  for 
the  pilgrims,  tanks,  porticos,  and  open  colonnades. 
The  walls  have,  at  their  openings,  gopuras,  or  large 
pyramidal  gateways,  higher  than  themselves,  and 
so  constructed  that  the  gopura  of  the  outer  wall  is 
always  higher  than  that  of  the  succeeding  inner 
wall,  the  pagoda  itself  being  smaller  than  the 
smallest  gopura.  The  extent  of  the  enclosing  walls 
is  generally  considerable ;  in  most  instances,  they 
consist  of  hewn  stones  of  colossal  dimensions,  placed 
upon  one  another  without  mortar  or  cement,  but 
with  such  admirable  accuracy,  that  their  joints  are 
scarcely  visible.  The  gateways  are  pyramidal 
buildings  of  the  most  elaborate  workmanship ;  they 
consist  of  several,  sometimes  as  many  as  fifteen 
stories.  The  pagodas  themselves,  too,  are  of  a 
pyramidal  shape,  various  layers  of  stones  having 
been  piled  upon  one  another  in  successive  recession  ; 
in  some  pagodas,  however,  the  pyramidal  form 
begins  only  with  the  higher  stories,  the  broad  basi3 
extending  to  about  a  third  of  the  height  of  the 
whole  budding.  The  sides  of  the  different  terraces 
are  vertical;    but  the  transition  from  the  to  the 


PAGODA— PAIN. 


other  is  effected  by  a  vault  surmounted  by  a  series 
of  small  cupulas,  which  hide  the  vault  itself.  A 
single  cupola,  hewn  out  of  the  stone,  and  sur- 
mounted hy  a  globe,  generally  crowns  the  whole 
structure ;  but  sometimes  the  latter  also  ends  in 
fantastical  spires  of  a  fanlike  shape  or  concave 
roofs.  The  pagodas  are  covered  all  over  with  the 
richest  ornamentation.  The  pilasters  and  columns, 
which  take  a  prominent  rank  in  the  ornamental 
portion  of  these  temples,  shew  the  greatest  variety 
of  forms  ;  some  pagodas  are  also  overlaid  with  strips 
of  copper,  having  the  appearance  of  gold.  The 
most  celebrated  pagodas  on  the  mainland  of  India 
are  those  of  Mathura,  Trichinopoli,  Chalamhron, 
Konjeveram,  Jaggernaut,  and  Deogur,  near  Ellora, 
— That  of  Mathura  consists  of  four  stories,  and  is 
about  63  feet  high  ;  its  base  comprises  about  40 
square  feet.  Its  first  story  is  made  of  hewn  stones, 
copper,  and  covered  with  gilt ;  the  others  of  brick. 
A  great  number  of  figures,  especially  representing 
deities,  tigers,  and  elephants,  cover  the  building. — 
The  pagoda  of  Tan j  ore  is  the  most  beautiful  monu- 
ment of  this  kind  in  the  south  of  India ;  its  height 
is  200  feet,  and  the  width  of  its  basis  is  equal  to 
two- thirds  of  its  height. — The  pagoda  of  Trichinopoli 
is  erected  on  a  hill,  elevated  about  300  feet  over 
the  plain  ;  it  differs  in  style  from  other  pagodas 
dedicated  to  Brahminical  worship,  and  exhibits 
great  similarity  with  the  Buddhistic  monuments  of 
Tibet. — The  great  pagoda  of  Chalambron,  in  Tanjore, 
is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  and  one  of  the. 
most  sacred  of  India.  It  is  dedicated  to  S'iva  and 
Parvati,  and  filled  with  representations  belonging 
to  the  mythical  history  of  these  gods.  The  build- 
ings of  which  this  pagoda  is  composed  cover  an 
oblong  square,  360  feet  long,  and  210  feet  wide. — 
At  Konjeveram,  there  are  two  pagodas — the  one 
dedicated  to  S'iva,  and  the  other  to  Parvati. — The 
pagodas  of  Jaggernaut,  on  the  north  end  of  the 
coast  of  Coromandel,  are  three  ;  they  are  erected  like- 
wise in  honour  of  S'iva,  and  are  surrounded  by  a  wall 
of  black  stones — whence  they  are  called  by  Europeans 
the  Black  Pagodas — measuring  1122  feet  in  length, 
696  feet  in  width,  and  24  feet  in  height.  The 
height  of  the  principal  of  these  three  pagodas  is  said 
to  be  344  feet ;  according  to  some,  however,  it  does 
not  exceed  120 — 123  feet. — The  pagoda  of  Deogur, 
near  Ellora,  consists  also  of  three  pagodas,  sacred  to 
S'iva ;  they  have  no  sculptures,  however,  except  a 
trident,  the  weapon  of  S'iva, 
which  is  visible  on  the  top  of 
one  of  these  temples. — The 
monuments  of  Mavalipura, 
on  the  coast  of  Coromandel, 
are  generally  called  the  Seven 
Pagodas ;  but  as  these  monu- 
ments— which  are  rather  a 
whole  city,  than  merely 
temples — are  buildings  cut 
out  of  the  living  rock,  they 
belong  more  properly  to  the 
rock-cut  monuments  of  India, 
than  to  the  special  class  of 
Indian  architecture  comprised 
under  the  term  pagoda. 

The  term  pagoda  is,  in  a 
loose  way,  also  applied  to  those 
Chinese  buildings  of  a  tower- 
form,  which  consist  of  several 
stories,  each  story  containing 
a  single  room,  and  being  sur- 
rounded by  a  gallery  covered 
with  a  protruding  roof.  These 
buildings,  however,  differ  materially  from  the 
Hindu  pagodas,  not  only  so  far  as  their  style  and 
exterior  appearance  are  concerned,  but  inasmuch 


Porcelain  Tower  of 
Nanking. 


as  they  are  buildings  intended  fur  other  than 
religious  purposes.  Tin-  Chinese  call  them  To,  and 
they  are  generally  erected  in  commemoration  of  a 
celebrated   personage,  or  Bome  remarkable  event; 

and  for  this  reason,  too,  on  some  elevated  spot, 
where  they  may  be  conspicuous,  and  add  to  the 
charms  of  the  scenery.  Some  of  these  buildings 
have  a  height  of  160  feet;  the  finest  known  speci- 
men of  them  i3  the  famous  Porcelain  Tower  of 
Nanking  (q.  v.).  The  application  of  the  name 
pagoda  to  a  Chinese  temple  should  be  dis- 
countenanced, for,  as  a  rule,  a  Chinese  temple  is 
an  insignificant  building,  seldom  more  than  two 
stories  high,  and  built  of  wood;  the  exceptions  are 
rare,  and  where  they  occur,  as  at  Peking,  such 
temples,  however  magnificent,  have  no  architectural 
affinity  with  a  Hindu  pagoda. 

PAGU'RUS  and  PAGU'RID^E.  See  Hermit 
Crab. 

PAHLANPU'R,  a  town  of  India,  capital  of 
the  state  of  the  same  name,  260  miles  east-south- 
east of  Hyderabad.  It  is  a  walled  town,  is  the 
seat  of  extensive  trade  and  of  several  manufactures. 
Pop.  estimated  at  30,000,  many  of  whom  are 
artificers  and  shopkeepers.  The  state  of  which 
P.  is  capital  lies  between  lat.  23°  57'— 24J  41'  N., 
and  long.  71°  51' — 72°  45'  E.  One-seventh  of  the 
population  are  Moslem,  and  the  remainder  Hindus. 
The  state,  out  of  a  revenue  of  £35,000,  pays  an 
annual  tribute  of  £5000  to  the  Guicownr,  and  £600 
per  annum  for  the  maintenance  of  a  British  political 
agent.  The  exact  area  of  the  state  is  not  known; 
the  state,  however,  contains  300  villages;  pop. 
130,000.  The  products  are  wheat,  rice,  sugar-cane, 
and  cotton.  In  the  north  and  west,  the  soil  yields 
only  one  crop  annually ;  but  in  the  south  and  east, 
three  crops  are  obtained  in  the  year. 

PAILA  is,  according  to  the  Puran'as  (q.  v.),  one 
of  the  disciples  of  Vyasa  (q.  v.),  the  reputed 
arranger  of  the  Vedas  (q.  v.) ;  he  was  taught  by  the 
latter  the  B'igveda,  and,  on  his  part,  communicated 
this  knowledge  to  Bashkali  and  IndrapramatL 
This  tradition,  therefore,  implies  that  P.  was  one  of 
the  earliest  compilers  of  the  B'igveda. 

PAIN  is  an  undefinable  sensation,  of  the  nature 
of  which  all  persons  are  conscious.  It  resides 
exclusively  in  the  nervous  system,  but  may  originate 
from  various  sources.  Irritation,  or  excessive 
excitement  of  the  nervous  system,  may  produce  it ; 
it  frequently  precedes  and  accompanies  inflamma- 
tion ;  while  it  sometimes  t  mirs  in,  and  seems  to  be 
favoured  by,  a  state  of  positive  depression,  as  is  seen 
in  the  intense  pain  which  is  often  experienced  in 
a  limb  benumbed  with  cold,  in  the  pain  which  not 
unfrequently  accompanies  palsy,  and  in  the  well- 
known  fact,  that  neuralgia  is  a  common  result  of 
general  debility.  Hence,  pain  must  on  no  account 
be  regarded  as  a  certain  indication  of  inflammation, 
although  it  rarely  happens  that  pain  is  not  felt  at 
some  period  or  other  in  inflammatory  diseases. 
Moreover,  the  pain  that  belongs  to  inflammation, 
differs  very  much,  according  to  the  organ  or  tissue 
affected  ;  the  pain,  for  example,  in  inflammation  of 
the  lungs,  differs  altogether  in  character  from  that 
which  occurs  in  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  and 
both  these  pains  from  that  occurring  in  inflammation 
of  the  kidneys. 

Pain  differs  not  only  in  its  character,  which  may 
be  dull,  sharp,  aching,  tearing,  gnawing,  stabbing, 
&c,  but  in  its  mode  of  occurrence  ;  for  example,  it 
may  be  flying  or  persistent,  intermittent,  remittent, 
or  continued.  It  is  not  always  that  the  pain  is  felt 
in  the  spot  where  the  cause  of  it  exists.  Thus, 
inflammation  of  the  liver  or  diaphragm  may 
cause  pain  in  the    right    shoulder,   the  irritation 

189 


PAINE— PAINTING. 


caused  by  stone  in  the  bladder  produces  pain  at 
the  outlet  of  the  urinary  passage  ;  disease  of  the 
hip-joint  occasions  pain  in  the  knee,  disease  of  the 
heart  is  often  accompanied  with  pain  in  the  left 
arm,  and  irritation  of  the  stomach  often  gives  rise 
to  headache.  Pain  is  differently  felt  by  persons  of 
different  constitutions  and  temperaments,  some 
persons  being  little  sensitive  to  painful  impressions 
of  any  kind,  while  others  suffer  greatly  from  slight 
causes.  There  even  seem  to  be  national  differences 
in  this  respect ;  and  before  the  introduction  of 
chloroform,  it  was  a  matter  of  common  observa- 
tion that  Irishmen  were  always  more  troublesome 
subjects  for  surgical  operations  than  either  English- 
men or  Scotchmen  ;  and  the  negro  is  probably  less 
sensitive  to  pain  than  any  of  the  white  races. 

Although  in  most  cases  we  are  to  regard  pain 
merely  as  a  symptom  to  be  removed  only  by  means 
which  remove  the  lesion  which  occasions  it,  there 
are  cases  in  which,  although  it  is  only  a  symptom, 
it  constitutes  a  chief  element  of  disease,  and  one 
against  which  remedies  must  be  specially  directed. 
As  examples  of  these  cases,  may  be  mentioned 
neuralgia,  gastralgia,  colic,  dysmenorrhcea,  and 
perforation  of  the  intestines ;  and  in  a  less  degree, 
the  stitch  of  pleurisy,  which,  if  not  relieved,  impedes 
the  respiration,  and  the  pain  of  tenesmus,  which 
often  causes  such  efforts  to  empty  the  lower  bowel, 
as  seriously  to  disturb  the  functions  of  the  intestine, 
and  to  exhaust  the  strength. 

For  the  methods  of  relieving  pain,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  articles  on  the  different  diseases  in 
which  it  specially  occurs  (as  Colic,  Neuralgia, 
Pleurisy,  &c),  and  to  those  on  Chloroform,  Ether, 
Indian  Hemp,  Morphia,  Narcotics,  Opium,  &c. 

PAINE,  Thomas,  an  author  famous  for  his  con- 
nection with  the  American  and  French  revolutions, 
and  for  his  advocacy  of  infidel  opinions,  was  born 
29th  January  1737,  at  Thetford,  in  the  county  of 
Norfolk  in  England.  He  was  trained  to  the  business 
of  his  father,  who  was  a  staymaker,  but  afterwards 
obtained  a  situation  in  the  Customs,  and  the 
management  of  a  tobacco-manufactory.  His  income, 
however,  was  small,  and  he  fell  into  debt,  and  was 
dismissed  in  1774,  upon  which  he  went  to  America, 
was  favourably  received  by  a  bookseller  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  in  1776  published  a  pamphlet  entitled 
Common  Sense,  written  in  a  popular  style,  in  which 
he  maintained  the  cause  of  the  colonies  against  the 
mother-country.  The  success  and  influence  of  this 
publication  were  extraordinary,  and  it  won  him  the 
friendship  of  Washington,  Franklin,  and  other 
distinguished  American  leaders.  He  was  rewarded 
by  Congress  with  the  appointment  of  Secretary  to 
the  Committee  of  Foreign  Affairs,  visited  France 
in  the  summer  of  1787,  where  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Buffon,  Malesherbes,  La  Rochefoucauld,  and 
other  eminent  men ;  and  in  the  autumn  following, 
went  to  England,  where,  in  1791,  he  published  The 
Rights  of  Man,  the  most  famous  of  all  the  replies 
to  Burke's  Reflections  upon  the  French  Revolution. 
The  work  has  gone  through  innumerable  editions, 
and  has  been  translated  into  almost  all  the  lan- 
guages of  Europe.  His  defence  of  the  principles  of 
the  French  Revolution  against  the  magnificent  assault 
of  Burke  and  the  outcry  of  the  English  aristocracy  is 
vigorous,  and  by  no  means  unsuccessful.  But  the 
value  or  at  least  the  popularity  of  the  work  has  been 
injured  by  its  advocacy  of  extreme  liberal  opinions. 
His  assaults  on  the  British  constitution  exposed 
him  to  a  government  prosecution,  and  he  fled  to 
France,  where  he  was  admitted  to  citizenship  ;  and 
in  1792,  the  department  of  Pas-de-Calais  elected 
him  a  deputy  to  the  National  Convention,  where  he 
voted  with  the  Girondists.  At  the  trial  of  Louis 
XVI.,  says  Madame  de  StaeL  '  Thomas  Paine  alone 
190 


proposed  what  would  have  done  honour  to  Franca 
if  it  had  been  accepted — the  offer  to  the  king  of  an 
asylum  in  America;'  by  which  he  offended  the 
Mountain  party ;  and  in  1793,  Robespierre  caused 
him  to  be  ejected  from  the  Convention,  on  the 
ground  of  his  being  a  foreigner,  and  thrown  into 
prison.  During  his  imprisonment,  he  wrote  The  Age 
of  Reason,  against  Atheism,  and  against  Christianity, 
and  in  favour  of  Deism.  After  an  imprisonment  of 
fourteen  months,  he  was  released,  on  the  intercession 
of  the  American  government,  and  restored  to  his 
seat  in  the  Convention.  He  was  chosen  by  Napoleon 
to  introduce  a  popular  form  of  government  into 
Britain,  after  he  shoidd  have  invaded  and  conquered 
the  island.  But  as  Napoleon  did  not  carry  out  his 
design,  P.  was  deprived  of  an  opportunity  of  playing 
the  part  of  legislator  for  his  conquered  countrymen. 
He  then  retired  into  private  life,  and  occupied 
himself  with  the  study  of  finance.  In  1S02,  he 
returned  to  the  United  States,  and  died  there  Sth 
June  1809.  The  most  complete  edition  of  his  works 
is  that  by  J.  P.  Mendum  (Bost.  1856)  ;  the  most 
noted  of  his  numerous  biographers  is  William 
Cobbett  (1796). 

PAINS  and  PENALTIES.  When  a  person 
has  committed  some  crime  of  peculiar  enormity, 
and  for  which  no  adequate  punishment  is  provided 
by  the  ordinary  law,  the  mode  of  proceeding  is  by 
introducing  a  bill  of  pains  and  penalties,  the  object 
of  which,  therefore,  is  to  inflict  a  punishment  of  an 
extraordinary  and  anomalous  kind.  These  bills  are 
now  seldom  resorted  to,  and  the  last  instance  of  an 
attempt  to  revive  such  a  form  of  punishment  was 
by  the  ministers  of  George  IV.  against  Queen 
Caroline,  an  attempt  which  was  signally  defeated. 
When  a  bill  of  this  kind  is  resolved  upon,  it  is 
introduced,  and  passes  through  all  the  stages  like 
any  other  bill  in  parliament,  except  that  the  party 
proceeded  against  is  allowed  to  defend  himself  or 
herself  by  counsel  and  witnesses.  The  proceeding 
is  substantially  an  indictment,  though  in  form  a 
bill. 

PAINTER,  in  naval  matters,  is  the  rope  by 
which  a  boat  is  fastened  to  a  ship  or  pier. 

PAINTERS'  CREAM,  a  composition  used  by 
artists  to  cover  oil-paintings  in  progress,  when  they 
leave  off  their  work ;  it  prevents  drying,  and  the 
consequent  shewing  of  fines  where  new  work  is 
begun.  It  consists  of  six  parts  of  fine  nut  oil,  and 
one  part  of  gum-mastic.  The  mastic  is  dissolved 
in  the  oil,  and  then  is  added  a  quarter  part  of 
acetate,  or  sugar  of  lead,  finely  triturated  with  a 
few  drops  of  the  oil.  When  well  incorporated  with 
the  dissolved  mastic,  water  must  be  added,  and 
thoroughly  mixed,  until  the  whole  has  the  con- 
sistency of  cream.  It  is  applied  with  a  soft  brush, 
and  can  easily  be  removed  with  water  and  a 
sponge. 

PAINTING,  the  art  of  representing  objects  to 
the  eye  on  a  flat  surface  by  means  of  lines  and 
colour,  with  a  view  to  convey  ideas  and  awaken 
emotions.  See  Art.  As  one  of  the  fine  arts,  paint- 
ing occupies  a  prominent  place ;  some  claim  for  it 
the  first  place,  as  combining  the  chief  elements — 
namely,  form,  light  and  shade,  and  colour.  As  com- 
pared, however,  with  music  and  poetry,  it  lacks  the 
important  element  of  movement,  the  representation 
being  confined,  in  a  great  measure,  to  one  aspect 
and  one  instant  of  time.  In  its  ruder  and  more 
elementary  forms,  in  which  the  primary  design  was 
to  communicate  ideas,  painting  is  perhaps  the  oldest 
of  the  arts,  older,  at  all  events,  than  writing  (see 
Alphabet,  Hieroglyphics)  ;  and,  as  a  vehicle  of 
knowledge,  it  possesses  this  advantage  over  writing — 
that  no  description,  however  minute,  can  convey  so 


PAINTING. 


accurate  and  distinct  an  idea  of  an  object  as  a 
pictorial  repi  i.  much    leu  make  so  vivid 

an  impression.  Besides  this,  it  is  not  limited,  as 
writing  is,  by  differences  of  language,  but  speaks 
alike  to  all  nations  and  all  a 

The  great  antiquity  of  painting  is  proved  by 
remains  discovered  in  Egypt,  and  by  reference  to  it 
in  ancient  writings.  I  -  has  been  ascertained  that  as 
early  as  the  19th  c.  B.C.,  the  walla  and  temples  of 
;  were  decorated  by  painting  and  sculpture. 
Ezekiel,  who  prophesied  about  598  years  b. c,  refers 
to  paintings  in  Jerusalem  alter  the  manner  of  the 
Babylonians  and  Chahheans.  Though  no  speci- 
mens have  come  down  to  us,  it  is  evident  that 
paintings  of  the  highest  excellence  were  executed 
in  Greece.  This  is  proved  by  what  is  recorded 
of  them,  for  the  subjects  of  many  of  those 
mentioned  required  the  putting  forth  in  a  high 
degree  of  all  the  qualities  requisite  for  the  pro- 
duction of  the  greatest  historical  works,  such 
as  form,  grouping,  expression,  foreshortening. 
From  the  immense  sums  given  for  paintings,  the 
care  with  which  they  were  {.reserved  in  temples 
and  other  public  buildings,  and  from  the  fact 
of  the  high  state  of  sculpture  at  contemporary 
periods,  as  proved  by  well-known  works  now 
extant,  it  may  be  deduced  that  painting,  which, 
bke  sculpture,  is  based  on  design  or  drawing,  must 
have  occupied  an  equally  high  position.  Even 
the  imperfect  specimens  of  painting  discovered  in 
Pompeii,  where  the  style  and  influence  of  Greek 
art  may  be  traced  to  some  extent,  lead  to  conclu- 
sions highly  favourable  to  the  high  position  of 
painting  in  classic  times.  The  chief  schools  of 
painting  in  Greece  were  those  of  Sicyon,  Corinth, 
Athens,  and  Rhodes.  The  first  great  artist  of  whose 
works  there  is  any  authentic  description,  and  from 
details  of  which  an  idea  may  be  formed  of  his 
attainments,  is  Polygnotus  of  Thasos  (flor.  420  B.  a), 
who  painted,  among  other  works,  those  in  the 
Pcecile,  a  celebrated  portico  at  Athens,  and  the 
Lesche,  or  public  hall  at  Delphi. 

The  works  of  Apollodorus  of  Athens  (flor.  408 
B.C.)  are  described  and  highly  praised  by  Pliny. 
Zeuxis,  the  pupil  of  Apollodorus,  Eupompus,  Andro- 
cides,  Parrhasius  (q.v.)  the  Ephesian,  audTimanthes 
of  Sicyon,  prosecuted  painting  with  distinguished 
success,  and  by  them  it  was  carried  down  to  the 
time  of  Philip  the  father  of  Alexander.  Of  the 
same  period  was  Pamphilus,  celebrated  not  only  for 
his  works,  but  as  the  master  of  the  artist  universally 
acknowledged  as  the  greatest  of  the  ancient  painters, 
Apelles  (q.  v.),  who  was  born  probably  at  Colophon, 
and  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  4th  c.  B.C. 
He  was  highly  esteemed  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  executed  many  important  works  for  that 
monarch.  Protogenes  of  Rhodes  was  a  contem- 
porary, and  may  be  styled  the  rival  of  Apelles, 
who  greatly  admired  his  works.  His  picture  of 
Ialysus  the  hunter  and  the  nymph  Rhodos  was 
preserved  for  many  years  in  the  Temple  of  Peace  at 
Rome.  Art  in  Greece  had  now  reached  its  highest 
point ;  its  course  afterwards  was  downwards. 

In  Italy,  art  was  followed  at  a  very  early  period 
by  the  Etruscans,  and,  according  to  Pliny,  painting, 
as  well  as  sculpture,  was  successfully  practised  in 
Ardea  and  Lanuvium,  cities  of  Latiuni,  perhaps 
more  ancient  than  Rome.  The  finest  specimens  of 
Etruscan  art,  however — as  the  paintings  on  tombs, 
and  the  remains  of  armour  and  fictile  ware  orna- 
mented with  figures,  evince  unmistakably  the 
influence  of,  or  rather  are  identical  with  Greek  art. 
According  to  Pliny,  it  was  introduced  from  Corinth 
about  650  b.  c.  No  great  national  school  of  painting 
ever  flourished  in  Rome,  for  though  the  names  of 
Romans  who  were  painters  are  cited,  the  principal 


works  of  art  that  adorned  the  temples  and  palaces 
of  Rome  were  obtained  from  Greece,  and  it  ia 
probable  that  many  of  the  paintings  executed 
there  were  by  Grees  arti  ta.  When  the  seat  of 
empire  was  transferred  to  the  East,  such  art  as 
then  remained  was  carried  with  it,  and  in  a  new 
phase  was  afterwards  recognised  as  Byzantine  art — 
a  conventional  style,  in  which  certain  typical  forms 
were  adopted  and  continually  repeated,  This  mode 
has  been  preserved,  and  is  practised  in  church-paint- 
ing  in  Russia  at  this  present  time. 

Much  discussion  has  arisen  in  modern  times  as 
to  the  supposed  technical  modes  or  processes  of 
painting  employed  by  the  ancients.  It  seems 
established  that  painting  in  fresco  was  much  prac- 
tised ;  but  many  of  the  most  valuable  pictures  we 
read  of  were  removable,  and  there  are  accounts  of 
some  carried  from  Greece  to  Rome.  'The  Greeks 
preferred  movable  pictures,  which  could  be  taken 
away  in  case  of  fire'  ( Wilkinson  on  Egyptian 
and  Greek  Paintinr/.i),  and  Pliny  says  Apelles 
never  painted  on  walls  ;  besides  fresco  paintings  on 
walls,  therefore,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
ancients  painted  on  boards  ;  indeed,  the  name 
Tabula  or  Tabula  picta  proves  this,  and  it  seems  to 
be  now  generally  acknowledged  that  these  were 
executed  in  tempora — that  is,  with  size,  and  pro- 
bably fixed  or  protected  by  some  kind  of  varnish, 
in  the  preparation  of  which  oil  was  used  ;  or  in 
encaustic,  a  process  in  which  wax  was  employed  to 
fix  and  give  brilliancy  and  depth  to  the  colours, 
heat  being  applied  in  working  with  it. 

Painting  was  revived  in  Europe  iu  the  13th  c. ; 
previous  to  that  period,  Byzantine  artists  chiefly 
were  employed.  On  the  conquest  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Latins  in  1204,  the  Byzantine  school  was 
broken  up,  and  many  Greek  artists  were  trans- 
planted to  Italy,  where  art  was  now  destined  to 
flourish,  so  the  works  of  the  Italians  who  profited 
by  their  instructions,  were  necessarily,  at  the  com- 
mencement, composed  in  the  Byzantine  style.  The 
first  Italian  whose  name  is  associated  with  the 
revival  of  Italian  art  is  Guido  of  Siena;  a  work 
by  him,  a  large  Madonna,  inscribed  with  his  name 
and  the  date  1221,  is  still  preserved  in  that  city. 
The  next  is  Giunto  da  Pisa  (1236).  But  Giovanni 
Cimabue  (q.  v.),  (1240 — 1300),  is  commonly  styled 
the  founder  of  the  Italian  school.  Several  works 
of  considerable  importance  are  ascribed  to  him; 
and  though  he  followed  the  Byzantine  arrange- 
ment, he  ventured  occasionally  out  of  the  path, 
introduced  the  study  of  nature  in  his  drawing, 
and  imparted  a  greater  degree  of  softness  to  his 
painting  than  the  Byzantine  artists.  The  influ- 
ence of  Byzantine  art  was  not  confined  to  Italy; 
it  operated  in  Germany,  Bohemia,  and  France  ;  but 
there  also  art  began  to  assume  a  national  character 
early  in  the  13th  c,  and  paintings  are  still  pre- 
served at  Cologne,  dated  1224.  The  Italian  school 
of  painting,  or  that  style  in  which  so  many  of 
the  highest  qualities  of  art  have  been  so  suc- 
cessfully carried  out,  received  its  chief  impetus 
from  Giotto  (q.v.),  the  son  of  Bordone,  born  in 
1276  at  Vespignano,  near  Florence,  where  he  died  in 
1336.  It  is  said  that  he  was  originally  a  shepherd- 
boy,  and  being  discovered  by  Cimabue  drawing  a 
sheep  on  a  slate,  was  instructed  by  him  in  paint- 
ing. His  style  is  distinguished  from  that  of  earlier 
painters  by  the  introduction  of  natural  incidents 
and  impressions,  by  greater  richness  and  variety  of 
composition,  by  the  dramatic  interest  of  his  groups, 
and  by  total  disregard  of  the  typical  forms  and  con- 
ventional style  of  his  predecessors.  His  influence  was 
not  confined  to  Florence,  but  extended  over  the  whole 
of  Italy ;  and  works  by  this  artist  may  be  traced  from 
Padua  to  Naples.    Giotto  followed  Pope  Clement  V. 

191 


PAINTING. 


to  Avignon,  and  is  said  to  have  executed  many- 
important  pictures  there,  and  in  other  cities  in  France. 
The  most  celebrated  of  his  frescoes  now  extant  are 
those  at  Assisi ;  some  noted  works  by  him  in  that 
class  also  remain  at  Padua,  Florence,  and  Naples. 
Most  of  the  small  easel-pictm-es  ascribed  to  him  are 
of  doubtful  authenticity,  but  some  preserved  in  the 
gallery  at  Florence  are  acknowledged  to  be  genuine. 
His  high  powers  as  a  sculptor  and  architect  are 
also  exemplified  by  works  iu  that  city.  Giotto  had 
numerous  scholars  and  imitators,  and  several  of 
these  have  left  works  which  shew  that  while  they 
profited  by  his  instruction  or  example,  they  were  also 
gifted  with  original  talent.  Among  these  may  be 
noticed  Taddeo  Gaddi,  the  favourite  pupil  of  Giotto 
(born  1300,  living  in  1352) ;  Simone  Memmi  (1284— 
1344)  ;  and  Andrea  Orcagna  (1329—1389),  one  of 
the  artists  employed  in  the  decoration  of  the  cele- 
brated Campo  Santo  at  Pisa.  Painting  in  Italy 
continued  to  be  impressed  with  the  feeling  and 
Btyle  of  Giotto  for  upwards  of  a  hundred  years ; 
but  early  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the  frescoes 
executed  by  Masaccio  (1401 — 1443)  in  the  Bran- 
cacci  Chapel  in  the  Carmelite  Church  at  Florence, 
clearly  prove  that  it  had  entered  on  a  new  phase, 
and  had  come  forth  strengthened  by  an  import- 
ant element  in  which  it  formerly  was  deficient, 
viz.,  correct  delineation  of  form,  guided  by  the 
study  of  nature.  These  celebrated  frescoes,  twelve 
in  number,  were  at  one  time  all  ascribed  to  Masaccio ; 
but  it  seems  now  to  be  acknowledged  by  judges  of 
art  that  two  of  these  are  by  Masolino  da  Panicale 
(1378 — 1415),  the  master  of  Masaccio  ;  and  three,  or 
probably  four,  and  a  small  portion  of  one,  by 
Fiiippino  Lippi  (1460 — 1505).  The  frescoes  by  Mas- 
accio, however,  are  superior  to  those  by  Masolino 
and  Lippi,  and,  indeed,  for  many  of  the  highest 
qualities  in  art,  have,  as  compositions,  only  been 
surpassed  by  Raphael  in  his  celebrated  cartoons.  In 
about  a  century  from  Masaccio's  time,  painting  in 
Italy  attained  its  highest  development ;  but  before 
referring  to  those  artists  who  are  acknowledged  as 
having  carried  painting  to  the  highest  elevation 
it  has  attained  since  the  period  of  the  middle  ages, 
it  is  right  to  note  the  names  of  some  of  the  painters 
who  aided  in  raising  it  to  that  position.  The 
works  of  Fra  Giovanni  da  Fiesole  (1387 — 1455)  are 
highly  valued  and  esteemed  by  many  critics  as  the 

Eurest  in  point  of  style  and  feeling,  and  so  the 
est  fitted  for  devotional  purposes.  Confining  his 
efforts  to  simple  and  graceful  action,  and  sweet 
and  tender  expression,  he  adhered  to  the  traditional 
types,  and  ventured  on  none  of  the  bold  innova- 
tions which  were  introduced  in  his  time,  and 
carried  so  far  by  Masaccio.  His  example,  as 
regards  feeling  and  expression,  influenced  many 
succeeding  artists,  particularly  Pietro  Perugino, 
the  master  of  Raphael  (1446 — 1524),  and  Francesco 
Francia  of  Bologna  (1450  or  1453—1517),  by  both 
of  whom  these  qualities,  united  to  greatly  improved 
technical  power,  were  brought  to  high  excellence. 
Giovanni  Bellini,  the  founder  of  the  early  Venetian 
Bchool  (1422 — 1512),  has  left  many  admirable  works ; 
he  had  numerous  scholars,  among  them  Titian  and 
Giorgione.  Domenico  Corradi  or  Ghirlandajo,  under 
whom  Michael  Angelo  studied,  successfully  fol- 
lowed out  that  direction  given  to  art  by  Masaccio, 
which  involved  individuality  of  character  and 
expression  in  the  figures.  Andrea  Mantegna,  of 
the  school  of  Padua  (1430 — 1506),  along  with 
strong  expression,  gave  an  impetus  to  form, 
modelled  on  Greek  or  classic  art.  Luca  Signorelli 
of  Cortona  (about  1440 — 1521),  successfully  exem- 
plified powerful  action  and  bold  foreshortening,  par- 
ticularly in  his  frescoes  at  Orvieto,  which,  with  his 
other  work*,  are  supposed  to  have  strongly  influenced 
192 


the  style  of  Michael  Angelo.  Antonello  da  Messina 
(1447—1496)  is  said  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Jan 
Van  Eyck,  who  imparted  to  him  his  secret  in  the 
preparation  and  use  of  oil-colours,  the  knowledge 
of  which  he  spread  among  the  Venetians.  The 
above  statement,  however,  as  to  the  exact  period 
at  which  oil-painting  was  first  introduced,  is  one 
attended  with  much  doubt.  Painting  with  colours 
mixed  in  oil  is  mentioned  by  Italian  writers  before 
the  period  of  Van  Eyck ;  painting  in  tempora, 
or  size,  was  continued  in  Italy,  particularly  in 
the  Florentine  and  Roman  schools,  to  the  time 
of  Raphael ;  and  the  transition  from  the  one 
method  to  the  other  has  been  so  gradual,  that  many 
judges  of  art  have  expressed  inability  to  determine 
whether  the  pictures  of  Perugino,  Francia,  and 
Raphael  are  in  oil  or  tempora,  or  in  both.  The 
practice  of  painting  on  canvas,  in  place  of  wooden 
boards  or  panels,  was  introduced  and  carried  on  for  a 
considerable  time  in  Venice  before  it  was  adopted  in 
other  parts  of  Italy,  and  canvas  is  the  material  best 
suited  for  pictures  in  oil-colours  when  they  are  not 
of  small  dimensions ;  so,  on  the  whole,  the  conclu- 
sion seems  to  be,  that  though  oil-painting  was  not 
unknown  in  Florence  and  the  south  of  Italy,  painting 
in  tempora  was  longer  practised  there  than  in  Venice. 
At  the  time  when  the  painters  above  referred  to 
flourished,  there  were  many  able  artists  in  Germany, 
whose  works  are  deservedly  very  highly  prized. 
Among  these,  Jan  Van  Eyck  (q.  v.),  (about  1390 — 
1441),  deserves  special  notice.  To  him  is  generally 
given  the  credit  of  being  the  first  painter  who  used 
oil  in  place  of  size  in  his  colours.  His  works  are 
remarkable  for  briUiant  and  transparent  colouring 
and  high  finish.  He  had  numerous  scholars ;  among 
these,  Justus  of  Ghent  (flor.  1451),  Hugo  Vauder 
Goes  (died  1480)— supposed  to  be  the  painter  of 
the  celebrated  wings  of  an  altar-piece,  now  at 
Holyrood  Palace,  containing  portraits  of  James 
III.  and  his  queen — Iioger  of  Bruges  (1365— 
1418),  Hans  Hemling  or  Memling  (died  1489),  the 
best  scholar  of  the  Van  Eyck  school ;  Ouintin 
Matsys  (1450— 1529),  Jan  Van  Mabuse  (1470—1532), 
Albert  Durer  (q.v.),  (1471—1528),  Lucas  Van 
Leyden  (q.  v.),  (1494—1533).  The  career  of  the  two 
last-named  extended  to  the  best  period  of  art,  and 
for  many  high  qualities  their  works  strongly  com- 
pete with  those  of  the  ablest  of  the  Italians ;  while 
portraits  by  Hans  Holbein  (q.  v.),  (1497 — 1554),  and 
Antonio  More  (1512 — 1588)  rank  with  those  of  any 
school  or  period.  The  leading  qualities  in  German 
art  are  invention,  individuality  of  character,  clear- 
ness of  colouring,  and  high  finish  ;  but  they  are 
inferior  to  the  Italians  in  embodying  beauty ;  their 
representation  of  the  nude  is  angular  in  form  and 
deficient  in  the  elegance  and  grace  attained  by  the 
painters  of  Italy ;  and  in  their  draperies  they  do  not 
attain  the  simplicity  and  grandeur  so  remarkable  in 
the  works  of  their  southern  competitors. 

Anything  like  an  account  of  the  artists  by  whom 
painting  was  carried  to  its  highest  pitch,  of  sufficient 
comprehensiveness  to  exhibit  their  peculiar  aesthetic 
qualities,  cannot  be  attempted  in  so  short  a  notice 
as  this ;  but  that  deficiency  is  in  some  degree 
supplied  by,  and  reference  is  made  to,  the  biographi- 
cal notices  of  distinguished  painters  given  in  this 
work  under  their  names.  Keeping  this  reference 
in  view,  therefore,  the  next  step  is  to  note  the 
relative  positions  generally  assigned  to  the  most 
distinguished  painters  of  that  period,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  estimation  in  which  their  works  are 
now  held.  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (q.  v.),  (1452 — 
1519),  Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti  (1474—1563), 
and  Raphael  or  Raffaello  Sanzio  of  Urbino  (1483— 
1520),  are  universally  acknowledged  as  the  three 
greatest  among  the  Italian  artists;  but  two  other 


TAINTING. 


names  may  be  added  as  worthy  to  be  put  in  an 
equally  high  place—  those  of  Titian  (q.  v.),  (1477 — 
1570),  and  Antonio  Allcgri,  surnamed  Correggio 
(q.  v.),  (1494—1534).  These  five  painters  exhil.it  in 
their  works,  some  of  them  the  whole,  others  tin' 
greater  portion  of  the  various  elements — which  in  the 
earlier  periods  of  ait  had  existed  apart,  and  composed 
distinct  styles— united,  and  more  highly  developed; 
while  each  of  them  has  taken  up  one  of  these 
elements,  and  carried  it  not  only  further  than  his 

Eredecessors  had  done,  but  further  than  it  was  by 
is  contemporaries,  or  by  any  subsequent  artist. 
Thus  we  see  in  Leonardo's  celebrated  picture  of 
the  'Last  Supper,'  that  though  lie  has  adopted  the 
traditional  style  of  composition  handed  down  from 
Giotto's  time,  and  carried  out  the  religious  feeling 
and  dignified  expression  aimed  at  by  the  older 
masters,  the  whole  is  deepened  and  elevated  by 
the  manner  in  which  it  is  worked  out — namely,  by 
a  mind  and  hand  possessing  mastery  over  all  the 
elements  that  are  combined  in  the  production  of 
the  highest  works  of  art.  Michael  Angelo  was  a 
proficient  in  all  the  qualities  that  constitute  a 
painter,  but  he  carried  several  of  them — viz.,  gran- 
deur of  design,  anatomical  knowledge,  and  power 
of  drawing— far  beyond  all  other  artists  of  his  own 
or  of  later  times.  Titian  and  Correggio,  again, 
with  great  power  over  every  art-element,  have  each 
carried  one  quality  further  than  all  other  artists  — 
the  former,  colour ;  the  latter,  light  and  shade. 
Raphael  is  generally  allowed  the  first  place  among 
painters,  for,  though  each  of  the  four  artists  just 
referred  to  carried  one,  or  perhaps  two,  of  the 
qualities  of  painting  further  than  he  did,  he  excelled 
them  in  every  other  element  but  the  one  for  which 
each  was  particularly  distinguished,  and  in  several 
of  the  highest  qualities  of  art  he  attained  to  greater 
excellence  than  any  other  artist ;  the  expression  of 
dignity  of  movement  by  broad  masses  and  grand 
lines  aimed  at  in  the  works  of  Masaccio,  is  success- 
fully realised  in  the  cartoons  at  Hampton  Court ; 
and  the  pictures  in  which  Perugino  and  Francia  so 
earnestly  and  successfully  embodied  female  beauty, 
maternal  affection,  and  infantine  purity,  are  as  much 
inferior  to  pictures  of  similar  subjects  by  Raphael 
as  they  are  above  those  executed  during  the  decad- 
ence of  Italian  art.  Besides  the  five  leading 
masters  just  referred  to,  there  were  many  other 
Italian  artists  of  great  talent,  who  may  be  ranged 
in  three  classes :  1,  the  contemporaries  of  those 
artists  ;  2,  those  influenced  by  their  style  ;  3,  their 
scholars.  Among  their  contemporaries,  the  works 
of  Fra  Bartolommeo  (1469—1517)  and  Andrea 
Vanucchi,  called  Andrea  del  Sarto  (1488 — 1530), 
both  Florentines,  deservedly  rank  very  high.  Gior- 
gio Barbarelli,  called  Giorgione  (1478 — 1511),  was, 
under  Bellini,  a  fellow-pupil  of,  and  is  generally 
Btyled  the  rival  of  Titian  ;  and  his  works,  which 
are  of  great  excellence,  prove  that  he  was  worthy  of 
that  name.  In  class  2,  Correggio  himself  may  rank 
as  being  influenced  by  Leonardo's  style,  but  the  great 
prominence  of  his  other  qualities  makes  his  style 
original  and  independent.  On  Bernardino  Luini 
(about  1460,  living  in  1530),  Leonardo's  influence  is 
direct;  and  as  he  was  an  able  painter,  his  pic- 
tures are  very  valuable  for  embodying  many  of 
those  qualities  in  art  which  Leonardo  had  so  much 
improved.  Sebastiano  del  Piombo,  a  Venetian 
(1485—1547),  studied  under  Giovanni  Bellini  and 
Giorgione ;  and  after  settling  in  Rome,  became 
intimate  with  Michael  Angelo,  who  employed  him 
to  paint  some  of  his  designs,  with  a  view  of  bene- 
fiting by  his  admirable  colouring.  His  pictures  are 
greatly  esteemed,  as  uniting  rich  colour  to  grandeur 
of  design.  Class  3.  All  the  five  leading  artists 
above  referred  to  had  pupils  or  scholars,  particu- 
325 


lurlv  such  of  them  ms.  like  Raphael,  were  muck 
engaged  in  extensive  worki  in  fresco,  in  tl 
entiou  of  which  assistants  arc  generally  employed. 
A  complete  list  of  these,  however,  would  occupy  too 
much  space  here.  Anion-  the  scholars  of  Michael 
Angelo,  Daniels  da  Volterra  (1509—1566)  was  the 
best;  and  among  Raphael's  scholars,  the  first  place 
is  generally  accorded  to  Ginlio  Pippi  or  Romano 
(q.  v.),  (1492—1546).  After  the  first  quarter  of  the 
16th  c,  painting  in   Italy,  except  in   the  Venetian 

school,  shewed  Bymptoms  of  rapid  decline;  that 
school,  however,  continued  its  vitality  longer  than 
any  other  in  Italy,  having  flourished  with  all  the 
life  of  originality  during  the  whole  16th  century. 
This  is  attested  hy  the  productions  ,,f  many  abb 
Venetian  painters;  but  among  those,  the  works  ol 
Jacopo  Robusti,  or  Tintoretto  (q,  v.),  (1512— 1594V 
and  Paolo  Caliari,  or  Veronese  (q.  v.).  (1528 — 1588) 
are  by  far  the  most  important.  The  pictures  of 
the  former  exhibit  great  vigonr  in  composition, 
and  much  richness  of  colour  —  the  former  quality 
evincing  the  influence  of  Michael  Angelo;  the  latter, 
that  of  Titian.  Veronese  ranks  before  even  Tinto- 
retto: his  compositions  are  animated  and  full,  and 
as  a  colonrist  he  is  a  powerful  rival  to  Titian,  not 
aiming  at  the  rich  glow  of  that  master's  tints,  but 
excelling  every  artist  in  producing  the  brilliancy  and 
sparkling  effect  of  mid-daylight  on  figures  gorgeously 
attired,  and  seen  against  backgrounds  enriched 
with  landscape  and  architecture.  The  other  great 
schools  of  Italy,  however,  as  already  said,  had  less 
vitality  than  the  Venetian,  and  shewed  symptoms 
of  decay  at  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  16th 
century.  Raphael  left  numerous  scholars  and 
ants;  many  of  these,  after  his  death  in  1520.  quitted 
Rome.  The  pillage  of  that  city  by  the  French  under 
Bourbon  in  1527  had  also  the  effect  of  dispersing 
them,  and  this  naturally  led  to  the  style  of  Raphael, 
so  far  as  they  could  acquire  it,  being  transplanted 
into  other  parts  of  Italy ;  but  Raphael's  style  was 
founded  on  his  own  peculiar  feeling  for  the  beautiful, 
and  on  his  own  pecidiar  grace ;  and  all  that  his 
scholars  had  acquired  or  could  convey  was  a  mere 
imitation  of  his  external  forms,  without  the  spirit 
and  pure  feeling  of  which  these  forms  are  the 
expression.  The  imitation  of  Michael  Angelo 
became  the  great  object  with  the  Florentines  ;  but 
his  scholars  and  imitators  being  unable  to  compre- 
hend his  powerful  spirit,  and  not  possessing  his 
technical  powers  and  theoretical  knowledge,  their 
pictures  are  merely  exaggerated  compositions  of 
academic  figures.  Nor  were  Correggio's  scholars 
more  successful  in  following  his  walk,  for  they 
exaggerated  the  pecidiarities  of  his  style,  which  in 
their  hands  became  affected  and  insipid.  Leonardo's 
scholars  repeated  his  distinguishing  qualities,  modi- 
fied by  their  own  individual  peculiarities,  and  avoided 
that  academic  ostentation  displayed  by  the  followers 
of  the  masters  just  named.  Their  reputation  there- 
fore stands  higher. 

The  German  painters  who  succeeded  Diirer,  Van 
Leydeu,  and  the  other  celebrated  artists  of  their 
period,  before  referred  to,  endeavoured  to  improve 
their  national  style  by  the  study  of  Italian  art,  at 
first  attempting  to  combine  the  two  styles,  and  after- 
wards, to  the  close  of  the  16th  c,  devoting  them- 
selves exclusively  to  the  study  or  imitation  of  the 
Italian  painters.  The  works  of  these  artists,  the  worst 
productions  of  any  school,  form  a  connecting  link 
between  those  of  the  famous  old  German  masters 
and  the  vigorous,  varied,  and  attractive  works  of 
the  painters  of  the  Netherlands  in  the  17th  century. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  16th,  and  during  the  first 
half  of  the  17th  c,  a  revival  of  art  in  Italy  was 
attempted.  This  was  sought  for  in  two  ways  by 
two  classes  of  artists  ;  the  larger  body  were  known 

193 


PAINTING. 


by  the  name  of  Eclectics,  from  their  having  endea- 
voured to  select  and  unite  the  best  qualities  of  each 
of  the  great  masters,  combined  with  the  study  of 
nature ;  the  other  class  were  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  Naturalisti,  and  they  aimed  at  forming  an 
independent  style,  distinct  from  that  of  the  earlier 
masters,  based  on  the  indiscriminate  imitation  of 
common  life,  treated  in  a  bold  and  lively  manner. 
In  their  development,  both  classes  exercised  an 
influence  on  each  other,  particularly  the  Naturalisti 
on  the  Eclectics.  Eclectic  schools  arose  in  various 
parts  of  Italy,  but  the  most  celebrated  was  that  at 
Bologna,  founded  by  Lodovico  Carracci  (q.  v.),  (1555 
— 1619),  assisted  by  his  two  nephews,  Agostino  Car- 
racci (1558 — 1602),  and  Annibale  Carracci  (1560 
— 1609)  the  most  eminent  of  the  three.  Many 
,  painters  of  mark  were  reared  in  this  school ;  among 
those,  Domenico  Zampieri,  called  Domenichino 
(q.  v.),  (1581—1641),  and  Guido  Reni  (q.  v.),  (1575 
— 1642),  were  by  far  the  most  eminent.  The  art 
of  the  Eclectics  has  been  greatly  overrated.  Till 
recently,  the  leaders  of  that  school  were  always 
placed  on  an  equality  with  the  best  masters  of  the 
early  part  of  the  16th  c,  and  far  above  any  of  the 
painters  of  the  15th  century.  These  notions  have 
recently  undergone  a  complete  change  ;  it  is  now 
acknowledged  that  the  attempt  of  the  Eclectics  to 
combine  the  excellences  of  various  great  masters, 
involves  misapprehension  with  regard  to  the  con- 
ception and  practice  of  art,  for  the  greatness  of  the 
earlier  masters  was  brought  out  in  their  individual 
and  peculiar  qualities,  the  uniting  of  which  implies 
a  contradiction.  Michael  Angelo  Amerighi  da  Car- 
avaggio  (q.  v.),  (1569 — 1609)  was  the  founder  of  the 
Naturalisti  school ;  he  resided  principally  at  Rome, 
but  at  a  later  period  went  to  Naples,  Malta,  and 
Sicily.  The  Naturalisti  were  in  their  greatest 
Btrength  at  Naples,  where  they  perseveringly 
opposed  the  followers  of  the  Carracci,  their  leader 
being  Giuseppe  Ribera,  a  Spaniard,  hence  called 
Spagnoletto  (q.  v.),  (1593—1656).  With  much  of  the 
force  of  Caravaggio,  he  united  more  delicacy  and 
greater  vivacity  of  colour.  The  historical  or  Scrip- 
tural subjects  of  Salvator  Rosa  (q.  v.),  (1615 — 1673) 
are  in  the  style  of  the  school  of  the  Naturalisti ; 
but  on  account  of  his  genre  pieces  and  landscapes, 
Salvator  is  entitled  to  occupy  the  place  of  the  origi- 
nator of  a  style  noted  for  certain  qualities  of  poetic 
feeling.  The  influence  of  the  school  of  the  Natu- 
ralisti had  more  important  results  than  that  of  the 
Eclectics,  for  it  affected  to  some  extent  the  leading 
masters  of  the  Spanish  school.     At  Rome,  contem- 

f>oraneously  with  Domenichino,  Guido,  and  other 
eading  masters  of  the  schools  of  the  Eclectics  and 
Naturalisti,  the  three  following  artists  elevated  land- 
scape-painting to  a  high  positioti — Nicholas  Poussin 
(q.  v.),  a  Frenchman  (1594 — 1665) ;  Claude  Gelee, 
also  a  native  of  France  (1600 — 1682),  called  Claude 
Lorraine  (q.  v.) ;  and  Gaspre  Duchet,  named  Gaspar 
Poussin  (q.  v.),  born  in  Rome,  but  the  son  of  a 
Frenchman  (1613 — 1675).  Among  the  great  masters 
who  occasionally  practised  landscape-painting  as  a 
distinct  branch  of  art,  the  earliest  were  Titian  and 
Giorgione ;  the  Carracci  (particularly  Annibale)  car- 
ried out  their  style  with  considerable  success ;  the 
landscapes  of  Domenichino  are  esteemed,  and  other 
scholars  of  the  Carracci  turned  their  attention  in 
that  direction.  The  reputation  of  N.  Poussin  is 
principally  based  on  his  figure-pictures,  the  subjects 
of  which  were  mythological  and  Scriptural.  Into 
these  pictures,  he  endeavoured,  with  considerable 
success,  to  infuse  the  classical  style ;  but  his  com- 
positions were  generally  arranged  with  a  large  space 
of  landscape  background,  which  was  in  many  cases 
not  the  least  important  portion  of  the  picture  ;  and 
these,  and  the  pictures  he  painted  falling  strictly 
194 


under  the  class  of  landscapesj,  are  distinguished  for 
largeness  of  style  and  poetic  feeling.  Claude  and 
Gaspar  directed  all  their  efforts  to  landscape,  and 
attained  to  high  eminence  in  that  department  of  art. 

The  earlier  specimens  of  painting  in  Spain 
resemble  in  style  the  works  of  the  old  German 
painters,  who  seem  to  have  disposed  of  many  of 
their  pictures  in  that  country,  while  Spanish  art  of 
the  16th  c.  was  modelled  on  that  of  Italy,  Titian 
and  Raphael  being  the  masters  studied  ;  but  when 
works  of  the  Spanish  school  are  spoken  of,  those 
executed  in  the  17th  c.  are  always  understood  to 
be  referred  to,  as  it  was  then  that  Spanish  art 
became  entirely  national  in  feeling  and  style,  and 
that  is  the  period  in  which  the  best  works  of  the 
school  were  produced.  The  two  most  distinguished 
Spanish  painters  are  Don  Diego  Velasquez  (q.  v.), 
(1599—1660),  and  Bartolome  Esteban  Murillo  (q.  v.), 
(161S— 1682).  The  portraits  of  the  former  are 
characterised  by  truthful  and  dignified  expression, 
great  breadth  and  vigorous  handling,  and  rank 
with  the  best  works  of  that  class  of  any  school ; 
while  the  Scripture  subjects  of  the  latter,  which 
are  noted  for  tender  expression,  rich  colour,  and 
powerful  light  and  shade,  may  be  classed  with 
similar  works  by  Rubens  and  Van  Dyck.  Spagno- 
letto, a  Spanish  painter,  has  already  been  referred 
to  as  a  leading  artist  of  the  school  of  the  Naturalisti 
at  Naples.  Alonzo  Cano  (1601 — 1667),  Francisco 
Zurbaran  (1598 — 1662),  and  Claudio  Coello  (born 
between  1630  and  1640 — 1693).  have  a  high  repu- 
tation. No  name  of  a  Spanish  painter  of  emin- 
ence occurs  after  the  close  of  the  17th  century. 

Very  soon  after  the  period  when  the  Eclectic  and 
Naturalisti  schools  arose  in  Italy,  a  revival  of  art 
also  occurred  in  the  Netherlands.  This  was  very 
different  in  its  effects  from  the  revival  in  Italy,  the 
only  results  from  which  were  academical  imitation 
of  the  older  masters,  and  coarse  naturalism,  either 
separately  or  combined  in  varied  proportions  ; 
while  the  works  of  the  artists  of  the  Netherlands 
executed  about  the  same  period,  though  they  do 
not  exhibit  the  high  qualities  found  in  the  compo- 
sitions of  the  Italian  masters  of  the  best  period, 
possess  many  new  and  attractive  features — freedom, 
originality  of  treatment,  attention  to  the  peculiar 
character  of  individual  life,  and  the  dady  intercourse 
of  men  with  each  other  in  all  its  variety,  and  the 
study  of  nature,  brought  out  with  truth  and  deli- 
cacy of  execution.  Two  important  schools  of  art 
were  established  by  this  movement — the  Flemish 
and  the  Dutch.  The  Flemish  school  flourished  in 
Brabant,  where  the  Roman  Catholic  faith — then 
making  strenuous  efforts  to  oppose  the  Reformed  reli- 
gion— stdl  retained  and  actively  employed  art  in  its 
service.  The  Dutch  school  flourished  in  Protestant 
and  republican  Holland,  where  the  artist,  having  to 
trust  to  private  encouragement,  painted,  for  the  most 
part,  familiar  subjects  from  everyday  life ;  and 
in  place  of  altar-pieces  for  churches,  produced  the 
subjects  then  in  demand — viz.,  large  historical  and 
allegorical  pictures  for  palaces,  portraits,  genre 
pictures,  or  works  in  which  life  and  manners  are 
depicted  in  various  phases — landscapes  with  and 
without  figures,  sea-pieces,  battle-pieces,  composi- 
tions representing  hunting,  animals,  game,  &c.  The 
catalogue  of  the  names  of  the  able  artists  of  these 
two  schools  is  long ;  in  the  Flemish  school,  those 
who  stand  highest  are  Peter  Paid  Rubens  (q.  v.), 
(1577—1640),  Anthony  Van  Dyck  (q.  v.),  (1599— 
1641),  David  Teniers  (q.v.)  the  Younger  (1610— 
1690),  F.  Snyders  (1579—1657).  The  following  are 
the  most  eminent  in  the  long  list  of  artists  of  the 
Dutch  school :  Rembrandt  (q.  v.),  (1608—1669). 
Vanderhelst  (1613—1670),  Albert  Cuyp  (q.  v.),  (1605 
—1691),    Terburgh    (1608—1681),    A.    V.    Ostade 


PAINTING. 


(1610— 1GS5),  J.  Rnisdaal  (q.v.),  (1030  or  1636— 
1681),  Hobbima  (IOl'O  1670),  1'.  Potter  (1625— 
lv.  da  Jarden  (1635—1678),  Jan  Steen  (q.  v.), 
(1636  -1089),  G.  Motzu  (1616  1658),  F.  Micris 
(163S  -1GS1),  W.  Van  de  Velde  (q.  v.),  ( 1 633  -1707), 
A.  Van  dor  Neer  (1613—1634),  P.  Wouvermaus 
(q.v.),  (1620— 1GG8). 

Painting  has  been  practised  for  a  very  long  period 
in  Prance  ;  but  there,  as  in  Spain  and  in  Britain, 
the  marked  preference  shewn  in  early  times  by  the 
Sovereigns  of  the  country  for  the  works  of  foreign 
artists,  their  undervaluing  native  talent,  and  their 
directing  it  into  a  channel  supplied  from  a  foreign 
source,  had  theelfectof  neutralising  it  as  the  exponent 
of  national  feeling.  Francis  I.  is  acknowledged  to 
have  been  a  patron  of  art ;  he  had  a  desire  to 
possess  fine  works,  and  he  liberally  rewarded  able 
artists,  but  his  patronage  was  almost  entirely  con- 
fined to  foreigners.  Louis  XIV.  did  what  he  coidd 
to  place  French  art  above  that  of  every  other 
nation ;  but  he  had  no  knowledge  of  it  him- 
self ;  he  did  not  comprehend  its  nature  and  true 
intention,  and  imagined  that  pictures  if  painted 
by  Frenchmen  must  necessarily  be  national. 
Nevertheless,  his  influence  was,  on  the  whole, 
highly  beneficial  to  French  national  art.  He 
always  shewed  himself  desirous  to  employ  native 
rather  than  foreign  talent,  and  he  encouraged  and 
enlarged  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  which  had 
been  founded  at  the  commencement  of  his  reign, 
under  the  direction  of  Lcbrun.  Although  in  many 
respects  the  principles  and  the  regidations  of  the 
Academy  tended  rather  to  the  perpetuation  of 
debased  Italian,  than  to  the  development  of  genuine 
French  art ;  yet  the  bringing  together  of  a  body 
of  influential  French  artists,  was  the  measure  most 
likely  to  foster  the  feeling  of  nationality  and  to 
lead  to  the  foundation  of  a  national  school  of  art. 
In  the  16th  c,  Francois  Clouet  was  distinguished 
an  a  portrait-painter  ;  and  Jean  Cousin  as  a  painter, 
sculptor,  and  architect.  In  the  17th  c,  among  many 
names,  those  chiefly  deserving  notice  are  Simon 
Vouet,  the  brothers  Le  Nain,  N.  Poussin,  Claude 
Lorraine,  Mignard,  S.  Bourdon,  Le  Sueur,  J.  Cour- 
tois  (called  Borgognone),  and  Coypel.  Among  these, 
the  works  of  the  brothers  Le  Nain  alone  possess 
natiouw  feeling  and  character,  and  they  are  held  in 
very  considerable  estimation ;  those  of  the  others 
were  executed  under  the  influence  of  foreign  art ; 
and  excepting  Claude's  splendid  landscapes,  Poussin's 
learned  compositions,  and  some  of  Borgognone's 
battle-pieces,  hold  a  low  position.  The  works  of 
Anthony  Watteau  (1684 — 1721)  are  truly  national, 
excellent  in  execution,  and  very  highly  valued. 
This  artist  may  be  classed  as  at  the  head,  of  the 
school  of  the  18th  c— the  period  in  which  art  in 
France  became  really  national.  Not  only  did  most  of 
the  painters  of  his  school — which  lasted  till  the  end 
of  the  century,  when  classic  art  ruled  for  a  time — form 
their  style  upon  the  works  of  Watteau,  but  his  influ- 
ence also  affected  the  British  school,  which  arose  soon 
after  that  of  France  was  developed.  Lancret  (1G90 — 
1742)  was  the  most  successful  imitator  of  Watteau  ; 
Pater  (1606 — 1736)  followed  in  the  same  course  ; 
Chardin  (1699—1779),  though  influenced  by  him, 
had  an  original  style  of  his  own,  and  his  works  now 
stand  high.  The  pictures  of  Boucher  (1704—1770) 
exhibit  the  defects  of  the  French  school  of  the 
IStli  c,  unredeemed  by  the  delicacy  and  grace,  and 
high  technical  execution  and  truth  of  Watteau, 
Chardin,  and  Greuze  (1725 — 1805),  the  last  of 
whom  sustained  the  character  of  French  national 
art,  and  carried  it  into  the  19th  c.,  when  it  was 
re-established,  after  the  classic  school  of  David, 
founded  at  the  revolution,  and  patronised  under 
the  empire  of  the  hrst  Napoleon,  had  in  its  turn  been 


laid  aside.      David  (q.v.)  (1748—1823),  the  leader 

of  this  school,  curried  his  admiration  of  clae 

to  the  length  of  Bnbstituting  the  study  of  statnes, 

tho  works  by  which  the  art  of  the  ancients  ii 
chiefly  known,  for  that  of  nature.  He  had  nume- 
rous able  pupils,  several  of  whom,  tired  with  thij 
constant  repetition  of  conventional  form,  remind 
to  nature,  extended  their  range  of  subjects,  and 
infused  new  vigour  into  the  French  school.     Among 

many  distinguished  French  artists,  the  following 
names  may  he  mentioned:  Gericftult,  Prud'hon,  Ja.o- 
pold  Robert,  Delaroche  (q.  v.),  Horace  Vernct  (q.  v.), 
Ary  Schcffer  (q.v.),  Eugene  Delacroix  (q.v.),  and 
Ingres  (q.  v.).  all  lately  deceased,  and  Meissonier, 
still  living.  A  number  of  artists,  chiefly  pupils  of 
those  above  mentioned,  now  sustain  the  high  position 
of  the  French  school  in  every  department  of  art; 
while  in  that  of  landscape  illustrative  of  French 
scenery,  a  branch  of  art  never  much  studied  in  past 
times,  great  progress  has  been  made,  and  the  rise  of 
this  flourishing  branch  of  French  art  is  acknowledged 
by  the  French  themselves  to  l>e  due  to  the  works 
of  the  English  painter  Constable,  exhibited  in  Paris 
in  1824. 

The  English  school  was  the  latest  national  school 
that  arose  in  Europe,  for  although  the  modern 
schools  of  Germany  and  Belgium  are  of  still  later 
date,  having  arisen  in  the  present  century,  still  they 
can  scarcely  be  classed  as  new  schools,  but  rather  as 
revivals  of  former  national  schools.  In  England,  as 
in  France,  foreign  artists  chiefly  were  in  early  times 
employed  by  the  court  and  the  nobles.  Henry 
VIII.  competed  with  Francis  I.  for  the  services  of 
the  greatest  of  the  Italian  artists,  and  permanently 
secured  those  of  Hans  Holbein,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  those  of  Germany.  Charles  I. 
liberally  patronised  Rubens  and  Van  Dyck  ;  and  if 
he  had  reigned  longer,  would  in  all  probability,  like 
Louis  XIV.,  have  founded  a  national  school.  But 
referring  to  the  separate  notices  in  this  work  of  the 
foreign  artists  under  their  names  respectively  who 
were  employed  in  this  country,  and  to  the  article 
Miniature  Painting  for  notice  of  several  eminent 
native  artists  in  that  branch  of  art,  it  is  only 
necessary  here  to  touch  on  the  subject  of  painting 
in  this  country  from  the  time  it  acquired  a  truly 
national  character.  At  the  beginning  of  the  18th  c, 
art  in  Britain  was  at  the  lowest  ebb ;  the  career 
of  Sir  Godfrey  KneUer  (q.  v.),  (164S— 1725  or  1726), 
the  last  of  the  foreigners,  was  drawing  to  a 
close;  Sir  James  Thornhill  (1676  —  1734),  an  English- 
man, followed  out  the  decorative  kind  of  art  on 
which  Verrio,  La  Guerre,  and  others  were  so  much 
employed ;  but  after  his  death,  that  debased  style 
finally  went  down.  The  time  had  now  arrived  for 
native  artists,  if  there  were  any  entitled  to  the 
name,  to  assert  their  independence ;  and  accordingly, 
in  1734 — 1735,  as  many  as  from  thirty  to  forty 
artists  combined  together  in  London,  and  instituted 
an  academy  for  studying  the  human  figure.  About 
the  same  time  a  similar  movement  was  going  on  in 
Edinburgh ;  the  contract  or  indenture  for  establish- 
ing a  school  of  art,  dated  18th  October  1729,  and 
signed  by  seventeen  artists,  besides  amateurs,  i3  in 
the  possession  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy.  The 
effort  above  referred  to,  of  artists  combining  to 
found  a  Life  Academy,  was  mainly  due  to  William 
Hogarth  (1697 — 1764),  who,  on  this  account,  and 
from  his  first  having  developed,  in  a  very  high 
degree  of  excellence  in  his  works,  the  leading 
characteristics  of  the  English  school,  is  justly 
entitled  to  be  considered  its  founder.  This  com- 
bination led  to  these  important  results — it  shewed 
the  artists  their  strength,  and  enabled  them,  after 
a  probation  of  thirty-four  years,  to  found  the 
lloyal  Academy,  an  institution  managed  by  artists, 


PAINTING. 


and  intended  to  support  and  encourage  a  national 
school  of  art.  The  means  by  which  the  Royal 
Academy  proposed  to  attain  its  purpose  were  the 
following :  1,  by  founding  a  school  whore  artists 
may  learn  their  profession ;  and  2,  by  instituting 
an  exhibition  where,  independently  of  private 
patronage  and  support,  artists  may  bring  their 
works  directly  before  the  public.  Hogarth  died 
four  years  before  the  Royal  Academy  was  organ- 
ised ;  but  he  powerfully  contributed  to  its  estab- 
lishment by  his  exertions  in  bringing  the  artists 
together  in  1734,  by  supporting  the  modern  exhi- 
bitions at  Spring  Gardens,  and  by  ridiculing  by 
his  pencil  and  pen  the  passion  of  the  cogno- 
scenti of  the  day  for  crying  up  as  superior  to  the 
modern  the  doubtful  specimens  of  old  art  which 
were  largely  imported  and  disposed  of  at  great  prices 
in  numerous  salerooms  established  for  the  pur- 
pose in  London.  As  regards  technical  execution, 
and  indeed  in  style  generally,  the  English  artists 
were  at  first  indebted  to  the  French  school,  which, 
in  the  commencement  of  the  ISth  c,  was  in  great 
vigour.  Hogarth  himself,  in  these  respects,  looked 
closely  at  the  works  of  Watteau,  engravings  from 
which  were  well  kuown  in  this  country  in  his  time  ; 
indeed,  Wattean's  pictures  were  so  greatly  admired 
here  that  he  came  over  and  spent  the  year  1720 
painting  in  London.  But  Hogarth,  though  alive  to 
the  qualities  in  art  produced  by  others,  ranks  among 
painters  as  one  of  the  most  original,  for  he  greatly 
extended  the  dramatic  element  in  painting,  and 
imparted  an  originality  and  vigour  to  it  never 
before  attained ;  and  his  example  has  led  to  that 
element  being  one  of  the  leading  features  of  the 
English  school,  as  is  exemplified  in  the  works  of 
Wilkie  (q.  v.),  Leslie  (q.  v.),  Stuart  Newton,  Boning- 
ton,  and  others;  and  those  of  many  distinguished 
artists  of  the  present  day.  In  the  department  of 
portrait-painting,  many  of  the  works  of  the  British 
school  rank  with  those  of  Titian,  Van  Dyck,  and 
Velasquez,  such,  for  instance,  as  Reynolds's  portraits 
of  Nelly  O'Brien  and  Lady  Hamilton,  Gainsborough's 
Mrs  Graham  and  Mrs  Siddons,  and  some  of 
Raeburn's  heads,  &c.  While  in  that  of  landscape, 
the  position  of  the  English  school  is  acknow- 
ledged to  be  very  high,  its  influence  now  strongly 
affecting  the  French  school— this  is  proved  by 
the  works  of  R.  Wilson,  Gainsborough  (q.  v.),  and 
Turner  (q.  v.),  the  last  of  whom,  for  wide  range 
of  subject,  and  rendering  of  atmospheric  effect, 
stands  alone ;  Constable,  whose  powerful  grasp  of 
nature  has  excited  the  emulation  of  the  French 
artists ;  Calcott  (q.  v.),  Collins  (q.  v.),  Nasmyth,  J. 
Thomson,  Muller.  and  others  ;  and  their  successors, 
the  artists  of  the  day,  who  ably  represent  the 
English  school.  Animal-painting  has  also  been 
elevated  to  a  high  position.  And  an  important 
department,  that  of  painting  in  water-colours, 
originated  in  England,  and  has  there  attained  far 
higher  excellence  than  in  any  other  country. 

Painting  is  cultivated  with  success  and  receives 
much  encouragement  in  America,  but  there  the 
features  that  mark  a  national  school  have  not  yet 
had  time  for  development.  From  the  close  con- 
nection between  Britain  and  America,  the  art  of 
the  latter  country  was  naturally  influenced  by  and 
became  assimilated  to  that  of  the  former.  America 
may,  however,  justly  take  credit  for  having  contri- 
buted in  no  small  degree  to  strengthen  the  British 
school  of  art,  as  several  very  able  members  of  the 
Royal  Academy  were  Americans.  Benjamin  West 
(1738 — 1820)  was  one  of  the  original  members,  and 
elected  President  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1806. 
J.  S.  Copeley  (1737—1815),  elected  R.A.  in  1799; 
his  '  Death  of  Chatham,'  and  '  Defence  of  St  Heliers, 
Jersey,  against  the  French,  and  Death  of  Major 
196 


Pierces  at  the  moment  of  Victory,'  are  excellent 
works,  and  as  such  were  conserved  in  the  National 
Gallery,  London.  C.  R.  Leslie  (1794 — 1859)  was  born 
in  London  of  American  parents;  but  in  1799  went  to 
Philadelphia,  where  he  was  educated.  Returning  to 
London  in  1811,  he  was  elected  academician  in  1826, 
and  professor  of  painting  in  1848.  G.  S.  Newton 
(1794 — 1835)  was  elected  academician  in  1832.  Wash- 
ington Allston  (1780 — 1843)  was  elected  an  associate 
in  1818;  but  afterwards  returned  to  America,  where 
he  died.  Charles  Wilson  Peale  and  John  Trumbull 
were  the  first  native  artists  who  practised  the  art  to 
any  considerable  extent  in  America,  and  the  Trumbull 
gallery  of  portraits  and  pictures,  illustrating  American 
history,  is  very  valuable.  In  the  early  part  of  this 
century  Malbone,  Gilbert  Stuart,  and  Allston  exhibited 
high  artistic  ability — the  first  the  rival  of  Reynolds  in 
portraiture,  and  the  last  of  high  excellence  in  every 
walk  of  art.  Jarvis,  Sully,  and  Vanderlyn  painted 
history  with  success.  About  1825  Thomas  Cole 
founded  an  American  school  of  landscape  painting, 
since  cultivated  by  many  artists.  Contemporary  with 
and  succeeding  Cole  were  Doughty,  Durand,  Inman, 
Fisher,  Rembrandt  Peale,  Wier,  Huntington,  Rother- 
mel,  Page,  Neagle,  Morse,  Ingham,  Harding,  Fraser, 
&c.  Since  the  middle  of  the  century  painting  has  re- 
ceived a  new  impulse,  and  Church, Kensett,  G.  L.  Brown, 
Cropsy,  Chapman,  Casilear,  the  Harts,  Mignot,  Gig- 
noux,  Gifford,  Colmar,  Cranch,  Inness,  Bierstadt,  W, 
T.  Richards,  Hamilton,  and  others  have  been  prominent, 
The  works  of  many  of  the  latter  are  characterised  by 
fidelity  to  natoe,  and  freedom  from  the  mannerism  of 
European  artists.  Among  animal  painters  should  be 
named  Beard,  Strickley,  Tait,  Hays,  Trotter,  and  Bisp- 
ham.  Historical  painting  has  been  pursued  with  suc- 
cess, though  poorly  encouraged,  by  Leutze,  Gray,  Pow- 
ell, Rothermel,  Rossiter,  Ferry,  White,  Schuessele,  &c. 
A  general  survey  of  painting  at  the  present  time 
exhibits  the  following  aspect  and  arrangement :  1. 
A  school  in  Germany,  which  arose  during  the  present 
century,  ostensibly  a  revival  of  the  old  national, 
but  truly  modelled  on  the  early  Italian  school, 
the  religious  element  being  prominent.  Its  prin- 
cipal works  are  mural,  of  large  dimension,  and 
mostly  executed  in  fresco,  or  on  a  kind  of  fresco 
lately  invented,  called  silica  or  water-glass  painting, 
from  a  vehicle  of  that  kind  being  used.  Inven- 
tion, composition,  grouping,  and  powerful  and 
correct  drawing,  characterise  the  modern  German 
works ;  but  being  of  necessity  executed  from 
cartoons,  they  are  deficient  in  that  amount  of 
individual  expression,  and  natural  colour  and  effect, 
that  can  only  be  attained  by  a  direct  and  continued 
reference  to  the  object  represented.  2.  A  Belgian 
school,  which  arose  in  the  present  century  and  is 
also  a  revival  of  the  earlier  national  schools.  Some 
of  the  Belgian  artists  lean  to  the  manner  ii  the 
very  early  Flemish  school,  others  to  that  of  which 
Rubens  was  the  head.  The  greater  portion  of  the 
Belgian  works  are  easel-pictures,  and  many  of  them 
rank  high  for  individual  expression,  colour,  and 
technical  execution.  3.  A  French  school,  exhibiting 
in  active  operation  the  various  styles  that  have  at 
different  periods  prevailed  in  that  country,  some- 
times modified  or  adapted  to  the  taste  and  feeling 
of  the  times.  The  works  of  the  French  school  of 
the  eighteenth  century  were  utterly  condemned  by 
French  artists  at  the  close  of  that  and  commence- 
ment of  the  present  century.  They  would  tolerate 
nothing  but  what  they  called  classic  art.  L'Ecole 
classique,  as  it  was  styled,  was  in  its  turn  supplanted 
by  VEcole  romantique.  Now,  however,  all  styles  are 
tolerated,  even  those  of  foreign  schools — for  instance, 
the  English  school  of  landscape — and  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that,  by  the  extensive  range  of  subject, 
invention,  drawing,  and    other   high   qualities   the 


TAINTING. 


French  artists  display  in  tln-ir  works,  they  have 
now  raised  that  school  to  a  very  high  position.  4. 
A  British  school,  which  has  been  in  existence  as  a 

national  school  nearly  as  long  as  that  of  Prance, 
undisturbed  by  the  convulsions  that  affected  it- 
Vitality  in  art  is  maintained  by  close  re  •  rence  to 
nature,  and  this  has  all  along  been  the  leading 
characteristic  of  the  English  school  ;  while  the 
tendency  of  the  artists  at  present  is,  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  aid  of  Bcieuce,  which  has  lately  discovered 
photography,  to  study  nature  with  still  greater 
earnestness  and  care.  The  high  claims  of  the  British 
school,  long  denied  abroad,  are  now  fully  admitted. 
Formerly,  foreigners  never  classed  a  British  school 
among  those  ot  Europe,  but  now  this  is  invariably 
done.  One  of  the  most  popular  writers  on  art  in 
France,  Theophile  Gautier,  in  his  work,  Les  Beaux- 
Arts  in  Europe,  divides  the  art  of  the  world  into 
four  strongly  detined  zones— viz.,  Great  Britain, 
Belgium,  Germany,  and  France — Britain  being  dis- 
tinguished by  'individuality,'  a  potent  element  in 
art;  Belgium,  by  'skill;'  Germany,  by  'ideality;' 
and  Trance,  by  'eclecticism,'  or  a  selection  and 
Combination  of  the  qualities  of  all  other  schools. 

Regarding  technical  modes  or  processes  of  paint- 
ing, reference  is  made  to  the  separate  notices  under 
Fkesco,  Encaustic,  Miniature  Tainting.  The 
perioil  when  the  method  of  mixing  up  colours 
with  oil  was  introduced,  and  the  artists  to  whom 
the  invention  is  attributed,  have  been  already 
alluded  to.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  enter  on 
some  details  touching  the  mechanical  processes  in 
oil-painting,  the  branch  of  the  art  that  occupies  the 
most  prominent  position  ;  and  the  practice  of  clean- 
ing and  restoring  pictures. 

The  implements  used  by  a  painter  in  oil  are  char- 
coal, chalk,  or  lead  pencils,  for  drawing  the  outline  ; 
hair-pencils  or  brushes  of  various  sizes,  made  of 
heg's  bristles  or  finer  hair,  such  as  sable  ;  a  knife 
or  spatula  to  mix  the  colours,  and  a  palette  or  small 
toble  of  thin  wood,  to  be  held  in  the  left  hand,  on 
which  the  colours  and  tints  are  placed  and  mixed ; 
an  easel  or  stand  for  supporting  the  picture  is  also 
required,  and  a  light  rod  for  steadying  or  resting 
the  hand  on.  Large  pictures  are  always  executed 
on  canvas,  stretched  tightly  on  a  frame,  and  primed 
or  coated  with  paint.  Small  pictures  are  often 
painted  on  boards  or  panels,  generally  of  hard  wood, 
such  as  oak  or  mahogany,  and  similarly  primed  or 
prepared  ;  but  canvas,  even  for  small  works,  seems 
at  present  to  be  generally  preferred.  Tanels  are  apt 
to  twist,  or  warp,  or  split,  and  in  the  event  of  the 
surface  of  a  picture  chipping  or  breaking  off  from 
the  ground,  the  damage  can  be  more  easily  reme- 
died, and  its  progress  stopped,  when  the  picture  is 
on  canvas,  by  re-lining.  The  colour  of  the  ground 
of  the  canvas  or  panel  has  been  the  subject  of  much  I 
diversity  of  opinion  among  artists  in  different  coun- 
tries and  at  various  periods ;  and  it  is  certainly  a 
matter  of  great  importance,  as  it  affects  the  general  ! 
colour  of  the  work,  or  makes  it  necessary  for  the  J 
artist  to  adopt  a  peculiar  style  of  working.  The  ■ 
colour  of  the  ground  used  by  the  early  masters  was 
white,  or  nearly  pure  white.  This  arose  from  tem- 
pora  or  size  being  the  medium  first  used  in  painting, 
and  a  pure  white  ground  prepared  with  size  was 
necessary  for  that  kind  of  work.  This  practice, 
except  as  regards  the  Venetian  school,  continued 
tdl  the  decline  of  Italian  art.  Dull  red  was  the  j 
universal  colour  adopted  in  the  eclectic,  Natur-  ' 
alisti,  and  late  Italian  schools,  and  this  is  | 
one  of  the  causes  of  the  works  of  these  schools 
oeing  characterised  by  blackness  and  heavi- 
ness ;  at  the  same  time,  it  is  certain  that  red 
grounds  wrere  also  used  by  many  of  the  best  Vene- 
tian painters,   in  whose  works  these   defects   are 


never  found,  probably  from  having  used  an  impasta 
or  body  of  colour  sufficiently  powerful  to  tx 
on  the  ground.     A   .Luk  ground  affords  a  facility 
for  working  expeditiously,  and  that,  probably,  was 

the    principal    cause    for    its    being    adopted.       The 

Dutch  and  Flemish  painters  generally  used  light 

grounds;     some    of    them    light  brown,   nearly   the 

colour  of  oak.  Van  Dyck  occasionally  need  sray, 
and  sometimes,  when  be  painted  in  Italy,  duff-red 

grounds.  In  the  British  school,  light  grounds  aie 
preferred.    .Some  artists  use  smooth  canvas,  others 

prefer  it  rough,  and  avail  themselves  of  the  texture 
to  increase  the  richness  of  the  surface  of  their  work. 
All  these  varieties  in  the  materials  are  called  for 
in  consequence  of  the  numerous  styles  or  modes 
adopted  by  painters  in  oil  colours.  Every  artist 
has  his  peculiar  way  of  working,  and  in  bringing  out 
the  colour  or  effect,  or  special  quality  in  ms  pic- 
ture, by  which  the  feeling  or  idea  of  the  subject  he 
conceives  is  expressed.  No  two  artists — imitators 
and  copiers  are  not  referred  to — produce  their  tints 
by  mixing  colours  in  the  same  proportions,  nor, 
indeed,  by  using  the  same  colours ;  and  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  lay  down  general  rules  for  the  execution  of 
works,  seeing  that  depends  very  much  on  individual 
feeling  and  appreciation.  The  design  or  drawing  is 
first  outlined  on  the  canvas,  if  it  is  light,  with  char- 
coal, or  with  white  chalk  when  it  is  dark,  and  these 
lines  are  easily  dusted  off  or  rubbed  out  when  correc- 
tions are  made.  It  is  then  put  in  with  black  chalk 
or  a  lead  pencil.  Not  many  years  ago  it  was  the 
practice  of  painters,  particularly  landscape-painters 
— Nasmyth,  for  instance— to  rub  in  the  design 
with  some  brown  colour,  such  as  a  tint  composed  of 
burned  sienna  and  black ;  but  this  practice  is  not 
much  adopted  now.  Some  artists  make  but  a  slight 
outline,  and  paint — or,  as  it  is  called  technically 
rub — in  the  subject  in  a  bold,  rough  manner, 
afterwards  gradually  finishing  it  up ;  others  draw 
the  design  very  carefully,  and  work  the  picture  up 
in  portions,  finishing  or  nearly  finishing  one  portion 
before  commencing  auother.  In  arranging  the 
colours,  or  as  it  is  called,  setting  the  palette,  many 
artists  use  a  great  variety  of  colours,  others  produce 
rich  tones  with  few  colours ;  some  mix  up  tints  in 
various  gradations,  others  place  the  colours  on  the 
palette,  commencing  at  the  outer  edge  with  white, 
followed  by  yellows  and  burned  sienna  (a  reddish 
brown),  then  reds,  including  lakes,  such  as  pink, 
madder,  next  blue,  and  lastly  black,  and  merely 
mix  up  the  tint  on  the  centre  of  the  palette  with 
their  brush,  as  they  proceed.  In  laying  the  colours 
on  the  canvas,  the  j)ainter  with  his  brush  mixes  or 
dilutes  them  with  what  is  called  a  vehicle  or  medium. 
Here,  again,  the  practice  of  artists  is  very  varied ; 
and  this  is  a  matter  of  importance,  as  the  tone  and 
quality  of  the  picture,  as  regards  texture  or  surface 
and  transparency,  is  much  affected  by  the  medium 
employed,  and  the  manner  of  using  it.  The  dura- 
bility of  the  work  also  depends  very  much  on  the 
medium  and  the  artist's  management  of  it.  A 
medium  composed  of  mastic  varnish  and  drying  or 
boiled  linseed  od,  named  magilp,  is  that  most 
generally  used.  This  mixture  coagulates  or  forms 
a  jelly,  and  has  the  advantage,  when  placed  on  the 
palette,  of  not  running  off  it,  or  mixing  with  the 
colours  when  the  palette  is  not  held  level.  Some 
painters  prefer  using  raw  bnseed  od  mixed  with  a 
dryer,  such  as  litharge,  or  drying  oil  mixed  with 
turpentine,  or  copal  varnish  and  turpentine,  or  copal 
varnish  and  oil,  with  mastic  varnish  added,  to  make 
it  coagulate.  Other  ingredients  are  often  mixed 
with  the  medium,  to  give  a  thick  consistency  to  the 
paint,  such  as  fat  or  thickened  nut  oil,  paste,  &c. ; 
and  various  preparations  sold  by  artists'  colourmen 
are  much  used;   for  instance,  Roberson's  medium, 

197 


PAINTING. 


(ind  Siccatifyle  Harlem,  a  preparation  imported  from 
Paris.  The  mode  of  using  the  medium  is  of  great 
consequence  ;  some  apply  it  very  sparingly,  others, 
particularly  those  who  prefer  magilp,  or  a  medium 
that  coagulates,  employ  it  lavishly.  By  the  iirst 
method,  rirmness  and  decision  of  touch  may  be 
exhibited,  by  the  latter,  richness  and  brilliancy  of 
tone ;  the  excess  tends  to  produce,  in  the  one  case, 
a  hard  and  dry  surface,  and  the  want  of  the  pro- 
tection that  varnish  mixed  with  the  colour  gives 
against  atmospheric  action ;  the  other  induces  a 
surface  having  a  horny  appearance,  and  a  tendency 
to  daiken,  or  crack,  or  open  up. 

Arresting  the  decay  of  pictures,  and  repairing,  or, 
as  it  is  styled,  restoring  them,  after  they  have 
suffered  from  age  or  bad  usage  are  matters  which 
engage  much  attention.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  many  paintings  of  vast  importance  have  been 
saved  by  the  care  and  skill  of  those  who  have 
earnestly  devoted  themselves  to  that  kind  of  work  ; 
but  picture-cleaning  is  now  a  trade  followed  in 
numerous  instances  by  ignorant  pretenders  and 
quacks,  who  hold  out  that  they  possess  some  means 
by  which  they  can  freshen  a  picture,  and  restore  it 
to  the  state  it  was  in  when  originally  executed. 
Generally  speaking,  the  great  extent  to  which 
this  business  is  carried  on  is  owing  to  the  cre- 
dulity of  those  who  dabble  in  collecting  old  pic- 
tures, one  great  incentive  to  which  being  the  hope 
of  picking  up,  or  discovering,  some  picture  of  great 
value  concealed  under  the  dirt  and  discoloration 
acquired  in  a  long  course  of  years ;  but,  neverthe- 
less, there  can  be  no  doubt  that  many  proprietors  of 
works  of  art  who  collect  from  far  higher  motives, 
are  remarkably  prone  to  call  in  the  picture-cleaner 
when  his  services  are  anything  but  necessary  or 
beneficial.  Sir  Edwin  Landseer,  R.A.,  when  exam- 
ined by  the  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons  appointed  to  inquire  into  certain  alle- 
gations of  damage  by  cleaning,  sustained  by  the 
pictures  in  the  National  Gallery  of  London  (Report 
and  Evidence  ordered  to  be  printed,  1858),  states, 
in  the  following  terms,  his  idea  of  this  rage  for 
picture-cleaning,  or  rather  picture-destroying  :  '  The 
first  thing,  whenever  a  picture  is  sold,  I  think,  is, 
that  it  goes  to  a  picture-restorer,  or  a  picture-liner, 
or  a  picture-cleaner,  no  matter  what  its  condition 
is.  It  is  exactly  the  same  thing  as  when  you  buy 
a  horse  ;  your  groom  says  he  will  be  all  right  when 
he  has  a  dose  of  physic  through  him,  whether  he 
wants  it  or  not.'  The  mania  for  picture-cleaning  is 
not  confined  to  this  country ;  it  is  extensively  car- 
ried on  with  even  more  ruinous  consequences  abroad, 
particularly  in  Italy,  where  there  is  a  large  traffic 
in  old,  and  few  commissions  for  modern  works,  and 
where  in  many  of  the  public  galleries  one  or  more 
picture-cleaners,  for  whom  work  must  be  found,  are 
attached  as  permanent  officers. 

The  process  of  picture-cleaning,  or  the  removal  of 
the  old  varnishes  or  other  incrustations  by  which 
a  painting  may  be  obscured,  is  effected  either  by 
mechanical  or  chemical  means.  The  first  method 
is  accomplished  when  the  varnish  on  the  surface  is 
mastic,  by  rubbing  with  the  fingers  the  surface  of 
varnish  when  in  a  dry  state,  by  which  action  it  is 
brought  off  in  a  fine  white  powder  ;  or  by  scraping 
or  erasing  the  surface  with  sharp  steel  instruments 
when  the  surface  of  the  picture  is  tolerably  smooth. 
The  first  of  these  processes  is  the  best  that  can  be 
employed  ;  but  when  the  surface  is  rough  or 
unequal,  the  prominent  portions  are  apt  to  be 
over-rubbed ;  erasing  or  scraping  is  often  practised 
in  Italy,  but  rarely  in  this  country.  The  chemical 
means  consist  in  the  application  of  solvents,  chiefly 
alkali,  or  alcohol,  to  dissolve  the  old  varnish.  The 
danger  here  is,  that  the  action  of  these  solvents  is 
198 


not  always  stopped  with  sufficient  promptness  and 
dexterity,  and  part  of  the  surface  of  the  picture 
is  taken  oft";  conseqivently  it  is  by  this  latter 
process  that  most  destruction  is  caused.  For  the 
various  methods  employed  in  picture-cleaning,  the 
Report  and  Minutes  of  Evidence,  already  referred 
to,  may  be  consulted,  and  the  Guide  Theorique  et 
Pratique  de  V Amateur  de  Tableaux,  par  TModore 
Lejeune  (Paris,  1864),  in  which  are  stated  all  the 
most  approved  methods  of  cleaning  and  restoring  pic- 
tures, and  Raskin's  Modern  Painters  (1843 — 18G0). 

Works  on  painting  and  painters :  Vasari  (Florence, 
1568);  Borghini  (Florence,  15S4) ;  Rodolphi  (Venice, 
1648)  ;  Zanetti  (Venice,  1771)  ;  Lanzi  (1792),  Bonn's 
edition  of  Roscoe's  translation  ;  Von  Rmnohr  (Ber- 
lin, 1827) ;  Kugler's  Hand-book  of  Painting,  Italian 
Schools  of  Painting,  edited  by  Eastlake  (1S55)  ; 
German,  Flemish,  and  Dutch  Schools,  by  the  same, 
edited  by  Sir  Edmund  Head,  Bart.  (1846)  ;  Hand- 
book to  Spanish  Schools  and  French  Schools  (1848)  ; 
Hand-book  for  Young  Painters,  by  C.  R.  Leslie, 
R.A.  (1855). 

PAINTING  (House),  is  one  of  the  useful  arts, 
combining  much  that  is  artistic  with  much  that 
is  absolutely  necessary.  The  primary  object  of 
painting  houses,  or  parts  of  them,  either  internally 
or  externally,  is  to  preserve  them  from  decay — to 
cover  the  parts  liable  to  suffer  from  exposure  with 
a  durable  composition.  That  now  used  is  made  of 
ground  white-lead  mixed  with  linseed  oil.  This 
produces  white  paint,  which  forms  the  basis  of  all 
others.  The  various  colours  given  to  it  are  pro- 
duced by  the  grinding  of  pigments  (or  stri titers) 
along  with  the  white-lead.  The  commonest  of  these 
are  ochres  (yellow  and  red  earths),  lampblack, 
Venetian  red,  umber,  Prussian  blue,  chrome,  ver- 
milion, &c.  Substances  called  driers  are  also  mixed 
with  the  paint,  such  as  spirits  of  turpentine,  boiled 
oil,  litharge  and  sugar  of  lead  ground  in  oil.  Paint 
may  be  laid  on  any  material — stone,  wood,  iron, 
and  plaster  being  the  most  visual  in  buildings.  It 
has  the  effect  of  preserving  these,  by  filling  up  the 
pores  in  them,  and  forming  a  coating  on  which  the 
moisture  of  the  atmosphere  does  not  act.  The 
paint  is  laid  on  in  several  coats  or  layers,  each  being 
allowed  to  dry  before  the  next  is  applied.  The  usual 
number  of  coats  for  new  wood  or  plaster  varies 
from  three  to  six.  Five  coats  form  a  good  and 
lasting  protection  from  the  weather.  Plain  painting 
is  generally  finished  with  a  coat  prepared  with  a 
mixture  of  oil  of  turpentine,  which  takes  off  the  gloss 
from  the  paint,  and  leaves  the  surface  quite  mat  or 
dead.  This  is  csdled  flatting.  A  very  common  form 
of  decoration  in  all  ages  has  been  to  imitate  the 
veins  or  colours  of  marbles,  and  the  grains  or  marks 
of  growth  of  various  woods.  In  modern  times,  these 
arts  form  a  separate  branch  of  house-painting,  some 
men  being  grainers,  others  marblers,  &c.  The  mode 
in  which  these  imitations  are  produced  is  by  forming 
a  grounding  of  several  coats  of  plain  paint — usually 
four — and  applying  the  colouring  coat  over  this.  In 
marbling,  the  colouring  matter  is  marked  and  veined 
with  feathers,  in  place  of  brushes;  and  in  graining, 
steel  combs  are  used.  When  the  surface  is  dry,  it 
is  protected  with  one  or  more  coats  of  copal  varnish. 

Besides  painting,  the  decorator  uses  paper* 
hangings  for  adorning  the  walls  of  houses.  These 
are  applied  to  the  walls  with  paste.  Size-colouring 
is  also  used ;  the  colouring  matter  in  this  case  being 
mixed  with  strong  Size  (q.  v.)  in  place  of  cil;  but 
this  has  the  disadvantage  of  being  easily  acted  on 
by  moisture.  It  is  often  used  for  the  ceilings  of 
common  rooms,  and  for  the  walls  of  kitchens  and 
servants'  apartments,  being  much  cheaper  than  oil- 
paint.  In  ancient  times,  in  Greece  and  Rome,  wax 
was  used  for  mixing  the  colours  with;  I ut  although 


PAINTS,  PAINTERS'  COLOURS-PAISLEY. 


there  are  many  very  fine  specimens  of  Roman  paint* 
ings  still  preserved  on  the  walls  of  the  DOOMS  of 
Pompeii,  the  mode  in  which  these  decorations  were 
applied  is  not  now  known. 

PAINTS,  PAINTERS'  COLOURS,  or  PIG- 
MENTS.  These  names  are  applied  to  the  prepared 
or  unprepared  compositions  by  which  wood,  stone, 
and  other  materials  are  coated  with  a  preservative 
surface  of  oil,  mixed  with  an  earthy  matter,  to  give 
it  colour  and  consistency  ;  also  to  the  materials 
used  by  artists  to  produce  the  coloured  surfaces 
»f  their  pictures.  The  art  of  painting,  in  its  primi- 
tive state,  consisted  merely  iu  applying  such 
natural,  mineral,  and  vegetable  colours  as  were 
spontaneously  yielded,  without  any  vehicle  to  render 
.  them  permanent ;  consequently,  they  had  to  be 
renewed  as  often  as  they  were  rubbed  or  washed  off 
from  the  surfaces  to  which  they  were  applied.  The 
paints  now  in  use  are  nearly  all  mixed  with  a  liquid 
vehicle,  and  are  applied  in  the  liquid  state.  The 
mixing  materials  are  varied  according  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  work.  Thus,  for  some  kinds  of  decor- 
ative work,  and  for  water-colour  drawings,  gum, 
glue,  size,  or  other  adhesive  materials  dissolved  in 
water,  are  employed  ;  whilst  for  the  painting  of 
buildings,  &c,  aud  for  oil-paintings,  oils  of  various 
kinds  are  used  for  mixing  and  thinning  the  colours. 
Thus,  for  painted  work  exposed  to  the  weather,  it 
is  found  that  linseed  oil  boiled  with  the  oxides 
of  lead  (litharge)  or  zinc,  or  with  acetate  of  lead 
(sugar  of  lead),  is  the  best.  The  preparation  of 
boiled  oil  is  one  requiring  particular  care,  as  it  is 
desirable  to  have  it  bright  and  clear.  Hence  the 
proportions  of  the  metallic  salts  are  much  varied 
Dy  different  manufacturers,  and  by  some  various 
other  ingredients  are  added.  The  time  of  boiling, 
and  the  method  of  filtering,  are  also  much  varied. 
For  indoor  work,  plain  linseed  oil  and  oil  (spirit) 
of  turpentine  are  used  ;  if  a  glossy  surface  is  wished, 
the  linseed  oil  must  be  in  excess ;  if  a  dull  or 
flattened  surface,  then  the  quantity  of  turpentine,  or 
turps,  as  it  is  often  technically  called,  must  be 
increased;  and  it  is  usual  to  add  a  small  quantity 
of  ground  litharge  and  sugar  of  lead,  which  are 
prepared  for  this  purpose,  and  sold  under  the  name 
of  Driers.  For  artists'  colours,  very  fine  linseed  or 
nut  oil  is  used,  unboiled,  and  iu  small  quantity,  and 
turpentine  is  employed  to  dilute  them.  Paints  for 
very  rough  purposes,  such  as  ship- work,  stone  walls, 
&c,  are  often  mixed  with  whale  oil  boiled  with 
white  vitriol  (acetate  of  zinc),  litharge,  and  vinegar, 
and  they  are  diluted  with  common  linseed  oil  and 
turpentine. 

Most  of  the  paints  used  for  ordinary  purposes  are 
composed  first  of  the  colouring  matter,  then  of  a 
quantity  of  white-lead,  with  which  and  the  oil  they 
are  worked  into  a  paste  of  the  shade  required,  and 
afterwards  thinned  down  with  oil  and  turpentine 
when  used.  The  white-lead  which  thus  forms  the 
basis  of  most  paints,  and  by  itself  a  colour,  is  a 
carbonate  and  oxide  of  the  metal,  produced  by 
exposing  pieces  of  lead  to  the  action  of  the  steam  of 
acetic  acid  in  beds  of  fermenting  tan.  It  is  the 
principal  white  paint  used,  but  is  liable  to  discolor- 
ation from  the  gases  contained  in  impure  atmos- 
pheres. Other  white  pigments  are  prepared  from 
the  oxide  of  zinc,  and  the  carbonate  and  sulphate 
of  barytes.  Pale  yellow  is  made  with  chromate  of 
strontian,  orange-yellow  with  sulphuret  of  cadmium, 
whilst  several  varieties  of  this  colour  are  pro- 
duced by  chromate  of  lead,  sulphuret  of  arsenic,  or 
king's  yellow,  and  various  native  earths  in  which 
silica  and  alumina  are  combined  with  oxide  of 
iron.  Amongst  these  are  Yellow  Ochre,  Oxford, 
Roman,  Stone,  Orange,  Indian,  and  American 
Ochres.     Eeds  are  either  purely  mineral,  or  they  are 


lakes,  i.  <•..  organic  colours  precipitated  on  alumina 
Of  the  latter,  then  arc  madder-lakes,  pre* 
pared  from  madder-roots,  and  carmine-lakes,  pre- 
pared from  cochineal;  of  the  former,  rennuio* 
(bisulphuret  of  mercury),  Indian  red  (a  native  oxide 
of  iron),  Venetian  red  (also  an  ox'ulc  of  iron),  red 
lead  (red  oxide  of  lead  or  minium).  A  very  beautiful 
red  is  used  by  artists,  called  palladium  red;  it  is 
formed  of  ammonio-perchloride  of  palladium.  Blues 
consist  of  the  artificial  ultramarine,  and  for 
purposes,  of  the  real  ultramarine,  also  the  silicate  of 
cobalt,  and  for  water-colours,  Lndigo  and  Prussian 
blue.  Greens  are  either  produced  by  mixtures  of 
yellows  and  blues,  or  they  are  made  directly  from 
the  phosphates,  carbonates,  acetates,  and  arsenitei 
of  copper,  also  from  the  sesquioxide  of  chromium 
and  from  terre  verte,  a  native  mineral,  consisting  of 
iron,  silica,  potasea,  and  magnesia.  The  last  two 
are  the  best  for  artists.  Browns  are  numerous,  and 
various  in  their  composition.  Decomposed  peat, 
burned  madder,  burned  Prussian  blue,  burned  terre 
verte,  asjdialt,  manganese  brown,  catechu,  umber 
(which  is  an  oxide  of  iron  with  manganese),  and 
mummy,  or  the  asphalt  mixed  with  other  matters 
taken  from  Egyptian  mummies,  are  amongst  the 
best  known  and  most  used.  Blacks  are  made  of 
Lamp-black  and  Bone-black  (q.  v.),  peroxide  of 
manganese,  and  blue-black,  which  is  made  of  the 
charcoal  of  burned  vine  twigs. 

Iu  all  cases,  the  colouring  materials  of  paints 
require  to  be  very  finely  ground,  and  as  many  are 
very  poisonous,  great  care  is  required  in  their  pre- 
paration, and  several  forms  of  mill  have  been 
invented  for  the  purpose.  The  principle  upon  which 
all  are  made  is  to  secure  the  operator  from  the 
poisonous  dust  and  exhalations,  and  to  reduce  the 
colouring  material,  if  ground  dry,  to  an  impalpable 
powder,  or  if  mixed  with  the  oil,  to  a  perfectly 
smooth  paste. 

PAISIELLO,  Giovanni,  an  eminent  musician; 
son  of  a  veterinary  surgeon  at  Tarauto,  wras  born 
in  1741,  and  received  his  musical  education  iu  the 
Couservatorio  St  Onofrio  at  Naples.  Of  his  earlier 
operas  produced  at  Naples,  the  most  celebrated  was 
Bed  Finto  al  Vero,  composed  in  1777.  Some  of  bis 
best  works,  particularly  II  Barbiere  di  Sevkjlia, 
were  written  during  an  eight  years'  residence  at  St 
Petersburg.  At  Vienna,  he  composed  twelve  sym- 
phonies for  a  large  orchestra,  and  the  opera  buffa, 
II  re  Teodoro.  Between  1785  and  1799,  he  produced 
a  number  of  operas  for  the  Neapolitan  theatre,  and 
was  appointed  by  Ferdinand  IV.  his  maestro  di 
capella.  In  consequence  of  having  accepted  under 
the  revolutionary  government  the  office  of  national 
director  of  music,  he  was  suspended  from  his  func- 
tions for  two  years  after  the  restoration  of  royalty, 
but  eventually  restored  to  them.  In  1802,  he  went 
to  Paris  to  direct  the  music  of  the  consular  chapel ; 
but  the  indifferent  reception  shortly  after  given 
to  his  opera  of  Proserpine,  led  him  to  return  to 
Naples,  where  he  died  in  1816.  His  compositions 
are  characterised  by  sweetness  and  gracefulness  ol 
melody,  and  simplicity  of  structure.  Besides  no 
fewer  than  ninety  operas,  P.  composed  masses, 
requiems,  cantatos,  an  oratorio,  instrumental  quar- 
tetts,  harpsichord  sonatas,  concertos,  and  a  highly- 
praised  funeral  march  in  honour  of  General  Hoche. 

PAI'SLEY,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary  burgh, 
and  an  important  manufacturing  town  of  Scotland, 
in  the  county  of  Renfrew,  on  both  banks  of  the 
White  Cart,  four  miles  above  its  junction  with  the 
Clyde,  and  eight  miles  west-south-west  of  Glasgow 
by  railway.  It  is  on  the  whole  a  quiet,  dull-looking 
town,  dirty  in  the  older  quarters,  but  containing 
several  good  streets,  as  George,  Forbes,  and  Gilmour 

199 


PALACE— PALAEOGRAPHY. 


Streets  ;  and  since  the  introduction  of  an  abundant 
Bupply  of  water  from  the  Gleniffer  Hills,  is  much 
improved  in  its  sanitary  condition. 

By  far  the  most  interesting  edifice  is  the  Abbey. 
It  was  founded  by  Walter,  the  High  Steward  of 
Scotland,  about  1163,  for  a  prior  and  13  monks  of 
the  Cluniac  order  of  Eeformed  Benedictines,  and 
was  dedicated  to  St  James,  St  Mirren,  and  St 
Milburga.  It  was  the  bur ying- place  of  the  Stewarts 
before  the  accession  of  that  family  to  the  throne, 
and  was  occasionally  used  by  them  afterwards  as 
a  place  of  sepulture.  It  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
an  abbey  in  1245,  was  burned  by  the  English  in 
1307,  but  was  afterwards  restored.  What  remains 
of  the  building  is  the  nave,  of  six  bays,  chiefly  in 
the  First  Pointed  style.  It  is  now  used  as  the 
parish  church,  and  measures  92^  feet  by  35  feet. 
The.  transept  is  ruinous,  but  the  north-eastern 
window,  25  feet  high  by  18  feet  broad,  remains. 
In  1SG2  a  thorough  restoration  of  the  Abbey  (at  a 
cost  of  £4000)  was  made,  the  happiest  feature 
of  which  was  the  removal  of  the  modern  and 
unsightly  galleries.  St  Mirren's,  or  the  '  Sounding 
Aisle,'  so  called  from  its  echo,  abuts  upon  the 
Abbey  Church.  It  has  a  monument  in  the  shape 
of  a  recumbent  female  figure  resting  on  an  altar 
tomb,  in  the  attitude  of  prayer,  supposed  to  com- 
memorate Marjory  Bruce,  daughter  of  the  famous 
King  Robert. 

Among  the  other  edifices  the  principal  are,  the 
County  Buildings,  a  quadrangular  pile  in  the  castel- 
lated style  ;  the  Neil  sou  Educational  Institution,  a 
noble  bequest,  built  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross, 
and  surmounted  by  a  fine  dome;  the  Infirmary;  the 
School  of  Design ;  and  the  Grammar  School.  This 
last  institution  was  founded  by  King  James  VI., 
and  the  present  building  was  completed  in  the  year 
1864. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  the  prin- 
cipal manufactures  were  coarse  linens  and  chequered 
cloths.  About  the  middle  of  that  century,  the 
weaving  of  linen  and  of  silk  gauze  became  the  staple 
manufactures.  In  1784  silk  gauze  was  manufactured 
to  the  value  of  £350,000,  and  employed  5000  looms. 
Shawls,  which  used  to  be  a  principal  and  are  still 
an  important  article  of  manufacture,  began  to  be 
made  here  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 
Within  recent  years  the  annual  value  of  the  shawl 
trade  of  P.  was  estimated  at  about  £1,000,000 
eterling.  Cotton  thread  is  manufactured  on  a  most 
extensive  scale ;  indeed  P.  may  be  considered  the 
seat  of  the  thread  manufacture  for  the  home  and 
American  markets.  Different  varieties  of  tartan 
cloths,  handkerchiefs,  carpets,  &c.  are  made ;  soap, 
starch,  and  corn  flour  are  largely  manufactured; 
dyeing  is  carried  on  by  several  firms  on  an  extensive 
scale ;  and  a  number  of  cotton-thread  factories, 
power-loom  factories,  print  works,  machine  shops, 
bleach-fields,  &c.  are  in  operation  in  the  town 
and  vicinity.  The  following  is  the  annual  value  of 
Borne  of  the  principal  manufactures  of  P. :  Paisley 
wove  shawls,  £300,000 ;  printed  shawls,  black 
squares,  silk  gauzes,  &c,  £600,000 ;  winceys,  silk 
dresses,  scarfs,  &c,  £100.000 ;  cotton  thread  (which 
gives  employment  to  from  3000  to  4000  people), 
£570,000.  At  the  St  James'  Day  Fair,  in  August, 
horse-races,  originated  by  act  of  the  bailies  of  the 
burgh  in  160S,  are  held.     Pop.  (1 871)  48.257. 

PALACE,  this  title  is  applied,  with  few  excep- 
tions, in  Great  Britain,  to  houses  occupied  by  royal 
personages  only.  In  Italy  the  name  is  given  to  all 
fine  dwellings. 

PALACKY,  Frantisek,  a  Bohemian  philologist, 
critic,  and  historian,  was  born  14th  June,  1798,  at 
Hodslavltz,   in  Mcavia,   and   studied    at    Presburg 
SOU 


and  Vienna,  confining  his  attention  chiefly  to  philo* 
logical  and  historical  investigations.  In  1831  he 
was  appointed  by  the  states  of  Bohemia  historio- 
grapher to  that  country,  and  was  intrusted  with 
the  compilation  of  a  general  history  of  Bohemia. 
In  furtherance  of  this  work,  he  ransacked  all 
the  libraries  and  archives  in  Bohemia,  and  made 
long  visits  to  Germany  and  Italy  in  search  of 
materials.  He  took  part  in  the  political  agitation 
of  1848,  and  was  the  leader  of  the  Slav  or  national 
party  as  opposed  to  the  German  at  the  Diet  of 
Kremsier,  after  the  dissolution  of  which  he 
returned  to  his  literary  labours.  His  great  and 
justly  celebrated  work,  Geschichte  von  Bohmen,  'The 
History  of  Bohemia'  (Prague,  1836—1860,  8  vols, 
octavo),  distinguished  equally  by  profound  research 
and  vigour  of  style,  was  received  on  its  publication 
with  the  utmost  enthusiasm,  though  the  zeal  with 
which  the  writer  defended  the  cause  of  the  Slavic 
race  drew  down  upon  him  the  bitter  comments  of 
German  critics  ;  and  the  manner  in  which  he  spoke 
of  John  Huss  in  the  3d  volume  of  the  work  greatly 
offended  the  Catholics.  P.  is  the  author  of  some 
other  works  of  considerable  merit,  such  as  the 
Tlieorie  des  Schonen,  '  The  Theory  of  the  Beautiful ' 
(1S21)  ;  Allgemeine  Geschichte  der  Aesthetik  (1823) ; 
Die  dltesten  Denhnaler  der  Bbhmischen  Sprache, 
'  The  most  Ancient  Monuments  of  the  Bohemian 
Tongue'  (Prague,  1840) ;  Der  Mongolen  Einfall  im 
Jahre  1241,  'The  Invasion  of  the  Mongols  in  1241' 
(Prague,  1842) ;  and  he  has  also  edited  some  parts  of 
the  '  Scriptores  rerum  Bohemicarum '  and  '  Fontes 
rerurn  Austriacarum.' 

PA'LADIN,  a  term  originally  derived  from  the 
Counts  Palatine,  or  of  the  Palace  (see  Palatine), 
who  were  the  highest  dignitaries  in  the  Byzantine 
court,  and  thence  used  generally  for  a  lord  or 
chieftain,  and  by  the  Italian  romantic  poets  for  a 
knight- errant. 

PAL^EA'STER  (Gr.  ancient  star-fish),  a  genus  oi 
star-fish  peculiar  to  the  Silurian  period,  which  in 
general  appearance  resemble  the  living  brittle  stars, 
but  when  more  minutely  examined,  present  so  many 
anomalies,  that  they  cannot  be  referred  to  any 
existing  famUy.  Five  or  six  species  have  been 
described. 

PAL^EO'GRAPHY  (Gr.  palaios,  old,  and  graphs t 
writing),  the  science  of  ancient  writings.  It  com- 
prehends not  merely  the  art  of  reading  them,  but 
such  a  critical  knowledge  of  all  their  circumstances 
as  will  serve  to  determine  their  age,  if  they  happen 
to  be  undated,  and  their  genuineness,  in  the  absence 
of  any  formal  authentication.  For  these  purposes, 
the  palaeographer  needs  to  be  acquainted  with  the 
various  substances,  such  as  bark,  leaves,  skins, 
paper,  &c,  which  have  been  used  for  writing  ;  with 
the  various  manners  of  writing  which  have  prevailed, 
and  the  changes  which  they  nave  undergone  ;  with 
the  various  forms  of  authenticating  writings,  such  as 
seals,  signets,  cachets,  signatures,  superscriptions, 
subscriptions,  attestations,  &c,  which  have  been 
employed  at  different  times ;  with  the  various 
phases  through  which  the  grammar,  vocabulary,  and 
orthography  of  the  language  of  the  writing  with 
which  he  is  dealing,  has  fiassed ;  and  with  more  or 
less,  as  the  case  may  be,  of  the  history,  laws,  insti- 
tutions, literature,  and  art  of  the  age  and  ccuntry 
to  which  the  writing  professes  to  belong. 

Palaeography  may  be  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  the  learned  French  Benedictine,  Jean  Mabi  Hon, 
whose  De  Re  Diplomatica,  first  published  in  1681 
in  1  vol.  fob,  reprinted  in  1709,  and  again  in  1789, 
in  2  vols,  fol.,  is  still,  perhaps,  the  most  masterly 
work  on  the  subject.  Along  with  the  Nouveau 
Traite   de  Diplomatique   (Par.  1750 — 1765,   6  vols. 


PAL/EOLOGUS— PAL.F.ONISCUS. 


4to)   of  the  Benedictines  of  St  Maur,  ;ui<l  the  Ele- 
ments de  PaUogrophu  (Par.  1838,  2  vols.  4t<>)  l>y 
M.  Natalis  de  Wailly,  it  is  the  great  authority  for 
French  paleography.    English  paleography  is  per- 
haps less  favourably  represented  in  Astle's  Origin 
and  Progress  of  Writing  (Lond.  1808),  than  Scottish  ' 
palaeography  in  Anderson's  and  Ruddiman'e  Diplo- 
titata  BCOtia  (Ivlin.  1739).     Muratori  treats  of  Italian 
palaeography  in  the  third  volume  of  his  great  work, 
■he  Antiquitates  Italian  Medk  Mvi  ;   and  among^  j 
later  works  on  the  same  subject  may  be  mentioned  j 
the  Diplomatic*!  Ponlijkia  (Rome,  1841)  of  Marino  j 
Maiini.    The  paleography  of  Greece  is  illustrated  in 
the  Pakeographia  Qraea  (Par.  1708)  of  Montfaucon. 
Spanish   paleography  may  be  studied   in  the  Bib- 
liothcca  de  la  Polygraphia  EapoMola  (Mad.  1738)  of 
Don  C.  Rodriguez.      Of   works   on   German  palae- 
ography, it  may  be  enough  to  name  Eckard's  Intro- 
ductio  in  Rem  Diplomaticam  (Jen.  1742),  Heumann's  j 
Cummentarii    de   Be  Diplomatica   (Norimb.    1745),  i 
Walther's  Lexicon  Diplomat  icum  (Gott.  1745),  and  . 
Kopp's  Palceographia  Critica  (Manh.  1S17).    Hebrew 
paleography  has  been  elaborated  by  Gesenius  in  his 
Oeschiclde  der  Hehraischen  Sprache  und  Schrift,  and 
other   works.      The    great    work   on   palaeography  ; 
generally — one  of  the  most  sumptuous  works  of  its 
class  ever  published — is  the  PaUographie  Universelle 
(Par.   1839—1845,  in  5  vols,  fol.j  of  M.  J.  B.  Sil- 
vestre.    See  Black  Letter,  Contractions,  Palimp- 
best,  Papyri. 

PALiEO'LOGUS,  the  name  of  an  illustrious 
Byzantine  family,  which  first  appears  in  history 
about  the  11th  c,  and  attained  to  imperial  dignity 
in  the  person  of  Michael  VIII.  in  1260.  This 
emoeror  successfully  undertook  many  expeditions  to 
Gretne  and  the  Archipelago,  and  used  his  utmost 
endeavours  to  heal  the  schism  between  the  Roman 
and  Greek  Churches,  though  with  exceedingly  little 
success.  His  successor  on  the  throne  was  his  son 
Andronicus  II.  (12S2 — 1329),  under  whose  reign  the 
Turks  commenced  in  earnest  a  series  of  assaults  on 
the  Byzantine  dominions.  Andronicus  attempted  to 
oppose  them  with  a  force  composed  of  mercenaries, 
but  his  success  was  very  doubtful,  as  these  troops, 
with  perfect  impartiality,  attacked  both  his  enemies 
and  his  subjects.  To  pay  them  he  was  compelled 
to  levy  such  imposts  as  went  far  to  destroy  Byzan- 
tine commerce.  He  associated  his  son,  Michael 
IX.,  with  himself  in  the  government,  and  was 
dethroned  by  his  grandson,  Andronicus  III.  (1328 
— 1341),  an  able  warrior  and  wise  ruler,  who 
repeatedly  defeated  the  Bidgarians,  Tartars  of  the 
Golden  Horde,  and  the  Servians,  and  diminished  the 
oppressive  imposts  of  the  previous  reign.  He  was, 
however,  unsuccessful  against  the  Catalans  in 
Greece,  and  the  Turks  during  his  reign  ravaged 
Thrace  as  far  as  the  Balkan.  He  was  greatly 
esteemed  by  his  subjects,  and  well  merited  the  title 
of  '  Father  of  his  Country,'  which  they  bestowed 
upon  him.  His  son,  John  VI.  (1355—1391),  a  weak 
and  voluptuous  prince,  attempted  in  vain  both  by 
force  and  bribery  to  stop  the  progress  of  the  Turks  ; 
at  last  the  pope,  moved  by  his  urgent  entreaties, 
which  were  backed  by  a  promise  to  submit  the 
Greek  Church  to  his  (the  pope's)  supremacy,  urged 
the  Hungarians  and  Servians  to  arm  in  defence  of 
the  Greek  emperor,  but  the  result  was  only  an 
additional  triumph  to  Sultan  Amurath.  The 
imbecile  emperor  was  several  times  deposed,  and  on 
his  final  reinstatement  by  the  sultan,  acknowledged 
himself  as  his  vassal  for  the  capital,  and  a  small 
tract  along  the  Propontis  and  Black  Sea.  Indeed, 
bo  degraded  had  the  Byzantines  become,  that  they 
obeyed  the  Sultan  Bajazet's  summons  to  aid  him 
in  reducing  Philadelphia,  the  last  Greek  stronghold 
in  Asia  Minor.    His  son,  Andronicuv  IV.  (1355 — 


1373),  who  had  been  associated  with  him  in  the 
government)  died  in  exile.  Mam  j:i,  II.  (1391  — 
1425)  pursued  the  same  tactics  as  his  father  John 
VI.,  and  with  the  same  result.  The  allied  army 
of  the  Hungarians,  Germans,  and  French,  which 
he  had  summoned  to  his  aid  against  the  Turks, 
was  totally  routed  at  Nicopolis  by  Bajazet,  and 
Constantinople  itself  closely  besieged.  The  inva- 
sion of  Asia  Minor  by  Timur,  however,  compelled 
the  sultan  to  withdraw  his  whole  force,  and  his 
subsequent  defeat  and  capture  at  Angora  in  1402, 
and  the  contests  among  his  sons  for  the  supre- 
macy, gave  the  Greek  empire  a  breathing  space. 
Having  aided  Mohammed  I.  in  his  contests  with  hit 
brothers,  Manuel  was,  by  the  grateful  sultan,  pre- 
sented with  some  districts  in  Greece,  Thessalonica, 
and  on  the  Euxine.  John  VII.  (1425—1449),  on 
being  pressed  by  the  Turks,  again  held  out  to  the 
pope  the  old  bait  of  the  union  of  the  Greek  and 
Western  Churches  under  his  sway,  and  even  pre- 
sented himself  at  the  council  of  Florence,  where,  in 
July  1439,  the  union  of  the  churches  was  agreed  to. 
But  on  his  return  to  Constantinople,  the  opposition 
of  the  Greek  ecclesiastics  to  the  union,  supported  by 
the  people,  rendered  the  agreement  of  Florence  a 
dead  letter.  The  pope,  however,  saw  that  it  was 
for  his  interest  to  fulfil  his  part  of  the  agreement, 
and  accordingly  stirred  up  Wladislas  of  Hungary  to 
attack  the  Turks  (see  Jagellons),  but  this  act  only 
hastened  the  downfall  of  the  Palaeologi.  John's 
brother,  Constantine  XIII.  (1449—1453),  a  heroic 
scion  of  a  degenerate  race,  accepted  the  crown  after 
much  hesitation,  knowing  his  total  inability  to  with- 
stand the  Turks,  and  even  then  took  the  precaution 
of  obtaining  the  sidtan's  consent  before  he  exercised 
the  imperial  authority ;  but  some  rebellions  in 
Caramania  which  now  occurred,  baffling  Sultan 
Mohammed  II.'s  efforts  to  tpiell  them,  the  emperor 
was  willingly  persuaded  by  his  rash  advisers  that 
the  time  had  now  arrived  for  rendering  himself 
independent  of  the  Turks.  The  attempt,  however, 
only  brought  swifter  destruction  on  the  wretched 
remnant  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  for  Mohammed 
invested  the  capital  by  sea  and  land,  and  after  a 
siege,  which  lasted  from  6th  April  to  29th  May 
1453,  Constantinople  was  taken  by  storm,  and  the 
last  of  the  Palaeologi  fell  fighting  bravely  in  the 
breach.  A  branch  of  this  family  ruled  Montferrat 
in  Italy  from  1306,  but  became  extinct  in  1533. 
The  Pakeologi  were  connected  by  marriage  with 
the  ruling  families  of  Hungary,  Servia,  and  the  last 
of  the  family  married  Ivan,  Czar  of  Russia — a  fact 
which  the  Czars  of  Russia  have  persisted  tdl  lately 
in  bringing  forward  as  a  claim  in  favour  of  their 
pretensions  to  the  possession  of  European  Turkey. 
It  is  said  that  direct  descendants  of  the  Palaeologi 
exist  to  the  present  day  in  France.  (For  further 
information,  see  the  separate  articles  on  some  of  the 
emperors,  and  Byzantine  Empire.) 

PAL^EONI'SCUS  (Gr.  ancient  sea-fish),  a  gen  us 
of  ganoid  fish,  with  a  fusiform  body,  covered  with 
rhomboid  scales,  a  heterocercal  tail,  and  moderately- 
sized  fins,  each  furnished  with  an  anterior  spinet 


Palseoniscus. 

The  single  dorsal  fin  is  opposite  to  the  interval 
between  the  anal  and  ventral  fins.  Twenty-eight 
species  have  been  described  from  the  Carboniferous 

and  Permian  measures. 

201 


PALEONTOLOGY. 


PALEONTO'LOGY  (Gr.  science  of  fossil  ani- 
mals) is  that  division  of  Geology  (q.  v.)  whose  pro- 
vince it  is  to  inquire  into  the  evidence  of  organic 
life  on  the  globe  during  the  different  bygone 
geological  periods,  whether  this  evidence  arises  from 
the  actual  remains  of  the  different  plants  and 
animals,  or  from  recognisable  records  of  their  exist- 
ence, such  as  footprints,  Coprolites  (q.  v.),  &c. 

The  metamorphic  action  which  has  so  remarkably 
altered  the  oldest  sedimentary  rocks,  is  sufficient  to 
have  obliterated  all  traces  of  organic  remains  con- 
tained in  them.  Fossils  are  consequently  extremely 
rare  in  these  older  palaeozoic  strata,  and  indeed  it  is 
only  after  long  search,  and  within  the  last  few 
months,  that  undoubted  remains  have  been  found 
in  the  Laurentian  rocks.  We  were  unable  to  record 
their  existence  in  the  article  Laurentian  System  ; 
but  in  the  article  Limestone,  we  referred  to  the 
existence  of  beds  of  limestone  as  requiring  the 
presence  of  animal  life  for  their  production.  It  is 
true  that  in  1852  an  organic  form  resembling  a  coral 
was  found  in  the  limestone  of  the  Ottawa,  but  much 
doubt  was  always  entertained  regarding  this  solitary 
discovery.  In  1863,  however,  there  was  detected 
an  organism  in  the  serpentine  limestone  of  Grenville, 
of  true  Laurentian  age,  which  Dr  Dawson  describes 
as  that  of  a  Foraminifer,  growing  in  large  sessile 
patches,  after  the  manner  of  Carpentaria,  but  of 
much  greater  dimensions,  and  presenting  minute 
points,  which  reveal  a  structure  resembling  that  of 
other  foraminiferal  forms,  as,  for  example,  Calcarina 
and  Nummulina.  Large  portions  of  the  limestone 
appear  to  be  made  up  of  these  organisms,  mixed 
with  other  fragments,  which  suggest  comparisons 
with  crinoids  and  other  calcareous  fossils,  but  which 
have  not  yet  been  distinctly  determined.  Some  of 
the  limestones  are  more  or  less  coloured  by  carbona- 
ceous matter,  exhibiting  evidences  of  organic  struc- 
ture, probably  vegetable.  In  this  single  Fora- 
minifer, and  the  supposed  coral,  we  have  all  that 
is  positively  known  of  the  earliest  inhabitants  of 
our  globe,  with  which  we  are  yet  acquainted.  That 
these  are  but  the  smallest  fraction  of  the  fauna  of 
the  period  in  which  they  lived;  is  evident  from  the 
undetermined  fragments  associated  with  them,  as 
well  as  from  the  extensive  deposits  of  limestone  of 
the  same  age.  And  that  contemporaneous  with 
them,  there  existed  equally  numerous  representa- 
tives of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  cannot  be  doubted, 
when  it  is  remembered  that  the  animal  can  obtain 
its  food  only  through  the  vegetable,  and  not  directly 
from  inorganic  materials.  Besides,  their  remains 
apparently  exist  in  the  limestone  at  Grenville,  a 
rock  which,  from  its  very  nature,  rarely  contains 
vegetable  fossils. 

The  Cambrian  rocks,  though  of  immense  thick- 
ness, have  hitherto  yielded  indications  of  only  a 
very  few  animals,  but  these  have  a  special  interest, 
as  they  are  the  oldest  fossil  remains  yet  detected  in 
Britain.  They  consist  of  an  impression  which  Salter 
considers  to  be  portion  of  a  trilobite,  named  by  him 
Palwopyqe,  of  the  burrows  and  tracks  of  sea-worms, 
*nd  of  two  species  of  radiated  zoophytes  called 
Oldhamia — animals  which  in  this  case  also  can  be 
nothing  more  than  the  most  fragmentary  representa- 
tions of  the  fauna  of  the  period.  No  indications  of 
vegetable  life  have  yet  been  noticed  in  the  Cam- 
brian rocks,  for  we  cannot  consider  the  superficial 
markings  on  some  of  these  strata  as  having  anything 
to  do  with  fuci. 

Undoubted  representations  of  the  four  inverte- 
brate sub-kingdoms  early  make  their  aiipearance  in 
the  Silurian  strata,  and  the  occurrence  before  the 
close  of  the  period  of  several  fish,  adds  to  them  the 
remaining  sub- kingdom— the  vertebrata.  If  we 
except  the  silicious  frustules  of  Diatomaceae  which 
202 


are  said  to  have  been  detected  in  these  rocks,  no 
satisfactory  traces  of  plants  have  yet  been  observed, 
although  extensive  layers  of  anthracitic  shales  are 
common.  Of  the  lower  forms  of  the  animal  king- 
dom, some  sponge-like  bodies  have  been  found,  and 
corals  are  remarkably  abundant,  chiefly  belonging 
to  the  order  Eugosa,  a  palaeozoic  type,  the  members 
of  which  have  horizontal  tabulae,  and  vertical  plates 
or  sej)ta,  either  four  in  number,  or  a  multiple  of 
four.  Graptolites,  another  family  of  zoophytes, 
flourished  in  the  dark  mud  of  the  Sihirian  seas,  and 
did  not  survive  the  period.  All  the  great  divisions 
of  the  Mollusca  are  represented  by  numerous  genera, 
several  of  which  are  not  very  different  from  some 
living  forms.  A  few  true  star-fishes  have  left  their 
records  on  the  rocks,  but  the  most  striking  feature 
in  the  Echinodermata  of  the  period  is  the  Cysti- 
deans,  or  armless  sea-lilies,  which,  like  the  Grapto- 
lites, did  not  pass  beyond  the  Silurian  seas.  Tubes, 
tracks,  and  burrows  of  annelids  have  been  observed ; 
and  numerous  Crustacea,  belonging,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  one  or  two  shrimp-like  S})ecies,  to  the 
characteristic  palaeozoic  Trilobite,  of  which  the  num- 
ber of  individuals  is  as  remarkable  as  the  variety 
of  species  and  genera.  It  is  only  in  the  upper 
portion  of  the  group  (the  Ludlow  beds)  that  the  fish 
remains  have  been  found.  These  have  been  referred 
to  six  different  genera,  and  are  chiefly  loricate 
ganoids,  of  which  Cephalaspis  is  the  best  known. 

The  rocks  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  period 
supply  the  earliest  satisfactory  remains  of  plants. 
The  Ferns,  Sigillariae,  Lycopodites,  and  Calamites, 
so  abundant  in  the  Coal  Measures,  make  their 
appearance  among  the  newer  of  these  beds,  and 
even  fragments  of  dicotyledonous  wood  have  been 
observed.  The  various  sections  of  the  in  vertebrata 
are  well  represented,  but  the  remarkable  character- 
istic in  the  animal  life  of  the  period  is  the  abun- 
dance of  strange  forms  of  heterocercal-tailed  fish, 
whose  buckler-shields,  hard  scales,  or  bony  spines 
occur  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  some  beds.  The 
reptiles  and  reptile  tracks  in  the  Bed  Sandstone  of 
Moray,  originally  referred  here,  are  now  universally 
considered  as  belonging  to  the  New  Bed  measures. 

The  striking  feature  in  the  rocks  of  the  Carbonif- 
erous period  is  the  great  abundance  of  plants,  the 
remains  of  which  occur  throughout  the  whole  series, 
the  coal-beds  being  composed  entirely  of  them,  the 
shales  being  largely  charged  with  them,  the  sand- 
stones containing  a  few,  and  even  the  limestones  not 
being  entirely  without  them.  These  plants  were 
specially  fitted  for  preservation,  the  bulk  of  them 
being  vascular  cryptogams,  a  class  which  Lindley 
and  Hutton  have  shewn  by  experiment  to  be  capable 
of  long  preservation  under  water.  They  are  chiefly 
ferns ;  some  are  supposed  to  have  been  arborescent 
lycopods,  while  others  (Sir/Maria,  Calamites,  and 
Asterophyllites)  are  so  different  from  anything  now 
known,  that  their  position  cannot  be  definitely 
determined,  though  it  is  most  probably  among  the 
higher  cryptogams.  Several  genera  of  conifers  have 
been  established  from  fossilised  fragments  of  wood  ; 
and  some  singular  impressions,  which  look  like  the 
flowering  stems  of  dicotyledonous  plants,  have  been 
found.  The  limestones  are  chiefly  composed  of 
crinoids,  corals,  and  brachiopodous  shells.  The 
corals  attain  a  great  size,  and  the  crinoids  are 
extremely  abundant,  their  remains  making  some- 
times beds  of  limestone  1000  feet  thick,  and  hun- 
dreds of  square  miles  in  extent.  Many  new  genera  of 
shells  make  their  appearance.  The  trilobites,  which 
were  so  abundant  in  the  earlier  rocks,  are  reduced  to 
one  or  two  genera,  and  finally  disappear  with  thi3 
period.  Fish  with  polished  bony  scales  are  found ; 
and  others,  like  the  Port  Jackson  shark,  with  pave- 
ments  of  flat  teeth  over  their  mou^h  and  gullet, 


PALEONTOLOGY. 


fitting  them  to  crush  and  grind  the  shell  -protected 
animals  <m  which  they  fed.  Strange  iish-like 
reptiles  existed  in  the  seas,  and  air-breathing  Bpeoiea 
have  been  found  on  the  continent  and  in  America. 
The  wing-cases,  and  parts  of  the  bodies  of  insects, 
have  also  been  found. 

The  Permian  period  is  remarkable  for  the  paucity 
of  its  organic  remains,  but  this  may  arise  from  our 
comparative  ignorance  of  its  strata.  The  plants 
and  animals  are  on  the  whole  similar  to  those 
found  in  the  Carboniferous  measures,  and  a  great 
proportion  of  them  belong  to  the  same  genera. 
Many  ancient  forms  do  not  pass  this  period,  as  the 
Sigillaria  among  plants,  and  the  Producta  among 
animals. 

The  red  sandstones  of  the  Triassic  period  are 
remarkably  destitute  of  organic  remains — the  iron, 
which  has  given  to  them  this  colour,  seems  to  have 
been  fatal  to  animal  life.  In  beds,  however,  on  the 
continent,  in  which  the  iron  is  absent,  fossils  abound. 
These  fossils  present  a  singular  contrast  to  those 
met  with  in  the  older  rocks.  The  Palaeozoic  forms 
had  been  gradually  dying  out,  and  the  few  that 
were  still  found  in  the  Permiau  strata  do  not 
survive  that  period,  while  in  their  place  there 
appear  in  the  Trias  many  genera  which  approach 
more  nearly  to  the  living  forms.  Between  the 
organisms  of  the  Permian  and  Triassic  periods  there 
exist  a  more  striking  difference  than  is  to  be  found 
between  those  of  any  previous  periods.  Looking  at 
this  life-character,  the  rocks  from  the  Permian  down- 
wards have  been  grouped  together  under  the  title 
Palaeozoic;  while  from  the  Trias  upwards  the  whole 
of  the  strata  have  received  the  name  of  Neozoic. 

The  extensive  genera  of  Ammonites  and  Belem- 
nites  make  their  first  appearauce  in  the  Trias. 
Several  new  forms  of  Cestraciont  fish  occur,  and 
the  reptiles  increase  in  number  and  variety ;  among 
them  is  the  huge  batrachian  Labyrinthodon,  and 
the  singular  fresh-water  tortoise,  Dicynodon.  The 
bird-tracks  on  the  sandstones  of  Connecticut  are 
by  some  referred  to  this  age.  Small  teeth  of  mam- 
malia, believed  to  be  those  of  an  insectivorous 
animal,  like  the  Myrmecobius  of  Australia,  have 
been  found  in  the  Keuper  beds  of  Germany  and 
Somerset. 

In  the  Oolitic  series  we  have  an  abundance  of 
organic  remains,  in  striking  contrast  to  the  scanty 
traces  in  the  Permian  and  Triassic  periods.  Many 
new  genera  of  ferns  take  the  place  of  the  Palaeozoic 
forms,  and  a  considerable  variety  of  Conifers  make 
their  appearance,  some  of  which  have  close  affinities 
with  living  species,  one,  indeed,  being  referred  to  a 
still  existing  genus.  The  same  approximation  to 
living  types  is  to  be  found  in  the  animal  kingdom. 
Several  of  the  foraminifers  are  referred  to  living 
genera.  Among  the  corals,  the  representatives  of  two 
living  families  make  their  appearance.  No  new 
genera  are  found  among  the  Brachiopoda ;  but  the 
Conchifera  and  Gasteropoda  shew  a  great  addition  of 
new  genera,  some  of  which  are  still  represented  by 
living  species,  while  not  many  new  genera  were 
added  to  the  Cephalopoda,  though  they  were  indi- 
vidually very  abundant.  In  some  places  the  Lias 
shale  consists  of  extensive  pavements  of  Belemnites 
and  Ammonites.  The  Crinoids  give  place  to  the 
increasing  variety  of  sea-urchins  and  star-iishes. 
Numbers  of  insects  have  been  found.  The  Ces- 
tracionts  continue  to  be  represented  in  the  Oolitic 
seas,  but  with  them  are  associated  several  true 
sharks  and  rays ;  and  the  homocercal-tailed  fish 
become  numerous.  Labyrinthodont  reptiles  abound : 
the  huge  Megalosaur  and  its  companions  occupied 
the  land ;  while  the  seas  were  tenanted  with  the 
remarkable  Ichthyosaur  and  Plesiosaur,  and  the  air 
with  the   immense  bat-like   Pterodactyle.      Seven 


genera  of  Mammalia  have  been  found,  all  believed 
to  be  small  carnivorous  or  insectivorous  marsupials, 
except  the  Stereognathus,  which  Owen  considers 
to  have  been  a  placental  mammal,  probably  hoofed 
and  herbivorous. 

In  the  Cretaceous  beds,  which  are  chiefly  deep- 
sea  deposits,  the  remains  of  plants  and  land  animals 
are  comparatively  rare.  The  Wealden  beds,  how- 
ever, which  had  a  fresh-water  origin,  contain  the 
remains  of  several  small  marsupials,  some  huge 
carnivorous  and  herbivorous  reptihs,  a  few  fresh- 
water shells,  and  some  fragments  of  drift-wood.  The 
true  chalk  is  remarkably  abundant  in  the  remains 
of  foraminifers — indeed,  in  some  places,  it  is  com- 
posed almost  entirely  of  the  shells  of  these  minute 
creatures.  Of  the  mollusca,  the  Brachiopoda  are  in 
some  beds  very  abundant;  the  Conchifera  introduce 
several  new  forms,  the  most  striking  of  which  is  the 
genus  Hippurites,  which  with  its  allies  did  not 
survive  this  period ;  the  cephalopodous  genera  which 
appeared  in  the  Oolite,  continue  to  abound  in  the 
chalk,  many  new  forms  being  introduced ;  while 
others  disappear  with  the  period,  like  the  Belem- 
nites and  Ammonites.  Sea-urchins  become  still 
more  numerous.  In  some  beds  the  remains  of  fish 
are  abundant,  and  while  cartilaginous  species  stdl 
exist,  the  bony  fishes  become  more  numerous ;  and 
among  them  the  family  to  which  the  salmon  and 
cod  belong  makes  its  appearance.  Peptiles  are 
common  in  the  Wealden,  and  the  flying  Pterodac- 
tyles  attained  a  greater  size,  and  were  probably 
more  numerous  than  in  the  former  period.  The 
remains  of  a  single  bird  has  been  obtained  from  the 
greensand,  but  with  this  exception,  birds  as  well  as 
mammals  have  left  no  traces  that  have  yet  been 
found  in  the  Cretaceous  beds,  though  doubtless  they 
existed. 

In  the  Tertiary  strata,  the  genera  are  either  those 
still  living,  or  forms  very  closely  allied  to  them, 
which  can  be  separated  only  by  the  careful  examina- 
tion of  the  accurate  scientific  observer.  The  plants 
of  the  Eocene  beds  are  represented  by  dicotyledonous 
leaves,  and  palm  and  other  fruits.  Foraminifers  are 
remarkably  abundant,  whole  mountain  masses  being 
formed  of  the  large  genus  Nummulites.  Brachiopoda 
are  rare,  but  Conchifera,  Gasteropoda,  and  Cephal- 
opoda increase  in  number;  the  new  forms  being 
generically  almost  identical  with  those  now  living. 
The  principal  living  orders  of  fish,  reptiles,  and 
birds  are  represented  in  the  Eocene  strata.  A  con- 
siderable variety  of  pachydermatous  mammals,  suited 
apparently  to  live  on  marshy  grounds  and  the  bor- 
ders of  lakes,  have  been  found  in  France  and 
England,  and  associated  with  them  are  some  car- 
nivorous animals,  whose  remains  are,  however,  much 
rarer.  An  opossum  has  been  found  at  Colchester. 
The  fragments  belonging  to  the  supposed  monkey 
are  portions  of  a  small  pachyderm,  Hyracotherium 
(q.v.). 

Little  need  be  said  of  the  invertebrata  of  the  Mio- 
cene period,  beyond  remarking  their  growing  iden- 
tity in  genera  with  the  living  forms.  Among  the 
mammals,  the  Quadrumana  make  their  first  appear- 
ance. The  true  elephant  and  the  allied  mastodon  are 
represented  by  several  species ;  a  huge  carnivorous 
whale  has  been  discovered,  and  several  Carnivora 
and  deer,  with  a  huge  edentate  animal,  have  been 
described.  Owen  thus  speaks  of  these  animals : 
'  Our  knowledge  of  the  progression  of  Mammalian 
life  during  the  Miocene  period,  teaches  us  that  one 
or  two  of  the  generic  forms  most  frecpient  in  the 
older  Tertiary  strata  still  lingered  on  the  earth,  but 
that  the  rest  of  the  Eocene  Mammalia  had  been 
superseded  by  new  forms,  some  of  which  present 
characters  intermediate  between  those  of  Eocene 
and  those  of  Pliocene  genera.' 

303 


PAL.EOPHIS— PALEOZOIC. 


In  passing  upwards  through  the  Tertiary  strata, 
the  organic  remains  become  more  and  more  iden- 
tical with  living  forms,  so  that  when  we  reach  the 
Pliocene  and  Pleistocene  periods,  the  great  propor- 
tion of  the  invertebrata  are  the  same  species  which 
are  found  occupying  the  present  seas.  Among  the 
higher  orders  of  animals,  the  life  of  a  species  is 
much  shorter  than  in  the  lower,  and  consequently, 
though  the  vertebrata  approach  so  nearly  to  existing 
forms  as  for  the  most  part  to  be  placed  in  the  same 
genera,  yet  the  species  differ  from  any  of  the  living 
representatives  of  the  different  genera. 

The  Suffolk  '  Crags,'  which  are  the  only  British 
representatives  of  the  Pliocene  period,  contain  the 
relics  of  a  marine  testacea,  that  differs  little  from 
the  present  tenants  of  the  European  seas,  between 
60  and  70  per  cent,  being  the  same  species.  The 
ear-bones  of  one  or  more  species  of  Cetacea  have 
been  found,  and  at  Antwerp,  the  remains  of  a  dol- 
phin have  been  discovered  in  beds  of  this  age. 

The  various  local  deposits  which  together  form 
the  Pleistocene  strata,  the  latest  of  the  geological 

feriods,  contain  a  great  variety  of  organic  remains, 
n  the  submarine  forests,  and  in  beds  of  peat,  the 
stumps  of  trees  are  associated  with  the  remains  of 
underwood  and  herbaceous  plants  of  species  still 
living.  Nearly  all  the  mollusca  and  other  marine 
invertel  irata  still  survive.  It  is  among  the  verte- 
brata that  the  most  remarkable  forms  appear — 
forms  which  in  the  main  differ  little  from  the 
existing  race  of  animals  except  in  their  enormous 
size.  Elephants  and  rhinoceroses,  fitted  for  a  cold 
climate  by  their  covering  of  long  coarse  hair  and 
wool,  roamed  over  the  northern  regions  of  both  the 
Old  and  the  New  World,  and  were  associated  with 
animals  belonging  to  genera  which  still  exist  in  the 
same  region,  as  bears,  deer,  wolves,  foxes,  badgers, 
otters,  wolverines,  weasels,  and  beavers,  besides 
others  whose  representatives  are  now  found  further 
south,  as  the  hippopotamus,  tapir,  and  hyena.  Con- 
temporary with  these,  there  lived  in  South  America 
a  group  of  animals  which  were  types  in  everything 
but  in  size  of  the  peculiar  existing  fauna  of  that 
continent.  Among  these  were  gigantic  sloth-like 
animals,  fitted  to  root  up  and  push  down  the  trees, 
instead  of  climbing  to  strip  them  of  their  foliage,  like 
the  sloth.  The  armadillo  was  represented  by  the 
huge  Glyptodon,  whose  body  was  protected  by  a 
Btrong  tesselated  coat  of  mail.  The  species  of  fossil 
tapirs  and  peccaries  are  more  numerous  than  their 
living  representatives.  The  lamas  were  preceded 
by  the  large  Macrauchenia,  and  the  opossums  and 
platyrhine  monkeys  were  also  prefigured  by  related 
species.  Besides  these,  there  have  been  found  the 
remains  of  two  mastodons  and  a  horse,  none  of 
which  are  represented  •  by  any  indigenous  living 
animal  in  South  America.  The  pecidiar  group  of 
animals  confined  to  Australia  were  prefigured  by 
huge  marsupials,  some  having  close  analogies  to  the 
living  kangaroos  and  wombats,  while  others  were 
related  to  the  carnivorous  native  tiger.  The  gigantic 
wingless  birds  of  New  Zealand  correspond  in  type 
with  the  anomalous  apteryx,  now  existing  only  on 
these  islands. 

Associated  with  the  remains  of  elephants,  mas- 
todons, cave-bears,  and  cave-hyenas,  there  have 
been  found,  in  England  and  France,  numerous  speci- 
mens of  flint  implements,  which  are  undoubtedly 
the  result  of  human  workmanship,  and  shew  at  least 
that  man  was  contemporaneous  with  these  extinct 
animals.  If  more  certain  evidence  were  needed  of 
this,  it  has  been  obtained  in  the  discovery  of  flint 
implements,  bone  implements  fashioned  and  carved 
by  means  of  the  flint  knives,  the  horns  of  a  rein- 
deer, two  kinds  of  extinct  deer,  Bos  primigenius, 
and  othet  animals,  associated  with  numerous  bones 
201 


of  man,  included  in  the  breccia  of  the  cave  of 
Bruniquel  in  France.  Owen  considers  the  evidence 
of  the  contemporaneity  of  the  various  remains  as 
conclusive.  The  several  human  skulls  which  have 
been  obtained  shew,  according  to  the  same  authority, 
no  characters  whatever  indicative  of  an  inferior  or 
transitional  type.  There  are  no  certain  data  to  give 
probability  to  the  guesses  which  have  been  made  as 
to  the  number  of  year8  which  have  elapsed  since 
these  deposits  in  which  the  relics  of  man  occur 
were  formed.  The  whole  inquiry,  moreover,  is  so 
recent,  and  the  accumulation  of  facts  is  almost 
every  day  going  on,  that  it  would  be  premature  to 
speak  dogmatically  on  the  subject. 

PALJEOPHIS.  A  genus  of  extinct  serpents,  deter- 
mined by  Owen  as  allied  remotely  to  the  Boas,  from 
the  Eocene  strata  of  Europe  and  America.  Five  spe- 
cies occur  in  the  former,  and  three  in  the  latter,  viz. : 
P.  halidanus,  Cope,  larger  than  the  anaconda;  P. 
littoralis,  Cope,  smaller,  and  P.  grandis,  Marsh, 
larger  than  either.  An  allied  genus,  Boavus,  occurs 
in  the  Miocene  of  Utah. 

PALiEOCASTOR,  a  genus  of  extinct  rodents  from 
Nebraska,  determined  by  Leidy  as  allied  to  the  beaver. 

PAL^EOSAU'RUS  (Gr.  ancient  lizard),  a  genus  of 
fossil  saurian  reptiles  peculiar  to  the  Permian  period. 
The  remains  of  two  species  occur  in  the  dolomitic 
conglomerate  at  Redland,  near  Bristol.  The  teeth 
were  more  or  less  compressed,  and  were  furnished 
with  serrated  cutting  margins.  The  vertebrae  were 
biconcave,  and  had  a  remarkable  depression  in  the 
centre  of  each  vertebra,  into  which  the  spinal  canal 
was  sunk.  The  leg-bones  shew  that  the  Pakeosaurs 
were  fitted  for  moving  on  the  land.  Owen  thus 
exhibits  their  affinities :  '  In  their  thecodont  type 
of  dentition,  biconcave  vertebrae,  double- jointed  ribs, 
and  proportionate  size  of  the  bones  of  the  extre- 
mities, they  are  allied  to  the  Teleosaurus,  but  with 
these  they  combine  a  Dinosaurian  femur,  a  lacertian 
form  of  tooth,  and  a  crocodilian  structure  of  pectoral 
and  probably  pelvic  arch.' 

PAL^OTHE'RIUM  (Gr.  ancient  wild  beast),  a 
genus  of  pachydermatous  mammalia  whose  remains 
occur  in  the  Eocene  beds  of  England  and  the  con- 
tinent. At  least  ten  species  have  been  described, 
ranging     in      size 

from     that    of     a         y^?       •-  --*—■-<■'        ^^ 
sheep  to  that  of  a    ^  -:.., 

horse.     The  upper  ^^^^^^Hk  -X  \ 

Eocene     gypseous  .f     * 

quarries  of  Mont- 
martre  supplied  = 
the  first  scanty  — =5 
materials,  which  ->-3 
Cuvier,  by  a  series 
of  careful  and  in- 
structive induc- 
tions, built  up  into  an  animal,  whose  fidelity  to 
nature  was  afterwards  verified  by  the  discovery  of 
a  complete  series  of  fossils.  In  general  appearance 
the  Palaeothei'ium  resembled  the  modern  tapir,  and 
especially  in  having  the  snout  terminating  in  a  short 
proboscis.  It  had  three  toes  on  each  foot,  each 
terminated  by  a  hoof. — The  formula  of  the  teeth  is 
the  same  as  that  of  the  Hyracothere,  viz., 

3-3        l-lpMtf        3-3-44- 

but  the  structure  of  the  molara  approaches  nearer 
to  the  molars  of  the  rhinoceros.  It  is  supposed 
that  animals  of  this  genus  dwelt  on  the  margins  of 
lakes  and  rivers,  and  that  their  habits  were  similar 
to  those  of  the  tapir. 

PALAEOZOIC  (Gr.  ancient  life),  the  name 
given  to  the   lowest  division  of   th«»  fossiliferous 


Palaeotheriuin. 


PAL.ESTRA-PALAPTERYX. 


rocks,  Localise  they  contain  the  earliest  forms  of 
life.  They  were  formerly,  and  are  still  generally, 
known  as  the  Primary  rocks.  The  strata  included 
under  these  titles  arc  the  Laurentian,  Cambrian, 
Silurian,  Old  lied  Sandstone,  Carboniferous,  and 
Permian  systems.  Phillips,  for  the  sake  of  uni- 
formity, introduced  Mesozoio  as  equivalent  to 
Secondary,  and  Neozoic  to  Tertiary  rocks. 

PALAESTRA,  a  building  for  gymnastic  sports. 

PALAPOX  Y  MELZI,  Don  Jos6  De,  Duke  of 
Saragossa,  a  Spanish  patriot,  was  born  in  17S0  of  a 
distinguished  Aragonese  family,  and  received  an 
excellent  education.  lie  accompanied  Ferdinand 
VII.  to  Bayonne,  and  on  seeing  him  made  a  prisoner 
there,  lied  to  Saragossa,  where  he  exerted  himself  to 
prevent  the  invasion  of  Aragon  by  the  French. 
His  defence  of  Saragossa  (q.  v.),  27th  July  1808 — 
21st  February  1S09,  which  only  yielded  to  the 
French  after  a  second  investment,  is  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  and  heroic  incidents  in  modern  history,  and 
has  conferred  lasting  glory  on  P.  and  the  whole  city. 
The  ancient  fame  of  the  Spaniards  for  obstinate  valour 
in  the  defence  of  walled  cities  was  rivalled,  if  not 
surpassed,  and  Saragossa  could  proudly  claim  to  vie 
with  Xuniantia.  P.,  sick  and  exhausted,  was  taken 
prisoner  and  conveyed  by  the  ungenerous  French  to 
the  dungeons  of  Vinccnnes,  wdiere  he  was  treated 
with  great  hardship.  Released  in  1813,  he  returned 
to  Spain,  and  was  appointed  in  the  following  year 
captain-general  of  Aragon.  P.  was  no  great  politi- 
cian, hut  he  loved  liberty  and  hated  anarchy,  and  on 
more  than  one  occasion  he  supported  the  former  and 
crushed  the  latter.  After  being  created  Duke  of 
Saragossa,  and  Grandee  uf  Spain  of  the  first  class  in 
1836,  he  kept  himself  apart  from  politics.  He  died 
at  Madrid,  16th  February  1847. 

PALAIS  ROYAL,  a  heterogeneous  mass  of 
buildings  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Rue  Richelieu 
in  Paris,  composed  of  a  palace,  theatres,  public 
gardens,  bazaars,  shops,  cafes,  and  restaurants.  The 
old  palace  was  built  between  1624  and  1636  on  the 
site  of  the  Hotel  Rambouillet  by  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
who  at  his  death  bequeathed  it  to  Louis  XIII., 
during  whose  reign  it  was  for  a  time  occupied  by 
Henrietta  of  France,  widow  of  Charles  I.  Anne  of 
Austria,  the  queen  mother,  resided  here  with  her 
young  son,  Louis  XIV.,  till  she  was  driven  from  it 
by  the  intrigues  of  the  Fronde ;  and  after  having 
remained  many  years  unoccupied,  it  was  given  to  the 
king's  younger  brother,  Philip  Duke  of  Orleans,  and 
thenceforth  was  regarded  as  the  town  residence  of 
the  Orleans  branch  of  the  Bourbons,  and  known  by 
its  present  name,  instead  of  its  original  title  of  Palais 
Richelieu.  During  the  minority  of  Louis  XV.  it 
acquired  a  scandalous  notoriety  as  the  scene  of  the 
wild  orgies  in  which  the  regent,  Duke  of  Orleans, 
and  his  dissolute  partisans  were  wont  to  indulge ; 
while  in  the  time  of  his  son,  Philippe  Egalit6,  it 
became  the  focus  of  revolutionary  intrigue,  and 
the  rendezvous  for  political  demagogues  of  every 
shade  of  opinion.  This  prince,  partly  to  repair  his 
impoverished  fortune,  and  partly  to  persuade  the 
aans-culottes  of  Paris  of  the  sincerity  of  his  pro- 
fessed sympathy  with  their  striving  for  equality, 
converted  part  of  his  gardens  into  a  place  of 
public  resort,  and  the  pavilions  of  the  great  court 
into  bazaars,  which  were  divided  into  shops  and 
stalls.  On  the  downfall  of  Egalit6,  the  P.  R.  was 
taken  possession  of  by  the  republican  government, 
and  used  for  the  sittings  of  the  tribunes  during  the 
Reign  of  Terror.  On  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons, 
it  reverted  to  the  Orleans  family,  and  was  occupied 
by  Louis  Philippe  till  his  election  to  the  throne  of 
France  in  1830,  when  it  was  incorporated  in  the 
general  domains  of  the  state,  and  ceased  to  be  in 


appanage  of  the  House  of  Orleans,  The  palace 
was  sacked  by  the  mob  during  the  Revolution  ol 
18-18,  when  many  of  its  best  paintings  and  most 
precious  works  of  arts  were  destroyed;  and  niter 
having  been  temporarily  appropriated  to  various 
public  purposes,  it  was  thoroughly  repaired  and 
magnificently  furnished,  and  given  by  Napoleon 
III.,  in  1855,  to  his  ancle  Jerome  Bonaparte,  whose 
son  Prince  Napoleon  resided  there  after  his  father's 
death.     The  main  entrance,  with   i  facade, 

is  in  the  Rue  St  Honore ;  and  on  pa  Bing  through 
the  first  court,  the  second  or  (Jour  Royale  is 
reached,  to  the  left  of  which  stands  the  " 
Francais,  while  immediately  facing  it  is  the  cele- 
brated Galerie  Vitree,  or  Glass  Gallery,  which 
contains  on  the  ground  floor  some  of  the  most  bril- 
liant shops  of  Paris,  while  the  upper  stories  are 
chiefly  occupied  by  cafes  and  restaurants.  The 
garden,  which  is  surrounded  by  this  and  other 
galleries,  measures  700  feet  by  300.  With  its  avenues 
and  parterres,  fountains  and  grass  plots,  it  still  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  liveliest  and  most  frequented  spots 
in  Paris  ;  and  although  much  of  their  old  glory  has 
faded,  its  cafes,  as  those  De  la  Rotonde,  De  Foi,  Very, 
Les  Trois  Freres  Provencaux,  &c,  yet  maintain  a 
world-wide  reputation.  The  Red  Republicans  set  fire 
to  the  palace  in  March  1871,  when  all  the  apartments 
occupied  hy  Prince  Napoleon  were  destroyed.  The  fire- 
men were  fired  upon  hy  the  insurgents,  hut  succeeded 
in  checking  the  flames  before  they  spread  to  the  gal- 
leries.    In  IS73  that  part  of  the  palace  was  restored. 

PALANQUFN,  or  PALKI,  the  vehicle  commonly 
used  in  Hindustan  by  travellers,  is  a  wooden  box, 
about  8  feet  long,  4  feet  wide,  and  4  feet  high,  with 
wooden  shutters  which  can  be  opened  or  shut  at 
pleasure,  and  constructed  like  Venetian  blinds  for 
the  purpose  of  admitting  fresh  air,  while  at  the 
same  time  they  exclude  the  scorching  rays  of  the 
sun,  and  the  heavy  showers  of  rain  so  common  in 
that  country.  The  furniture  of  the  interior  consists 
of  a  cocoa  mattress,  well  stuffed  and  covered  with 
morocco  leather,  on  which  the  traveller  reclines  ;  two 
small  bolsters  are  placed  under  his  head,  and  one 
under  his  thighs,  to  render  his  position  as  comfortable 
as  possible.  At  the  upper  end  is  a  shelf  and  drawer, 
and  at  the  sides  are  nettings  of  larger  dimensions 
than  the  ordinary  pockets  in  carriages,  for  containing 
those  articles  which  may  be  necessary  to  the  traveller 
during  his  journey.  At  each  end  of  the  palan- 
quin, on  the  outside,  two  iron  rings  are  fixed,  and 
the  hammals,  or  palanquin-bearers,  of  whom  there 
are  four,  two  at  each  end,  support  the  palanquin  by  a 
pole  passing  through  these  rings.  Travelling  in  this 
mode  is  continued  both  by  day  and  night.  (See 
Dawk.)  The  palanquin  is  also  used  at  the  present 
day  in  Brazil,  with  the  prominent  exception  of  Rio 
Janeiro. 

Similar  modes  of  travelling  have  been  at  various 
times  in  use  in  Western  Europe,  but  only  for  short 
distances.  The  Roman  '  litter,'  the  French  '  chaise  a 
porteurs,'  and  the  '  sedan-chair '  were  the  forms  of 
vehicle  most  in  use,  and  the  two  latter  were  in  general 
use  in  towns  till  they  were  superseded  by  hack- 
ney coaches.  The  Roman  'litter'  was  one  of  the 
criteria  of  its  owner's  wealth,  the  rich  man  generally 
exhibiting  the  prosperous  condition  of  his  affairs  by 
the  multitude  of  the  bearers  and  other  attendants 
accompanying  him. 

PALA'PTERYX  (Gr.  ancient  apteryx),  a  genus 
of  fossil  birds  whose  remains  are  found  in  the  river- 
silt  deposits  of  New  Zealand,  associated  with  the 
gigantic  Dinornis,  and  wnich,  like  it,  resembled  in 
the  form  of  the  sternum,  and  the  structure  of  the 
pelvis  and  legs,  the  living  wingless  apteryx.  Two 
«pecies  have  been  described. 

205 


PALATE. 


PAT.ATE,  The,  forms  the  roof  of  the  mouth, 
and  consists  of  two  portions,  the  hard  palate  in 
front  and  the  soft  palate  behind.  The  framework 
of  the  hard  palate  is  formed  by  the  palate  process  of 
the  superior  maxillary  bone,  and  by  the  horizontal 
process  of  the  palate  bone,  and  is  bounded  in  front 
and  at  the  sides  by  the  alveolar  arches  and  gums, 
and  posteriorly  it  is  continuous  with  the  soft  palate. 
It  i"  covered  by  a  dense  structure  formed  by  the 


The  Mouth  widely  opened  so  as  to  shew  the  Palate  : 
I,  1,  the  upper,  and  2,  the  liwer  lip;  3,  3,  the  hard  palate; 
4,  i,  the  soft  palate ;  5,  the  uvula  ;  6,  6,  the  arches  of  the 
soft  palate ;  7,  7,  the  tonsils ;  8,  the  tongue. 

periosteum  and  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth, 
which  are  closely  adherent.  Along  the  middle  line 
is  a  linear  ridge  or  raphe,  on  either  side  of  which  the 
mucous  membrane  is  thick,  pale,  and  corrugated, 
while  behind  it  13  thin,  of  a  darker  tint,  and  smooth. 
This  membrane  is  covered  with  scaly  epithelium, 
and  is  furnished  with  numerous  follicles  (the  palatal 
glands).  The  soft  palate  is  a  movable  fold  of 
mucous  membrane  enclosing  muscular  fibres,  and 
suspended  from  the  posterior  border  of  the  hard 
palate  so  to  form  an  incomplete  septum  between 
the  mouth  and  the  pharynx ;  its  sides  being 
blended  with  the  pharynx,  while  its  lower  border 
is  free.  When  occupying  its  usual  position  (that  is 
to  say,  when  the  muscular  fibres  contained  in  it  are 
relaxed),  its  anterior  surface  is  concave  ;  and  when 
its  muscles  are  called  into  action,  as  in  swallowing 
a  morsel  of  food,  it  is  raised  and  made  tense,  and 
the  food  is  thii3  prevented  from  passing  into  the 
posterior  nares,  and  is  at  the  same  time  directed 
obliquely  backwards  and  downwards  into  the 
pharynx. 

Hanging  from  the  middle  of  its  lower  border  is 
a  small  conical  pendulous  process,  the  uvula  ;  and 
passing  outwards  from  the  uvula  on  each  side  are 
two  curved  folds  of  mucous  membrane  containing 
muscular  Sbres,  and  called  the  arches  or  pillars  of  the 
eoft  palate.  The  anterior  pillar  is  continued  down- 
206 


wards  to  the  side  of  the  base  of  the  tongue,  and  is 
formed  by  the  projection  of  the  palato-glossus 
muscle.  The  posterior  pillar  is  larger  than  the 
anterior,  and  runs  downwards  and  backwards  to 
the  side  of  the  pharynx.  The  anterior  and  posterior 
pillars  are  closely  united  above,  but  are  separated 
below  by  an  angular  interval,  in  which  the  tonsil  of 
either  side  is  lodged.  The  tonsils  {amygdalae)  ara 
glandular  organs  of  a  rounded  form,  which  vary 
considerably  in  size  in  different  individuals.  They 
are  composed  of  an  assemblage  of  mucous  follicles, 
which  secrete  a  thick  grayish  matter,  and  open  on 
the  surface  of  the  gland  by  numerous  (12  to  15) 
orifices. 

The  space  left  between  the  arches  of  the  palate 
on  the  two  sides  is  called  the  isthmus  of  tfie  fauces. 
It  is  bounded  above  by  the  free  margin  of  the 
palate,  below  by  the  tongue,  aud  on  each  side  by 
the  pillars  of  the  soft  palate  and  tonsils. 

As  the  upper  lip  may  be  fissured  through  imper- 
fect development  (in  which  case  it  presents  the 
condition  known  as  hare-lip),  so  also  may  there  be 
more  or  less  decided  fissure  of  the  palate.  In  the 
slightest  form  of  this  affection,  the  uvula  merely  is 
fissured,  while  in  extreme  cases  the  cleft  extends 
through  both  the  soft  and  hard  palate  as  far 
forward  as  the  lips,  and  is  then  often  combined 
with  hare-lip.  When  the  fissure  is  considerable,  it 
materially  interferes  with  the  acts  of  sucking  and 
swallowing,  and  the  infant  runs  a  great  risk  of 
being  starved ;  and  if  the  child  grows  up,  its  arti- 
culation is  painfully  indistinct.  When  the  fissure 
is  confined  to  the  soft  palate,  repeated  cauterisation 
of  the  angle  of  the  fissure  has  been  found  sufficient 
to  effect  a  cure  by  means  of  the  contraction  that 
follows  each  burn.  As  a  general  rule,  however,  the 
child  is  allowed  to  reach  the  age  of  puberty  when 
the  operation  of  staphyloraphy  (or  suture  of  the  soft 
parts)  is  performed — an  operation  always  difficult, 
and  not  always  successful.  For  the  method  of 
performing  it,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  Practical 
Surgery  of  Mr  Fergusson,  who  has  introduced 
several  most  important  modifications  into  the  old 
operation. 

Acute  inflammation  of  the  tonsils,  popularly 
known  as  Quinsy,  is  treated  of  in  a  separate 
article. 

Chronic  enlargement  of  the  tonsils  is  very 
frequent  in  scrofulous  children,  and  is  not  rare  in 
scrofulous  persons  of  more  advanced  age,  and  may 
give  rise  to  very  considerable  inconvenience  and 
distress.  It  may  occasion  difficidty  in  swallowing, 
confused  and  inarticulate  speech,  deafness  in  various 
degrees  from  closure  of  the  eustachian  tubes  (now 
often  termed  throat  deafness),  and  noisy  and  labori- 
ous respiration,  especially  during  sleep ;  and  it  may 
even  cause  death  by  suffocation,  induced  by  the 
entanglement  of  viscid  mucus  between  the  enlarged 
glands.  Iodide  of  iron  (especially  in  the  form  of 
Elancard's  Pills)  and  cod-liver  oil  are  the  medicines 
upon  whose  action  most  reliance  should  be  placed  in 
these  cases,  while  a  strong  solution  of  nitrate  of 
silver  (a  scruple  of  the  salt  to  an  ounce  of  distilled 
water),  or  some  preparation  of  iodine,  should  be 
applied,  once  a  day  to  the  affected  parts.  If  these 
measures  fail,  the  tonsils  must  be  more  or  less 
removed  by  the  surgeon,  either  by  the  knife  or 
scissors,  or  by  a  small  guillotine  specially  invented 
for  the  purpose. 

Enlargement  or  relaxation  of  the  uvula  is  not 
uncommon,  and  gives  rise  to  a  constant  tickling 
cough,  and  to  expectoration,  by  the  irritation  of  the 
larynx  which  it  occasions.  If  it  will  not  yield  to 
astringent  or  stimulating  gargles,  or  to  the  stronger 
local  applications  directed  for  enlarged  tonsils,  its 
extremity  must  be  seized  with  the  forceps,  and  it 


PALATINATE  -PALATINE. 


must  be  divided  through  the  middle  with  a  pair  of 
long  scissors. 

PALA'TINATE,  a  name  applied  to  two  German 
states,  which  were  united  previously  to  the  year  1620. 
They  were  distinguished  an  the  upper  and  Lower 
Palatinate.  The  Upper  <>r  Bavarian  1'.,  now  forming 
a  circle  of  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria,  was  a  duchy, 
and  was  hounded  by  Baireuth,  Bohemia,  Neuburg, 
Bavaria,  and  the  district  of  NUrnberg.  Area,  2730 
square  miles;  pop.  (1SU7)  2S3,800.  Amherg  was 
the  chief  city,  and  the  scat  of  government.  The 
Lower  P.,  or  the  Palatinate  on  the  Rhine,  embraced 
an  area  of  from  3045  to  3150  square  miles;  and 
consisted  of  the  electoral  P.,  the  principality  of  Siin- 
mern,  the  duchy  of  Zweibriicken,  the  half  of  the 
county  of  Sponheim,  and  the  principalities  of  Bel- 
denz  and  Lautern.  For  the  area  and  population  of 
the  modern  provinces  of  the  Upper  and  Lower  P., 
see  article  Bavaria. 

The  counts  of  the  electoral  or  Rhenish  P.  were 
established  in  the  hereditary  possession  of  the  terri- 
tory of  that  name,  and  of  the  lands  attached  to  it, 
as  early  as  the  11th  century.  After  the  death  of 
Herman  III.,  the  Emjieror  Friedrich  I.  assigned  the 
P.  to  Conrad  of  Swabia.  After  Conrad's  death,  his 
son-in-law,  Duke  Henry  of  Brunswick,  came,  in 
1196,  into  the  possession  of  these  lands,  but  he, 
having  been  outlawed  in  1215  by  Friedrich  II.,  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Otto  III.,  Duke  of  Bavaria. 
Ludwig  II.,  or  the  Strong,  succeeded  the  preceding 
in  the  P.  in  1253,  and  was  in  turn  succeeded  in 
1294  by  Rudolf  I.,  who,  however,  was  banished  by 
his  brother,  the  Emperor  Ludwig,  because  he  had 
taken  part  with  Friedrich  of  Austria.  The  country 
was  ruled  by  his  three  sons.  Ruprecht  III.,  who 
died  in  1410,  was  a  German  emperor.  Of  his  four 
sons,  Ludwig  III.  received  the  electoral  or  Rhenish 
P. ;  Johann,  the  Upper  P. ;  Stephan,  Zweibriicken ; 
and  Otto,  Mosbach.  The  second  and  fourth  lines 
soon  died  out,  as  well  as  also  that  of  Ludwig  III., 
which  came  to  a  close  in  1559,  upon  which  the 
possessions  of  that  prince,  together  with  the  elec- 
torate, passed  to  Fredrich  III.  of  the  Simmern  line. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Ludwig  IV.  in  1576,  by 
Friedrich  IV.  in  1583,  and  by  Friedrich  V.  in  1610, 
who,  after  he  accepted  the  Bohemian  crown,  was 
driven  from  Ids  possessions  by  the  emperor  in  1619, 
and  his  office  of  elector  was  transferred  to  Maxi- 
milian, Duke  of  Bavaria.  Karl  Ludwig,  son  of 
Friedrich  V.,  received  the  Lower  P.  at  the  peace  of 
Westphalia,  and  in  his  favour  a  new  or  eighth 
electorship  was  created.  With  his  son  Karl,  the 
Simmern  line  terminated  in  1685,  upon  which  the 
P.  fell  into  the  hands  of  Philipp  Wilhelm,  count 
palatine  of  Neuburg. 

The  House  of  Neuburg  was  descended  from  Lud- 
wig the  Black,  count  palatine  in  Zweibriicken, 
second  son  of  Stephan,  count  palatine  in  Simmern. 
Wolfgang,  a  descendant  of  Ludwig's,  was  the 
founder  of  all  the  other  lines  of  counts  palatine.  Of 
his  three  sons,  Johann  founded  the  line  of  Neu- 
ZweibrUcken,  Karl  the  Birkenfeld  line,  Philipp  Lud- 
wig the  Neuburg  line.  Philipp  Ludwig  had  three 
sons,  Wolfgang  Wilhelm,  August,  and  Johann  Fried- 
rich. The  first  founded  the  Neuburg  line,  the 
second  the  Sulzbach  line,  the  third  died  childless. 
The  son  of  Wolfgang  Wilhelm  died  in  1690.  His 
son,  Johann  Wilhelm,  became  heir  to  the  Beldenz 
line  in  1694.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Karl  Philipp,  who  in  turn  was  succeeded  in  1742  by 
Karl  Theodor,  from  the  Sulzbach  line,  who  united 
0.3  Bavarian  territories  with  the  Palatinate.  Duke 
Maximilian  of  Zweibriicken  next  succeeded  in  1799, 
who  at  the  peace  of  Luneville  (1801)  was  com- 
pelled to  cede  a  portion  of  the  Rhenish  P.  to  France, 
a  i  art  to  Baden,  a  part  to  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and  a 


part  to  Nassau.  Treaties  of  Paris  of  1814  and  1S15 
re-assigned  the  Palatinate  lands  beyond  the  Rhine 
to  Germany,  Bavaria  receiving  the  largest  share,  and 
the  remainder  being  divided  between  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt and  Prussia. 

PA'LATINE  (from  Lat.  palatium,  a  palace).  A 
Cornea  Palatums,  or  Count  Palatine,  was,  under  tin 
Merovingian  kings  of  France,  a  high  judicial  officer, 
who  had  supreme  authority  in  all  causes  that 
came  under  the  immediate  cognizance  of  the  sove- 
reign. After  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  a  similar 
title  was  given  to  any  powerful  feudal  lord,  to 
whom  a  province,  generally  near  the  frontier,  waa 
made  over  with  jura  regalia,  or  judicial  powers, 
similar  to  what  the  counts  palatine  had  received 
in  the  palace,  and  the  district  so  governed  was 
called  a  palatinate  or  county  palatine.  There  were 
three  counties  palatine  in  England — Lancaster, 
Chester,  and  Durham — which  were,  no  doubt, 
made  separate  regalities  on  account  of  their  respec- 
tive proximity  to  the  frontier  of  Wales  and  to 
that  turbulent  Northumbrian  province  which  coidd 
neither  be  accounted  a  portion  of  England  nor 
of  Scotland.  In  virtue  of  their  regal  rights,  the 
counts  palatine  had  their  courts  of  law,  appointed 
their  judges  and  law  officers,  and  coidd  pardon 
treasons,  murders,  and  felonies;  all  writs  and  judi- 
cial process  proceeded  in  their  names,  and  the  king's 
writs  were  of  no  avail  within  the  bounds  of  the  pala- 
tinate. Lancaster  seems  to  have  been  made  a 
county  palatine  by  Edward  III.  Henry,  first  Duke, 
and  John,  second  Duke  of  Lancaster,  were  both 
invested  by  him  with  the  dignity  of  count  palatine. 
Henry  VI.  was  hereditardy  Duke  and  Count  Pala- 
tine of  Lancaster,  and  on  his  attainder,  soon  after 
Edward  IV. 's  accession,  the  duchy  and  county  were 
forfeited  to  the  crown,  and  continued  on  Edward 
IV. — afterwards  on  Henry  VII.  and  his  heirs  for 
ever.  The  Queen  is  now  Duchess  and  Countess 
Palatine  of  Lancaster.  There  is  still  a  chancellor  of 
the  duchy  and  county  palatine,  whose  duties  are 
few  and  unimportant,  but  the  administration  of 
justice  has  gradually  been  assinidated  to  that  of  the 
rest  of  England.  See  Lancaster.  Chester  is  sup- 
posed to  have  become  a  county  palatine  when  made 
over  with  regal  jurisdiction  by  William  the  Con- 
queror to  Hugues  d'Avranches.  In  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.  it  was  annexed  to  the  crown  by  letters 
patent,  and  since  that  time  the  earldom  palatine  of 
Chester  has  been  vested  in  the  eldest  son  of  the 
sovereign,  or  in  the  crown,  whenever  there  is  no 
Prince  of  Wales.  Durham  seems  to  have  first 
become  a  palatinate  when  William  the  Conqueror 
constituted  Bishop  Walcher  Bishop  and  Duke  of 
Durham,  with  power  (according  to  William  of 
Malmesbury)  to  restrain  the  rebellious  people  with 
the  sword,  and  reform  their  morals  with  his  elo- 
quence. The  Palatinate  jurisdiction  continued  united 
with  the  bishopric  till  1S36,  when  it  was  separated 
by  act  of  parliament,  and  vested  in  William  IV.  and 
his  successors  as  a  franchise  distinct  from  the  crown, 
together  with  all  forfeitures,  mines,  and  jura  regalia. 
It  has  since  been  more  completely  incorporated  with 
the  crown.  Pembroke  was  at  one  time  a  county 
palatine,  but  ceased  to  be  so  in  Henry  VIII.'s 
time.  The  Archbishop  of  York  also  exercised 
the  powers  of  a  palatine  in  the  county  of  Hexham 
in  Northumberland,  of  which  he  was  deprived  in 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  In  very  early  times  there 
were  a  number  of  simdar  privileges  in  Scotland, 
the  most  important  of  which  was  that  of  the  Earls 
Palatine  of  Strathearn.  In  Germany,  the  Pfalz- 
graf,  or  count  palatine,  exercised  a  jurisdiction 
much  more  extensive  than  the  simple  Graf  or 
count.  A  considerable  district  in  Germany  waa 
long  under   the   iurisdiction  of   a   count  palatine, 

207 


PALATINE  HILL-PALEMBANG. 


who  was  one  of  the  electors  of  the  empire.      See 
Palatinate. 

PALATINE  HILL  (Mons  Palatinus),  the 
central  hill  of  the  famous  seven  on  which  ancient 
Rome  was  built,  and,  according  to  tradition,  the 
seat  of  the  earliest  Roman  settlements.  In  point 
of  historical  interest,  it  ranks  next  to  the  Capitol 
and  the  Forum.  Its  summit  is  about  160  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  form  of  the  hill  is  irregularly  quad- 
rangular. Its  north-western  slope,  towards  the 
Capitoline  Hill  and  the  Tiber,  was  called  Gerrnalus 
or  Cermalus.  The  origin  of  the  name  is  uncertain, 
although  several  derivations  are  given  connecting  it 
with  legendary  stories.  Romulus  is  said  to  have 
founded  the  city  upon  this  hill,  and  on  Gerrnalus 
grew  the  sacred  fig-tree  (near  to  the  Lupercal)  under 
which  he  and  his  brother,  Eemus,  were  found 
sucking  the  she- wolf.  Upon  the  P.  H.  were  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Stator,  the  temple  of  Cybele,  the 
Bacred  square  enclosure  called  Roma  Quadrata,  and 
other  sacred  places  and  edifices,  besides  many  of  the 
finest  houses  in  Rome.  Augustus  and  Tiberius  had 
their  residences  here,  whence  Tacitus  termed  it 
ipsa  imperii  arx  (the  very  citadel  of  government)  ; 
and  at  last  Nero  included  it  entirely  within  the 
precincts  of  his  aurea  domus,  which  Vespasian  sub- 
sequently restricted  to  the  hill.  From  the  time  of 
Alexander  Severus  it  ceased  to  be  the  residence  of 
the  emperors, but  the  namepalace  (palalium),  derived 
from  it,  was  given  to  the  abodes  of  sovereigns  and 
great  princes,  and  has  been  adopted  into  modern 
languages.  The  ruins,  or  rather  the  rubbish  of  the 
palace,  and  of  numerous  ancient  edifices,  are  still 
strewn  over  its  surface,  which  is  clothed  with  vine- 
yards and  orchards. 

PALAWA'N,  or  PARAGOA,  one  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  (q.  v.). 

PALE,  in  Heraldry,  one  of  the  figures  known  as 
ordinaries,  consisting  of  a  horizontal  band  in  the 
middle  of  the  shield,  of  which  it  is  said  to  occupy 
one-third  (No.  1).  Several  charges  of  any  kind  are 
said  to  be  •  in  pale '  when  they  stand  over  each 
other  horizontally,  as  do  the  three  lions  of  England. 
A  shield  divided  through  the  middle  by  a  horizontal 
line  is  said  to  be  '  parted  per  pale.'  The  Pallet  is 
the  diminutive  of  the  pale,  and  is  most  generally 
not  borne  singly.  No.  2,  Or  three  pallets  gules,  were 
the  arms  of  Raymond,  Count  of  Provence.  When 
the  field  is  divided  into  an  even  number  of  parts  by 
perpendicular  Hues,  it  is  called  '  paly  of '  bo  many 


pieces,  as  in  No.  3,  Paly  of  six  argent  and  gules, 
the  arms  of  the  family  of  Ruthven.  When  divided 
by  lines  perpendicular  and  bendways  crossing,  it  is 
called  paly  bendy,  as  in  No.  4.  An  Endorse  is  a 
further  diminutive  of  the  pallet,  and  a  pale  placed 
between  two  endorses  is  said  to  be  endorsed  (No.  5). 

PALE,  in  Irish  history  (see  Ireland,  History), 
means  that  portion  of  the  kingdom  over  which  the 
English  rule  and  English  law  was  acknowledged. 
There  is  so  much  vagueness  in  the  meaning  of  the 
term,  that  a  few  words  of  explanation  appear  neces- 
Bary.  The  vagueness  arises  from  the  great  fluctua- 
tions which  the  English  authority  underwent  in 
Ireland  at  various  periods,  and  from  the  consequent 
fluctuation  of  the  actual  territorial  limits  of  the 
Pale.  The  designation  dates  from  the  reign  of  John, 
who  distributed  the  portion  of  Ireland  then  nom- 
203 


inally  subject  to  England  into  twelve  counties 
palatine,  Dublin,  Meath,  Kildare,  Louth,  Carlow, 
Kilkenny,  Wexford,  Waterford,  Cork,  Kerry,  Tip- 
perary,  and  Limerick.  To  this  entire  district,  in  a 
general  way,  was  afterwards  given  the  designation 
of  the  Pale.  But  as  it  may  be  said  that  the  terra  ia 
commonly  applied  by  the  writers  of  each  age  to  the 
actual  English  territory  of  the  period,  and  as  thi< 
varied  very  much,  care  must  be  taken  to  allude  to 
the  age  of  which  the  name  Pale  is  used.  Thus,  very 
soon  after  the  important  date  of  the  Statute  of 
Kilkenny,  at  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Edward  IIL, 
the  English  law  extended  only  to  the  four  counties 
of  Dublin,  Carlow,  Meath,  and  Louth.  In  the  reign 
of  Henry  VI.,  the  limits  were  still  further  restricted. 
In  a  general  way,  however,  the  Pale  may  be  con- 
sidered as  comprising  the  counties  of  Dublin,  Meath, 
Carlow,  Kilkenny,  and  Louth.  This,  although  not 
quite  exact,  will  be  sufficient  for  most  purposes. 

PA'LEA  (Lat.  chaff),  a  term  employed  in  Botany 
to  designate  the  bracts  of  the  florets  in  Grasses 
(q.  v.),  called  corolla  by  the  older  botanists  ;  also  to 
designate  the  small  bracts  or  scales  which  are 
attached  to  the  receptacle  of  the  head  of  flowers  in 
many  of  the  Compositce  (q.  v.).  Any  part  of  a  plant 
covered  with  chatiy  scales  is  described  as  paleaceous. 

PALEMBA'NG,  formerly  an  independent  king- 
dom on  the  east  coast  of  Sumatra,  now  a  Netherlands 
residency,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Djambi,  N.W. 
by  Bencoolen,  S.  by  the  Lampong  districts,  and  S.E, 
by  the  Strait  of  Banca,  has  an  area  of  28,140  squarti 
miles;  and  a  population  amounting,  in  1870,  to 
481.081  souls.  Much  of  the  land  is  low-lying 
swamp,  covered  with  a  wilderness  of  impenetrable 
bush ;  but  in  the  south  it  rises  into  mountains,  oi 
which  Oeloe  Moesi  is  61S0  feet  in  height.  Gold-dust, 
iron-ore,  sulphur  with  arsenic,  lignite,  and  common 
coal  are  found  ;  also  clays  suited  for  making  coarse 
pottery,  &c.  Springs  of  pure  oil  occur  near  the  coal- 
fields of  Bali  Boekit,  and  of  mineral  water  in  varioui 
places.  Rice,  cotton,  sugar,  pepper,  tobacco,  and,  in 
the  interior,  cocoa-nuts  are  grown  ;  the  forests  pro- 
ducing gutta-percha,  gum-elastic,  ratans,  wax,  ben- 
zoin, satin-wood,  &c.  The  rivers  abound  with  fish  ; 
and  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  tiger,  panther,  and 
leopard  roam  the  woods,  as  well  as  the  deer,  wild 
swine,  and  goats,  with  many  varieties  of  the  monkey. 

In  the  dry  season  the  thermometer  ranges  from 
80°  to  92°  F.,  and  in  the  rainy  season,  76°  to  80° ; 
but  the  climate  is  not  considered  unhealthy,  except 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  swamps.  The  natives 
are  descended  from  Javanese,  who  in  the  16th  c,  or 
earlier,  settled  in  P.,  and  ruled  over  the  whole  land. 
The  race,  however,  has  become  mixed  with  other 
Malays,  and  the  language  has  lost  its  purity.  In 
the  north-west  interior  is  a  tribe  called  the  Koeboes 
(Kubus),  of  whose  origin  nothing  is  known,  but  who 
are  probably  the  remainder  of  the  aborigines. 
They  do  not  follow  after  agriculture,  go  about  almost 
naked,  and  live  chiefly  by  fishing  and  hunting. 
No  idea  of  a  Supreme  Being  seems  to  be  possessed 
by  them,  though  they  believe  in  existence  after 
death. 

PALEMBANG,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  and 
residency,  is  52  miles  from  the  Soensang,  or  prin- 
cipal mouth  of  the  river  Moesi,  in  2°  59'  S.  lat., 
and  104°  44'  E.  long.  The  city  is  built  on  both 
banks  of  the  Moesi,  and  other  streams  which  fall 
into  it,  and  is  five  miles  in  length  by  half  a 
mile  in  breadth.  The  river  is  upwards  of  1000 
feet  broad,  and  from  40  to  50  feet  in  depth,  so 
that  the  largest  vessels  can  sail  up  to  the  harbour. 
The  native  houses  are  raised  on  posts,  and  neatly 
constructed  of  planks  or  bamboos;  the  Chinese, 
Arabians,  and  Europeans,  chiefly  living  in  floating 


PALEXCIA-  PALERMO. 


houses  exiled  rakits,  of  which  there  are  upwards  of 
500,  and  holding  communication  with  one  another 
and  with  the  natives  by  boats.  The  fort  is  built  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river,  and  behind  it  are  an 
institution  for  the  blind  and  a  splendid  mosque. 
There  is  a  school,  where  30  European  children  are 
educated,  a  government  elementary  school  for 
natives,  and  several  good  Chinese  schools.  Many 
of  the  natives  can  read  and  write,  and  in  1856  a 
native  printing-press  was  erected  by  Kemas  Moha- 
med  AsaheL. 

The  inland  trade  is  considerable,  boats  from  P. 
exchanging  salt,  cotton  goods,  iron,  and  copper 
wares,  earthenware,  provisions,  &c,  for  the  produce 
of  the  land.  In  1S55,  the  number  of  boats  which 
ai  rived  from  the  interior  amounted  to  22,903,  about 
a  half  fewer  than  the  previous  year,  bringing  90,830 
picols  of  rice,  the  picol  being  nearly  133  lbs. ;  32,383 
of  padi;  2344^  of  benzoin;  40574  °f  gum-elastic; 
2245  of  gutta-percha;  33,697  of  raw  cotton;  54,436 
bundles  of  ratans,  &c.  The  foreign  trade  is  large, 
and  chiefly  carried  on  with  Java,  Banca,  Singapore, 
China,  and  Siam.  In  1S59,  the  imports  from  Java 
alone  had  a  value  of  £172,091  sterling  ;  the  exports 
thither,  £75,337.  The  natives  of  P.  are  good  ivory 
carvers,  gold  and  silver  smiths,  jewellers,  cutlers, 
japanners,  painters,  boat-builders,  bookbinders,  &c, 
and  expert  at  all  the  ordinary  handicrafts.  The 
women,  in  addition  to  cotton  fabrics,  spinning,  and 
dyeing,  weave  silk  stuffs  embroidered  with  gold. 
Pop.  44,000,  of  whom  100  are  Europeans,  3000 
Chinese,  and  2000  Arabians. 

PALE'NCIA  (the  ancient  Pallantia),  a  city  of 
Spain,  in  Old  Castile,  capital  of  the  modern  province 
of  the  same  name,  stands  in  a  treeless,  but  well- 
watered  and  fruitful  plain,  on  the  Carrion,  30  miles 
north-east  of  Valladolid.  It  is  a  bishop's  see,  and  is 
surrounded  by  old  walls,  36  feet  high  and  9  feet 
thick,  around  which  are  pleasant  promenades.  The 
cathedral,  a  light  and  elegant  Gothic  edifice,  was 
built  1321 — 1504.  The  first  university  founded  in 
Castile  was  built  here  in  the  10th  a,  but  was 
removed  to  Salamanca  in  1239.  Nearly  one-third 
of  the  population  is  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  blankets  and  coarse  woollen  cloths.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  town  on  the  Carrion,  and  on  the  Castilian 
Canal,  is  favourable  to  the  development  of  com- 
merce. The  vine  is  cultivated,  and  there  is  a  good 
trade  in  wool     Pop.  13,126. 

PALE'NQUE,  Ruins  of,  are  on  the  Kio  Chaca- 
mas,  a  branch  of  the  river  Usumasinta,  in  the  state 
of  Chiapas,  Mexico,  8  miles  south-east  of  the  village 
of  Santo  Domingo  de  Palenque,  lat.  17°  30'  N.,  long. 
92°  25'  W.  The  ruins  extend  over  a  large  area, 
covered  with  a  dense  tropical  forest,  and  are  of 
difficult  exploration.  They  consist  of  vast  artificial 
terraces,  or  terraced  truncated  pyramids,  of  cut  stone, 
surmounted  by  edifices  of  peculiar  and  solid  archi- 
tecture, also  of  cut  stone,  covered  with  figures  in 
relief,  or  figures  and  hieroglyphics  in  stucco,  with 
remains  of  brilliant  colours.  Most  of  the  buildings 
are  of  one  story,  but  a  few  are  two,  three,  and  some 
may  have  been  four  stories.  The  principal  structure, 
known  as  the  Palace,  is  228  feet  long,  180  feet 
deep,  and  25  feet  high,  standing  on  a  terraced 
truncated  pyramid  of  corresponding  dimensions.  It 
was  faced  with  cut  stone,  cemented  with  mortar  of 
lime  and  sand,  and  the  front  covered  with  stucco 
and  painted.  A  corridor  runs  around  the  building, 
opening  into  four  interior  courts,  which  open  into 
many  smaller  rooms.  On  slabs  of  stone  are  carved 
numerous  colossal  figures,  and  the  remains  of 
statues  more  resemble  Grecian  than  Egyptian  or 
Hindu  art.  Other  spacious  and  elaborately  orna- 
mented buildings  appear  to  have  been  temples  of 
326 


religion.  These  ruins  were  in  the  same  condition 
when  Cortez  conquered  Mexico,  as  now,  over- 
grown with  a  forest,  and  tli.ir  site  forgotten.  They 
were  only  discovered  in  1750.  Three  explorations 
were  made  by  the,  Spanish  government*  but  they 
were  little  known  until  visited  by  Messrs  J.  L. 
Stephens  and  P.  Catherwood,  and  their  account 
published  with  plans  and  drawings.  See  Stephens's 
Incidents  of  Travel  in  Central  America,  &c,  and 
Catherwood's  Views  of  Ancient  Monuments  of  Central 
America,  &c  There  are  in  Mexico  dim  traditions 
of  the  existence,  at  a  remote  period,  of  the  capital 
of  a  theocratic  state,  the  centre  of  a  long  since 
extinguished  civilisation,  of  which  the  oidy  traces 
are  these  wonderful  ruins  and  unexplained  hiero- 
glyphics. 

PALE'RMO,  an  archiepiscopal  city,  important 
seaport,  and  the  capital  of  the  island  of  Sicily ; 
capital  also  of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  and 
(according  to  the  latest  official  statistics)  after 
Naples,  the  most  populous  city  in  the  Italian 
dominions ;  is  situated  on  the  north  coast  of  the 
island,  135  miles  by  water  west  of  Messina.  Lat. 
38°  6'  N,  long.  13°  20'  E.  It  stands  in  a  highly- 
cultivated  and  fertile  plain  called  La  Conca  a"Oro 
(The  Golden  Shell),  commands  a  beautiful  view  of 
the  Gulf  of  Palermo  on  which  it  stands,  and  is 
backed  toward  the  interior  by  ridges  of  mountains. 
In  shape  the  town  is  an  oblong  parallelogram,  the 
direction  of  its  length  being  from  south-west  to 
north-east.  It  is  divided  into  four  quadrangular 
parts  by  two  great  streets,  the  beautiful  Via 
Vittorio  Emanuele,  formerly  the  Via  Toledo  or 
C'assaro,  and  the  Strada  Nuova  or  Macgueda, 
which  cross  each  other  at  right  angles  in  the 
middle  of  the  city.  It  is  upwards  of  four  miles 
in  circumference,  is  surrounded  by  walls  pierced 
with  12  gates  and  flanked  with  bastions,  and  is 
defended  by  several  batteries.  The  houses  are 
balconied,  flat  roofed,  and  have  glass  doors  instead 
of  windows.  The  streets,  besides  the  two  main 
thoroughfares  already  mentioned,  are  generally  well 
laid  out,  and  there  are  several  fine  promenades,  of 
which  the  famous  Marina,  extending  along  the 
shore,  on  the  line  of  the  ancient  fortifications,  and 
bordered  by  the  palaces  of  the  nobles,  is  the  most 
magnificent.  P.  contains  60  parish  churches,  8  ab- 
beys,  71  monasteries  and  convents,  to  which  be- 
long 20,000  to  30,000  monks  and  nuns.  At  the 
intersection  of  the  two  principal  streets  there  is  a 
large  octagonal  space  or  Piazza,  lined  with  palaces, 
and  adorned  with  statues  and  marble  fountains.  The 
royal  palace  is  a  hugh  pile  of  buildings,  with  a  splen- 
did chapel,  built  in  1129,  and  contains  many  pillars 
of  rare  workmanship  and  rich  mosaics  with  Arabic 
inscriptions.  The  cathedral  is  a  fine  edifice,  origin- 
ally Gothic,  but  to  which  incongruous  Greek  addi- 
tions have  been  made,  is  adorned  with  marble  col- 
umns and  statues,  and  contains  monuments  of  the 
Emperor  Frederick  II.  and  of  King  Roger,  the 
founder  of  the  Norman  monarchy  in  Sicily.  Among 
the  principal  public  institutions  of  P.  are  the  univer- 
sity, attended  by  about  600  students ;  an  academy 
of  arts  and  sciences,  a  medical  academy,  an  institu- 
tion for  arts  and  antiquities,  a  beautiful  and  exten- 
sive public  garden,  public  libraries,  theatres,  &c.  P. 
is  an  archbishop's  see,  the  residence  of  the  governor 
of  the  island,  and  the  seat  of  the  supreme  courts. 
Manufactures  of  silks,  cottons,  oil-cloth,  leather, 
gloves,  &c,  are  carried  on.  The  harbour  is  formed 
by  a  mole,  1300  feet  in  length,  on  which  there  is  a 
light-house  and  battery.  About  5500  vessels,  with  an 
aggregate  tonnage  of  700,000,  enter  and  clear  the  port 
annually.  The  imports  amount  to  about  £1,000,000, 
and  the  exports  to  nearly  £2,000,000.  The  climate 
is  one  of  the  most  delightful  in  Europe,  being  mild 

209 


PALERMO  -PALESTINE. 


In  winter,  and  pleasantly  tempered  by  sea-breezes 
in  the  hot  season.     Pop.  (1872)  210,398. 

The  environs  of  P.  are  interesting  as  well  as 
picturesque,  and  embrace  many  pleasant  villas  and 
noble  mansions.  North-west  of  the  city  is  Monte 
Pellegrino,  the  Eircte  of  the  ancients,  an  abrupt 
rocky  mass,  in  which  there  is  a  grotto  or  cave, 
in  which  Santa  Rosalia,  a  young  Norman  prin- 
cess, lived  a  life  of  religious  retirement.  In  P., 
S?Jita  Rosalia  is  esteemed  more  highly  than  even 
Santa  Maria ;  the  festival  in  her  honour  lasts 
from  the  9th  to  the  13th  July,  and  is  the  most 
important  festival  held  on  the  island.  During  its 
celebration  the  city  is  illuminated,  the  streets  are 
gay  and  brilliant,  and  there  is  an  immense  influx  of 
strangers  from  the  vicinity.  But  the  chief  feature 
of  the  festival  is  the  procession  to  the  cave.  An 
immense  silver  image  of  the  saint  is  borne  thither 
on  a  wagon,  70  feet  long,  30  feet  broad,  and  80  feet 
high.  Its  form  resembles  that  of  a  Roman  galley, 
with  seats  for  a  choir.  The  wagon  is  drawn  by  56 
mules,  driven  by  28  postilions  covered  with  the 
gayest  trappings. 

P.,  the  ancient  Panormus,  was  originally  a  Phoe- 
nician colony,  but  had  become  a  dependency  of 
Carthage  before  the  name  occurs  in  history.  With 
the  exception  of  a  short  time  about  276  B.C.,  when 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Greeks,  it  continued  to 
be  the  head-quarters  of  the  Carthaginian  power  iu 
Sicily,  until  it  was  taken  by  the  Romans  during  the 
First  Punic  War  (254  B.C.),  when  it  became  one  of 
the  principal  naval  stations  of  the  Romans.  The 
name  Panormus  is  derived  from  the  excellent 
anchorage  (Gr.  hormos)  in  the  bay  ;  but  the  Phoeni- 
cian name  found  on  coins  is  Machanath,  meaning 
'  a  camp.'  The  Vandals,  and  afterwards  the  Arabs, 
made  it  the  capital  of  the  island,  and  after  the 
Norman  Conquest  it  continued  to  be  the  seat  of  the 
king  of  Sicily.  It  still  remained  the  royal  residence 
under  the  Aragonese  kings ;  but  the  court  was 
removed  after  Sicily  became  united  to  the  Kingdom 
of  Naples.     See  Sicily. 

PA'LESTINE  {Palcestina,  Philistia),  or  the 
HOLY  LAND,  a  country  of  South- Western  Asia, 
comprising  the  southern  portion  of  Syria,  and 
bounded  on  the  W.  by  the  Mediterranean,  E.  by 
the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  N.  by  the  mountain-ranges 
of  the  Lebanon  and  the  glen  of  the  Litar.y  (Leontes), 
and  S.  by  the  Desert  of  Sinai ;  lat.  31°  15'— 33°  20' 
K,  long.  34°  30'— 35°  30'  E.  Within  these  narrow 
limits,  not  more  than  145  miles  in  length  by  45  in 
average  breadth — an  area  less  than  that  of  the  prin- 
cipality of  Wales — is  comprised  the  'Land  of  Israel' 
or  '  Canaan,'  the  arena  of  the  greatest  events  in  the 
world's  history.  The  principal  physical  features  of 
P.  are,  (1)  a  central  plateau  or  table-land,  with  a 
mean  height  of  1600  feet,  covered  with  an  agglomer- 
ation of  hills,  which  extend  from  the  roots  of  the 
Lebanon  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the  country  ; 
(2)  the  Jordan  valley  and  its  lakes  ;  and  (3)  the 
maritime  plain,  and  the  plains  of  Esdraelon  and 
Jericho.  On  the  east,  the  descent  from  the  central 
plateau  is  steep  and  ragged,  from  Lake  Huleh  to  the 
Dead  Sea.  On  the  west,  it  is  more  gentle,  but  still 
well  marked,  towards  the  plains  of  Philistia  and 
Sharon.  The  ascertained  altitudes  on  this  plateau, 
proceeding  from  south  to  north,  are  Hebron,  3029 ; 
Jerusalem,  2610;  Mountof  Olives,  2724;  Mount  Geri- 
zim,  2700 ;  Mount  Tabor,  1900 ;  Safed,  2775  feet  above 
the  sea.  Nearly  on  the  parallel  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
the  range  of  Carmel  extends  from  the  central  plateau 
north-west  to  the  Mediterranean,  where  it  termi- 
nates abruptly  in  a  promontory  surmounted  by  a 
convent.  It  rises  from  600  feet  in  the  west,  to  1600 
feet  in  the  east,  and  is  composed  of  a  soft  white 
limestone,  with  many  caverns.  Beyond  the  boun- 
210 


dary  of  P.  on  the  north,  but  visible  from  the  greatet 
part  of  the  country,  Mount  Hermon  rises  to  9381 
feet,  and  is  always  snow-clad.  From  the  formation 
of  the  central  plateau,  the  drainage  is  nearly  always 
east  and  west,  to  the  Jordan  and  the  Mediterranean. 
The  streams  of  the  plateau  are  insignificant,  and 
generally  dry  in  summer. 

The  geological  formation  of  the  country  consists 
of  Jurassic  and  cretaceous  limestone,  often  covered 
with  chalk,  and  rich  in  flints,  with  occasional  inter- 
ruptions of  tertiary,  basaltic,  and  trappean  deposits. 
The  upper  strata  consist  of  limestone  of  a  white  or 
pale-brown  colour,  containing  few  fossils,  but  abound- 
ing in  caverns,  which  form  one  of  the  peculiarities  of 
the  country.  The  general  features  of  the  landscape 
exhibit  soft  rounded  hills,  separated  by  narrow 
glens  or  valleys  of  denudation  ;  the  strata  are 
occasionally  level,  but  more  frequently  violently 
contorted,  as  seen  on  the  route  from  Jerusalem  to 
Jericho,  where  the  fissures  are  often  1000  feet  deep, 
and  only.  30  or  40  feet  wide.  Ironstone  occurs  in 
small  quantities  ;  rock-salt,  asphaltum,  and  sulphur 
abound  near  the  Dead  Sea,  where,  as  also  near  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  there  are  many  hot  springs.  Vol- 
canic agency  is  evident  in  the  obtruded  lava  of 
former  ages,  and  in  frequent  earthquakes  of  modern 
times.  The  vast  crevasse  through  which  the  Jordan 
flows,  and  which  cleaves  the  land  from  north  to 
south,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  fissures  on  the 
surface  of  the  globe  ;  it  is  from  5  to  12  miles  wide, 
and  of  the  extraordinary  depth  of  2630  feet  at  the 
bottom  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Through  this  the  river 
descends  at  the  rate  of  11  feet  in  a  mile,  with  a 
course  so  tortuous  that  it  travels  132  miles  in  a 
direct  distance  of  64,  between  the  Sea  of  Galilee 
and  the  Dead  Sea.  It  is  the  only  perennial  river  of 
P.,  except  the  Kishon,  which  is  permanent  only  in 
its  lower  course,  and  the  Litany  on  its  northern 
border.  See  Jordan.  The  only  lakes  of  P.  are  in 
the  valley  of  the  Jordan.  See  Gennesaret,  Sea  op, 
and  Dead  Sea. 

The  plain  of  Philistia  extends  from  the  coast  to 
the  first  rising  ground  of  Judab,  about  15  miles 
in  average  width ;  the  soil  is  a  rich  brown  loam, 
almost  without  a  stone.  It  is  in  many  parts  per- 
fectly level ;  in  others  undulating,  with  mounds  or 
hillocks.  The  towns  of  Gaza  and  Ashdod,  near  the 
sea,  are  surrounded  by  groves  of  olives,  sycamores, 
and  palms.  This  plain  is  still,  as  it  always  was,  a 
vast  corn-field,  an  ocean  of  wheat,  without  a  break 
or  fence ;  its  marvellous  fertility  has  produced  the 
same  succession  of  crops,  year  after  year,  for  forty 
centuries  without  artificial  aid.  The  plain  of  Sharon 
is  about  10  miles  wide  in  the  south,  narrowing 
towards  the  north,  till  it  is  terminated  by  the 
buttress  of  Carmel.  Its  undulating  surface  is  crossed 
by  several  streams  ;  the  soil  is  rich,  and  capable  of 
producing  enormous  crops  ;  but  only  a  small  portion 
of  it  near  Jaffa  is  cultivated,  and  it  is  rapidly  being 
encroached  on  by  the  sea  sand,  which,  between 
Jaffa  and  Caesarea,  extends  to  a  width  of  3  miles 
and  a  height  of  300  feet.  The  famous  ancient  cities 
of  this  region,  Caesarea,  Diospolis,  and  Antipatris, 
have  vanished.  Jaffa  (Joppa)  alone  remains,  sup- 
ported by  travellers  and  pilgrims  from  the  west  on 
the  way  to  Jerusalem.  The  great  plain  of  Esdraelon, 
or  Jezreel,  extends  across  the  centre  of  the  country 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Jordan,  separating 
the  mountain-ranges  of  Carmel  and  Samaria  from 
those  of  Galilee.  Its  surface  is  drained  by  the 
Kishon,  which  flows  west  to  the  Mediterranean  at 
Haifa.  The  plain  is  surrounded  by  the  hills  of 
Gilboa  and  Little  Hermon ;  the  isolated  Mount  Tabor 
rises  on  its  north-east  side.  It  is  extremely  fertilft 
in  grain  where  cultivated,  and  covered  with  gigantio 
thistles  where    neglected.      It   is    richest    in    the 


PALESTINE— TALESTRINA. 


central  part,  whvra  slopes  east  to  the  Jordan — the 
battle-field  where  Gideon  triumphed,  and  Saul 
ami  Jonathan  were  overthown.  It  is  the  home  of 
wandering  Bedouins,  who  camp  in  its  fields,  and 

fallop  over  its  green-eward  in  search  of  plunder. 
Iany  places  of  deep  historical  interest  are  connected 
with  this  plain.  Shuucm,  Nain,  Endor,  Jezreel, 
Clill-.oa,  Belhshan,  Nazareth,  and  Tabor  are  all  in  its 
\icinity.  The  plain  of  Jericho  is  a  vast  level 
expanse,  covered  with  the  richest  soil,  now  epiite 
neglected.  Around  the  site  of  Jericho,  '  the  city  of 
^aim-trees,'  there  is  not  now  a  single  palin  ;  but  a 
lecent  experiment  proved  its  capability  of  producing 
iu  abundance  all  the  crops  for  which  it  was  formerly 
famous.  The  climate  of  P.  is  very  varied ;  January  is 
the  coldest  and  July  the  hottest  month.  The  mean 
a\  nual  temperature  of  the  year  at  Jerusalem  is  65° 
Fi.hr.,  resembling  that  of  Madeira,  the  Bermudas, 
and  California.  "The  extreme  heat  of  the  summer 
mo  iths  is  modified  by  sea-breezes  from  the  north- 
west In  the  plain  of  Jericho  and  the  Jordan 
valL*y  it  is  extremely  hot  and  relaxing.  The  sirocco, 
a  so.ith-east  wind,  is  often  oppressive  in  early  sum- 
mer. Snow  falls  in  the  uplands  in  January  and 
February,  and  thin  ice  is  often  found  at  Jerusalem, 
where  the  annual  rainfall  is  61  inches.  Heavy  dews 
fall  in  summer,  and  the  nights  are  cold.  Violent 
thunder-storms  occur  in  winter.  In  the  south, 
Judah  and  part  of  Benjamin,  is  a  dry  parched  land  ; 
the  bare  limestone  rock  is  covered  here  and  there 
with  a  scanty  soil,  and  the  vast  remains  of  terraces 
shew  how  assiduously  it  must  have  been  cultivated 
in  ancient  times  to  support  the  teeming  population 
indicated  by  the  ruins  of  cities  with  which  every 
eminence  is  crowned.  To  the  north  of  Judea  the 
country  is  more  open,  the  plains  are  wider,  the  soil 
richer,  and  the  produce  more  varied,  till  at  Nablous 
the  running  streams  and  exuberant  vegetation 
recall  to  the  traveller  the  scenery  of  the  Tyrol. 
Even  in  its  desolation,  P.  is  a  land  flowing  with 
milk  and  honey.  There  is  no  evidence  of  its  climate 
having  changed  or  deteriorated,  nor  any  reason  to 
suppose  that  it  would  fail  to  support  as  great  a  popu- 
lation as  ever  it  did,  provided  the  same  means  as 
formerly  were  used  for  its  cultivation.  It  has  the 
8atne  bright  sun  and  unclouded  sky,  as  well  as  the 
early  and  latter  rain,  which,  however,  is  diminished 
in  epiantity,  owing  to  the  destruction  of  trees. 

The  botany  of  P.  is  rich  and  varied,  resembling 
that  of  Asia  Minor.  Among  its  trees  are  the  pine, 
oak,  elder,  and  hawthorn  in  the  northern  and  higher 
districts,  and  the  olive,  fig,  carob,  and  sycamore 
elsewhere.  The  cultivated  fruits  are  the  vine, 
apple,  pear,  apricot,  quince,  plum,  orange,  lime, 
banana,  almond,  and  prickly  pear.  Wheat,  barley, 
peas,  potatoes,  and  European  vegetables,  cotton, 
millet,  rice,  maize,  and  sugar-cane  are  among  its 
products.  The  date  now  ripens  its  fruit  only  in  the 
south  and  on  the  sea-board.  The  brilliant  flowers 
which  in  spring  enamel  the  surface  and  tinge  the 
entire  landscape,  comprise  the  adonis,  ranunculus, 
mallow,  poppy,  pink,  anemone,  and  geranium.  In 
the  Jordan  valley,  900  or  1000  feet  below  the  sea- 
level,  the  vegetation  is  tropical  in  its  character, 
resembling  that  of  Arabia;  the  nnbk  (Spina  Christi), 
the  oleander,  and  the  small  yellow  'apples  of  Sodom' 
are  conspicuous.  The  most  valuable  products  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom  are  derived  from  the  vine,  fig, 
olive,  and  mulberry  trees.  Wine  for  home  use  is 
made  in  all  the  central  and  southern  districts;  the 
best  is  mr.ie  at  Hebron  from  the  grapes  of  Eshcol. 
Olive  oil  is  a  valuable  export 

The  wild  animals  of  P.  comprise  the  Syrian  bear 
in  Lebanon,  the  pantner,  jackal,  fox,  hyena,  wolf, 
wild  boar,  gazelle,  and  fallow-deer;  the  lion  is  now 
anknosvn.     The  domestic   animals   are   the  Arabian 


camel,  ass,  mule,  horse,  buffalo,  or,  and  broad-tailed 
slurp.  Among  the  birds  arc  the  eagle,  vulture, 
kite,  owl,  nightingale,  jay,  and  kingfisher  —  the 
latter  of  brilliant  plumage  —  the  cuckoo,  heron, 
stork,  crow,  partridge,  and  sparrow.  Fish  swarm 
in  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  lmts  and  lizards 
abound. 

The  divisions  of  P.  in  Old  Testament  times  were 
into  9£  tribes  on  the  west,  and  2\  tribes  on  tin-  east 
of  the  Jordan.  In  New  Testament  times,  on  the 
west  of  the  Jordan  the  provinces  of  Galilee  in  the 
north,  Samaria  in  the  middle,  and  Judea  in  the 
south ;  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  Perea  and  Deca- 
polis.  The  boundaries  of  the  tribes  and  provinces 
are  very  uncertain.  Its  modern  divisions  here 
changed  with  every  new  race  and  dynasty  of  con- 
querors. Under  Turkish  rule,  the  whole  of  1'. 
Proper  (west  of  the  Jordan)  is  comprised  in  the 
pashalic  of  Sidon;  the  pasha  resides  at  Beyrout, 
and  to  him  the  pasha  of  Jerusalem  is  subordinate. 
The  present  population  is  very  mixed,  comprising 
Syrians,  Mohammedans,  Maronites,  Druses,  Chris- 
tians, Jews,  and  Turks.  The  Jews  are  all  foreigners, 
almost  exclusively  inhabiting  the  four  holy  cities — 
Jerusalem,  Hebron,  Tiberius,  and  Safed;  their  whole 
number  was,  in  1871,  estimated  at  only  10,000.  The 
country  is  oppressed  by  Turkish  avarice,  and  over- 
run by  the  predatory  Arabs.     See  Syria. 

PALESTRI'NA  (the  ancient  Prameste),  an  epis- 
copal city  of  the  present  Kingdom  of  Italy,  in  the 
Comarca  di  Roma,  and  22  miles  east-south-east  of 
Rome,  occupies  a  strong  position  on  the  south-west 
slope  of  a  high  hill,  an  offset  of  the  Apennines. 
Besides  several  interesting  churches,  the  town 
contains  a  castle,  once  the  chief  stronghold  of  the 
Colonna,  to  whom  the  town  belonged;  and  the 
palace  and  garden  of  the  Barberini.  family.  The 
view  across  the  Campagna  and  toward  the  Alban 
Hills  is  magnificent,  Pop.  5000,  who  manufacture 
coarse  woollen  goods. 

P.  is  built  almost  entirely  upon  the  site  and  the 
gigantic  substructions  of  the  Temple  of  Fortune, 
one  of  the  great  edifices  of  the  former  city  of 
Prseneste.  This  city  was  one  of  the  most  ancient 
as  well  as  powerful  and  important  cities  of  Latium. 
It  covered  the  hill  (24.00  feet  above  sea-level)  on 
the  slope  of  which  the  modern  town  stands,  and 
was  overlooked  by  a  citadel  of  great  strength.  The 
site  of  this  citadel  on  the  summit  of  the  hill  is 
now  occupied  by  a  castle  of  the  middle  ages,  called 
Castel  S.  Pietro ;  but  remains  of  the  ancient  walls 
are  still  visible.  We  first  hear  of  Prameste  as  a 
member  of  the  Latin  League ;  but  in  499  B.C.  it 
quitted  the  confederacy,  and  joined  the  cause  of 
the  Romans.  In  380  B.C.,  the  Pramestines,  having 
rejoined  their  ancient  allies,  opened  a  war  with 
Rome ;  but  were  completely  routed  on  the  banks 
of  the  Allia  by  T.  Quintius  Cincinnatus,  and  beaten 
back  to  their  own  gates.  They  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  famous  Latin  War,  310  B.C.  Having 
given  shelter  to  the  younger  Marius  in  the  year 
82  B.C.,  this  city  was  besieged  by  the  forces  of 
Sulla,  and  on  its  being  taken  all  the  inhabitants 
were  put  to  the  sword.  A  military  colony  was  then 
established  in  their  place,  and  soon  the  city  began 
to  flourish  anew.  Its  elevated  and  healthy  situation, 
at  no  great  distance  from  the  capital,  made  it  a 
favourite  place  of  resort  of  the  Romans  during 
summer.  Augustus  frequented  it;  Horace  often 
found  this  city  a  pleasant  retreat ;  and  here  Hadrian 
built  an  extensive  villa.  The  Temple  of  Fortune 
is  described  by  Cicero  as  an  edifice  of  great  anti- 
quity as  well  as  splendour,  and  its  oracle  was 
much  consulted.  The  town  became  the  stronghold 
of  the  family  of  Colonna  in  the  middle  ages ;  but 
was  given  to  the  Barberini  family  by  Urban  VIIL 


PALESTRINA— PALEY. 


PALESTRINA,  Giovanni  Pierlttigi  da,  a  dis- 
tinguished musical  composer  of  the  16th  century. 
He  derived  his  surname  from  the  town  of  Palestrina, 
in  the  Roman  States,  where  he  was  born  in  1524. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen,  he  went  to  Rome,  and  studied 
music  under  Claude  Goudimel,  afterwards  one  of  the 
victims  of  the  St  Bartholomew  massacre.  In  1551 
he  was  made  maestro  di  capella  of  the  Julian 
Chapel,  and  in  1554  he  published  a  collection  of 
Masses,  so  highly  approved  of  by  Pope  Julius  III., 
to  whom  they  were  dedicated,  that  he  appointed 
their  author  one  of  the  singers  of  the  pontifical 
chapeL  Being  a  married  man,  he  lost  that  office 
on  the  accession  to  the  pontificate  of  Paul  IV.,  in 
whose  eyes  celibacy  was  a  necessary  qualification 
for  its  duties.  In  1555  he  was  made  choir-master 
of  St  Maria  Maggiore,  and  held  that  position  till 
1571,  when  he  was  restored  to  his  office  at  St  Peter's. 
In  1563,  the  council  of  Trent  having  undertaken 
to  reform  the  music  of  the  church,  and  condemned 
the  profane  words  and  music  introduced  into  masses, 
some  compositions  of  P.  were  pointed  to  as  models, 
and  their  author  was  intrusted  with  the  task  of 
remodelling  this  part  of  religious  worship.  He 
composed  three  masses  on  the  reformed  plan ;  one 
of  them,  known  as  the  Mass  of  Pope  Marcellus 
(to  whose  memory  it  is  dedicated),  may  be  consi- 
dered to  have  saved  music  to  the  church  by  estab- 
lishing a  type  infinitely  beyond  anything  that  had 
preceded  it,  and,  amid  all  the  changes  which  music 
has  since  gone  through,  continues  to  attract  admir- 
ation. During  the  remaining  years  of  his  life,  the 
number  and  the  quality  of  the  works  of  P.  are 
equally  remarkable.  His  published  works  consist  of 
13  books  of  Masses,  6  books  of  Motets,  1  book  of 
Lamentations,  1  book  of  Hymns,  1  book  of  Offer- 
tories, 1  book  of  Magnificats,  1  book  of  Litanies,  1 
book  of  Spiritual  Madrigals,  and  3  books  of  Madri- 
gals. P.  must  be  considered  the  first  musician  who 
reconciled  musical  science  with  musical  art,  and  his 
works  form  a  most  important  epoch  in  the  history 
of  music.  Equally  estimable  in  private  life,  and 
talented  as  a  musician,  P.  struggled  through  a  life 
of  poverty  during  eight  pontificates;  his  appoint- 
ments were  meagre,  and  his  publications  unremun- 
erative.  He  died  in  1504.  A  memoir  of  his  life 
and  writings  has  been  written  by  the  Abbe  BalnL 

PALE'STRO,  a  village  of  Piedmont,  S  miles  south- 
east of  Vercelli,  famous  as  the  scene  of  a  battle 
between  the  Sardinians  and  Austrians  in  May  1859. 
On  the  30th  of  that  month  the  Piedmontese  drove 
the  Austrians  from  this  village,  and  on  the  31st 
defended  it  with  great  bravery  against  an  Austrian 
attack.  The  Piedmontese  in  the  battle  of  the  31st 
were  assisted  by  3000  French  Zouaves,  and  on  that 
occasion  the  Austrians  lost  2100  men  killed  and 
wounded,  950  prisoners,  and  6  pieces  of  cannon. 
On  June  1st  the  allies  entered  Novara. 

PA'LETTE.     See  Painting. 

PALEY,  Dr  William,  a  celebrated  English 
divine,  was  born  at  Peterborough  in  1743.  His 
father  was  a  Yorkshireman,  and  not  long  after  P. 
was  born  returned  to  his  native  parish  of  Giggles- 
wick,  one  of  the  wildest  and  most  sequestered  dis- 
tricts in  the  West  Riding,  to  become  master  of  the 
grammar-school  there.  Young  P.  was  brought  up 
among  the  shrewd,  hard-headed  peasantry  of  York- 
shire;  and  it  is  probable  that  he  either  naturally 
possessed,  or  insensibly  acquired  their  moral  and 
mental  characteristics.  At  all  events,  he  soon 
became  conspicuous  in  the  faindy  for  his  good 
sense  ;  and  when  he  left  to  enter  Christ's  College, 
Cambridge,  as  a  sizar,  in  his  sixteenth  year,  his 
father  said :  '  He  has  by  far  the  clearest  head  I 
ever  met  with.'  At  Cambridge,  P.  led  for  the  first 
212 


two  years  a  gay,  idle,  and  dissipated  life,  but  there* 
after  became  a  severe  student,  and  took  his  bache- 
lor degree  in  1763  with  highest  honours.  He  then 
taught  for  three  years  in  an  academy  at  Greenwich. 
In  1765  he  obtained  the  first  prize  for  a  prose 
Latin  dissertation — the  subject  being  'A  Compari- 
son between  the  Stoic  and  Epicurean  Philosophy 
with  respect  to  the  Influence  of  each  on  the  Morals 
of  a  People,'  in  which  he  characteristically  argued 
in  favour  of  the  latter.  Next  year  he  was  elected 
a  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Christ's,  and  also  took  the 
degree  of  M.A.  In  1767  he  was  ordained  a  priest 
His  career  as  a  college  tutor,  which  lasted  about  ten 
years,  was  eminently  successful ;  and  it  appears  to 
have  been  during  this  period  that  he  systematized 
his  principles  in  moral  and  political  philosophy.  In 
1776,  P.  married,  and  was  of  course  obliged  to  give 
up  his  fellowship,  but  was  compensated  by  a  pre- 
sentation to  the  livings  of  Mosgrove  and  Appleby 
in  Westmoreland  and  of  Dalston  in  Cumberland. 
Four  years  later  he  was  collated  to  a  prebendal  stall 
in  the  cathedral  church  of  Carlisle,  in  1782  he 
became  archdeacon,  and  in  17S5  chancellor  of  the 
diocese.  The  last  of  these  years  witnessed  the 
publication  of  his  Elements  of  Moral  and  Political 
Philosophy.  In  this  work  he  propounds  his  ethical 
theory,  which  is  commonly  called  utilitarianism, 
but  is  really  a  mixture  of  utility  and  theology.  He 
begins  by  renouncing  the  favourite  doctrine  of  the 
Moral  Sense,  against  which  he  adduces  a  series 
of  strong  objections.  He  then  takes  up  the  question 
of  the  source  of  obligation,  and  resolves  it  into  the 
will  of  God,  enforced  by  future  punishment,  admit- 
ting candidly  that  virtue  is  prudence  directed  to 
the  next  world.  The  will  of  God,  in  so  far  as  it  is 
not  rendered  explicit  by  revelation,  is  to  be  inter- 
preted by  the  tendency  of  actions  to  promote 
human  happiness ;  the  benevolence  of  the  Deity 
being  supposed.  Objection  has  frequently  been  taken 
to  the  principles  on  which  P.  rests  his  system, 
but  the  lucidity  and  appositeness  of  his  illustra- 
tions are  beyond  all  praise.  If  his  treatise  cannot, 
be  regarded  as  a  profoundly  philosophical  work,  it 
is  at  anyrate  one  of  the  clearest  and  most  sensible 
ever  written,  even  by  an  Englishman  ;  and  if  it 
failed  to  sound  the  depths  of  '  moral  obligation/  it 
at  least  brushed  off  into  oblivion  the  shallow  and 
muddy  mysticism  that  had  long  enveloped  the 
philosophy  of  politics.  P.'s  plain  sarcastic  view 
of  the  '  divine  right  of  kings,'  which  he  puts  on  a 
level  with  the  '  divine  right  of  constables,'  gave 
extreme  offence  to  George  ILL,  but  was  nevertheless 
much  admired  by  not  a  few  of  his  majesty's  sub- 
jects, and  is  now  held  by  everybody  to  be  beyond 
question.  In  1790  appeared  his  most  original  and 
valuable  work — the  Horce  Paulina,  or  the  Truth  of 
the  Scripture.  History  of  St  Paul  evinced  by  a  Com- 
parison of  the  Epistles  which  bear  his  Name  with  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  with  one  another.  The  aim 
of  this  admirable  work  is  to  prove,  by  a  great 
variety  of  'undesigned  coincidences,'  the  improb- 
ability, if  not  impossibility,  of  the  usual  infidel 
hypothesis  of  his  time — viz.,  that  the  New  Testa- 
ment is  a  '  cunningly-devised  fable.'  It  was  dedi- 
cated to  his  friend  John  Law,  then  Bishop  of 
Killala  in  Ireland,  to  whose  favour  he  had  been 
indebted  for  most  of  his  preferments.  P.'s  next 
important  work  was  entitled  A  View  of  the  Evidences 
of  Christianity,  published  in  1794.  It  is  not  equal 
in  originality  to  its  predecessor,  but  the  use  which 
the  author  has  made  of  the  labours  of  such  eminent 
scholars  as  Lardner  and  Bishop  Douglas  is  gene- 
rally reckoned  most  dexterous  and  effective.  Later 
and  keener  criticism  is  indeed  anything  but  satisfied 
with  P.'s  'Evidences;'  but  in  P.'s  own  clay  be  was 
held   to    have    achieved    a    splendid    tnumph    over 


PALGRA  VE— r  A  1. 1 M  PSEST. 


Bceptics,  and  wa3  handsomely  rewarded.  The 
Bishop  of  London  appointed  him  a  prebend  of  St 

Pancras ;  shortly  after  he  WM  promoted  to  the 
subdeanery  of  Lincoln  (worth  £700  per  annum) ; 
Cambridge  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  D.D. ; 
and  the  Bishop  of  Durham  the  rich  rectory  of 
Bishop  Wearmouth  (worth  £1200  per  annum),  in 
consequence  of  which  he  honourably  resigned  his 
livings  in  the  diocese  of  Carlisle.  After  1S00  he 
became  subject  to  a  painful  disease  of  the  kidneys, 
but  notwithstanding  be  continued  to  write,  and  in 
1802  published  perhaps  the  most  widely  popular  of 
all  his  works,  Natural  Theology,  or  Evidences  of  the 
Existence,  and  Attributes  of  the  Zk  ty,  which,  however, 
Ls  based  upon,  and  to  a  large  extent  horrowcd  from, 
the  Religious  Philosopher,  the  work  of  a  Dutch  phil- 
osopher named  Nieuwentyt,  an  English  translation  of 
which  appeared  in  171S — 1719.  The  plagiarisms  are 
most  palpable,  but  have  been  accounted  for  on  the 
supposition  that  the  Natural  Theology  was  'made 
up '  from  his  loose  papers  and  notes  written  when 
P.  was  a  college  tutor,  and  that  he  had  forgotten 
the  sources  from  which  he  derived  them.  It  is  also 
but  fair  to  state  that  he  has  taken  nothing  which  he 
has  not  greatly  improved  ;  nihil  tetigit,  quod  non 
ornin-it.  A  somewhat  noted  edition  of  this  work, 
enriched,  or  at  least  expanded  by  annotations  and 
dissertations,  is  that  by  Lord  Brougham  and  Sir 
Charles  Bell  (1836—1839).  P.  died  May  25,  1S05. 
He  had  a  family  of  four  sons  and  three  daughters. 
A  complete  edition  of  his  works  was  published  in 
183S  by  one  of  his  sons,  the  Rev.  Edmund  Paley. 
The  best  biography  is  that  by  Meadley  (1S09). 

PALGRA  VE,  Sib  Francis,  a  distinguished  anti- 
quary and  historian,  was  born  in  London  in  July 
1788,  of  Jewish  parentage,  being  the  son  of  Mr 
Me3'er  Cohen,  a  member  of  the  Stock  Exchange. 
He  was  educated  at  home  under  a  Dr  Montucci,  and 
even  when  a  child  shewed  extraordinary  genius. 
When  only  eight  years  old,  he  made  a  translation 
into  French  of  the  Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice 
from  the  Latin  version  of  Beauclerc,  which  was 
printed  by  his  father  in  1797.  In  1803  he  was 
articled  as  a  clerk  to  a  legal  firm,  and  at  the  expira- 
tion of  his  articles,  continued  with  the  same  firm 
as  managing  clerk  until  1S22,  when  he  took 
chambers  in  the  Temple,  and  was  employed  under 
the  Record  Commission.  He  had  previously  made 
himself  known  as  a  literary  antiquarian,  by  the 
publication,  in  1S18,  of  some  Anglo-Norman  Chan- 
sons, which  he  edited  with  much  care.  On  the 
occasion  of  his  marriage  in  1823,  he  changed 
his  name  of  Cohen  to  P.,  that  being  the  maiden 
name  of  his  wife's  mother.  He  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1827,  and  had  considerable  practice  for 
some  years  in  pedigree  cases  before  the  House  of 
Lords.  In  1S31  he  published  a  History  of  Eng- 
land, which  formed  a  part  of  the  Family  Library ; 
and  in  1S32  appeared  his  Rise  and  Progress  of 
the  English  Commonwealth;  also  Observations  on 
the  Principles,  &c,  of  New  Municipal  Corpora- 
tions. In  that  year  he  received  the  honour  of 
knighthood,  and  was  subsequently  one  of  the 
Municipal  Corporation  Commissioners.  In  1S35, 
the  Commissioners  issued  their  Report,  which  was 
sigi.ed,  however,  by  only  sixteen  of  the  members — 
Sir  F.  P.  being  one  of  the  four  dissentients.  In  the 
same  year  he  published  a  '  Protest '  against  the  Com- 
missioners' Report,  in  which  he  called  in  question 
several  of  its  statements,  views,  and  arguments.  In 
183S,  on  the  reconstruction  of  the  Record  Service.  Sir 
F.  P.  was  appointed  deputy-keeper  of  Her  Majesty's 
Records,  and  held  that  office  during  the  rest  of  his 
life.  Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  Sir  F. 
P.  edited  for  the  government  the  following  :  Calen- 
dars of  the  Treasury  of  the  Exchequer,  Parliamentary 


Writs,  Curia  Regit  Records,  taai  Documents.  rUustra- 
five  of  the  History  of  Scotland.     In  his  private  cape* 
city,  be  produced  the  Merchant   and  th 
imaginary  history  of  Marco  Polo  and  Friar  Bacon; 
also  a  Band-book  for  1  ■  northern  Italy, 

and  a  History  of  England  and  Normandy.  Of  this 
last  work  a  volume  appeared  in  1851,  and  a  second 
in  18.17  ;  and  it  is  understood  that  there  are  mate- 
rials existing  in  MS.  for  a  third  and  fourth  volume. 
Sir  1'.  P.  also  wrote  numerous  articles  for  the  Edin- 
burgh and  Quarterly  Reviews,  principally  of  an  anti- 
quarian character,  but  some  of  them  purely  literary 
or  artistic.  His  great  merit,  in  his  historic  writings, 
consists  in  the  extensive  use  made  by  him  of  origi- 
nal documents,  by  aid  of  which  he  not  only  him- 
eelf  very  much  enlarged  our  acquaintance  with  the 
history  and  social  aspects  of  the  middle  ages,  but 
pointed  out  to  others  the  advantage  to  be  derived 
from  a  careful  study  of  the  original  sources  of  infor- 
mation now  known  to  abound  among  our  public 
records.  Sir  F.  P.  died  at  Hampstead,  on  the  6th  of 
July  1S61. 

PALI  (a  corruption  of  the  Sanscrit  Prakrit,  q.  v.) 
is  the  name  of  the  sacred  language  of  the  Buddhists. 
Its  origin  must  be  sought  for  in  one  or  several  of 
the  popular  dialects  of  ancient  India,  which  are 
comprised  under  the  general  name  of  Prakrit,  and 
stand  in  a  similar  relation  to  Sanscrit  as  the 
Romance  languages,  in  their  earlier  period,  to  Latin- 
It  has  been  formerly  assumed  that  P.  arose  from 
the  special  Prakrit  dialect  called  Magadhl,  or  the 
language  spoken  in  Magadha ;  but,  according  to  the 
view  expressed  by  Lassen  in  his  Indische  Alterthums- 
hunde,  an  hypothesis  of  this  kind  is  not  tenable, 
since  the  peculiarities  of  this  dialect  are  not  com- 
patible with  those  of  the  P.  language.  The  same 
distinguished  scholar  holds  that  the  Prakrit  dialects, 
called  the  S'aurasenl  and  Mahar&sht'ri,  have  a 
closer  relation  to  the  P.  than  any  other,  and  that 
the  origin  of  the  latter  must  therefore  be  traced  to 
the  country  of  Western  Hindustan,  between  the 
Jumna  river  and  the  Vindhya  mountain ;  though 
he  observes,  at  the  same  time,  that  the  P.  is  older 
than  these  dialects,  and  that  the  latter  are  therefore 
more  remote  from  Sanscrit  than  the  former.  Whether 
the  oldest  works  of  the  Buddhist  religion  were 
written  in  P.  may  be  matter  of  doubt.  It  i3 
more  probable,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  language 
in  which  the  founder  of  the  Buddhist  religion  con- 
veyed his  doctrine  to  the  people  was  not  yet  that 
special  language,  but  a  mixture  of  classical  and 
popular  Sanscrit,  such  as  it  still  appears  in  the 
Buddhistic  Sutras.  At  a  later  period,  however, 
P.  became  the  classical  language  in  which  the 
Buddhists  wrote  their  sacred,  metaphysical,  and 
profane  works.  The  most  important  historical 
work  written  in  this  language  is  the  Mahdvans'a 
(q.  v.) ;  other  P.  works,  which  have  lately  become 
known  in  Europe,  and  deserve  especial  mention, 
are  the  Dhammapad/t,  on  the  Buddhist  doctrine, 
and  five  Jdtalcas,  containing  a  fairy  tale,  a  comical 
story,  and  three  fables — both  works  edited  and 
translated  by  V.  Fausbbll  (Copen.  1855  and  1S61). 
P.  ceased  to  be  a  living  language  of  India  when 
Buddhism  was  rooted  out  of  it ;  it  was  carried  by 
the  fugitive  Buddhists  to  other  countries,  especially 
Ceylon,  Burmah,  and  Siam  ;  but  in  these  countries, 
too,  it  had  to  give  way  before  the  native  tongues, 
in  which  the  later  Buddhist  literature  was  com- 
posed. 

PA'LIMPSEST  (Gr.  palimpsestos,  'rubbed  a 
second  time'),  the  name  given  to  parchment,  papy- 
rus, or  other  writing  material,  from  which,  after  it 
had  been  written  upon,  the  first  writing  wa3  wholly 
or  in  part  removed  for  the  purpose  of  the  page  being 

213 


PALIMPSEST. 


written  upon  a  second  time.  When  the  MS.  had  been 
written  with  one  species  of  ink  employed  by  the 
ancients,  which  was  merely  a  fatty  pigment,  composed 
chiefly  of  lampblack,  and  only  colouring  the  surface, 
but  not  producing  a  chemical  change,  there  was 
little  difficulty  in  obliterating  the  writing.  It  was 
accomplished  by  the  use  of  a  sponge,  and,  if  neces- 
sary, of  a  scraper  and  polishing  tool ;  and,  where 
proper  pains  were  taken,  the  erasure  of  the  first 
writing  was  complete.  But  when  the  ink  was 
mineral,  its  effect  reached  beyond  the  surface.  In 
that  case  a  scraping-tool  or  pumice-stone  was  indis- 
pensable ;  if  these  were  hastily  or  insufficiently 
applied,  the  erasure  was  necessarily  imperfect ;  and 
thus  it  often  happens  in  ancient  MSS.  that,  from 
the  want  of  proper  care  on  the  part  of  the  copyist 
in  preparing  the  parchment  for  re-writing,  the 
original  writing  may  still  be  read  without  the 
slightest  difficulty. 

The  practice  of  re-preparing  used  parchment  for 
second  use  existed  among  the  Romans.  The  mate- 
rial thus  re-prepared  was  of  course  reserved  for  the 
meaner  uses.  We  meet  frequent  allusions  in  the 
classical  writers,  as  Plutarch,  Cicero  {Ad  Familiar es, 
vii.  18),  Catullus  (xxii.  115),  and  others,  to  the 
palimpsest,  in  the  sense  of  a  blotter  or  first  draft- 
book,  on  which  the  rough  outline  or  first  copy  of  a 
document  was  written,  preparatory  to  the  accurate 
transcript  which  was  intended  for  actual  use  ;  and 
it  appears  equally  certain  that  in  many  cases  whole 
books  were  written  upon  re-prepared  parchment  or 
papyrus,  not  only  among  the  Greeks  and  Komans, 
but  also  among  the  ancient  Egyptians. 

Of  palimpsests  of  the  classic  period,  however,  it  is 
hardly  necessary  to  say  no  specimen  has  ever  been 
discovered.  It  is  to  the  necessities  of  the  medieval 
period  that  literature  owes  the  unquestionably  im- 
portant advantages  which  have  arisen  from  the 
revival  of  the  ancient  practice  of  re-preparing 
already  used  material  for  writing.  Under  the 
early  emperors,  the  intercourse  with  Egypt  and  the 
east  secured  a  tolerably  cheap  and  abundant  supply 
of  Papyrus  (q.  v.),  which  rendered  it  unnecessary  to 
recur  to  the  expedient  of  the  palimpsest ;  and  this 
became  still  more  the  case  in  the  5th  and  6th  cen- 
turies, when  the  tax  on  papyrus  was  abolished.    But 


after  the  separation  of  east  and  west,  and  still  more 
after  the  Mohammedan  conquest  of  Egypt,  the  supply 
of  papyrus  almost  completely  ceased  ;  and  from  the 
7th  c.  in  the  west,  and  the  10th  or  11th  in  the  east, 
the  palimpsest  is  found  in  comparatively  frequent 
use  ;  and  its  frequency  in  the  15th  c.  may  be  esti- 
mated from  the  fact  that  some  of  the  earliest  books 
were  printed  on  palimpsest.  Some  writers  have 
ascribed  the  prevalence  of  its  use  to  the  indifference, 
and  even  to  the  hostility  of  the  monks  and  clergy 
to  classical  literature,  and  have  attributed  to  their 
reckless  destruction  of  classic  MSS.,  in  order  to  pro- 
vide material  for  their  own  service-books  and 
legendaries,  the  deficiencies  in  the  remains  of  ancient 
learning  which  scholars  have  now  to  deplore.  That 
some  part  of  the  loss  may  have  so  arisen,  it  is 
impossible  to  doubt,  although  it  is  equally  certain 
that  we  owe  to  the  medieval  monks  and  clergy 
whatever  of  ancient  literature  has  been  preserved  to 
our  day.  But  the  condition  in  which  the  existing 
palimpsests  are  uniformly  found — for  the  most  part 
mere  fragments  of  the  ancient  writers  whose  works 
they  originally  contained — goes  far  in  itself  to  shew 
that  the  MSS.  which  were  broken  up  by  tho 
medieval  copyists,  for  the  purpose  of  being  re- written, 
were  almost  always  already  imperfect,  or  otherwise 
damaged  ;  nor  is  there  anything  in  the  condition  of 
any  single  palimpsest  which  has  reached  our  day  to 
justify  the  belief,  that  when  it  was  taken  up  for  the 
purpose  of  rescription,  the  original  work  which  it 
contained  was  in  a  state  at  all  approaching  to  com- 
pleteness. Fortunately,  however,  there  are  many 
of  the  relics  of  ancient  learning  of  which  even  the 
mutilated  members  have  an  independent  value  ;  and 
this  is  especially  true  of  Biblical  "MSS.,  particularly 
under  the  critical  aspect,  and  in  a  still  broader 
sense,  of  all  the  remains  of  the  ancient  historians. 

It  will  easily  be  understood,  therefore,  that  the 
chief,  if  not  the  sole  interest  of  palimpsest  MSS. 
lies  in  the  ancient  writing  which  they  had  con- 
tained, and  that  their  value  to  literature  mainly 
depends  on  the  degree  of  legibleness  which  the 
ancient  writing  still  retains.  It  is  difficult  to  make 
this  fully  intelligible  to  the  reader  without  an  actual 
inspection,  but  the  facsimile  which  is  annexed  will 
furnish  a  sufficient  idea.      The  particular  passage 


bapr>o&sY  cjv\>a. 


i) 


selected  for  the  illustration  is  from  page  62  of  the 
Vatican  MS.,  from  which  Mai  deciphered  the  frag- 
ments of  the  De  Republica.  The  darker  letters  are 
those  of  the  modern  MS. ;  the  faint  lines  are,  as 
may  be  supposed,  those  of  the  original  codex. 
Although  so  much  more  faint  than  the  modern 
writing,  they  can  be  read  with  facility  on  account  of 
their  greater  size.  We  shall  transcribe  both  texts 
in  ordinary  characters.   The  original  was  as  follows : 

EST 
IGITUR   INQVIT 

AFHICANUS    HESP. 

(The  ordinary  contraction  for  Respublica.) 

The  corresponding  lines  of  the  modern  MS.,  which 
214 


is  from  St  Augustine's  commentary  on  the  Psalms, 
are — 

homo  est  quia 

et  omnes  Xp~«.>i  (Christiani)  membra  sunt  ~X.pi.  (Christi) 
membra  Xpi.  quid  cantaut.     Amant 
Desiderando  cantant.     Aliquaudo 

In  this  specimen,  as  very  commonly  occurs,  the 
original  writing  is  much  larger  than  the  modern; 
the  modern  lines  and  letters  do  not  cover  those  of 
the  old  MS.,  but  they  follow  the  same  order.  In 
other  specimens  the  new  writing  is  transverse;  in 
some,  the  old  page  is  turned  upside  down.  Some- 
times, where  the  old  page  is  divided  into  columns, 
the  new  writing  is  carried  over  them  all  in  a  single 


PALIMPSEST. 


line ;  sometimes  the  old  page  is  doubled,  so  as  to 
form  two  pages  in  the  new  MS.  Sometimes  it  is 
cut  into  two,  or  even  three  pages.  The  most  per- 
plexing case  of  all  for  the  decipherer  is  that  in 
which  the  new  letters  are  of  the  same  BUGS,  and 
are  written  upon  the  same  lines  with  those  of 
the  original  MS.  Examples  of  this  are  rare,  and 
even  when  they  occur,  the  difference  between  the 
form  of  the  ancient  characters,  which  are  ordi- 
narily uncial,  and  that  of  the  modern,  is  in  itself  a 
great  aid  to  the  decipherer.  Some  variety,  also,  is 
found  in  the  language  of  the  palimpsests.  In  those 
which  are  found  in  the  western  libraries,  the  new 
writing  is  almost  invariably  Latin,  while  the 
original  is  sometimes  Greek,  and  sometimes  Latin. 
In  the  palimpsests  discovered  in  the  east,  the 
original  is  commonly  Greek,  the  new  writing  being 
sometimes  Greek,  sometimes  Syriac,  sometimes 
Armenian ;  and  one  palimpsest,  the  material  of 
which  is  papyrus,  is  found  in  which  the  original 
was  the  enchorial  Egyptian  language,  while  the 
modern  writing  is  Greek. 

The  possibility  of  turning  palimpsest  MSS.  to 
account  as  a  means  of  extending  our  store  of  ancient 
literature,  was  suggested  as  far  back  as  the  days  of 
Montfaucou ;  but  the  idea  was  not  turned  to  prac- 
tical account  till  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century. 
The  first  palimpsest  editor  was  a  German  scholar, 
Dr  Paul  Bruus,  who  having  discovered  that  one  of 
the  Vatican  MSS.  was  a  palimpsest,  the  effaced 
matter  of  which  was  a  fragment  of  the  91st  book  of 
Livy's  Roman  History,  printed  it  at  Hamburg  in 
1773.  In  the  field  of  discovery  thus  opened  by 
Bruns  but  little  progress  was  made  until  the  follow- 
ing c,  when  Dr«Barrett  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
published  his  palimpsest  Fragments  of  St  Matthew, 
and  when  paliinpsest  literature  at  once  rose  into 
interest  and  importance  in  the  hands  of  the  cele- 
brated Angelo  Mai  (q.  v.).  A  detailed  account  of 
Mai's  successes  will  be  given  hereafter,  when  we  shall 
enumerate  the  principal  publications  in  this  curious 
department  of  letters ;  and  under  his  own  name 
will  be  found  the  history  of  his  personal  labours. 
The  great  'historian  Niebuhr  about  the  same  time 
applied  himself  to  the  subject,  and  was  followed  by 
Blume,  Pertz,  Gaupp,  and  other  German  scholars, 
whose  labours,  however,  were  for  the  most  part 
confined  to  the  department  of  ancient  Roman  law. 
More  recently,  the  discoveries  of  Dr  Tischendorf  in 
Biblical  literature,  and  those  of  Dr  Cureton  as  well 
in  sacred  as  in  profane  literature,  have  contributed 
still  more  to  add  importance  to  the  palimpsest  MSS. 
which  have  been  supposed  to  exist  in  the  mon- 
asteries of  the  Levant.  Herr  Mone  has  had  similar 
success  in  the  department  of  liturgical  literature, 
and  Dr  Frederick  Augustus  Pertz,  son  of  the 
scholar  already  mentioned,  may  be  said  to  have 
carried  to  its  highest  point  the  interest  which 
attaches  to  these  curious  researches,  by  editing  from 
a  thrice  written  palimpsest  a  very  considerable  series 
of  fragments  of  the  Roman  annalist,  Gaius  Granius 
Licinianus. 

It  remains  to  enumerate  briefly  the  most  important 
palimpsest  publications  which  have  hitherto  appeared, 
distributed  according  to  the  language  of  the  effaced 
original. 

1.  Greek  Palimpsests.-  -Among  these,  the  first 
place  of  course  belongs  to  the  Greek  Biblical  palimp- 
sests, the  earliest  of  which  was  ( 1 )  Fragments  of  the 
Gospel  of  St  Matthew,  in  facsimile  as  well  as  in  ordi- 
nary type,  printed  from  a  palimpsest  MS.  of  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  by  the  Rev.  I.  Barret,  D.D.  (4 to, 
Dublin,  1801).  The  original  writing  appears  to  be 
of  the  6th  century.  Dr  Barrett's  transcript  of  the 
text  has  not  proved  in  all  respects  correct,  but  the 
original   has   since  been  carefully  re-examined,  and 


the  ancient  writing  fully  brought  out.  It  is  chiefly, 
however,  to  a  collection  of  Syriac  MSS.  brought 
from  the  east  that  we  are  indebted  for  the  more 
recent  palimpsest  restorations  of  the  ancient  biblical 
readings.  In  this  line  the  chief  discoverer  has 
been  Dr  Constantine  Tischendorf.  From  his  pen 
we  have  (2)  the  celebrated  Codex  Ephremi  or  Coaen 
Regius  of  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris.  This  MS. 
had  been  early  observed  to  be  palimpsest,  and  the 
original  Greek  text  was  collated  in  part  byWetstein 
and  by  Kuster.  It  was  still  more  carefully  examined 
by  M.  Hase  in  1835;  and  finally,  in  1840,  by  Dr 
Tischendorf,  by  whom  the  New  Testament  was 
printed  in  1843,  and  the  fragments  of  the  Old  in 
1845.  The  modern  writing  of  this  palimpsest  con- 
sisted of  the  works  of  St  Ephrem  the  Syrian.  (3.) 
Fragmenta  Sacra  Palimpsesta  (4to,  Leipsic,  1855), 
containing  fragments  of  the  Books  of  Numbers, 
Deuteronomy,  Joshua,  Judges,  Kings,  Isaiah,  to- 
gether with  48  pages  of  fragments  of  the  New 
Testament,  the  Gospels,  the  Acts,  and  the  Epistles 
of  St  Paul  to  the  Corinthians  and  to  Titus.  The 
modern  writing  of  these  palimpsests  was  partly 
Greek,  partly  Armenian,  and  Arabic.  (4.)  Frag- 
menta Evangelii  Lucai  tt  Libri  Genesis  (Ito,  Leipsic, 
1857).  The  fragments  of  St  Luke's  Gospel  amount 
to  95  pages.  The  volume  also  contains  fragments 
of  St  John's  Gospel  and  of  Ezekiel  and  the  Third 
Book  of  Kings.  The  modern  writing  is  partly 
Syriac,  partly  Coptic.  Along  with  these  Biblical 
palimpsests  (5)  may  be  classed  another,  the  original 
of  which,  however,  contains  not  only  some  Greek 
fragments,  but  also  portions  of  the  ancient  Gothio 
version  of  the  Bible  by  Ulphilas.  The  MS.  from 
which  this  is  taken  is  known  from  its  place  in  the 
Wolfenbiittel  Library  as  the  Codex  Guelpherbi/tanus. 
It  was  first  noticed  in  1755  by  Knittel,  by  whom  a 
portion  of  the  Gothic  version  was  published  in  1762. 
These  fragments  were  reprinted  in  1772,  and  again 
in  1805.  The  modern  writing  of  the  MS.  consisted 
of  the  Orhjenes  of  Isidorus  Hispalensis.  A  large 
addition  to  the  text  of  Ulphilas  was  made  in  1817 
by  Mai  and  Castiglione,  from  palimpsests  discovered 
in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan  ;  and  the  whole 
have  since  been  combined  into  one  edition  by  Dr 
Gabeleutz,  and  finally  by  Dr  Massmann  (4to, 
Stuttgart,  1S55).  We  may  also  mention  under  the 
same  head  some  interesting  Greek  liturgical  remains 
edited  by  F.  I.  Mone  (Frankfort,  1850),  from  a 
palimpsest  discovered  at  Carlsruhe. 

In  Greek  classical  literature,  also,  we  owe  some- 
thing to  the  labours  of  palimpsest  editors.  From 
one  of  the  Syriac  MSS.  already  referred  to,  Dr 
Cureton  has  edited  large  fragments  of  the  Iliad  of 
Homer,  amounting  in  all  to  nearly  4000  lines  ;  and 
although  all  these,  it  need  hardly  be  said,  were 
known  before,  yet  the  text  is  of  the  utmost  value 
as  a  source  of  criticism,  being  certainly  of  much 
greater  anticpuity  than  the  very  earliest  known  MSS. 
of  the  Iliad.  A  still  larger  and  more  original  con- 
tribution to  Greek  classical  literature  was  made  by 
Mai  in  the  5th  volume  of  his  Scriptorum  Veterum 
Nova  Collectio  (Borne,  1831 — 1838).  From  a  very 
large  palimpsest  discovered  in  the  Vatican  Library 
he  has  printed  in  this  volume  copious  fragments  (if 
almost  all  the  Greek  writers  on  Roman  history — 
from  the  lost  books  of  Polybius  no  less  than  100 
4to  pages ;  130  pages  of  Diodorus  Siculus  ;  64  of 
Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus ;  100  of  Dion  Cassius ; 
together  with  considerable  fragments  of  Appian, 
Iamblichus,  Dexippus,  Eunapius,  and  others.  This 
is,  perhaps,  after  the  De  Republica  of  Cicero,  the 
most  important  accession  to  the  existing  store  of 
classic  learning  which  the  palimpsests  have  hitherto 
supplied. 

II.  Latin  Palimpsests. — (1.)  The  earliest  frag- 

215 


PALINDROME— PALISANDER  WOOD. 


ment  of  Latin  literature,  printed  from  a  palimpsest 
original,  is  the  portion  of  the  91st  book  of  Livy 
already  referred  to.  published  at  Hamburg  and  also 
at  Rome  in  1773.  It  was  re-edited  in  a  more  com- 
plete form  by  Niebuhr  in  1820.  (2.)  Of  the  Latin 
palimpsests  edited  by  Mai,  the  earliest  were  some 
fragments  of  lost  Orations  of  Cicero  from  two  differ- 
ent palimpsests  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan, 
in  the  latter  of  which,  the  second  writing  consisted 
of  the  acts  of  the  council  of  Chalcedon.  These 
Orations  were  published  in  two  successive  volumes 
in  181 1.  (3.)  Eight  Orations  of  Symmachus  (1815). 
(4.)  The  Comedies  of  Plautus,  including  a  fragment 
of  the  lost  play  entitled  Vidularia  (1815).  (5.)  The 
works  of  M.  Corn.  Fronto,  together  with  the 
Epistles  of  Antoninus  Pius,  Lucius  Verus,  M. 
Aurelius,  and  others  (1815).  (6.)  The  celebrated 
Dialogue  of  Cicero,  De  Republica,  from  a  palimpsest 
of  the  Vatican,  the  modern  writing  of  which  is  the 
commentary  of  St  Augustine  on  the  Psalms.  There 
is  none  of  Mai's  publications  which  presents  his 
critical  abilities  in  so  favourable  a  light  as  this 
precious  volume,  which  appeared  at  Ptome  in  1821. 
(7.)  Soon  after  the  De  Republica  he  published 
another  volume  from  palimpsest  sources,  the  most 
important  of  whose  contents  were  some  fragments 
of  ancient  Roman  law,  which  prepared  the  way  for 
the  more  distinguished  success  of  Niebuhr  ;  who,  in 
a  palimpsest  of  the  library  of  Verona,  recognised  a 
portion  of  (8)  the  Institutiones  of  Gaius,  and  pro- 
cured an  accurate  transcript  for  the  press,  which 
was  printed  at  Berlin  in  1820.  The  latest  consider- 
able Latin  publication  in  this  department  is  (9)  Gai 
Granil  Liclniani  Annalium  quce  supersunt  (Berlin, 
1857),  edited  from  a  palimpsest  of  the  British 
Museum  by  the  younger  Pertz.  This  palimpsest, 
as  was  already  stated,  is  a  thrice  written  codex,  the 
earliest  and  original  contents  being  the  Annales  of 
Gaius  Granius.  The  second  writing  was  also  in 
Latin,  and  the  work  is  a  grammatical  treatise,  of 
which  the  chapters  De  Verbo  aud  De  Adverb  to  are 
Btill  legible.  The  most  modern  writing  is  Syriac, 
writteu  in  the  cursive  character.  Gaius  Granius 
is  a  writer  named  by  Macrobius,  of  whom  nothing 
else  is  known. 

It  will  be  gathered  from  the  above  that  the 
ancient  works  recovered  by  means  of  palimpsest 
MSS.  are  all  fragmentary,  and  one  is  naturally  led 
to  rate  at  a  low  value  the  result  thereby  obtained. 
But  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  some  of  the 
departments  to  which  these  fragments  belong,  every 
tcrap,  no  matter  how  trifling,  has  an  independent 
value.  So  it  is,  for  example,  in  Biblical  remains — 
a  single  text  may  present  a  valuable  reading,  the 
merest  fragment  may  throw  light  on  an  important 
critical  question.  In  history,  in  like  manner,  a 
small  fragment  may  disclose  an  interesting  fact,  or 
supply  a  significant  commentary  upon  facts  other- 
wise ascertained.  And  as  regards  critical  uses 
especially,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  obliter- 
ated text  of  the  palimpsest  MSS.,  for  the  most  part, 
far  exceeds  in  antiquity  the  very  oldest  known 
codices  which  we  possess,  and  is,  probably,  second 
only  in  age  to  the  papyri  of  Herculaneum. 

The  method  of  treating  palimpsest  MSS.,  with  a 
view  to  deciphering  their  contents,  has  been  fully 
described  by  different  editors.  Mai,  after  having 
washed  the  palimpsest  with  an  infusion  of  galls, 
exposed  it  to  the  light  and  air,  and,  generally 
speaking,  found  this  sufficient  for  his  purpose. 
Peyron  washed  the  parchment  in  water,  afterwards 
in  ddute  muriatic  acid,  and  finally  in  prussiate  of 
potash.  A  mixture,  compounded  on  this  principle, 
is  called  from  its  inventor,  M.  Gioberti,  Tinctura 
Giobertina.  Sometimes  the  same  treatment  does 
not  succeed  equally  well  on  both  sides  of  the  parch  - 
216 


ment ;  the  inner  surface,  from  its  softer  texture, 
sometimes  requiring  a  more  active  preparation. 
When  the  ink  contained  animal  substances,  as  milk, 
or  the  blood  of  the  cuttle-fish,  Dr  Mone  plunged  the 
parchment  in  a  close  vessel  filled  with  oil,  which  he 
heated  to  a  temperature  of  400°  R.  In  the  prefaces 
of  Mai's  volumes  will  be  found  many  amusing  and 
interesting  facts  illustrating  the  difficulties  which 
attend  this  curious  branch  of  literary  labour. 

PA'LINDROME  (Gr.  palin,  backwards,  and 
dromos,  a  running),  the  name  given  to  a  kind  of 
verse  very  common  in  Latin,  the  peculiarity  of  which 
is  that  it  may  be  read  the  same  backwards  as  for. 
wards.    A  few  examples  will  suffice. 

Si  bene  te  tua  laus  taxat  sua  lauti  tenebis. 

Et  necat  eger  amor  non  Roma  rege  tacente, 

Roma  reges  una  non  anus  eger  amor. 

A  Roman  lawyer  gets  the  credit  of  the  following : 

Si  nummi  immunis, 

which  Camden  translates : 

'  Give  me  my  fee,  and  I  warrant  you  free.* 

It  is  said  that  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  a 
certain  lady  of  rank,  having  been  compelled  to  retire 
from  the  court  on  account  of  some  fama,  the  truth 
of  which  she  denied,  took  for  her  motto  : 

Ablata  at  alba. 
'  Retired  but  pure.' 

The  English  language  has  few  palindromes,  but  one 
at  least  is  inimitable.  It  represents  our  first  parent 
politely  introducing  himself  to  Eve  in  these  words  : 

'  Madam,  I  'm  Adam.' 

Compare  Henry  B.  Wheatley's  book  on  Anagrams 
(1862). 

PALINGENE'SIA  (Gr.  palm,  again,  and  genesis, 
birth)  is  a  term  that  appears  to  have  originated 
among  the  Stoics,  who  employed  it  to  denote  the 
act  of  the  Demiurgus,  or  Creator,  by  which,  having 
absorbed  all  being  into  himself,  he  reproduced  it  in 
a  new  creation.  The  occurrence  of  the  word  in  the 
New  Testament  (Titus,  iii.  5,  where  it  is  used  to 
denote  regeneration)  has  given  it  a  place  in  Christian 
theology,  and  divines  have  variously  used  it  to 
express  the  resurrection  of  men,  the  new  birth  of 
the  individual  soul,  and  the  restoration  of  the  world 
to  that  perfect  state  that  it  lost  by  the  Fall — '  the 
new  heavens  and  the  new  earth  wherein  dwelleth 
righteousness.'  Savans  have  also  applied  the  term 
to  designate  both  the  great  geological  changes 
which  the  earth  has  undergone  and  the  transfor- 
mations in  the  insect  kingdom,  such  as  of  cater- 
pillars into  butterflies,  &c. 

PA'LINODE,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  is  a  pecidiar 
practice  by  which,  in  actions  for  damages  on  account 
of  slander  or  defamation  raised  in  the  Commissary 
Court,  and  even  in  the  Sheriff  Court,  the  pursuer 
may  conclude  not  only  for  damages  but  for  palinode, 
i.  e.,  a  solemn  recantation.  On  a  recent  case,  the 
question  arose  whether  this  ancient  practice  still 
existed  as  part  of  the  law  of  Scotland,  and  it  was 
held  that  it  did.  In  actions,  however,  in  the 
Court  of  Session,  damages  only  are  given  as  the 
remedy. 

PA'LISADE,  a  paling  of  strong  timber,  used  in 
Fortification.  For  the  mode  in  which  the  palisade  i3 
employed  see  Fortification,  under  the  head 
Stockade, 

PALISANDER  WOOD,  the  continental  name 
for  Rosewood  (q.  v.).  By  some  of  the  French 
cabinet-makers  the  name  bois  de  Palisandre  is  also 


PALISSY— PALL. 


applied  to  violet  wood  and   to  a  kind  of  striped 
ebony. 

PALISSY,  Bernard,  a  French  potter,  famous 
for  his  glass  paintings  and  beautiful  figured  pottery, 
was  born  near  Agen,  now  in  the  department  of  Lot 
et  Garonne,  France,  about  1510,  and  at  an  early  age 
was  apprenticed  to  a  potter.  He  devoted  himself 
to  chemical  researches  for  the  improvement  of  his 
art,  and  made  many  journeys  through  France  and 
Germany  for  the  same  purpose ;  at  the  same  time 
carrying  ou  the  business  of  a  land-surveyor.  An 
enamelled  cup  of  '  Faience,'  which  he  saw  by  chance, 
inspired  him  with  the  resolution  to  discover  the 
mode  of  producing  white  enamel.  Neglecting  all 
other  labours,  he  devoted  himself  to  investigations 
and  experiments  for  the  long  period  of  10  years. 
He  had  by  this  time  exhausted  all  his  resources,  and 
for  want  of  money  to  buy  fuel  was  reduced  to  the 
necessity  of  burning  his  household  furniture  piece  by 
piece  ;  his  neighbours  laughed  at  him,  his  wife  over- 
whelmed him  with  reproaches,  and  his  starving 
family  surrounded  him  crying  for  food;  but  in  spite 
of  all  these  discouragements  he  persisted  in  the 
search,  and  was  in  the  end  rewarded  by  success.  A 
few  vessels  adorned  with  figures  of  animals,  coloured 
to  represent  nature,  sold  for  high  prices,  and  enabled 
him  to  complete  his  investigations,  after  which  he 
became  famous  ;  and  though  a  Huguenot,  was  pro- 
tected and  encouraged  by  the  king  and  the  nobility, 
who  employed  him  to  embellish  their  mansions  with 
specimens  of  his  art.  He  was  lodged  in  or  near  the 
Tuileries,  and  was  specially  exempted  by  Queen 
Catharine  from  the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew, 
more  from  a  regard  to  her  own  benefit  than  from 
kindness.  In  March  1575  he  commenced  a  course 
of  lectures  on  natural  history  and  physics,  and  was 
the  first  in  France  to  substitute  positive  facts  and 
rigorous  demonstrations  for  the  fanciful  interpre- 
tations of  philosophers.  In  the  course  of  these 
lectures,  he  gave  (158-1)  the  first  right  notions 
of  the  origin  of  springs,  and  the  formation  of 
stones  and  fossil  shells,  and  strongly  advocated  the 
importance  of  marl  as  a  fertilising  agent.  These, 
along  with  his  theories  regarding  the  best  means 
of  purifying  water,  have  been  fully  supported  by 
recent  discovery  and  investigation.  In  158S  he  was 
arrested  and  thrown  into  the  Bastile  as  a  heretic, 
but  died  in  1590  before  his  sentence  was  pronounced. 

P.  left  a  collection  of  objects  of  natural  history, 
the  first  that  had  been  formed  in  France.  His 
works  are  at  the  present  day  almost  beyond  price, 
and  his  ornaments  and  arabesques  are  amongst  the 
most  beautiful  of  the  '  renaissance.'  As  a  sincere, 
earnest,  and  courageous  man,  he  was  no  less  eminent 
than  as  au  artist. 

PALIU'RUS,  a  genua  of  trees  and  shrubs  of  the 
natural  order  Rhamnacece,  nearly  allied  to  Zizyphus 
(see  Jujube),  but  very  different  in  the  fruit,  which 
is  dry,  orbicular,  and  girded  with  a  broad  mem- 
branous wing.  P.  aculeatus  is  often  called  Christ's 
Thorn,  and  by  the  Germans,  Jews'  Thorn  (Juden- 
dorn),  from  an  imagination  that  it  supplied  the 
crown  of  thorns  with  which  our  Saviour  was 
crowned.  It  is  a  deciduous  shrub  or  low  tree,  with 
Blender,  pliant  branches  and  ovate  3-nerved  leaves, 
each  of  which  has  two  sharp  spines  at  the  base,  one 
straight  and  the  other  re-curved.  It  is  a  native  of 
the  countries  around  the  Mediterranean,  of  India, 
and  many  parts  of  Asia.  It  is  often  used  for  hedges 
in  Itaiy  and  other  countries  ;  its  sharp  spines  and 
pliant  branches  admirably  adapting  it  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  fruit  has  a  singular  appearance,  being 
flat  and  thin,  attached  by  the  middle  to  the  foot- 
stalk, the  middle  being  raised  like  the  crown  of  a 
hat,  wliilst  the  expansion  resembles  the  brim.     The 


seeds  are  sold  by  the  druggists  of  the  east,  and  are 
used  medicinally,  but  their  qualities  are  doubtful, 


Christ's  Thorn  (Paliurus  aculeatus) : 
a,  lipe  fruit. 

This  shrub  is  not  uncommon  in  shrubberies  in 
England,  being  very  ornamental  when  in  flower, 
but  the  fruit  does  not  ripen. 

PALK  STRAIT,  or  PALK'S  PASSAGE,  the 
northern  portion  of  the  passage  between  the  south 
coast  of  Hindustan  and  the  island  of  Ceylon.  This 
passage  is  continued  southward  by  the  Gulf  of 
Manaar  (q.  v.).  It  is  from  40  to  80  miles  in  width, 
and  is  80  miles  in  length.  It  is  so  shallow — in  some 
places  being  no  more  than  two  fathoms  in  depth 
—that  it  cannot  be  navigated  in  safety  by  large 
vessels.     In  P.  S.  there  are  several  pearl  fisheries. 

PALL  (Lat.  pallium,  also  palla,  a  cloak),  the 
name  given  in  English  to  two  very  different  portions 
of  the  vesture  employed  in  the  religious  use  of  the 
Roman  and  some  other  churches.  One  of  these  is 
the  funeral  pall,  an  ample  covering  of  black  velvet 
or  other  stuff,  which  is  cast  over  the  coffin  while 
being  borne  to  burial.  The  end3  of  the  pall  are 
held  during  the  funeral  procession  by  the  most 
distinguished  among  the  friends  of  the  deceased, 
generally  selected  from  among  those  unconnected 
by  blood.  In  its  second  and  most  strictly  liturgical 
use,  the  word  pall  is  applied  to  one  of  the  coverings 
used  at  the  altar  in  the  celebration  of  the  mass. 
Primitively,  as  appears  from  Optatus  and  other  early 
writers,  the  altar  was  covered  with  a  large  linen 
cloth— called  by  the  Latins  pallium,  and  by  the 
Greeks  eileton— the  extremities  of  which  were  folded 
back  so  as  to  cover  the  bread  and  wine  prepared  for 
the  celebration  of  the  eucharist.  In  later  times  a 
separate  covering  was  employed  for  the  sacra- 
mental chalice,  to  which  latter  the  name  pall  is  now 
reserved  in  the  use  of  the  Roman  Ch'irch.  The 
modern  Roman  pall  is  a  square  piece  of  linen  cloth— 
sometimes  limber,  sometimes  made  stiff  by  inserting 
pasteboard— sufficiently  large  to 
cover  the  mouth  of  the  chalice.  The 
upper  surface  is  often  of  sdk  em- 
broidered, or  of  cloth  of  gold.  The 
surface  in  contact  with  the  chalice 
must  always  be  of  linen. 

PALL,    in    Heraldry,   the  upper 
part  of   a  saltire  conjoined  to   the 
lower  part  of  a  pale.     It  appears  much  in  the  arraa 
of  ecclesiastical  sees. 


PalL 


217 


PALL-MALL— PALLAS. 


PALL-MALL.    See  Mall. 

PALLADIO,  Andrea,  a  famous  Italian  archi- 
tect, was  born  at  Vicenza,  30th  November  1518. 
After  having  studied  with  the  greatest  care  the 
writings  of  Vitruvius,  and  the  monuments  of  anti- 
quity at  Rome,  he  settled  in  his  native  city,  and 
first  acquired  a  reputation  by  his  restoration  of  the 
Basilica  of  Vicenza.  Pope  Paul  III.  then  invited 
him  to  Pome,  designing  to  intrust  him  with  the 
execution  of  the  works  then  going  on  at  St  Peter's, 
but  his  holiness  dying  before  the  arrival  of  P.,  the 
latter  had  to  return  home.  He  was  employed  for 
many  years  in  the  construction  of  numerous  build- 
ings in  Vicenza  and  the  neighbourhood,  in  all  of 
which  he  displayed  the  most  exquisite  taste  com- 
bined with  the  most  ingenious  and  imaginative 
ornamentation.  His  style,  known  as  the  Palladian, 
is  a  composite,  and  is  characterised  by  great  splen- 
dour of  execution  and  justness  of  proportion,  and  it 
exercised  an  immense  influence  on  the  architecture 
of  Northern  Italy.  His  principal  works  are  the 
Rotonda  Capra,  outside  Vicenza  ;  the  Palazzo  Chieri- 
cado  and  the  Palazzo  Tiene,  in  the  city  ;  the  Palazzo 
Barbara,  at  Maser  in  the  Trevigiauo,  the  Teatro 
Olympico  at  Vicenza  (his  last  work),  the  Palazzo  at 
Montagnana  for  Francesco  Pisana ;  the  churches  of 
San  Giorgio  Maggiore  and  II  Santissimo  Pedemptore 
at  Venice,  the  atrium  and  cloister  at  the  convent 
Delia  Carita,  and  the  facade  of  San  Francesco  della 
Vigna  in  the  same  city.  P.  died  at  Vicenza,  August 
6,  1580.  He  wrote  a  work  on  architecture,  which  is 
highly  prized.  The  best  edition  is  that  published  at 
Vicenza  in  4  vols.,  1776. 

PALLADIUM  (symb.  Pd,  equiv.  ]26,  specific 
gravity  11*8)  is  one  of  the  so-called  noble  metals, 
which  in  its  colour  and  ductility  closely  resembles 
platinum.  It  is  not  fusible  in  an  ordinary  wind- 
furnace,  but  melts  at  a  somewhat  lower  temperature 
than  the  last-named  metal ;  and  when  heated  beyond 
its  f using-point,  it  volatilises  in  the  form  of  a  green 
vapour.  It  undergoes  no  change  in  the  open  air  at 
ordinary  temperatures ;  but  at  a  low  red  heat,  it 
becomes  covered  with  a  purple  film,  owing  to  super- 
ficial oxidation.  It  is  soluble  in  nitric  and  iodic 
acids,  and  in  aqua  regia.  It  combines  readily  with 
gold,  which  it  has  the  property  of  rendering  brittle 
and  white.  (When  it  forms  20  per  cent,  of  the  mass, 
the  alloy  is  perfectly  white.)  When  alloyed  with 
twice  its  weight  of  silver,  it  forms  a  ductile  com- 
pound, which  has  been  employed  for  the  construc- 
tion of  small  weights ;  but  for  this  purpose  aluminium 
is  superior.  Professor  Miller  states  that  it  '  has 
been  applied  in  a  few  cases  to  the  construction  of 
graduated  scales  for  astronomical  instruments,  for 
which,  by  its  whiteness,  hardness,  and  unalterability 
in  the  air,  it  is  well  adapted;'  its  scarcity  must, 
however,  prevent  its  general  use  for  this  purpose. 

It  was  discovered  in  1803  by  Wollaston  in  the  ore 
of  platinum,  of  which  it  seldom  forms  so  much  as 
1  per  cent.  Another  source  of  this  metal  is  the 
native  alloy  which  it  forms  with  gold  in  certain 
mines  in  Brazil,  and  which  is  termed  ouro  poudre  ; 
and  it  is  from  this  alloy  that  the  metal  is  chiefly 
obtained. 

Palladium  forms  with  oxygen  a  protoxide,  Pd20, 
which  is  the  base  of  the  salts  of  the  metal;  a 
dioxide,  PCUO2;  and  according  to  some  chemists,  a 
suboxide,  PdO.  On  exposure  to  sufficient  heat,  these 
compounds  give  off  their  oxygen,  end  yield  the 
metal.  The  salts  of  the  protoxide  are  of  a  brown  or 
red  colour. 

PALLADIUM,    among   the   ancient    Greeks  and 

Romans,    an   image   of    Pallas,    who   was  generally 

identified  with  Athene,  t-pon  the  careful  keeping  of 

which  in  a  sanctuary  tl>*  public  welfare  was  believed 

218 


to  depend.  The  Palladium  of  Troy  is  particularly 
celebrated.  According  to  the  current  myth,  it  was 
thrown  down  from  heaven  by  Zeus,  and  fell  on  the 
plain  of  Troy,  where  it  was  picked  up  by  Ilus,  the 
founder  of  that  city,  as  a  favourable  omen.  In  the 
course  of  time,  the  belief  spread  that  the  loss  ot  it 
would  be  followed  by  the  fall  of  the  city ;  it 
was  therefore  stolen  by  Odysseus  and  Diomedes. 
Several  cities  afterwards  boasted  of  possessing  it, 
particularly  Argos  and  Athens.  Other  accounts, 
however,  affirm  that  it  was  not  stolen  by  the  Greek 
chiefs,  but  carried  to  Italy  by  iEneas ;  and  the 
Romans  said  that  it  was  preserved  in  the  temple 
of  Vesta,  but  so  secretly,  that  even  the  Pontifex 
Maximus  might  not  behold  it.  All  images  of  this 
name  were  somewhat  coarsely  hewn  out  of  wood. 

PALLA'DIUS,  Rutilius  Taurus  JEmilianuh,  a 
Roman  author,  who  probably  lived  in  the  4th  c.  A.D., 
under  Valentinian  and  Theodosius.  He  wrote  a 
work,  De  Re  Rustica  (On  Agriculture),  in  14  books, 
the  last  of  which  is  a  poem  of  85  elegiac  couplets. 
It  is,  from  a  literary  and  grammatical  point  of  view, 
full  of  faidts  ;  but  as  it  was  a  complete  calendar  of 
Roman  agriculture,  it  was  very  useful  for  its  time, 
and  was  much  read  and  followed  during  the  middle 
ages.  P.  has  borrowed  largely  from  his  predecessors. 
The  best  edition  is  that  by  J.  G.  Schneider  in  his 
Scriptores  Rei  Rusticce  Veteres  Latini  (4  vols.,  Leip. 
1794). 

PA'LLAS.    See  Minerva. 

PALLAS,  Peter  Simon,  an  eminent  traveller 
and  naturalist,  was  born,  22d  September  1741,  at 
Berlin,  where  his  father  was  a  physician.  He  studied 
medicine,  natural  history,  and  other  branches  of 
science,  at  the  universities  of  Berlin,  Gbttingen,  and 
Leyden,  and  was  employed  in  classifying  many 
valuable  collections  of  objects  of  natural  history, 
both  in  Holland  and  England.  He  gained  a  high 
reputation  by  the  publication  of  his  Elenchua  Zoo- 
phytorum  (Hague,  1766),  a  work  still  much  valued ; 
Miscellanea  Zoologica  (Hague,  1766),  and  Spicilegia 
Zoologka  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1767— 1S04).  The  Empress 
Catharine  invited  him,  in  1768,  to  St  Petersburg, 
where  he  was  well  received,  and  had  honours  con- 
ferred on  him,  and  he  was  subsequently  appointed 
naturalist  to  a  scientific  expedition  bound  for  Siberia, 
there  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus.  P.  spent  six 
years  on  this  journey  (1768 — 1774),  exploring  in 
succession  the  Ural  Mountains,  the  Kirghis  Steppes, 
great  part  of  the  Altaian  range,  and  the  country 
around  Lake  Baikal  as  far  as  Kiachta,  great  part  of 
Siberia,  and  the  steppes  of  the  Volga,  returning  to 
St  Petersburg  in  1774,  with  an  extraordinary  trea- 
sure of  specimens  in  natural  history,  which  form 
the  nucleus  of  the  Museum  of  the  Academy  of  St 
Petersburg.  His  travels  (Reisen  durch  verschiedene 
Provinzen  des  Russ.  Reichs)  were  published  at  St 
Petersburg  (1771 — 1776),  in  three  volumes,  and  were 
followed  by  his  Sammlung  historischer  Nadirichten 
iiber  die  Mongol.  V biker  schaf ten  (2  vols.,  St  Petersb. 
1776 — 1802),  and  his  Neue  nordische  Beitrage  zur 
physikalischen  und  geographischen  Erd-  und  Vblker- 
beschreibung,  Naturgeschichte  und  Oekonomie  (6  vols., 
St  Petersb."  1781—1793).  Without  positively  neglect- 
ing any  branch  of  natural  history,  he  now  devoted 
himself  more  particularly  to  botany ;  and  his  mag- 
nificent Flora  Rossica  (St  Petersb.  1784 — 178S),  a 
work  which,  however,  he  was  not  able  to  complete, 
and  his  Species  Astragalorum  (14  parts,  Leip.  1800 — 
1804),  were  among  the  results  of  his  studies.  He 
published  also  Jconea  Insectorum  prcecipue  Rossice 
Sibirueque  Peculiarium  (Erlangen,  17S1,  1783,  and 
1806)  ;  and  contributed  to  a  glossary  of  all  the 
languages  of  the  Russian  empire,  which  was  pub- 
lished at  St  Petersburg.      As  he  wished   to  live 


PALLAVICINO— PALM. 


in  the  Crimea,  the  Empress  Catharine  presented 
him  with  au  estate  in  the  linest  part  of  that  penin- 
sula, where  he  resiiletl  generally  from  1790.  His 
Travels  in  thr  South  of  Russia  were  published  in 
1799  (2  vols.,  Leip.,  with  volume  of  plates).  After 
the  death  of  his  wife,  he  went  to  Berlin,  where  he 
died,  8th  September  18] 1.  P.  unite  a  large  and  valu- 
able work  on  the  Fauna  of  Russia,  which  has,  as  yet, 
remained  unpublished. 

PALLAVICINO,  Pietro  Sforza,  an  Italian 
historian,  son  of  the  Marquis  Alessandro  Pallavicino 
of  Parma,  was  born  at  Home,  20th  November  1007. 
Much  to  the  disgust  of  his  father,  he  took  priest's 
orders,  and  held  several  important  ecclesiastical 
appointments  during  the  pontilicate  of  Urban  VIII. 
In  1G.')7,  he  became  a  member  of  the  Jesuit  Society, 
and  was  created  a  cardinal  in  1057  by  Pope 
Alexander  VII.  He  died  at  Home,  5th  June  1007. 
P.  was  a  fine  scholar,  and  often  presided  in  the 
famous  Roman  academy  of  the  Umoristi.  The  best 
known  of  all  his  writings  is  his  Istoria  del  Concilio 
de  Trento  (Rome,  1050 — 1057),  intended  as  a  reply 
to  the  still  more  celebrated  and  liberal,  although,  by 
Catholics,  deeply  suspected,  work  of  Paul  Sarpi. 
Among  his  other  works  may  be  mentioned  Vindica- 
tiones  Soc.  Jes.  (Rome,  1049) ;  Arte  della  Perfezione 
Cristiana — /  Fasti  Sacri  (the  unpublished  MS.  is 
in  the  library  of  Parma)  ;  Ennewjilda,  a  tragedy 
(Rome,  10-14) ;  Gli  Avvertimenti  Grammaticali 
(Rome,  1001) ;  Trattato  dello  Stilo  e  del  Dialogo 
(Rome,  1002),  and  Lettere  (Rome,  1GGS). 

PA'LLI,  a  town  of  Rajputana,  in  Judpore,  stands 
on  the  right  bank  of  a  branch  of  the  Luni  River,  in 
lat.  25°  48'  N.,  long.  73°  2i'  E.  It  is  an  entrepot  for 
the  opium  sent  from  Malwa  to  Bombay,  and  is  the 
seat  of  extensive  commerce.  It  imports  European 
manufactured  goods  extensively,  and  is  estimated  to 
contain  about  50,000  inhabitants. 

PALLIOBRANCHIA'TA.  See  Branchiopoda. 

PA'LLIUM,  the  name  given  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  to  one  of  the  ecclesiastical  orna- 
ments worn  by  the  pope,  by  patriarchs,  and  by 
archbishops.  Its  use  is  held  by  Roman  Catholics  to 
descend  from  a  very  early  period.  It  is  worn  by 
the  pope  at  all  times,  as  a  symbol  of  his  reputed 
universal  and  abiding  jurisdiction.  By  archbishops 
it  cannot  be  worn  until  it  has  been  solemnly  asked  for 
and  granted  by  the  pope,  and  even  then  only  during 
the  solemu  service  of  the  great  church  festivals,  and 
on  occasions  of  the  ordination  of  bishops  or  of 
priests,  and  other  simdar  acts  of  the  archiepiscopal 
order.  The  pallium  is  a  narrow  annular  band  of 
white  woollen  web,  about  three  inches  wide,  upon 
which  black  crosses  are  embroidered,  which  encircles 
the  neck  of  the  archbishop,  and  from  which  two 
narrow  bands  of  the  same  material  depend,  one 
falling  over  the  breast,  the  other  over  the  back  of 
the  wearer.  Its  material  is  the  subject  of  much  care 
and  ceremonial.  It  is  made  w-holly  or  in  part 
from  the  wool  of  two  lambs,  which  are  blessed 
annually  on  the  festival,  and  in  the  church  of  St 
Agnes.  During  the  night  of  the  vigil  of  the  feast 
of  Sb  Peter  and  St  Paul,  the  pallia  made  of  this 
wool  are  placed  on  the  altar  above  the  tomb  of  these 
apostles,  and  on  the  feast  of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul  are 
delivered  by  the  pope  to  the  subdeacon,  whose  duty 
it  is  to  keep  them  in  charge.  Within  three  months 
of  his  consecration,  every  new  archbishop  is  obliged 
to  apply  to  the  pope,  in  person  or  by  proxy,  for  the 
pallium ;  nor  is  it  lawful  for  him,  until  he  shall  have 
received  it,  to  exercise  any  act  of  what  is  properly 
archiepiscopal,  as  contradistinguished  from  episcopal 
jurisdiction.  Thus,  he  cannot,  for  example,  call  a 
provincial  synod.  The  pallium  cannot  be  transferred 
from  one  archbishop  to  another,  but  must  be  received 


direct  from  the  pope.     On  the  archbishop's  death, 

his  ]p;tliimM  is  interred  with  him.  Its  nse  is  held  to 
symbolise  the  office  of  the 'good  shepherd1  hearing 
the  lost  sheep  on  his  Bhoulder,  and  is  connected  by 
some  writers  with  the  vesture  of  the  Jewish  high- 
priest  in  Exod  xxviii.  4.  In  the  medieval  church,  the 
granting  of  the  pallium  to  archbishops  was 
the  chief  occasions  of  the  tribute  which  was  paid  by 
the  national  churches  to  the  support  of  the  great 
central  office  and  dignity  of  the  papacy.  In  some 
sees,  as,  for  instance,  those  of  the  great  prince-bishops 
of  the  Rhine,  the  tribute  was  as  much  as  20,000 
florins.  Roman  Catholics,  however,  maintain  that 
this  tribute  was  not  a  payment  for  the  pallium,  but 
an  offering  to  the  holy  see,  made  on  occasion  of  the 
grant  of  that  emblem  of  jurisdiction. 

PALM,  a  measure  of  length,  originally  taken  from 
the  width  of  the  hand,  measured  across  the  joints  of 
the  four  ringers.  In  Greece,  it  was  known  as  palaiste\ 
and  was  reckoned  at  3  inches,  or  £  of  a  cubit,  which 
was  their  standard  unit.  The  Romans  adopted  two 
measures  of  this  name — the  one  was  the  Greek 
palaiste,  and  was  called  palmus  minor;  the  other, 
which  was  not  introduced  till  later  times,  was 
called  palmus  major,  or  palma,  and  was  taken  from 
the  length  of  the  hand,  being  therefore  usually 
estimated  at  three  times  the  length  of  the  other. 
At  the  present  day,  this  measure  varies  in  a  most 
arbitrary  manner,  being  different  in  each  country, 
and  occasionally  varying  in  the  same.  The  English 
palm,  when  used  at  all,  which  is  seldom,  is  con- 
sidered to  be  the  fourth  part  of  au  English  foot, 
or  3  inches.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  most 
common  measures  to  which  the  name  palm  ia 
given : 

Valne  in  Eng. 


Greek  palaiste =  3  03375 

Roman  palmus,  or  lesser  palm,    .        .  =  2*9124 

ir        palma,  or  greater  palm,       .        .  =  8*7372 

English  palm  (i  of  a  foot),            .        .  =  3'0000 

Hamburg  palm  (J  of  a  foot),     .        .         .  =  3*7633 

Amsterdam  'round'  palm,            .        .  =  4 1200 

it             'diameter'  palm,          .        .  =  11*1)687 

Belgian  palm      )    properly  the  decimetre  =  39371 
Lombard  palm,  f  r    *     * 

Spanish  palm,  or  palmo  major,       .        .  =  8  3J50 

it          ii     ,  or  pal  mo  minor,             .  —  2*7817 

Portuguese  palm,  or  palmo  de  Craveiia,  =  8*6616 

In  Germany  and  the  Low  Countries,  the  palm  is 
generally  confined  to  wood-measurement,  whUe  in 
Portugal  it  is  the  standard  of  linear  measure. 

PALM,  Johaxn  Philipp,  a  bookseller  of 
Nuremberg,  who  has  acquired  an  historic  celebrity 
as  a  victim  of  Napoleonic  justice  in  Germany.  He 
was  born  at  Schorndorf  in  1700,  and  succeeded  his 
father-in-law,  Stein,  as  a  bookseller  in  Nuremberg, 
the  old  name  of  the  firm  being  retained.  In  the 
spring  of  1800,  a  pamphlet,  entitled  Deutschland 
in  seiner  tiefsten  Emiedrigung  (Germany  in  its 
Deepest  Humiliation),  which  contained  some  bitter 
truths  concerning  Napoleon,  and  concerning  the 
conduct  of  the  French  troops  in  Bavaria,  was  sent 
by  this  firm  to  a  bookseller  in  Augsburg  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  trade,  and,  as  P.  to  the  last 
moment  of  his  life  averred,  without  any  regard, 
on  his  part,  to  its  contents.  Napoleon's  police 
traced  it  to  the  shop  in  Nuremberg,  and  an  inves- 
tigation was  ordered,  from  which  nothing  resulted 
Palm  was  in  Munich,  and  perhaps  escaped  imprison- 
ment there  because  his  name  was  not  the  same  with 
that  of  the  firm  ;  but  supposing  all  safe,  he  returned 
to  Nuremberg,  and  was  there  taken  prisoner,  and 
examined  before  Marshal  Bernadotte,  whose  adju- 
tant represented  his  arrestment  as  the  conse- 
quence of  direct  orders  frcm  Paris.  Au  extra- 
ordinary court-martial,  held  at  Brunau,  to  which  he 
was  removed,  condemned  him  to  death,  without 
any  advocate    being   heard  in  his   defence.      All 

219 


PALM  OIL— PALMELLACE^E. 


Intercession  on  his  behalf  was  in  vain.  General  St 
Hilaire  declared  that  the  orders  of  the  emperor 
were  positive ;  and  the  sentence  was  executed  at 
two  o'clock  on  the  same  day  on  which  it  was  pro- 
nounced. Subscriptions  were  raised  for  the  family 
at  St  Petersburg,  to  which  the  Emperor  and  Empress 
of  Russia  personally  contributed  ;  in  England,  and 
in  several  German  towns,  as  Berlin,  Leipzig,  Dres- 
den, and  Hamburg.  Some  French  writers  have 
endeavoured  to  throw  the  blame  of  this  murder  on 
Marshal  Berthier,  instead  of  Napoleon. 

PALM  OIL.    See  Oil  Palm. 

PALM  SUNDAY  (Lat.  Dominica  Palmarum, 
or  Dom.  in  Pahnis),  the  last  Sunday  of  Lent,  is  so 
called  from  the  custom  of  blessing  branches  of  the 
palm  tree,  or  of  other  trees  substituted  in  those 
countries  in  which  palm  cannot  be  procured,  and 
of  carrying  the  blessed  branches  in  procession,  in 
commemoration  of  the  triumphal  entry  of  our  Lord 
into  Jerusalem  (John  xii.).  The  date  of  the  origin 
of  this  custom  is  uncei-tain.  The  first  writer  in  the 
West  who  expressly  refers  to  it  is  Venerable  Bede. 
The  usage  certainly  existed  in  the  7th  century.  A 
Bpecial  service  is  found  in  the  Roman  missal,  and 
also  in  the  Greek  euchologies,  for  the  blessing  of 
'branches  of  palins  and  olives;'  but  in  many  coun- 
tries, other  trees,  as  in  England,  the  yew  or  the 
willow,  and  in  Brittany,  the  box,  are  blessed  instead. 
A  procession  is  formed,  the  members  of  which  issue 
from  the  church  carrying  branches  in  their  hands, 
and  singing  a  hymn  suited  to  the  occasion,  of  very 
ancient  origin.  In  the  Greek  Church,  the  book  of  the 
Gospels  is  borne  in  front.  In  some  of  the  Catholic 
countries  of  the  West,  a  priest,  or,  occasionally,  a 
lay  figure,  was  led  at  the  head,  mounted  upon  an 
ass,  in  commemoration  of  our  Lord's  entry  into  the 
city — a  usage  which  still  exists  in  Spain  and  in 
Spanish  America.  Before  their  return  to  the  church, 
the  doors  have  been  closed,  and  certain  strophes  of 
the  hymn  are  sung  alternately  by  a  choir  within  the 
church  and  by  the  procession  without,  when,  on  the 
eub-deacon's  knocking  at  the  door,  it  is  again  thrown 
open,  and  the  procession  re-enters.  During  the 
singing  of  the  Passion  in  the  solemn  mass  which 
ensues,  the  congregation  hold  the  palm  branch  in 
their  hands,  and  at  the  conclusion  of  the  service 
it  is  carried  home  to  their  respective  houses,  where 
it  is  preserved  during  the  year.  At  Borne,  the 
Procession  of  the  Palms,  in  which  the  pope  is  car- 
ried, is  among  the  most  striking  of  the  picturesque 
ceremonies  of  the  Holy  Week.  In  England,  Palm 
Sunday  anciently  was  celebrated  with  much  cere- 
monial ;  but  the  blessing  and  procession  of  the 
palms  was  discontinued  in  the  Church  of  England, 
together  with  the  other  ceremonies  abolished  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  VL 

PA'LMA.    See  Canaries. 

PALM  A,  the  capital  of  the  island  of  Majorca 
(q.  v.)  and  of  the  province  of  Baleares,  is  situated 
on  the  south-west  coast  of  the  island,  on  the  Gulf 
of  Palma,  which,  between  Capes  Figuera  and  Blanco, 
is  IS  miles  long,  and  sweeps  12  miles  inland.  The 
city  is  surrounded  by  orange  plantations,  and  is 
walled  and  fortified.  The  houses,  some  of  which 
are  built  of  marble,  are  mostly  in  the  Moorish 
Btyle  of  architecture,  and  a  number  of  the  streets 
are  wide  and  regular.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop, 
and  contains  a  Gothic  cathedral,  simple  but  beauti- 
ful in  style,  and  with  a  spire  which,  from  the 
delicate  and  airy  character  of  its  construction, 
is  called  the  Angel's  Tower.  Besides  other  ecclesi- 
astical edifices,  the  town  contains  an  Exchange — 
a  beautiful  and  ornate  structure  in  Germano-Gothic 
—the  governor's  palace,  an  academy  of  medi- 
cine and  surgery,  and  a  large  number  of  excellent 
220 


educational  institutions,  including  three  colegios. 
In  the  port,  a  mole,  500  yards  in  length,  runs 
out  from  the  bastions  facing  the  south ;  and  on 
each  side  of  it  are  ship-building  yards,  for  the 
construction  of  the  swift  lateen  vessels  so  well 
known  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  port  is  small, 
and  only  admits  vessels  of  light  draught.  It  was  ex- 
pected that  the  Suez  Canal  would  increase  the  ship- 
ping at  P.,  but  up  till  1872  no  such  benefit  was  dis- 
cernible. Though  one  of  the  chief  marts  of  Europe  in 
the  13th  c,  P.  now  has  little  conimei-ce.     Pop.  42,910. 

PA'LMA  CHRI'STI.    See  Castor-oil  Plant. 

PALMBLAD,  Vilhelm  Fredrick,  a  Swedish, 
writer  of  considerable  merit,  and  one  of  the  earliest 
and  most  zealous  promoters  of  the  literature  of  his 
native  coiintry,  was  born  in  17S8  at  Liljested,  in 
East  Gotland,  where  his  father  held  a  post  under 
the  government.  While  still  a  student  at  Upsala, 
P.  purchased,  in  1810,  the  university  printing-press, 
and  immediately  entered  upon  the  publication  of 
several  literary  and  scientific  periodicals,  which, 
being  the  first  of  the  kind  that  had  ever  appeared 
in  the  Swedish  language,  attracted  considerable 
notice,  and  by  their  intrinsic  merit,  contributed 
materially  to  the  diffusion  of  general  information 
and  the  creation  of  a  taste  for  learning  among  the 
general  Swedish  public  The  earliest  of  these  were 
the  Phosphoros,  a  mixed  literary  journal ;  the 
Poetish  Kalender,  an  annual ;  and  the  Svensk  Litte- 
ratur  T'tdning,  a  literary  review,  which  lasted  till 
1824.  The  Swedish  writers  Atterbom  and  Ham- 
marskjold  were  associated  with  P.  in  the  manage- 
ment of  these  journals,  and,  like  him,  directed  all 
their  efforts  to  supplant  the  pseudo-classical  school 
of  literature,  in  favour  of  the  romantic  style,  and  to 
counteract  the  false  French  taste  of  that  period, 
which,  under  Gustavus  HI.,  had  been  universally 
followed  in  Swedish  literature  and  art.  P.  succes- 
sively occupied  the  chairs  of  History  and  Geography 
and  of  Greek  Literature  iu  the  university  of  Upsala ; 
and  at  his  death  iu  1852,  he  left  the  character  of 
having  been  one  of  the  most  industrious  and  influ- 
ential Swedish  writers  of  his  day.  His  principal 
works  are — Minnestafla  ofner  SveHges  Regenter 
(1831)  ;  Larobole  i  mjare  Historian  (Ups.  1S32) ; 
Handbok  iphysisha  og  polilislca  Geogrophien  (1S37) ; 
Litrobok  i  Geographien  (Orebro,  1847)  ;  Qrekvsk 
Fonuhunshab  (Ups.  1S45)  ;  and  in  addition  to  these 
purely  instructive  works,  among  his  various  novels 
we  may  instance  his  Familjen  Falkensvard  (Oreb. 
1844) ;  Aurora  Koningsmark  (Oreb.  1846),  which 
rank  among  the  best  of  their  class  in  Swedish 
literature.  P.  was  the  editor  of  the  great  Swedish 
biography,  Namnkunnige  Swenska  Man  (Stock. 
1835— 1S52)  ;  and  besides  being  an  active  coadjutor 
in  the  direction  of  the  Swedish  Literary  Society,  for 
which  he  wrote  numerous  papers,  he  was  an  active 
contributor  to  various  German  works  of  celebrity, 
as  Ersch  and  G ruber's  Allgemeine  Encyklopadie,  the 
Conversations- Lexicon,  &c. 

PALMELLA'CEiE,  a  family  or  group  of  Algae, 
of  the  order  or  sub-order  Confervaceas.  In  organisa- 
tion, they  are  among  the  lowest  of  plants  ;  they  are, 
however,  universally  regarded  as  vegetable,  and 
do  not,  like  the  Diatomacea,  occupy  a  somewhat 
doubtfid  position  between  the  animal  and  veget- 
able kingdoms.  The  P.  all  grow  on  damj)  sur- 
faces, but  some  under  the  influence  of  fresh  water, 
and  some  of  salt.  Some  appear  as  a  mere  powdery 
layer,  the  granules  of  which  have  little  adherence 
to  each  other,  as  Red  Snow  (q.  v.) ;  some  of  them 
assume  the  form  of  a  slimy  film  or  gelatinous  mass, 
as  Gory  Dew  (q.  v.) ;  and  some  are  more  firm  and 
membranous,  so  as  to  have  something  of  the 
character  of   a   frond.      The  P.  bear   so   great  a 


PALMER— PALMERSTON. 


resemblance  to  the  early  stages  of  plants  higher  in 
organisation,  that  doubts  are  entertained  of  their 

right  to  a  distinct  place  in  the  botanical  system, 
particularly  as  their  mode  of  reproduction  is  not 
yet  well  understood.  Conjugation  has  been 
observed  in  some  of  them.  They  propagate  with 
great  rapidity  by  gemination,  or  something  like  it, 
some  of  them  Bending  forth  tubular  filaments  from 
their  cells,  the  extremities  of  which  dilate  into  new 
cells,  after  which  the  connecting  tube  closes,  and 
ceases  to  exist ;  whilst  in  others  the  multiplication 
of  cells  takes  place  by  division  or  segmentation  (gee 
Monad),  and  the  young  plants  exhibit  remarkable 
powers  of  motion  for  a  short  time,  like  zoospores, 
being  furnished  with  vibratile  cilia,  by  which  their 
motion  is  produced.  Ere  long,  however,  their 
motion  ceases,  and  the  process  of  segmentation  is 
ready  to  begin  anew.  The  motile  organs  and 
powers  of  some  of  the  P.  in  the  earlier  part  of 
their  existence,  have  led  to  their  being  mistaken 
for  animalcules. 

PALMER  (Lat  palnu'fer,  a  palm-bearer),  the 
name  of  one  of  those  numerous  classes  of  Pilgrims 
(q.  v.),  whose  origin  and  history  form  one  of  the 
most  interesting  studies  in  the  social  life  of  medieval 
Europe.  The  Palmer,  properly  so  called,  was  a 
pilgrim  who  had  performed  the  pilgrimage  to  xhe 
Holy  Sepulchre  (q.  v.),  and  had  returned,  or  was 
returning  home  after  the  fulfilment  of  his  vow. 
The  Palmers  were  so  called  from  their  carrying 
branches  of  the  oriental  palm,  in  coken  of  their 
accomplished  expedition.  On  arriving  at  their 
home,  they  repaired  to  the  church  to  return  thanks 
to  God,  and  offered  the  paim  to  the  priest,  to  be 
placed  upon  the  altar.  The  palms  so  offered  were 
frequently  used  in  the  procession  of  Palm  Sunday. 
Even  after  the  time  of  his  return,  the  religious 
character  of  the  Palmer  still  continued ;  and  although 
his  office  might  be  supposed  to  have  ceased  with 
the  fulfilment  of  his  vow,  many  Palmers  continued 
their  religious  peregrinations  even  in  their  native 
country.  They  were  thus  a  class  of  itinerant  monks, 
without  a  fixed  residence,  professing  voluntary 
poverty,  observing  celibacy,  and  visiting  at  stated 
times  the  most  remarkable  Sanctuaries  (q.  v.)  of 
the  several  countries  of  the  West.  Their  costume 
was  commonly  the  same  as  that  of  the  ordinary 
Pilgrim  (q.  v.),  although  modified  in  different 
countries. 

PALMERSTON,  Viscount,  Henry  John 
Temple,  an  English  politician,  was  born  at  the  family 
mansion,  BroacQands,  near  Romsey,  Hants,  October 
20,  17S4.  The  Temples  are  of  Saxon  origin,  and 
the  family  claim  descent  from  Edwyn,  who  was 
deprived  of  the  earldom  of  Mercia  by  the  Conqueror, 
and  lost  his  life  in  defending  himself  against  the 
Normans  in  1071.  Sir  W.  Temple,  the  diplomatist 
and  patron  of  Swift,  was  a  member  of  this  family, 
which  removed  to  Ireland  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth. 
The  family  was  ennobled  1722,  when  Henry  Temple 
was  created  a  peer  of  Ireland  with  the  dignities 
of  Baron  Temple  and  Viscount  Palmerston.  His 
grandson,  the  second  viscount,  father  of  the  late 
peer,  superintended  his  son's  education  at  Broad- 
lands,  and  then  sent  him  to  Harrow.  P.  afterwards 
went  to  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  where  he 
attended  the  prelections  of  Dagald  Stewart  and 
other  professors.  He  next  matriculated  at  St  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  whence  he  was  summoned  to 
attend  the  deathbed  of  his  father,  on  whose  decease, 
in  1805,  P.  succeeded  to  the  title.  His  eminent 
abilities  were  early  recognised,  for  he  was  scarcely 
of  age  when  the  Tory  party  in  the  university 
selected  him  (1806)  as"  their  candidate  to  succeed 
Mr  Pitt  in  the   representation.      The   late  Marquis 


of  Lansdowne  was  the  Whig  candidate ;  and  Lord 
Byron,  then  at  Cambridge,  in  bis  Hours  of  J</le- 
neaa,  evinces  the  interest  he  took  in  t 
1*.  was  unsuccessful,  and  again  in  1807.  He 
entered  parliament,  however,  in  the  same  year 
for  the  borough  of  Newport,  his  colleague  being 
Arthur  Wellesley,  then  chief  secretary  ol  Ireland. 
In  181 1,  he  exchanged  Newport  for  the  university 
of  ( lambridge,  enjoyed  the  distinction  of  representing 
his  nlmn  mater  for  20  years,  and  only  lost  his  seat 
when  he  became  a  member  of  the  Grey  adminis- 
tration, and  supported  the  Reform  J '.ill.  For  the 
last  two  years  of  the  unreformed  parliament,  he  sat 
for  the  now  extinct  borough  of  Bletchingly.  At 
the  first  election  after  the  Iieform  Act,  he  was 
returned  for  South  Hampshire,  but  lost  his  seat  at 
the  general  election  of  1835.  He  immediately  after- 
wards found  a  seat  for  the  borough  of  Tiverton, 
which  he  promised  never  to  leave  as  long  as  the 
electors  would  permit  him  to  represent  them.  Hav- 
ing traced  his  representative,  we  now  turn  to  hifl 
official,  career.  P.  entered  life  as  a  member  of  the 
Tory  party,  and  accepted  the  office  of  Secretary  at 
War  in  the  Duke  of  Portland's  administration  in 
1809.  This  office  he  held  during  the  successive  gov- 
ernments of  Mr  Perceval,  the  Earl  of  Liverpool,  Mr 
Canning,  Lord  Goderich,  and  the  Duke  of  Welling 
ton — a  period  extending  from  1809  to  1S28.  There 
was  ample  scope  at  the  War-office  for  P.'s  adminis- 
trative talents  and  activity.  The  British  military 
system  swarmed  with  abuses,  and  the  labour  thrown 
upon  the  Secretary  at  War  during  the  Peninsular 
campaigns  was  prodigious.  In  1817,  an  attempt 
was  made  to  assassinate  P.  by  an  insane  army- 
lieutenant,  named  Davis,  who  tired  a  pistol  at  him 
as  he  was  entering  the  Horse  Guards,  the  bullet, 
however,  only  inflicting  a  slight  wound.  P.  early 
attached  himself  to  the  Canning  section  of  the 
Liverpool  administration,  and  he  accepted  a  seat  in 
the  cabinet  of  Mr  Canning.  His  official  connection 
with  the  Tory  party  ceased  in  1S2S,  when  the  '  Great 
Duke '  insisted  on  accepting  Mr  Huskisson's  resig- 
nation, which  was  followed  by  P.'s  retirement.  The 
Duke's  government  was  swept  away  in  the  reform 
flood  of  1830 ;  and  Earl  Grey,  who  became  Prime 
Minister,  offered  the  seals  of  the  Foreign  Office  to 
Palmerston.  The  European  horizon  was  so  disturbed 
at  this  crisis,  that  a  great  political  authority  declared 
that  if  au  angel  from  heaven  were  in  the  Foreign 
Office,  he  could  not  preserve  peace  for  three  months. 
P.  falsified  the  prediction.  Louis  Philippe  then 
rilled  the  throne  of  France ;  and  for  the  first  time 
on  record,  England  and  France  acted  in  concert, 
and  without  jealousy,  under  P.'s  foreign  ministry. 
He  took  a  leading  part  in  effecting  the  independ- 
ence of  Belgium,  and  in  establishing  the  thrones 
of  Queen  Isabella  of  Spain  and  Queen  Maria  of 
Portugal  on  a  constitutional  basis.  In  1841,  P. 
went  out  of  office  with  the  Whigs  on  the  question 
of  free  trade  in  corn ;  but  on  their  return  in  1846, 
he  resumed  the  seals  of  the  Foreign  Office.  His 
second  foreign  administration  furnished  various 
subjects  of  hostile  party  criticism,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  the  civil  war  in  Switzerland, 
the  Spanish  marriages,  the  European  revolutions 
in  1848,  the  rupture  of  diplomatic  relations 
between  Spain  and  Great  Britain,  and  finally,  the 
affair  of  Don  Pacifico  and  the  quarrel  with  Greece. 
A  vote  of  censure  en  the  foreign  policy  of  the  govern- 
ment was,  in  1850,  carried  in  the  House  of  Lords  on 
the  motion  of  Lord  Stanley  (afterwards  Earl  of 
Derby).  A  counter-resolution,  approving  the  foreign 
policy  of  the  government,  was  thereupon  moved  by 
Mr  Roebuck  in  the  Lower  House.  The  debate  lasted 
four  nights.  In  a  speech  of  five  hours'  duration — . 
'  that  speech,'  said  Sir  Robert  Peel,  '  which  made  us 

221 


PALMER-WORM— PALMITIC  ACID. 


all  so  proud  of  him.'  P.  entered  upon  a  manly  and 
dignified  vindication  of  his  foreign  policy;  and  Mr 
Roebuck's  motion  was  carried  by  a  majority  of  46. 
In  December  1851,  the  public  were  startled  at  the 
news  that  P.  was  no  longer  a  member  of  the  Russell 
cabinet.  He  had  expressed  his  approbation  of  the 
coup  d'etat  of  Louis  Napoleon,  without  consulting 
either  the  premier  or  the  Queen  •  and  as  explana- 
tions were  refused,  her  Majesty  exercised  her 
constitutional  right  of  dismissing  her  minister.  P. 
avenged  himself,  as  soon  as  parliament  met,  by 
shattering  the  Russell  administration  to  pieces  on  a 
comparatively  trifling  question  regarding  the  militia. 
He  refused  an  offer  from  the  Earl  of  Derby  to  join 
the  government  which  he  was  commissioned  to  form, 
but  accepted  the  post  of  Home  Secretary  in  the 
coalition  administration  of  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen  in 
1852.  The  fall  of  this  government,  on  Mr  Roebuck's 
motion  for  a  Sebastopol  committee,  placed  P.  in  his 
71st  year  in  the  position  of  prime  minister,  to  which 
he  was  unanimously  called  by  the  voice  of  the 
nation.  He  vigorously  prosecuted  the  Russian  war 
until  Sebastopol  was  taken,  and  peace  was  made. 
His  government  was  defeated  in  March  1857,  on  Mr 
Cobden's  motion,  condemnatory  of  the  Chinese  war. 
Parliament  was  dissolved,  and  P.  met  the  House  of 
Commons  with  a  large  majority.  But  his  adminis- 
tration fell  in  February  1858,  upon  the  Conspiracy 
Bill,  intended  to  protect  the  French  emperor  against 
the  machinations  of  plotting  refugees.  A  short 
Conservative  administration  followed  ;  but  in  June 
1859,  P.  was  again  called  to  the  post  of  First  Lord 
of  the  Treasury,  which  be  continued  to  fill  until 
his  death,  October  18,  1865.  It  was  his  ambition 
to  be  considered  the  minister  of  a  nation  rather 
than  the  minister  of  a  political  party;  and  his 
opponents  were  constrained  to  admit  that  he  held 
office  with  more  general  acceptance  than  any  Eng- 
lish minister  since  the  time  of  the  great  Lord  Chat- 
ham. As  an  orator,  he  was  usually  homely  and 
unpretending,  but  always  sensible  and  practical. 
He  was  a  dexterous  tactician,  and  a  ready,  witty,  and 
often  brilliant  debater.  He  was  popular  as  a  min- 
ister, because  thoroughly  English  in  his  ends  and 
aims.  Even  his  robust  health,  manly  bearing,  and 
physical  vigour  were  elements  of  his  popularity, 
because  they  were  regarded  as  a  glorification  of  the 
English  sports,  which  he  never  was  ashamed  to 
patronise.  He  desired  nothing  so  ardently  as  to 
promote  the  wealth  and  grandeur  of  Great  Britain, 
and  his  national  character  and  national  spirit  were 
thoroughly  appreciated  by  his  countrymen.  He 
married,  in  1839,  the  widow  of  the  fifth  Earl  Cow- 
per,  daughter  of  the  first  Viscount  Melbourne.  As  he 
left  no  issue,  and  his  only  brother,  the  Honourable 
William  Temple,  many  years  British  minister  at 
Naples,  died  unmarried,  the  title  became  extinct  on 
his  decease. 

PALMER-WORM,  a  name  given  to  many  large 
kinds  of  grub,  the  larvae  of  coleopterous  insects, 
destructive  to  vegetable  substances  of  various  kinds. 
It  is  used  in  the  English  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment as  the  translation  of  the  Hebrew  gazam, 
rendered  kampe  by  the  Septuagint,  which  modern 
Hebrew  writers  and  others  very  generally  regard 
as  a  kind  of  locust,  although  more  probably  it  is 
either  the  grub  of  a  coleopterous  or  the  caterpillar 
of  a  lepidopterous  insect. — See  Kitto  in  Pictorial 
Bible,  on  Joel  i.  4. 

Palmer-flies  are  much  used  by  anglers  on  the 
English  streams,  and  are  at  certain  seasons  excel- 
lent lures  for  trout,  &c. 

PALME'TTO    {Sabal  palmetto,  or   Chamcerops 
palmetto),  a  species  of  palm,  a  native  of  maritime 
parts  of  North  America,  as  far  north  as  lat.  35', 
222 


which  is  further  north  than  any  other  American 
species  of  palm  is  found.  It  attains  a  height  of  40 
— 50  feet,  and  has  a  crown  of  large  palmated  leaves, 
the  blade  from  one  foot  to  five  feet  in  length  and 
breadth,  and  the  footstalk  long.  The  flowers  are 
small,  greenish,  and  in  long  racemes ;  the  fruit 
black,  about  as  long  as  a  pea-pod,  and  uneatable. 
The  leaves  are  made  into  hats.  The  terminal  bud 
or  cabbage  is  eaten.  The  wood  is  extremely  porous  : 
but  is  preferred  to  every  other  kind  of  wood  in  North 
America  for  wharfs,  as  it  is  very  durable,  and  not 
I  liable  to  be  attacked  by  worms. — The  Chamcerops 
(q.  v.)  humilis  of  the  south  of  Europe  is  also  called 
Palmetto. 

PALMETTO-LEAVES,  the  leaves  of  the  Palmyra 
(q.  v.)  palm,  Borassus  flabelliformis,  which  grows  ex- 
tensively in  India  and  Polynesia.  The  leaves  have 
great  value  as  a  material  for  the  manufacture  of 
hats,  mats,  &c,  and  for  this  purpose  are  frequently 
imported  into  Europe.  In  their  native  country,  they 
are  used  as  thatch,  and  for  a  great  variety  of  other 
useful  applications. 

PALMIPEDES,  or  WEB-FOOTED  BIRDS,  also 
called  Natatores,  or  Swimmers,  an  order  of  birds, 
the  Anseres  of  Linnaeus,  very  natural  and  univer- 
sally recognised  by  ornithologists,  having  the  feet 
specially  formed  for  swimming,  and  the  toes  webbed, 
i.  e.,  connected  by  a  membrane,  at  least  those  which 
are  directed  forwards.  In  swimming,  the  feet  are 
contracted  when  drawn  forwards,  the  toes  being 
brought  together,  and  expanded  to  their  utmost 
extent  in  the  backward  stroke.  In  accordance  with 
their  aquatic  habits,  the  P.  are  further  characterised 
by  a  boat-like  form,  calculated  to  move  through  the 
water  with  little  resistance ;  and  by  a  dense  and 
polished  plumage,  oiled  by  a  secretion  from  certain 
glands  near  the  tail,  very  impervious  to  water ; 
whilst  warmth  is  further  secured  by  a  clothing  of 
down,  more  or  less  abundant,  beneath  the  feathers. 
They  are  remarkable  for  the  length  of  the  breast- 
bone (sternum),  and  the  neck  is  often  longer  than 
the  legs,  a  thing  very  unusual  in  birds,  so  that  they 
can  plunge  the  head  far  down  in  search  of  food. 
The  length  of  the  wings  differs  very  much  in 
different  sections  of  the  order,  and  with  it  the 
power  of  flying ;  as  does  also  the  power  of  diving, 
which  some  possess  in  a  high  degree,  and  others, 
even  of  the  same  family,  in  a  very  interior  degree. 
To  this  order  belong  geese,  swans,  ducks,  divers, 
grebes,  auks,  guillemots,  puffins,  penguins,  petrels, 
albatrosses,  gulls,  terns,  shearwaters,  noddies, 
pelicans,  cormorants,  frigate-birds,  gannets,  darters, 
tropic -birds,  &c. 

PALMI'TIC  ACID  (C16H32O2)  is  one  of  the 
most  important  of  the  Fatty  Acids,  represented  by 
the  general  formula  C„H2jl02  (see  Oils  and 
Fats).  In  a  pure  state,  when  crystallised  from 
alcohol,  it  occurs  in  the  form  of  beautifully  white 
acicular  crystals  arranged  in  tuft-like  groups. 
These  crystals  are  devoid  of  odour  or  taste,  com- 
municate a  fatty  feeling  to  the  finger,  fuse  at  143°-6, 
and  solidify  on  cooling  in  the  form  of  crystalline 
scales.  This  acid  is  lighter  than  water,  in  which  it 
is  perfectly  insoluble ;  but  it  dissolves  freely  in 
boiling  alcohol  and  in  ether,  and  the  solutions  have 
a  distinctly  acid  reaction.  In  small  quantities  it 
may  be  distilled  without  decomposing,  if  the  heat 
be  carefully  regulated.  The  neutral  palmitates  of 
the  alkalies  constitute  soaps,  and  are  soluble  in 
water  ;  if,  however,  their  solutions  are  largely 
diluted  with  additional  water,  they  are  decomposed, 
an  insoluble  acid  salt  being  precipitated,  while  a 
portion  of  the  base  remains  in  solution.  The 
addition  of  chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt)  to  a 
solution  of  an  alkaline  palmitate  produces'  a  similar 


FA  LMITINE— PALMS. 


effect.  The  other  most  important  compounds  of  pel- 
mitic  ncid  are  those  which  it  forms  with  glycerin  and 
with  eetylic  ether.  With  glycerin  this  ncid  forms 
three  compounds,  viz.,  a  triglyceride  or  tripalmitate 
(constituting  the  ordinary  1'at.mitin  of  chemists),  a 
diglyceride,  and  a  moooglyceride.  In  addition  t<>  its 
existence  in  the  form  of  palmitin,  palmitic  acid  is 
found  in  a  free  state  in  old  palm  oil.  In  combination 
with  eetylic  ether,  or  with  oxido  of  cetyl,  whose  com- 
position  is  represented  by  the  formula  (CnHss)4*  >, 
it  is  the  main  constituent  of  Spermaceti  (q.  v.),  which 
is  in  fact  essentially  a  palmitate  of  oxide  of  cctvl 
(CifiHsifCifilT.w^O);  and  as  n  palmitate  of  oxide  of 
melissy]  —  n  substance  which  will  be  noticed  in  the 
article  Wax — it  is  the  chief  ingredient  of  bees-wax. 

PA'LMITIN  is  n  white  fat,  usually  occurring, 
when  crystallised  from  ether,  in  the  form  of  a  mass  of 
small  scaly  crystals.  According  to  Duffy,  it  occurs, 
like  the  allied  fat  stcarine,  in  three  modifications,  each 
of  which  has  a  different  melting-point — viz.,  114°-8, 
143°,  and  145°.  On  cooling,  it  solidifies  into  a  wax- 
like  mass,  of  lower  specific  gravity  than  water,  and 
insolnhle  in  that  fluid,  but  readily  soluble  in  ether 
and  in  boiling  alcohol.  It  is  a  constituent  of  almost 
every  kind  of  fat,  and  is  the  preponderating  ingredient 
in  those  of  a  semi-solid  consistence,  and  in  many  oils. 
It  receives  its  name  from  the  abundance  in  which  it 
occurs  in  palm  oil,  and  it  may  readily  be  obtained 
from  this  source  by  removing  the  liquid  portion  (the 
oleine)  by  pressure,  and  purifying  the  remaining  pal- 
mitin by  crystallisation  from  ether,  or  a  mixture  of 
ether  and  alcohol.  It  has  been  stated  in  the  article  on 
Glycerin  (q.  v.)  that  the  composition  of  that  sub- 
stance may  be  represented  by  the  formula  CsH5,03. 
(HO)3.  When  palmitic  acid  unites  with  it  to  form  a 
triglyceride  (or  the  substance  usually  recognised  as 
palmitin),  three  atoms  of  the  anhydrous  acid  expel 
and  replace  the  three  atoms  of  water  in  the  glycerin, 
and  the  resulting  compound,  palmitin,  is  consequently 
represented  by  the  formula  C3H5O3  -f-  3(Ci6ll3iOs),  or 
C51H98O12. 

PALMS  [Palma  or  Palmaceoe),  a  natural  order 
of  endogenous  plants,  not  excelled  in  importance  by 
any  order  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  except  Grasses. 
They  are  generally  tall  and  slender  trees,  often  of 
gigantic  height,  without  a  branch,  and  bearing  at  the 
summit  a  magnificent  and  gracefid  crown  of  very 
large  leaves.  "The  stem  is  sometimes,  however,  of 
humble  growth,  and  more  rarely  it  is  thick  in  pro- 
portion to  its  height;  sometimes,  but  rarely,  it  is 
branched,  as  in  the  Doom  (q.  v.)  Palm ;  and  some- 
times, as  in  Rattans  (q.  v.),  it  is  flexible,  and  seeks 
support  from  trees  and  bushes,  over  which  it  climbs 
in  jungles  and  dense  forests,  clinging  to  them  by 
means  of  hooked  spines.  Some  of  the  species  with 
flexible  stem  attain  a  prodigious  length,  ascending 
to  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees,  and  falling  down 
again.  Kumphius  asserts  that  they  are  sometimes 
1200,  or  even  1800  feet  long.  Whatever  the  form  or 
magnitude  of  the  stem  of  a  palm,  it  is  always  woody, 
and  the  root  is  always  fibrous.  It  is  only  towards 
its  circumference,  however,  that  the  stem  is  hard, 
and  there  in  many  species  it  is  extremely  hard ; 
but  the  centre  is  soft,  often  containing,  when  young, 
a  great  quantity  of  starch  (sago),  and  sometimes 
filled,  when  old,  with  a  mass  of  fibres  which  can  be 
separated  without  difficulty.  Concerning  the  struc- 
ture of  the  stem,  see  Endogenous  Plants.  The 
stem  is  generally  marked  externally  with  rings  or 
scars,  where  former  leaves  have  been  attached ; 
sometimes  it  is  rough  with  the  remaining  bases  of 
the  leaves,  and  part  of  it  is  sometimes  covered  with 
their  fibrous  appendages.  No  other  plants  have 
leaves  so  large  as  many  of  the  P.  ;  the  largest  of 
all  are  those  of  some  of  the  fan-leaved  P.,  but  there 


are  P.  with  pinnate  leaves  50  feet  long  and  8 
feet  broad,  and  undivided  leaves  are  to  be  seen 
30  feet  long  by  4  or  5  feet  broad.  There  are,  how- 
ever, also  small  P.,  and  P.  with  flexible  stems,  which 
have  small  leaves.  The  number  of  the  large  leaves 
which  form  the  crown  of  even  the  most  magnificent 
palm  is  never  great.  Whatever  the  size  or  form  of 
the  leaves,  they  are  always  stalked,  the  stalk  beiDg 
often  in  dimensions  equal  to  a  large  bough  of  a 
great  oak  or  other  such  tree.  The  leaves  are  com- 
monly pinnated,  the  number  of  pinnules  or  Leaflets 
being  often  very  great ;  but  about  one-sixth  of  the 
whole  number  of  known  species  of  P.  have  fan- 
shaped  leaves,  and  a  few  species  have  undivided 
leaves.  The  leaves  are  in  all  cases  persistent,  only  fall- 
ing off  in  succession  as  the  palm  advances  in  growth, 
aud  new  ones  are  formed  at  the  summit.  The  flowers 
are  sometimes  hermaphrodite,  sometimes  unisexual ; 
the  same  tree  having  sometimes  male,  female,  and 
hermaphrodite  flowers,  whilst  other  species  are  mon- 
oecious and  others  dioecious.  The  perianth  has  six 
divisions,  three  outer  and  three  inner  ;  there  are 
generally  six,  rarely  three  stamens  ;  the  ovary  is 
composed  of  three  carpels,  distinct  or  united,  each 
with  one  cell  containing  one  ovule.  The  flowers  are 
small,  but  are  often  produced  in  dense  masses  of 
very  striking  appearance.  Humboldt  reckons  the 
number  of  flowers  on  a  single  palm  (Alfonsia  amyg- 
dalina)  as  about  600,000,  and  every  bunch  of  the 
Seje  Palm  of  the  Oronoco  consists  of  about  8000 
fruits.  The  flowers  are  produced  on  scaly  spadices, 
often  much  branched,  and  enclosed,  before  expand- 
ing, in  leathery  or  woody  spathes,  often  very  large, 
and  sometimes  opening  by  bursting  with  a  loud 
explosion.  The  flowers  of  some  P.  emit  a  very 
powerful  odour,  which  attracts  multitudes  of  insects. 
The  fruit  is  sometimes  a  kind  of  berry,  sometimes 
a  drupe,  either  with  a  fleshy  or  a  fibrous  covering  ; 
and  sometimes  contains  a  very  hard  and  bony  nut. 
The  fruit  is  sometimes  only  of  the  size  of  a  pea  or  a 
cherry  ;  sometimes,  notwithstanding  the  smallnesa 
of  the  flowers,  it  is  of  very  large  size,  of  which  the 
cocoa-nut  is  a  familiar  example. 

Palms  are  mostly  natives  of  tropical  countries, 
being  found  almost  everywhere  within  the  tropics, 
and  forming,  perhaps,  the  most  striking  character- 
istic of  tropical  vegetation.  The  tropical  parts  of 
America,  however,  particularly  abound  in  them, 
producing  a  far  greater  number  of  species  than  any 
other  part  of  the  world.  A  few  species  are  found 
in  temperate  regions  ;  one  species  only,  Chammropa 
humilis,  being  a  native  of  Europe,  and  extending  as 
far  north  as  lat.  44°,  whilst  the  northern  limit  of 
P.  in  Asia  is  about  lat.  34°,  and  in  North  America, 
lat.  35°.  In  South  America,  the  southern  limit  of 
P.  is  lat.  36°  ;  in  Australia,  it  is  lat  35° ;  in 
Africa,  no  native  species  is  found  further  south  than 
lat.  30°  ;  but  in  New  Zealand,  one  species  extends 
as  far  south  as  lat.  38°  23?.  Some  of  the  species, 
however,  which  are  found  in  tropical  America  grow 
in  mountain  regions  bordering  upon  the  limits  of 
perpetual  snow.  Some  P.  have  very  narrow  geo- 
graphical limits ;  the  cocoa-nut  palm  is  by  far  the 
most  extensively  distributed  species.  Some,  like 
the  cocoa-nut,  grow  in  maritime,  others  in  inland 
districts.  Some  grow  on  dry  and  sandy  ground, 
others  in  the  richest  alluvial  soil,  and  some  in 
swampy  situations  ;  some  in  open  districts,  others 
in  dense  forests.  Some  species  are  generally  found 
singly,  some  in  groups  ;  some  even  cover  tracts  of 
country  in  which  no  other  tree  appears. 

The  uses  of  P.  are  many  and  various;  there  is 
almost  no  species  which  is  not  capable  of  being 
applied  to  some  use.  Tribes  in  the  lowest  grade  of 
civilisation  depend  almost  entirely  on  particular 
species   of  palm,  as  the  cocoa-nut  palm,  for  the 


PALMS— PALMYRA  PALM. 


supply  of  all  their  wants.     The  fruit  of  some  species 
is  eaten  ;  sometimes  the  fleshy  part  of  the  fruit, 
Sometimes  the  kernel  of  the  nut.     The  importance 
of  the  date   and  the  cocoa-nut  needs  only  to  be 
alluded  to  ;  bnt  in  this  respect  they  far  excel  the 
fruits  of  all  other  palms.    A  grateful  beverage  is 
made  from  the  fruit  of  some  P.  (see  Assai),  consist- 
ing simply  of  a  mixture  of  the  pulp  with  water ; 
but  a  kind  of  wine  can  be  obtained  also  by  ferment- 
ation (see  Date).     A  kind  of  beverage  more  gene- 
rally used  is  the  sap  of  palm-trees,  either  fresh  or 
fermented  (palm-wine  or  toddy),  from  which  also  a 
kind  of  spirits  called  Arrack  (q.  v.)  is  obtained  by 
distillation  ;  whilst  from  the  fresh  sap,  boiled  down, 
sugar  is  obtained — the  jaggery  of  the  East  Indies. 
The  sap  of  various  species  of  palm  is  collected  and 
used  for  these  purposes,  and  that  of  many  others  is 
probably  not  less  suitable.     The  pulp  of  the  fruit  of 
Borne  species,  and  the  kernel  of  others,  yield  bland 
fixed  oil  useful  for  various  purposes.    See  Oil  Palm 
and  Cocoa-Nut.     The  soft  and  starchy  centre  of 
the  stem  of  some  P.  affords  a  very  important  and 
abundant  article  of  food.     See  Sago.     The  terminal 
bud,  or  cabbage,  of  some  species  is  boiled  for  the 
table  ;  and  although  the  taking  of  the  bud  is  death 
to  the  tree,  this  is  little  regarded  where  vegetation 
goes  on  with  a  rapidity  and  luxuriance  unknown  in 
the  colder  parts  of  the  world.     The  young  sprouts 
arising  from  the  seeds  of  P.,  when  they  have  begun 
to  vegetate,  are  another  esculeDt  of  tropical  coun- 
tries.    From  the  stems  of  some  species  of  palm,  as 
the  Wax  Palm  (q.  v.)  of  the  Andes,  and  from  the 
leaves  of  some,  as  the  Carnahuba  Palm  (q.  v.),  wax 
is  obtained,  which  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as 
bees-wax.    The  wood  of  P.  is  used  in  house  building, 
and  for  many  other  purposes  ;  some  affording  very 
hard  and  beautiful  wood  for  ornamental  work,  whilst 
others  are  suitable  only  for  coarse  purposes.     The 
great  leaf-stalks  are  also  used  for  some  of  the  purposes 
of  timber.     The  stems  of  the  most  slender  species 
are  used  for  walking-sticks,  &c,  and,  split  or  unsplit, 
for  wicker-work.   See  Rattan.   The  leaves  of  many 
P.  are  used  for  thatching  houses.     The  spathes  of 
some  species  are  used  as  vessels  or  bags.     The  fibres 
of  the  leaf,  the  fibres  connected  with  the  leaf-stalk, 
the  fibres  of  the  rind  of  the  fruit,  and  the  fibres  of 
the  stem  of  different  kinds  of  P.  are  used  for  making 
cordage,  mats,  nets,  cloth,  &c.     The  most  important 
of  these  fibres  are  Coir  (q.  v.)  or  Cocoa-nut  Fibre, 
Gomuto  (q.  v.)  or  Ejoo  Fibre,  and  Piassaba  (q.  v.). 
The   coarsest   fibres   are   employed  as  bristles   for 
making  brushes,  &c.      Stripes  of  the  delicate  epi- 
dermis of  the  young  unopened  leaves  of  some  South 
American  P.  are  twisted,  and  so  used  for  making  a 
kind  of  thread;  hammocks  made  of  which  are  highly 
valued.      See  Astrocarycjm.      The  leaves  of  the 
Palmyra  Palm  and  Talipot  Palm  are  used  in  some 
parts  of  the  east  for  writing  upon,  an  iron  style 
being  employed  instead  of  a  pen.     One  of  the  kinds 
of  the  resinous  substance  called  Dragon's  Blood  is 
obtained  from  the  fruit  of  a  palm.     The  Betel  (q.v.) 
Nut,  abounding  in  catechu,  is  the  fruit  of  a  palm. 
The  fruit  of  many  P.  is  very  acrid.    The  ashes  of  the 
fruits  of  some  American  species  are  used  by  the 
Indians  as  a  substitute  for  salt,  probably  on  account 
of  potash,  or  some  salt  of  potash,  which  they  con- 
tain ;  and  much  potash  may  be  obtained  from  the 
stems  and  leaves  of  palms.     Vegetable  Ivory  (q.  v.) 
is  the  kernel  of  the  fruit  of  a  palm  ;  and  somewhat 
simdar  to  it  in  quality  is  the  Coquilla  Nut  (q.v.). 
But  a  complete  enumeration  of  the  uses  to  which 
P.  and  their  products  are  applied  is  almost  impos- 
sible. 

Some  of  the  more  important  species  of  P.   are 
noticed  in  separate  articles. 

About  five  hundred  species  are  known ;  but  it  is 
224 


probable  that  many  are  still  undescribed.  The 
most  complete  work  on  P.  is  the  monograph  by 
Martins,  Genera  et  Species  Palmarum  (3  vols.,  large 
folio,  Munich,  1S23— 1S45),  a  magnificent  work, 
with  219  coloured  plates ;  but  many  new  species 
have  been  discovered  since  its  publication. 

The  cultivation  of  P.  in  hothouses  is  attended 
with  great  expense.  Separate  houses  are  devoted 
to  them  in  a  few  gardens,  of  which  the  greatest  is 
that  at  Kew.  A  very  fine  palm-house  has  been 
erected  in  the  Botanic  Garden  of  Edinburgh.  P. 
are  cultivated  in  hothouses  merely  as  objects  of 
interest,  and  for  the  gratification  of  a  refined  taste, 
never  for  the  sake  of  their  fruit  or  any  other 
product. 

PALMY'RA,  the  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to 
a  great  and  sjdendid  city  of  Upper  Syria.  Its 
original  Hebrew  name  was  Tadmor,  which,  like  the 
Greek  word,  means  '  city  of  palms.'  It  was  built, 
according  to  the  writers  of  Kings  (Book  I.  chap.  ix. 
verse  18)  and  Chronicles  (Book  II.  chap.  viii.  verse 
4),  by  Solomon  in  the  10th  c.  B.  c. ;  but  it  is 
more  probable  that  he  only  enlarged  it.  It  occupied 
a  fertile  oasis,  well  watered,  and  abounding  in  palm- 
trees.  Barren  and  naked  mountains  overlook  it 
from  the  west,  and  to  the  east  and  south  stretches 
the  illimitable  sandy  desert.  P.  was,  in  the  Solo- 
monic age,  a  bulwark  of  the  Hebrew  kingdom 
against  the  wandering  hordes  of  Beduins ;  but  its 
early  history  is  obscure  and  insignificant.  After 
the  fall  of  Seleucia,  it  became  a  great  centre  of 
commercial  intercourse  between  the  east  and  the 
west  of  Asia.  Its  commercial  importance,  wealth, 
and  magnificence  greatly  increased  after  the  time 
of  Trajan,  who  subjected  the  whole  country  to 
the  Roman  empire.  In  the  3d  c,  Odenathus,  a 
Syrian,  founded  here  an  empire,  which,  after  his 
murder,  rose  to  great  prosperity  under  his  wife, 
Zenobia  (q.  v.),  and  included  both  Syria  and 
Mesopotamia ;  but  this  wras  not  of  long  duration, 
for  the  Roman  Emperor  Aurelian  conquered  it  in 
the  year  275,  and  the  city  was  soon  after  almost 
entirely  destroyed  in  revenge  for  the  slaughter  of  a 
Roman  garrison.  It  never  recovered  from  this  blow, 
although  Justinian  fortified  it  anew.  The  Saracens 
destroyed  it  in  744.  A  village  called  Tedmor, 
inhabited  by  a  few  Arab  families,  now  occupies  the 
site.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  city,  white  and 
dazzling  in  the  Syrian  sun,  excite  at  a  little  dis- 
tance the  admiration  of  all  beholders  ;  but  when 
examined  in  detail,  they  are  said  to  be  far  from 
imposing,  though  in  regard  to  this  latter  point 
opinions  differ.  They  were  visited  by  English 
merchants  resident  at  Aleppo  in  1691,  and  again  by 
Messrs  Wood  and  Dawkins  in  1751,  and  since  then 
by  a  vast  number  of  travellers.  The  ruins  of  a 
temple  of  Baal,  the  sun  god,  are,  however,  con- 
fessedly magnificent.  The  language  of  ancient 
Palmyrene  appears,  from  inscriptions  which  remain, 
to  have  been  an  Aramaic  language.  See  Murray's 
Handbook  for  Syria  and  Palestine  by  Porter  (Lond. 
1858). 

PALMYRA  PALM  (Borassus  flabellifornm),  a 
species  of  palm  with  a  magnificent  crown  of  fan- 
shaped  leaves,  a  native  of  the  East  Indies.  The 
stem  attains  a  height  of  25—40,  or  even  60  feet,  and 
tapers  slightly  upwards.  The  leaves  are  about 
four  feet  long,  with  stalks  of  about  the  same  length, 
the  stalks  spiny  at  the  edges ;  each  leaf  having 
70 — 80  rays.  The  fruit  is  somewhat  triangular, 
about  the  size  of  a  child's  head ;  having  a  thick, 
fibrous,  and  rather  succulent  yellowish-brown  or 
glossy  black  rind,  and  containing  three  seeds  each 
as  large  as  a  goose's  egg.  The  P.  P.  is  the  most 
common  palm  of  India,  growing  spontaneously  in 


PALMYRA  WOOD— PALPITATION. 


many  districts,  cultivated  in  others,  .and  reaching 
as  far  north  as  lat  30°.  It  is  of  slow  growth  ;  and 
tho  wood  near  the  circumference  of  the  stem  in  old 
trees  is  very  hard,  black,  heavy,  durable,  susceptible 
of  a  high  polish,  and  valuable,  easily  divided  in  a 
longitudinal  direction,  but  very  difficult  to  cut 
across.  The  P.  P.  abounds  greatly  in  the  north 
of  Ceylon,  forming  extensive  forests ;  and  the 
timber  is  exported  to  the  opposite  coast  of  India, 
being  of  superior  quality  to  that  which  is  produced 
there.  It  is  much  used  in  house  building.  The 
stalks  of  the  leaves  are  used  for  making  fences,  &c. 
The  leaves  are  used  for  thatching  houses  ;  for 
making  baskets,  mats,  hats,  umbrellas,  and  large 
fans ;  and  for  writing  upon.  Their  fibres  are 
employed  for  making  twine  and  small  rope ;  they 
are  about  two  feet  long,  and  very  wiry.  A  fine  down 
found  at  the  base  of  the  leaf-stalks  is  used  for 
straining  liquids,  and  for  stanching  wounds.  The 
P.  P.  yields  palm-wine,  and  of  course  also  arrack 
and  sugar  {jaggery).  It  furnishes  great  part  of  the 
palm- wine,  sugar,  and  arrack  of  India.  See  Arrack. 
The  fruit  is  cooked  in  a  great  variety  of  ways,  and 
used  for  food.  The  seeds  are  jelly-like,  and  palat- 
able when  young.  A  bland  fixed  oil  is  extracted 
from  the  fruit.  The  young  plants,  when  a  few 
inches  high,  are  esteemed  as  a  culinary  vegetable, 
being  boiled  and  eaten  generally  with  a  little  of  the 
kernel  of  the  cocoa-nut ;  and  sometimes  they  are 
dried  and  pounded  into  a  kind  of  meal.  Multi- 
tudes of  the  inhabitants  of  the  north  of  Ceylon 
depend  almost  entirely  on  the  P.  P.  for  the  supply 
of  all  their  wants.  In  the  '  Palmyra  Regions '  of 
the  Southern  Dekkan  vast  numbers  of  the  people 
subsist  chiefly  on  the  fruit  of  this  palm. 

The  Deleb  Palm  (q.  v.),  so  important  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Central  Africa,  is  believed  to  be 
nearly  allied  to  the  Palmyra  Palm. 

PALMYRA  WOOD.  Properly  this  name  applies 
only  to  the  wood  of  the  Palmyra  palm  (Borassus 
flabelliformis),  but  it  is  generally  used  for  all  kinds 
of  palm-tree  wood  imported  into  this  country, 
amongst  which  very  much  is  the  wood  of  the 
cocoa-nut  palm,  Cocos  nucifera,  and  the  allied 
species  C.  plumosa.  These  woods  are  also  called 
Speckled  Wood  and  Porcupine  Wood  by  the  dealers 
— the  former  name  being  applied  to  those  veneers  cut 
transversely,  and  shewing  the  ends  of  numerous 
black  fibres  mixed  with  the  lighter  coloured  por- 
tions ;  and  the  latter  to  longitudinal  sections,  in 
which  the  mixed  black  and  white  fibres  much 
resemble  porcupines'  quills. 

PA'LO  BLA'NCO  {Flotovia  dicanthoides),  a  large 
tree,  a  native  of  Chili,  the  wood  of  which  is  white, 
and  very  useful  and  durable.  It  is  remarkable  as 
one  of  the  few  large  trees  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Compositce. 

PALO'LO,  or  BALOLO  {Palolo  viridis),  a  dorsi- 
branchiate  annelid,  allied  to  the  Lug- worm, 
extremely  abundant  at  certain  seasons  in  the  sea 
above  and  near  the  coral  reefs  which  surround 
many  of  the  South  Sea  Islands,  as  the  Samoa 
Islands  and  the  Fiji  Islands.  The  body  is  cylin- 
drical, slightly  tapering  at  both  ends,  divided  into 
nearly  equal  joints,  each  joint  with  a  small  tuft  of 
gills  on  each  side.  In  thickness,  the  P.  resembles  a 
very  tine  straw ;  it  is  about  three  inches  long, 
generally  of  a  greenish  colour,  with  a  row  of  round 
black  spots ;  but  the  colour  varies  to  red,  brown, 
and  white.  These  annelids  make  their  appearance 
in  great  multitudes,  apparently  rising  out  of  the 
coral  reefs,  and  with  a  periodical  regularity  which 
is  very  remarkable.  They  are  eagerly  sought  after 
by  the  islanders,  who  are  on  the  watch  for  their 
appearance,  and  go  out  in  canoes  early  in  the  morn- 
327 


ing  to  take  them  by  means  of  nets ;  but  they  often 
occur  in  such  numbers  that  the  water  seems  to  be 
full  of  them,  and  they  may  be  grasped  by  haudfuls. 


Palolo  Viridis  (copied  from  Seemann's  Viti) : 
1,  the  entire   animal,    half  natural   size;  2,  portion   of  body, 
slightly  magnified  ;    3,  magnified   figure  of  its  head,    wiih 
its  three  frontal  tentacula  and  eyes;  4,  posterior  extremity, 
dorsal  aspect. 

They  are  a  delicacy  of  which  the  South  Sea  islanders 
are  very  fond.  To  prepare  them  for  use,  they  are 
wrapped  in  bread-fruit  leaves,  and  cooked  for  twelve 
or  eighteen  hours  in  an  oven. 

PA'LPI  (from  the  Lat.  palpo,  I  touch) 
are  organs  occurring  in  Insects,  Crustaceans,  and 
Arachnidans.  In  Insects,  one  or  two  pair  of 
jointed  appendages  bearing  this  name  are  attached 
to  the  maxillae,  while  one  pair  is  attached  to  the 
labium ;  and  in  the  higher  Crustaceans,  similar 
appendages  are  attached  to  the  mandibles  and 
foot-jaws.  In  both  these  classes,  the  palpi  probably 
serve,  through  the  sense  of  touch,  to  take  cog- 
nisance of  the  qualities  of  the  substances  which  are 
employed  as  food.  In  the  Arachnidans,  the  palpi 
are  attached  to  the  maxillae  only ;  and  vary  exceed- 
ingly in  form  and  functions.  In  the  scorpions,  for 
instance,  they  are  extremely  developed,  and  termin 
ate  in  pincers  which  resemble  the  chelae  (or  pincers) 
of  crabs  and  lobsters ;  while  in  the  spiders,  they 
terminate  in  a  single  movable  claw  in  the  female, 
and  in  the  male  the  last  joint  is  dilated,  and  acts 
as  an  accessory  generative  organ. 

PALPITATION  is  the  term  used  to  signify 
inordinately  forcible  pulsations  of  the  heart,  so  as 
to  make  themselves  felt,  and  frequently  to  give  rise 
to  a  most  troublesome  and  disagreeable  sensation. 
It  may  be  either  functional  or  a  symptom  of  organic 
disease  of  the  heart.  Here  we  shall  merely  con- 
sider it  as  a  functional  disorder.  Although  it  may 
be  persistent,  it  far  more  frequently  comes  on  in 
paroxysms,  which  usually  terminate  within  half  an 
hour,  recurring  afterwards  quite  irregularly,  some- 
times daily  or  several  times  a  day,  and  sometimes 
not  till  after  a  long  interval.  The  attack  often 
comes  on  under  some  mental  or  physical  excitement, 
but  sometimes  when  the  patient  is  quite  composed, 
or  even  asleep.  If  the  paroxysm  is  a  severe  one,  the 
heart  feels  as  if  bounding  upwards  into  the  throat ; 
and  there  is  a  sensation  of  oppression  over  the 
cardiac  region,  with  hurried  or  even  difficult  respir- 
ation. Excluding  organic  diseases,  the  causes  of 
this  affection  are  either  (1)  an  abnormally  excitable 


PALSY— PAMPAS  GRASS. 


condition  of  the  nerves  of  the  heart,  or  (2)  an  un- 
healthy condition  of  the  blood. 

1.  Amongst  the  causes  of  disturbed  innervation 
may  lie  especially  noticed  the  abuse  of  tea  (especially 
green  tea),  coffee,  spirits,  and  tobacco.  Any  irrita- 
tion of  the  stomach  and  intestinal  canal  may  be 
reflected  to  the  heart;  and  hence  palpitation  may 
frequently  be  traced  to  flatulence,  undue  acidity, 
and  intestinal  worms,  especially  tape-worms.  Every- 
thing that  causes  pressure  on  the  heart,  such  as  tight 
lacing,  abdominal  dropsy,  or  an  enlarged  uterus,  is 
also  liable  to  occasion  this  affection. 

2.  If  the  blood  is  abnormally  rich  and  stimulating 
it  may  give  rise  to  palpitation,  as  in  Plethora  (q.  v.) ; 
but  the  opposite  condition,  known  as  Anaemia  (q.  v.), 
is  a  much  more  common  cause  of  this  affection.  In 
anaemia  the  blood  is  watery  and  deficient  in  fibrine, 
and  (far  more)  in  red  corpuscles ;  and  being  thus  in 
an  unnatural  state,  it  acts  as  an  unnatural  stimulant, 
and  induces  frequent,  although  not  usually  strong, 
pulsations.  In  cases  of  this  kind,  singular  murmurs 
(not  unlike  those  which  are  heard  when  we  apply 
certain  shells  to  the  ear)  are  heard  on  applying  the 
stethoscope  to  the  neck  over  the  course  of  the  great 
jugular  veins. 

The  age  at  which  palpitation  most  usually  comes 
on  is  from  1 5  to  25  years ;  and  the  affection — especially 
ii  it  arise  from  anaemia — is  very  much  more  common 
in  the  female  than  in  the  male  sex. 

The  treatment  of  palpitation  must  entirely  depend 
upon  its  cause.  The  use  of  all  nervous  stimulants 
(tea,  coffee,  alcohol,  and  tobacco)  should  be  suspended 
or  abandoned.  If  the  patient  is  clearly  plethoric, 
with  a  full  strong  pulse,  he  should  take  saline 
cathartics,  and  live  upon  comparatively  low  diet 
(including  little  animal  food)  until  this  condition 
is  removed.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  palpita- 
tion is  due  to  an  anremic  condition,  the  remedies 
are  preparations  of  iron,  aloetic  purgatives,  an 
abundance  of  animal  food,  bitter  ale,  the  cold 
shower-bath,  and  exercise,  short  of_  producing 
positive  fatigue,  in  a  pure  bracing  air.  In  the 
paroxvsms,  relief  Avill  often  be  afforded  by  the 
administration  of  a  diffusible  stimulant,  such  as 
ammoniated  tincture  of  valerian,  aromatic  spirit  of 
ammonia,  &c. 

PA'LSY.    See  Paralysis. 

PA'LY.     See  Pale. 

PA'MLICO  SOUND,  a  large  bay  on  the  coast 
of  North  Carolina,  U.  S.,  separated  from  the  ocean 
by  long,  narrow  islands  of  sand,  an  angle  of 
the  largest  forming  Cape  Hatteras,  and  connected 
with  the  ocean  by  narrow  passages,  the  chief  of 
which  is  Ocracoke  Inlet,  and  on  the  north  with 
Albemarle  Sound  ;  it  is  80  miles  long,  and  from  10  to 
30  miles  wide,  and  receives  the  Neuse  and  Pamlico 
Rivers. 

PA'MPAS  (in  the  Quichua  tongue,  '  a  valley '  or 
'plain')  is  a  term  employed  in  a  general  sense  as  a 
designation  of  Southern  American  plains,  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  'prairies'  of  North  America  and 
in  this  sense  it  is  frequently  emploved  by  geog- 
raphers. It  is  also  used  in  Peru  as  a  general 
designation  of  tracts  of  level  land  either  on  the 
coast  or  among  the  mountains,  and  in  this  sense 
occurs  as  a  component  of  many  proper  names,  being 
then  transformed  into  bamba.  The  chief  pampas  in 
Pern  are  those  of  the  Sacramento.  But  in  its  more 
special  and  proper  signification,  the  word  pampas  is 
given  to  the  immense  and  partly  undulating  plains 
bounded  by  the  Rio  Negro  of  Patagonia,  the  La 
Plata  and  Paraguay,  and  the  base  of  the  Cordilleras. 
These  plains  during  the  wet  season  afford  abundant 
pasturage  to  the  many  herds  of  wild  oxen  and 
Sfflfi 


horses  which  roam  over  them,  but  they  become 
rapidly  parched  under  the  burning  heat  of  the  sun. 
except  in  the  low-lying  tracts,  or  along  the  banks  of 
rivers.  The  most  fertile  of  the  pampas  lie  west- 
wards towards  the  Cordilleras.  Prom  the  rapid 
alternation  of  vigorous  growth  with  parching 
drought,  the  growth  of  trees  is  impossible,  and  the  ;.r 
place  is  accordingly  supplied  by  sparse  groups  of 
stunted  shrubs.  The  soil,  which  is  in  general  poor, 
is  a  diluvium  composed  of  sandy  clay,  and  abounds 
in  the  bones  of  extinct  mammals.  Strips  of  water* 
less  desert,  known  as  travesias,  stretch  across  thfl 
pampas  ;  these  travesias  are  destitute  of  all  vegetal* 
tion  with  the  exception  of  a  few  bushes,  and  ar* 
markedly  distinct  in  geological  character.  The  soil 
of  the  pampas  is  more  or  less  impregnated  with  salt, 
and  saltpetre  abounds  in  many  places.  The  wild 
animals  of  the  pampas  are  horses,  oxen  (both  intro- 
duced by  the  Spaniards),  nandous,  and  guanacoa. 
The  skins  of  the  horses  and  oxen,  and  the  flesh  of 
the  latter,  form  a  most  important  item  in  the  trade 
of  this  region.  The  half-white  inhabitants  of  the 
pampas  are  called  Guachos  (q.  v.).  The  whole  area 
of  the  pampas  has  been  estimated  at  about  1,500,000 
square  miles. 

PAMPAS  GRASS  (Gynerium  argenteum),  a 
grass  which  covers  the  pampas  in  the  south  of 
Brazil  and  more  southern  parts  of  South  America, 
and  has  been  introduced  into  the  United  States  as  an 
ornamental  plant.  It  is  quite  hardy,  and  its  tufts 
have  a  splendid  appearance.     The  leaves  are  six  or 


Pampas  Grass  {Gynerium  argenteum). 

eight  feet  long,  the  ends  hanging  gracefully  over; 
the  flowering  stems  ten  to  fourteen  feet  high,  the 
panicles  of  flowers  silvery  white,  and  from  eighteen 
inches  to  two  feet  long.  The  herbage  is  too  ccarse 
to  be  of  any  agricultural  value.  The  male  and 
female  flowers  are  on  separate  plants;  in  panicles; 
the  spikelets  2-flowered,  one  floret  stalked,  and 
the  other  sessile;  the  paleas  of  the  female  florets 
elongated,  awn-shaped,  and  woolly. — Another  species 


PAMPHLET— PANAMA. 


of  the  same  genus,  G.  aaecharoides,  also  a  Brazilian 
grass,  yields  a  considerable  quantity  of  sugar. 

PA'MPHLET  (variously  derived  from  Spanish 
papaleta,  sli]>  of  paper  on  which  anything  is  written, 
ami  paginafilata,  threaded  page),  a  small  book  con- 
sisting of  a  sheet  of  paper,  or  a  few  sheets  stitched 
together,  but  not  bound.  It  generally  contains  a 
Bhort  treatise  on  some  subject,  political  or  otherwise, 
Which  is  exciting  public  attention  at  the  time  of  its 
appearance.  The  word  is  of  considerable  antiquity, 
as  it  is  to  be  met  with  in  Chaucer  ;  but  it  was  not 
till  about  the  middle  of  the  KJth  c.  that  pamphlets 
began  to  be  of  common  use  in  political  and  religious 
controversy  in  England  ami  France.  Under  the 
recent  French  empire,  political  pamphlets  appeared 
from  time  to  time  which  were  generally  hclievcd  to  le 
written  under  imperial  dictation,  and  cither  to  speak 
the  sentiments  of  the  emperor,  or  to  he  feelers  of  pub- 
lic opinion. 

PAMPHY'LIA,  anciently  a  country  on  the  south 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  with  Oilicia  on  the  east  and 
Lyeia  on  the  west.  It  was  originally  bounded  on 
the  inland  or  northern  side  by  Mount  Taurus,  but 
afterwards  enlarged,  so  as  to  reach  the  confines  of 
Phrygia.  P.  is  mountainous,  was  formerly  well 
wooded,  and  had  numerous  maritime  cities.  The 
inhabitants — a  mixed  race  of  aborigines,  Cilicians, 
and  Greek  colonists— spoke  a  language  the  basis  of 
which  was  probably  Greek,  but  which  was  disfigured 
and  corrupted  by  the  infusion  of  barbaric  elements. 
Their  coins  shew  that  they  had  adopted  to  some 
extent  the  religion,  arts,  and  games  of  the  Hellenic 
race.  Its  political  history  is  unimportant.  Along 
with  Phrygia  and  Lycia  it  fell  to  the  share  of 
Antigonus  on  the  partition  of  the  Macedonian 
empire.  It  afterwards  passed  successively  into  the 
hands  of  the  Graeco-Syrian  princes,  the  kiugs  of 
Pergamus,  and  the  Romaus. 

PAMPLO'XA,  a  fortified  city  of  Spain,  capital 
of  Navarre,  of  which  it  is  the  key,  occupies  an 
eminence  not  commanded  by  any  neighbouring 
height,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Arga,  a  tributary  of 
the  Ebro,  111  miles  north-north-west  of  Zaragoza  by 
railway,  and  200  miles  north-north-east  of  Madrid. 
The  citadel,  overlooking  the  river  and  commanding 
the  plain,  is  a  regidar  pentagon,  each  side  being 
1000  feet  in  extent,  and  is  connected  with  the  city 
by  an  esplanade  or  glacis.  Magnificent  views  of 
the  Pyrenees  on  the  north  are  obtained  from  the 
citadel,  and  there  are  several  very  pleasant  prome- 
nades. The  Cuenca  (plain)  of  P.  is  about  30  miles 
in  circumference  ;  and  although  the  climate  is  some- 
what chilly  and  damp,  the  gardens  are  fruitful  and 
the  meadows  verdant.  The  city  is  well  built  and 
clean  ;  water  is  brought  from  hills  about  nine  miles 
distant,  by  means  of  an  aqueduct  built  after  the 
solid  Roman  style  by  Ventura  Rodriguez,  and  a 
portion  of  which,  2300  feet  in  length,  is  supported 
on  97  arches,  35  feet  in  span,  and  65  feet  in  height. 
The  town  contains  a  number  of  squares  with  foun- 
tains, a  theatre,  and  the  regular  plaza  de  tor  or — 
hull  arena — capable,  it  is  said,  of  containing  10,000 
people.  Agriculture,  the  wine  trade,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  linens  and  leather  are  the  only  note- 
worthy branches  of  industry.  Pop.,  with  suburbs, 
22.702. 

P.  was  called  by  the  ancients  Pompeiopolis,  from 
the  circumstance  of  its  having  been  rehuilt  by  the 
sons  of  Pompey  in  68  B.  c.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Goths  in  466,  by  the  Franks  under  Childehert  in 
542,  and  again  under  Charlemagne  in  778.  It  was 
subsequently  for  a  time  in  possession  of  the  Moors, 
who  corrupted  the  name  Pompeiopolis  into  Bambi- 
lonah,  whence  the  modern  Pamplona.  In  later 
times'  it  was  seized  by  the  French  in  1S08,  and  held 


by  them  till   1813,  when  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  allies  under  the  Duke  of  Wellington. 

PA  X,  among  the  ( I  reeks,  the  chief  god  of  pasture^ 
forests,  and  flocks.  The  later  rationalising  mycol- 
ogists, misconceiving  the  meaning  of  his  name, 
which  they  confounded  with  to  pan,  'the  whole,'  or 
'the  universe,'  whereas  it  is  more  probably  connected 
with  pao  (Lat.  pasco),  'to  feed,'  'to  pasture,'  repre- 
sented him  as  a  personification  of  the  universe,  but 
there  is  absolutely  nothing  in  the  myth  to  warrant 
such  a  notion.  Pan  neither  in  his  genius  nor  hi? 
j  history  figures  as  one  of  the  great  principal  deities, 
and  his  worship  became  general  only  at  a  compara- 
tively late  period  He  was,  according  to  the  most 
common  belief,  a  son  of  Hermes  (Mercury)  by  the 
daughter  of  Dryops ;  or  by  Penelope,  the  wife  of 
Ulysses  ;  while  other  accounts  make  Penelope  the 
mother,  but  Ulysses  himself  the  father — though  the 
paternity  of  the  god  is  also  ascribed  to  the  numerous 
wooers  of  Penelope  in  common.  The  original  seat  of 
his  worship  was  the  wild  hdly  and  wooded  solitudes 
of  Arcadia,  whence  it  gradually  spread  over  the  rest 
of  Greece,  but  was  not  introduced  into  Athens  until 
after  the  battle  of  Marathon.  Homer  does  not 
mention  him.  From  his  very  birth  his  appearance 
was  peculiar.  He  came  into  the  world  with  horns,  a 
goat's  beard,  a  crooked  nose,  pointed  ears,  a  tail,  and 
goat's  feet ;  and  so  frightened  his  mother  that  she 
ran  off  for  fear,  but  his  father,  Hermes,  carried  him 
to  Olympus,  where  all  the  gods,  especially  Dionysus 
(Bacchus),  were  charmed  with  the  little  monster. 
When  he  grew  up,  he  had  a  grim  shaggy  aspect, 
and  a  terrible  voice,  which  bursting  abruptly  on  the 
ear  of  the  traveller  in  solitary  places — for  Pan  was 
fond  of  making  a  great  noise — inspired  him  with  a 
sudden  fear  (whence  the  word  panic).  It  is  even 
related  that  the  alarm  excited  by  his  blowing  upon 
a  shell  decided  the  victory  of  the  gods  over  the 
Titans.  He  was  the  patron  of  all  persons  occupied 
in  the  care  of  cattle  and  of  bees,  in  hunting  and  in 
fishing.  During  the  heat  of  the  day  he  used  to  take 
a  nap  in  the  deep  woods  or  on  the  lonely  hillsides, 
and  was  exceedingly  wroth  if  his  slumber  was  dis- 
turbed by  the  halloo  of  the  hunters.  He  is  also 
represented  as  fond  of  music,  and  of  dancing  with  the 
forest  nymphs,  and  as  the  inventor  of  the  syrinx  or 
shepherd's  flute,  also  called  Pan's  pipe.  Cows,  goats, 
lambs,  milk,  honey,  and  new  wine  were  offered  to  him. 
The  fir-tree  was  sacred  to  him,  and  he  had  sanctuaries 
and  temples  in  various  parts  of  Arcadia,  at  Troezene, 
at  Sicyon,  at  Athens,  &c.  The  Romans  identified 
the  G-^ek  Pan  with  their  own  Italian  god  Inuus, 
and  sv.  retimes  also  with  Faunus.     See  Fa  ex. 

When,  after  the  establishment  of  Christianity,  the 
heathen  deities  were  degraded  by  the  church  into 
fallen  angels,  the  characteristics  of  Pan — viz.,  the 
horns,  the  goat's  beard,  the  pointed  ears,  the 
crooked  nose,  the  tail,  and  the  goat's  feet — were 
transferred  to  the  Devd  himself,  and  thus  the 
'  Auld  Hornie  '  of  popular  superstition  is  simply  Pan 
in  disguise.  •» 

PANAMA',  a  city  and  seaport  of  the  United 
States  of  Colombia,  capital  of  the  'state'  of  the 
same  name,  at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Panama, 
on  the  southern  shore  of  the  isthmus  of  the  same 
name,  in  lat.  8°  56'  N,  long.  79°  31'  W.  It 
occupies  a  tongue  of  land  which  extends  some  dis- 
tance out  to  sea  in  shallow  waters.  The  harbour 
is  safe,  but  vessels  of  more  than  80  tons  burden 
cannot  approach  within  two  miles  of  the  shore. 
Large  vessels  anchor  at  a  distance  of  three  miles, 
near  the  island  of  Perico.  The  important  edifices 
of  the  city  include  a  beautiful  cathedral,  a  college, 
and  several  convents,  all  of  which,  however,  are 
falling  into  decay.    There  is  considerable  trade  with 

227 


PANAMA— PANCHATANTRA. 


Europe  in  pearls,  mother-of-pearl,  shells,  and  gold- 
dust,  obtained  in  the  vicinity.  P.  is  chiefly  import- 
ant, however,  as  the  Pacific  terminus  of  the  Panama 
Railway.  The  railway  was  completed  in  1855,  is 
about  40  miles  in  length,  and  connects  P.  on  the 
Pacific  with  Aspinwall  colony  on  the  Atlantic.  By 
means  of  it  the  route  to  California  is  much  shortened, 
and  the  mails  were  carried  over  it  until  the  recent 
completion  of  the  Pacific  Railway.  Pop.(18"0)  18,378. 
The  former  city  of  P.,  the  seat  of  the  Spanish  coionial 
government  established  in  151S,  stood  six  miles  north- 
cast-  of  the  port  of  P.,  and  is  now  a  heap  of  ruins. 

PANAMA,  Isthmus  op,  is  that  portion  of  the 
narrow  ridge  of  mountainous  country  connecting 
Central  and  South  America,  which  is  bounded  on 
the  W.  by  the  frontier  of  Costa  Rica,  and  on  the 
E.  by  the  surveyed  inter-oceanic  route  from  the 
Bay  of  Caledonia  on  the  N.  to  the  Gulf  of  San 
Miguel  on  the  S.  or  Pacific  side.  It  extends  in 
long,  from  77°  to  83°  W.  The  'State'  of  P.,  one 
of  those  which  form  the  United  States  of  Colombia, 
is  co-extensive  with  the  isthmus  of  the  same  name. 
Area,  29,756;  population  in  1870,  220,542,  ex- 
clusive of  8000  independent  Indians.  The  Isthmus 
is  traversed  throughout  by  a  chain  of  mountains 
forming  the  barrier  between  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  Oceans,  and  of  which  the  highest  peak  is 
that  of  Picacho  (7200  feet)  in  the  west.  Numerous 
streams,  the  largest  of  which  is  the  Tuira  (162  miles 
long,  and  navigable  for  102  miles),  fall  into  both 
oceaus.  On  the  Pacific  shores  are  numerous  beauti- 
ful islands,  among  which  Las  Perlas,  so  called  from 
their  pearl  fisheries,  and  the  island  of  Coiba,  are  the 
chief.  On  the  north  coast,  the  principal  harbours 
are  the  Chiriqui  Lagoon,  San  Bias,  and  Caledonia; 
on  the  south  shore,  Damas  in  the  island  of  Coiba, 
the  Bay  of  San  Miguel,  and  Golfo  Dulce.  Gold, 
which  in  ancient  times  was  obtained  here  in  great 
quantities,  is  still  found,  and  mines  of  salt,  copper, 
iron,  coal,  &c,  are  worked.  The  climate  is  unhealthy, 
except  in  the  interior  and  on  the  flanks  of  the 
mountains.  Almost  all  the  plants  of  the  torrid 
zone  may  be  raised  here,  but  maize,  rice,  plantains, 
&c.  (grown  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  transit), 
are  the  chief  crops.  Cotton  of  excellent  quality  is 
indigenous  and  perennial  ;  cloth  and  grass  ham- 
mocks, grass  (Panama)  hats,  matting,  &c,  are  manu- 
factured. Commerce,  however,  affords  the  principal 
employment. 

In  18.35  a  railway  across  the  Isthmus,  from 
Aspinwall  city  on  the  Atlantic  to  Panama  on  the 
Pacific,  was  opened.  See  Panama.  The  Isthmus 
has  frequently  been  surveyed  with  the  object  of 
finding  a  route  for  an  inter-oceanic  canal.  In  1869,  a 
treaty  was  concluded  between  the  United  States  and 
Colombia,  stipulating  for  a  survey  of  the  isthmus  of 
Panama  and  the  construction  of  an  inter-oceanic  canal. 
Operations  have  been  attempted  by  authority  of 
President  Grant,  but  the  project  appears  to  be  im- 
practicable. 

PANATHEN^E'A,  the  most  famous  festival  of 
Attica,  celebrated  at  Athens  in  honour  of  Athene, 
patron  goddess  of  the  city,  and  intended  to  remind 
the  people  of  Attica  of  their  union  into  one  com- 
munity by  the  mythical  Theseus.  Before  the  time 
of  Theseus,  or — to  speak  more  critically — before  the 
formation  of  the  Attic  confederacy,  this  festival 
was  only  for  the  citizens  of  Athens,  and  was  called 
simply  Athencea.  According  to  tradition,  the  Athe- 
naea  owed  its  origin  to  King  Erichthonius  about 
1506  or  1521  b.  c.  The  later  Pauathensea  appears 
to  have  been  a  double  festival.  All  writers  who 
mention  it,  speak  of  a  Lesser  and  Greater  Pana- 
thenasa,  the  former  held  annually,  the  latter  every 
fourth  year.  Both  took  place  in  the  month  Ilcca- 
228' 


tombceon  (July),  and  lasted  several  days.  The 
Lesser  Panathensea  was  celebrated  with  gymnastio 
games,  musical  competitions,  declamations,  and  a 
torch  race  in  the  evening,  the  whole  concluding 
with  the  sacrifice  of  an  ox.  The  prize  of  the 
victors  was  a  vessel  filled  with  oil  from  the  sacred 
tree  on  the  Acropolis.  The  Greater  Panathenoea 
only  differed  from  the  Lesser  in  being  more  solemn 
and  magnificent.  Rhapsodists  sang  the  Homeric 
poems  ;  dramatic  representations  were  given ;  and 
a  splendid  procession  took  place  to  the  temple  of 
Athene  Polias,  ou  the  last  day  of  the  festival,  to 
present  the  goddess  with  a  pcplus  or  embroidered 
robe,  of  crocus  colour,  woven  by  the  maidens  (erga- 
slinai)  of  the  city.  Not  alone  the  Athenians,  but 
the  whole  population  of  Attica  poured  forth  on  this 
occasion.  The  procession  is  grandly  sculptured  on 
the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  by  Phidias  and  his 
disciples. 

PA'NAX.    See  Ginseng. 

PA'NCAKE.  This  article  of  food  is  prepared  by 
pouring  a  rich  batter  of  flour,  eggs,  and  milk  into 
a  frying-pan,  so  as  to  cover  it  about  half  an  inch 
in  thickness  ;  the  pan  having  been  previously 
heated,  and  well  supplied  with  butter,  lard,  or  olive 
oil.  A  quick  tire  is  necessary  to  cook  it  well,  and 
when  the  under  side  is  done,  a  dexterous  cook  by 
jerking  the  frying-pan  manages  to  reverse  the  cake, 
so  as  to  bring  the  upper  side  downward  to  be  cooked 
in  its  turn.  It  is  now  a  common  practice  to  make 
pancakes  rather  smaller  than  the  bottom  of  the 
pan,  and  frequently  to  add  minced  apples  and 
other  materials  to  vary  and  flavour  them ;  these 
are,  however,  better  known  under  the  name  of 
Fritters. 

This  dish  is  particularly  associated  with  Shrove 

Tuesday,  but  the  origin  of  the  connection  is  by  no 

means  clear.      Perhaps  it  is  the  relic  of  a  heathen 

custom.     The  Saxons  called  February,   Solmonnth, 

'which,'  says  a  writer  in  Notes  and  Queries  (First 

Series,  vol  v.  p.  491),  'Dr    Frank    Sayers,  in  his 

j  Disquisitions,   says   is   explained   by    Bede,  Mensis 

I  Placentarum,    and    rendered    by    Spelman,    in    an 

i  inedited  MS.,   "  Pancake   month,"    because,  in   the 

j  course  of  it,  pancakes  were  offered  by  the  pagan 

Saxons  to  the  sun.' 

PANCH  AT  ANTRA  (literally,  the  five  books)  is 
the  name  of  the  celebrated  Sanscrit  fable-book  of 
the  Hindus  whence  the  Hitapadesfa  (q.  v.)  was 
compiled  and  enlarged.  Its  authorship  is  ascribed 
to  a  Brahman  of  the  name  of  Vishn'us'arman,  who, 
as  its  introduction  in  a  later  recension  relates,  had 
undertaken  to  instruct,  within  six  months,  the 
unruly  sons  of  Amaras'akti,  a  king  of  Mahilaropya 
or  Mihilaropya,  in  all  branches  of  knowledge 
required  by  a  king,  and  for  this  purpose  composed 
this  work.  If  the  latter  part  of  this  story  be  true, 
it  is  more  probable,  however,  as  Professor  Benfey 
assumes,  that  Vishn'us'arman  was  merely  the 
teacher  of  the  princes,  and  that  the  existing  work 
itself  was  composed  by  some  other  personage ;  for 
an  older  recension  of  the  work  does  not  speak 
of  his  having  brought  his  tales  into  the  shape 
of  a  work.  The  arrangement  of  the  P.  is  quite 
similar  to  that  of  the  Hitopades' 'a.  The  fables  ure 
narrated  in  prose,  and  the  morals  drawn  from 
or  connected  with  them  are  interwoven  with  the 
narrative  in  verse;  many  such  verses,  if  not  all, 
being  quotations  from  older  works. — On  the  history 
of  tbe  P.,  and  its  relation  to  the  fable-books  and 
fables  of  other  nations,  see  the  excellent  wcrk  of 
Professor  Theodor  Benfey,  Panchatantra :  fii/if 
Pitcher  indischer  Pabcln,  Marchen  und  Erzahlungen 
(2  vols.,  Leip.  1859),  the  first  volume  containing  his 
historical  and  critical  researches  on,  and  the  latter 


r.\  n  <  ;;  r.AS-rANDANACE/E. 


jis  literal  translation  into   German   of,   the    Pan* 

Juitnidra. 

PANCREAS  (from  tlie  Gr.  pan,  all,  and  kreas, 
desli)  is  a  conglomerate  eland,  lying  transversely 
icross  the  posterior  wall  of  the  abdomen,  varying  in 


The  under  surface  of  the  Stomach  and  Liver,  which  are 
raised  to  shew  the  Duodenum  and  Pancreas  : 

It,  Btomnch  ;  ]>,  its  pyloric  end  ;  /,  liver;  g,  gall-bladder; 
d,  duodenum,  extending  from  the  pyloric  end  of  the 
Btomnch  to  the  front,  whore  the  superior  mesenteric  artery 
(mm)  crosses  the  intestines;  pa,  pancreas;  sp,  spleen;  «, 
abdominal  aorta. 

length  from  G  to  S  inches,  having  a  breadth  of  about 
an  inch  and  a  half,  and  a  thickness  of  from  half  an 
inch  to  an  inch.  As  may  be  seen  in  the  figure,  it 
bears  a  slight  resemblance  in  shape  to  a  hammer  ; 
its  right  extremity,  forming  the  head  of  the  gland, 
being  broad,  and  bent  downwards  at  a  considerable 
angle  from  the  body,  which  terminates  leftwards  in 
a  tapering  end,  termed  the  tail,  extending  as  far 
as  the  spleen.  Its  usual  weight  is  about  three 
ounces.  The  head  of  the  pancreas  lies  in  the  con- 
cavity of  the  duodenum. 

The  secretion  of  this  gland,  or  the  pancreatic 
fluid,  is  conveyed  from  its  various  parts  by  means  of 
the  pancreatic  duet  or  canal  of  Wirsung  (its  dis- 
coverer) to  the  duodenum,  into  the  descending 
portion  of  which  it  enters  by  an  orifice  common  to 
it  and  to  the  common  biliary  duct.  In  various 
mammals,  and  occasioually  in  man,  the  pancreatic 
and  biliary  ducts  open  separately  into  the  intestine. 
This  gland  is  found  in  all  mammals,  birds,  reptiles, 
amphibians,  and  osseous  hshes,  and  in  some  cartil- 
aginous fishes. 

The  physical  and  chemical  characters  of  the  pan- 
creatic fluid,  and  its  uses  in  the  animal  economy,  are 
sufficiently  noticed  in  the  article  Digestiox. 

The  diseases  of  the  pancreas  are  few,  and  do  not 
signify  their  existence  by  any  very  marked  symptoms. 
The  presence  of  undigested  fat  in  the  stools  has  been 
frequently  observed  in  cases  in  which  after  death 
the  pancreas  has  been  found  to  be  diseased  ;  and  if 
Bernard's  views  regarding  the  saponifying  power  of 
the  pancreatic  juice  on  fatty  matters  (described  in 
the  article  already  referred  to)  be  correct,  the  reason 
why  the  fat  should  appear  in  the  evacuations  in 
these  cases  is  sufficiently  obvious.  The  most  common 
form  of  disease  is  cancerous  deposit  in  the  head  of 
the  glaud,  which  frequently  induces  jaundice  by 
obstructing  the  common  biliary  duct  near  its  open- 
ing. An  accurate  diagnosis  of  disease  of  this  organ 
is  extremely  difficult,  but  fortunately  is  of  compara- 
tively little  importance,  as  it  cannot  lead  to  efficient 
treatment ;  all  that  can  be  done  in  these  cases  being 
to  palliate  the  most  distressing  symptoms. 

PANCSOVA,  an  active  trading  town  of  Austria, 
in  the  Servian  military  frontier,  70  miles  south-south- 
west of  Temesvar,  and  close  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Ternes  in  the  Danube,  which  is  here  a  mile  wide. 
It  ia  a  military  station,  contains  several  churches,  a 


hie.li   school,  and  a  quarantine  establishment.  Silk 

spinning,    brandy    distilling,    and    an    active  trnde 

in    cattle,    pigs,    and    corn    are    carried    on.  Pop. 
1870)  13,408. 

PANDA  (Ailurus  fulgent),  a  quadruped  of  the 
family     Ul'ffidm     (see      BeAB),     a      native     cf     the 

Himalaya,  the  only  known  species  of  its  genus, 
which  baa  a  very  short  muzzle,  small  rounded 

a  moderately  long  tail,  covered  with  long  hair, 
semi-retractile  claws.  The  P.  is  about  the  sizu  of 
a   large   cat.      It   dwells   chiefly   in    tri  > 

much  on  birds,  but  it  also  eats  small  quadrupeds 
and  large  insects.  It  has  a  thick,  fine,  woolly 
covering,  adapting  it  to  a  cold  climate,  concealed 
by  long,  soft,  glistening,  and  richly  coloured  hair, 
mostly  chestnut  brown,  which  passes  into  bla  i 

the  sides  and  legs,  and  into  white  on  the  head. 
The  P.  is  said  to  excel  all  other  animals  in  the 
brilliancy  of  its  fur,  which,  however,  has  not  yet 


Panda  (Ailurus  fulgens). 

acquired  any  commercial  value.  The  soles  of  the 
feet  are  thickly  covered  with  woolly  hair.  The  P. 
is  also  called  Wah  and  Chit-wa,  from  a  peculiar 
cry  which  it  utters. 

PANDANACE^E,  a  natural  order  of  endogenous 
plants,  constituting  a  remarkable  feature  in  the 
scenery  of  many  tropical  countries,  but  unknown 
in  the  colder  regions  of  the  globe.  They  are  trees 
or  bushes,  often  sending  down  adventitious  roots, 
sometimes  weak  and  decumbent,  or  climbing.  There 
are  two  sections  of  the  order,  one  (Pandanece) 
including  the  genera  Pandanus,  Freycinetia,  &c, 
having  long,  simple,  imbricated  leaves,  usually  spiny 
on  the  back  and  margin,  their  base  embracing 
the  stem,  their  spiral  arrangement  often  notably 
visible ;  the  other  (Cydanthece)  containing  the  genera 
Cyclanthus,  Nipa  (q.  v.),  Carludovica,  Phymephaa, 
&c,  having  pinnate  or  fan-shaped  leaves,  and  ia 
general  appearance  much  resembling  palms,  wiih 
which  they  have  been  often  ranked.  The  two 
sections,  however,  are  very  similar  in  their  flowers 
and  fruit,  in  which  they  not  a  little  resemble  the 
humbler  Araceoz  and  Typliaceoz.  The  flowers  are 
mostly  unisexual,  naked,  or  with  only  a  few  scales, 
arranged  on  a  spadix,  and  wholly  covering  it.  The 
stamens  are  numerous ;  the  ovaries  usually 
clustered,  one-celled,  each  crowned  with  a  stigma ; 
the  fruit  consists  of  fibrous,  one-seeded  drupes, 
collected  or  almost  combined,  or  of  berries  with 
many  seeds. — There  are  not  quite  100  known 
species.  Some  are  valuable  for  the  fibre  of  their 
leaves,  some  for  their  edible  fruit,  &c.  See  Screw 
Pixe,  Kiekie,  and  Nipa.  The  unexpanded  leaves 
of  Carludovica  palmata  furnish  the  material  of 
which  Panama  hats  are  made.     The  tree   which 

229 


PANDAV  AS— PANEL. 


yields  Vegetable  Ivory  (q.  v.)  is  another  of  the 
palm-like  section  of  this  order. 

PAN'D'AVAS,  or  the  descendants  of  Pan'd'u 
(q.  v.),  is  the  name  of  the  five  princes  whose  contest 
for  regal  supremacy  with  their  cousins,  the  Earns 
(q.  v.),  the  sons  of  Dhr'itarasht'ra,  forms  the  foun- 
dation of  the  narrative  of  the  great  epic  poem,  the 
Mahdbhdrata  (q.  v.).  Their  names  are  Yudhisht'hira, 
Bhima,  Arjuna,  Nakula,  and  Sahadeva — the  former 
three  being  the  sons  of  Pan'd'u,  by  one  of  his  wives, 
Pr'itha ;  and  the  latter  two,  by  his  other  wife, 
Mfulri.  But  though  Pan'd'u  is  thus  the  recognised 
father  of  these  princes,  the  legend  of  the  Mahdbhd- 
rata  looks  upon  him,  in  truth,  merely  as  their  father 
by  courtesy ;  for  it  relates  that  Yudhisht'hira 
was  the  son  of  Dharma,  the  god  of  justice  ;  Bhima, 
of  Vayu,  the  god  of  wind  ;  Arjuna,  of  Indra,  the 
god  of  the  firmament ;  and  Nakula  and  Sahadeva, 
of  the  As'wins,  the  twin-sons  of  the  sun. 

PANDECTS  (Gr.  Pandecton,  all  receiving  ; 
from  pan,  all,  and  dechomai,  I  receive),  one  of  the 
celebrated  legislative  works  of  the  Emperor  Justi- 
nian (q.  v.),  called  also  by  the  name  Digestum,  or 
Digest.  It  was  an  attempt  to  form  a  complete 
system  of  law  from  the  authoritative  commentaries 
of  the  jurists  upon  the  laws  of  Pome.  The  compila- 
tion of  the  Pandect  was  undertaken  after  that  great 
collection  of  the  laws  themselves  which  is  known  as 
the  Codex  Justinianeus.  It  was  intrusted  to  the 
celebrated  Tribonianus,  who  had  already  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  preparation  of  the  Codex. 
Tribonianus  formed  a  commission  consisting  of  17 
members,  who  were  occupied  from  the  year  530 
till  533  in  examining,  selecting,  compressing,  and 
systematising  the  authorities,  consisting  of  upwards 
of  2000  treatises,  whose  interpretation  of  the  ancient 
laws  of  Rome  was  from  that  time  forward  to  be 
adopted  with  the  authority  of  law.  A  period  of  ten 
years  had  been  allowed  them  for  the  completion  of 
their  work  ;  but  so  diligently  did  they  prosecute  it, 
that  it  was  completed  in  less  than  one-third  of  the 
allotted  time  ;  and  some  idea  of  its  extent  may  be 
formed  from  the  fact  that  it  contains  upwards  of 
9000  separate  extracts,  selected  according  to  subjects 
from  the  2000  treatises  referred  to  above. 

The  Pandects  are  divided  into  50  Books,  and  also 
into  7  Parts,  which  corresjiond  respectively  with 
Books  1—4,  5—11,  12—19,  20—27,  28—35,  36-44, 
and  45 — 50.  Of  these  divisions,  however,  the  latter 
(into  Parts)  is  seldom  attended  to  in  citations. 
Each  Book  is  subdivided  into  Titles,  under  which 
are  arranged  the  extracts  from  the  various  jurists, 
who  are  39  in  number,  and  are  by  some  called  the 
classical  jurists,  although  other  writers  on  Roman 
law  confine  that  appellation  to  five  of  the  number, 
Papinian,  Paulus,  Ulpian,  Gaius  (q.  v.),  and  Modes- 
tinus.  The  extracts  from  these  indeed  constitute  the 
bulk  of  the  collection ;  those  from  Ulpian  alone 
making  one-third  of  the  whole  work,  those  from 
Paulus  one-sixth,  and  those  from  Papinian  one- 
twelfth.  Other  writers  besides  these  39  are  cited, 
but  only  indirectly,  i.  e.,  when  cited  by  the  jurists 
whose  works  form  the  basis  of  the  collection.  The 
piinciple  upon  which  the  internal  arrangement  of 
the  extracts  from  individual  writers  was  made  had 
long  been  a  subject  of  controversy.  The  question 
seems  now  to  be  satisfactorily  solved ;  but  the 
details  of  the  discussion  would  carry  us  beyond  the 
prescribed  limits.  Of  the  execution  of  the  work,  it 
may  be  said  that  although  not  free  from  repetition 
(the  same  extracts  occurring  under  different  heads), 
and  from  occasional  inaptness  of  citation,  and  other 
inconsistencies,  yet  it  deserves  the  very  highest 
commendation.  In  its  relations  to  the  history  and 
literature  of  ancient  Rome  it  is  invaluable  ;    and 

230 


taken  along  with  its  necessary  compliment  the 
Codex,  it  may  justly  be  regarded  (haviug  been  the 
basis  of  all  the  medieval  legislation)  as  of  the  utmost 
value  to  the  study  of  the  principles  not  alone  of 
Roman,  but  of  all  European  law. 

PANDORA  (i.  e.,  the  «  All-endowed'),  according 
to  Grecian  myth,  was  the  first  woman  on  the  earth. 
When  Prometheus  had  stolen  fire  from  Jupiter, 
Zeus  instigated  Hephaestus  to  make  woman  oi.t  of 
earth  to  bring  vexation  upon  man  by  her  graces. 
The  gods  endowed  her  with  every  gift  necessary  fcr 
this  purpose,  beauty,  boldness,  cunning,  &c.  ;  and 
Zeus  sent  her  to  Epimetheus,  the  brother  of  Prome- 
theus, who  forgot  his  brother's  warning  against 
receiving  any  gift  from  Zeus.  A  later,  form  of  the 
myth  represents  P.  as  possessing  a  vessel  or  box 
filled  with  winged  blessings,  which  mankind  would 
have  continued  to  enjoy  if  curiosity  had  not 
prompted  her  to  open  it,  when  all  the  blessings 
Hew  out,  except  Hope. 

PANDOURS,  a  people  of  Servian  origin  who 
live  scattered  among  the  mountains  of  Hungary, 
near  the  village  of  Pandour  in  the  county  of  SohL 
The  name  has  been  applied  to  that  portion  of 
the  light-armed  infantry  in  the  Austrian  service 
which  is  raised  in  the  Slavonian  districts  on  the 
Turkish  frontier.  The  P.  originally  fought  under 
the  orders  of  their  own  proper  chief,  who  was  called 
Harun-Basha,  and  rendered  essential  service  to  the 
Austrians  during  the  Spanish  War  of  Succession, 
and  afterwards  in  the  Seven  Years'  War.  They 
originally  foiight  after  the  fashion  of  the  'free 
lances,'  and  were  a  terror  to  the  enemy  whom  they 
annoyed  incessantly.  Their  appearance  was  exceed- 
ingly picturesque,  being  somewhat  oriental  in  char- 
acter, and  their  arms  consisted  of  a  musket,  pistols, 
a  Hungarian  sabre,  and  two  Turkish  poniards. 
Their  habits  of  brigandage  and  cruelty  rendered 
them,  however,  as  much  a  terror  to  the  people  they 
defended  as  to  the  enemy.  Since  1750  they  have 
beeu  gradually  put  under  a  stricter  discipline,  and 
are  now  incorporated  with  the  Austrian  frontier 
regiments. 

A 

PAN'D'U,  literally,  '  white,'  is  the  name  of  the 
father  of  the  Pan'd'avas  (q.  v.),  and  the  brother  of 
Dhr'itarasht'ra.  Although  the  elder  of  the  two 
princes,  he  was  rendered  by  his  '  pallor ' — implying, 
perhaps,  a  kind  of  disease — incapable  of  succession, 
and  therefore  obliged  to  relinquish  his  claim  to  hi* 
brother.  He  retired  to  the  Himalaya  Mountains, 
where  his  sons  were  born,  and  where  he  died. 
His  renunciation  of  the  throne  became  thus  the 
cause  of  contest  between  the  Pan'd'avas,  his  sons, 
and  the  Kurus,  or  the  sons  of  Dhr'itarasht'ra. 

PANEL  (through  Fr.  from  Lat.  pannua,  a  piece 


of  cloth,  a  patch),  a  space  or  compartment  ot  a 
wall,  ceiling,  woodwork,  &c,  enclosed  by  beams, 
mouldings,  framing,  and  so  forth.  It  is  generally 
sunk  under  the  plaue  of  the  surrounding  styles.     In 


PANEL— PANINL 


woodwork,  panels  are  thinner  parts  used  to  fill  in 
strong  framing,  as  in  doors,  shutters,  &c.  These 
are  sometimes  highly  ornamented  with  tracery, 
shields,  &c.  (as  in  figs.  2  and  3).  In  late  Gothic 
architecture,  the  panel  is  very  often  carved  into 
the  'linen  pattern'  (fig.  1).  Panelling  is  a  style 
of  ornament  greatly  used  in  Elizabethan  architec- 
ture. The  ceilings  and  walls  are  covered  with 
it,  and  every  piece  of  furniture  is  cut  up  into 
panels  of  every  variety  of  form.  Panels  are  said  to 
he  'fielded'  when  the  centre  of  the  panel  is  raised 
With  mouldings,  &c. 

PANEL  (properly  the  slip  or  'pane'  of  parch- 
ment on  which  the  names  of  the  jurors  are  written) 
is,  in  the  practice  of  the  English  law,  used  to 
denote  the  body  or  set  of  jurors,  consisting  of  12 
men,  who  try  a  cause,  civil  or  criminal.  In  Scotch 
criminal  law,  the  prisoner  is  usually  called  the 
panel. 

PANGE  LINGUA  (Lat.  'Proclaim,  0  Tongue'), 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  hymns  of  the 
Roman  Breviary,  and  like  its  kindred  hymn,  Lauda 
Sion,  a  most  characteristic  example  as  well  of  the 
medieval  Latin  versification  as  of  that  union  of 
theology  with  asceticism,  which  a  large  class  of 
these  hymns  present.  The  Pange  Lingua  is  a  hymn 
in  honour  of  the  Eucharist,  and  belongs  to  the  service 
of  the  Festival  of  Corpus  Christi.  It  is  from  the 
pen  of  the  great  angelic  doctor,  Thomas  Aquinas 
(q.  v.),  and  consists  of  six  strophes  of  verses  in 
alternate  rhyme.  Besides  its  place  in  the  office 
of  the  Breviary,  this  hymn  forms  part  of  the 
Berviee  called  Benediction  with  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment, and  is  sung  on  all  occasions  of  the  exposition, 
procession,  and  other  public  acts  of  Eucharistic 
worship. 

PANGOLIN,  or  PENGOLIN,  a  name  sometimes 
extended  to  all  the  species  of  Mantis  (q.  v.),  but 
originally  belonging  to  M.  pentadactyla,  also  called 
Short- tailed  Manis,  and  in  some  parts  of  India 
Bajjerkeit;  this  species  being  a  native  of  most 
parts  of  the  East  Indies,  and  P.,  its  Malayan  name, 
derived  from  a  word  which  signifies  to  roll  up ; 
the  animal  having  the  habit  of  rolling  itself  up,  on 


?=*W^"^ 


Pangolin  (Man  is  pentadactyla). 

apprehension  of  danger,  into  a  compact  ball,  the 
head  in  the  centre,  and  its  muscular  mail-covered 
tad  enfolding  all.  The  food  of  the  P.  consists 
chiefly  of  ants,  and  like  the  rest  of  the  genus,  it 
is  entirely  destitute  of  teeth,  and  has  a  round, 
extensile  tongue.  Its  claws  are  long  and  strong; 
it  doubles  them  up  like  the  American  ant-eaters 
when  it  walks.  It  resides  in  burrows,  which  it 
excavates  to  the  depth  of  seven  or  eight  feet  in 
the  ground.  It  is  capable  of  climbing  trees,  and 
the  tail  is  prehensile.  The  whole  leugth  of  the 
animal,  including  the  tail,  is  almost  five  feet,  the 
tail  being  not  quite  half  the  length  of  the  body. 


It  is  a  gentle  animal,  easily  tamed,  and  of  an  affec- 
tionate disposition. 

PA'NIC  is  where  fear,  whether  arising  from  an 
ndequute  or  inadequate  cause,  obtains  the  mastery 
over  every  other  consideration  and  motive,  and 
urges  to  dastard  extravagance,  or  hurries  into 
danger,  or  death.  An  inexplicable  sound  causes  a 
rush  from  a  church,  a  vague  report  in  the  market- 
place causes  a  run  on  a  bank,  and  precipitate  the  very 
events  that  are  dreaded.  This  emotion  either  differs 
from  natural  apprehension,  or  presents  so  intense 
and  uncontrollable  a  form  of  the  feeling,  that  it  ia 
propagable  from  one  person  to  another,  and  involves 
alike  the  educated  and  ignorant — those  who  act  from 
judgment  as  well  as  those  who  act  from  impulse. 
There  are,  besides  this  feature,  several  grounds  for 
believing  that  such  manifestations  of  involuntary 
terror  are  of  morbid  origin,  and  should  be  n 
as  moral  epidemics.  They  have  generally  arisen 
during,  or  have  followed,  seasons  of  scarcity  and 
physical  want  and  disease,  the  ravages  of  war,  or 
periods  of  great  religious  fervour  and  superstition. 
The  dancing  mania,  the  retreat  of  the  French  army 
from  Moscow,  and  recent  and  familiar  commercial 
panics  afford  illustrations  of  certain  of  these  rela- 
tions. The  most  notable  instance  of  universal  panic, 
and  that  which  demonstrates  most  aptly  the  con- 
nection here  indicated,  is  the  dread  of  the  approach- 
ing end  of  the  world  which  pervaded  all  minds,  and 
almost  broke  up  human  society  in  the  10th  century. 
The  empire  of  Charlemagne  had  fallen  to  pieces ; 
public  misfortune  and  civil  discord  merged  into 
misery  and  famine  so  extreme  that  cannibalism 
prevailed  even  in  Paris  ;  superstitious  and  vague 
predictions  became  formalised  into  a  prophecy  of 
the  end  of  all  things  and  universal  doom  in  the  year 
1000.  This  expectation  suspended  even  vengeance 
and  war.  The  'truce  of  God'  was  proclaimed. 
Enormous  riches  were  placed  upon  the  altars. 
Worship  and  praise  never  ceased.  The  fields  were 
left  uncultivated ;  serfs  were  set  free ;  four  kings 
and  thousands  of  nobles  retired  to  the  cloister; 
and  all  men,  according  to  their  tendencies,  prepared 
to  die. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  during  all  pestilences 
there  have  arisen  epidemic  terrors,  not  so  much  of 
the  devastations  of  disease,  as  of  plots  and  poison- 
ings directed  by  the  rich  against  the  poor.  Even 
where  these  epidemic  terrors  are  legitimately 
traceable  to  local  and  physical  causes,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  singular  affection  tiuioria,  which 
occurs  in  the  marshy  and  unhealthy  districts  in 
Sardinia,  the  tremor  and  trepidation,  and  other 
phenomena,  are  ascribed  to  the  magical  influence 
of  enemies. 

PA'NICLE,  in  Botany,  a  mode  of  Inflorescence 
(q.  v.)  in  which  the  floral  axis  is  not  only  divided, 
but  also  subdivided  more  or  less  frequently.  The 
panicle  may  thus  be  regarded  as  a  Raceme  (cj.  v.), 
of  which  the  branches  (or  flower-stalks)  are  branched. 
The  panicle  is  a  very  common  kind  of  inflorescence. 
Most  of  the  grasses  exhibit  it,  and  many  other 
plants,  both  endogenous  and  exogenous.  The  com- 
mon lilac  affords  a  good  example  of  it.  The  panicle, 
variously  modified  as  to  its  form,  and  the  arrange- 
ment and  relative  lengths  of  its  branches  and 
branchlets,  becomes  a  Cyme  (q.  v ),  Thyrsus 
(q.  v.),  &c. 

PA'NICUM.    See  Millet. 

PAN'INI,  the  greatest  known  grammarian  of 
ancient  India,  whose  work  on  the  Sanscrit  language 
has  up  to  the  present  day  remained  the  standard 
of  Sanscrit  grammar.  Its  merits  are  so  great, 
that  P.  was  ranked  among  the   R'ishis   (q.  v.),  or 

231 


PANINI— PANIPTJT. 


inspired  seers,  and  at  a  later  period  of  Sanscrit 
literature,  was  supposed  to  have  received  the  funda- 
mental rules  of  his  work  from  the  god  S'iva  him- 
self. Of  the  personal  history  of  P.,  nothing  positive 
is  known,  except  that  he  was  a  native  of  the  village 
S'alatura,  situated  north-west  of  Attock,  on  the 
Indus — whence  he  is  also  surnamed  S'alaturiya — 
and  that  his  mother  was  called  Dakshl,  wherefore, 
on  his  mother's  side,  he  must  have  been  a  descend- 
ant of  the  celebrated  family  of  Daksha.  A  tale- 
book,  the  Kathdsaritsdgara  (i.  e.,  the  ocean  for 
the  rivers  of  tales),  gives,  indeed,  some  circum- 
stantial account  of  the  life  and  death  of  P. ;  but 
its  narrative  is  so  absurd,  and  the  work  itself  of 
so  modern  a  date — it  was  written  in  Cashmere, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  12th  c. — that  no  credit 
whatever  can  be  attached  to  the  facts  related 
by  it,  or  to  the  inferences  which  modern  scholars 
have  drawn  from  them.  According  to  the  views 
expressed  by  Goldstiicker  (Pdn'ini,  his  Place  in 
Sanscrit  Literature:  London,  1SG1),  it  is  probable 
that  P.  lived  before  S'akyamuni,  the  founder  of  the 
Buddhist  religion,  whose  death  took  place  about 
543  B.C.,  but  that  a  more  definite  date  of  the  great 
grammarian  has  but  little  chance  of  ascertainment 
in  the  actual  condition  of  Sanscrit  philology. — The 
grammar  of  P.  consists  of  eight  Adhyayas,  or  books, 
each  book  cornpi'ising  four  Pftdas,  or  chapters,  and 
each  chapter  a  number  of  Sutras  (q.  v.),  or  aphor- 
istical  rules.  The  latter  amount  in  the  whole  to 
3996 ;  but  three,  perhaps  four,  of  them  did  not 
originally  belong  to  the  work  of  Pan'ini.  The 
arrangement  of  these  rules  differs  completely  from 
what  a  European  would  expect  in  a  grammatical 
work,  for  it  is  based  on  the  principle  of  tracing 
linguistic  phenomena,  and  not  concerned  in  the 
classification  of  the  linguistic  material,  according  to 
the  so-called  parts  of  speech.  A  chapter,  for  in- 
stance, treating  of  a  prolongation  of  vowels,  will 
deal  with  such  a  fact  wherever  it  occurs,  be  it  in 
the  formation  of  bases,  or  in  conjugation,  declension, 
composition,  &c.  The  rules  of  conjugation,  declen- 
sion, &c,  are,  for  the  same  reason,  not  to  be  met 
with  in  the  same  chapter  or  in  the  same  order  in 
which  European  grammars  would  teach  them ;  nor 
would  any  single  book  or  chapter,  however  appar- 
ently more  systematically  arranged — from  a  Euro- 
pean point  of  view — such  as  the  chapters  on  affixes 
or  composition,  suffice  by  itself  to  convey  the  full 
linguistic  material  concerned  in  it,  apart  from  the 
rest  of  the  work.  In  a  general  manner,  P.'s  work 
may  therefore  be  called  a  natural  history  of  the 
Sanscrit  language,  in  the  sense  that  it  has  the  strict 
tendency  of  giving  an  accurate  description  of  facts, 
instead  of  making  such  a  description  subservient  to 
the  theories  according  to  which  the  linguistic  mate- 
rial is  usually  distributed  by  European  grammarians. 
Whatever  objections  may  be  raised  against  such  an 
arrangement,  the  very  fact  of  its  differing  from  that 
in  our  grammars  makes  it  peculiarly  instructive  to 
the  European  student,  as  it  accustoms  his  mind  to 
survey  language  from  another  point  of  view  than 
that  usually  presented  to  hini,  and  as  it  must  induce 
him,  too,  to  question  the  soundness  of  many  lin- 
guistic theories  now  looked  upon  as  axiomatic  truths. 
As  the  method  of  P.  requires  in  a  student  the 
power  of  combining  many  rules  scattered  all  over 
the  work,  and  of  combining,  also,  many  inferences 
to  be  drawn  from  these  rules,  it  exercises,  moreover, 
on  the  mind  of  the  student  an  effect  analogous  to 
that  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  peculiar  advantage 
of  the  study  of  mathematics.  The  rules  of  P.  were 
criticised  and  completed  by  Katyayana  (q.  v.),  who, 
according  to  all  probability,  was  the  teacher,  and 
therefore  the  contemporary,  of  Patau jali  ;  and 
he,  in  his  turn,  was  criticised  by  Patanjali  (q.  v.), 
232 


who  sides  frequently  with  Pan'ini.  These  three 
authors  are  the  canonical  triad  of  the  grammarians 
of  India  ;  and  their  works  are,  in  truth,  so  remark- 
able in  their  own  department,  that  they  exceed 
in  literary  merit  nearly  all,  if  not  all,  grammatical 
productions  of  other  nations,  so  far  as  the  two 
classes  are  comparable.  The  rules  of  P.  were  com- 
mented on  by  many  authors.  The  best  existing 
commentary  on  them  is  that  called  the  Kds'ikd- 
vr'itti,  by  Vamana  Jayaditya,  which  follows  these 
rides  in  their  original  order.  At  a  later  period, 
attempts  were  made  to  arrange  the  rules  of  P.  in 
a  manner  which  approaches  more  to  the  Euro- 
pean method ;  the  chief  work  of  this  category  is 
the  Siddhdnta-Kaumudi,  by  Bhat't'oji-dikshita.  P. 
mentions,  in  his  Sutras,  several  grammarians  who 
preceded  him,  amongst  others,  S'akatayana.  Manu- 
scripts of  a  grammar  ascribed  to  a  grammarian  of 
this  name  exist  in  the  Library  of  the  India  Office  in 
London,  and  in  the  Library  of  the  Board  of  Exam- 
iners at  Madras.  On  the  ground  of  a  few  pagea 
only  of  the  latter  an  attempt  has  been  very  recently 
made  to  prove  that  this  grammar  is  the  one  referred 
to  by  P.,  and  therefore  older  than  the  work  of  the 
latter.  But  the  facts  adduced  in  proof  of  thia 
hypothesis  are  so  ludicrously  weak,  and  the  reason- 
ing upon  them  so  feeble  and  inconclusive,  whereas 
the  evidence  in  favour  of  the  comparatively  recent 
date  of  this  work  is  so  strong,  that  no  value  whatever 
can  be  attached  to  this  hasty  hypothesis.  For  the 
present,  therefore,  P.'s  work  still  remains  the  oldest 
existing  grammatical  work  of  India,  and  probably  of 
the  human  race.  The  Sutras  of  P.,  with  a  modern 
commentary  by  two  native  pandits,  and  with 
extracts  from  the  Vdrttikas  of  Katyayana  and  the 
Mahdbhdshya  of  Patanjali,  were  edited  at  Calcutta 
in  1809.  This  edition,  together  with  the  modern 
commentary,  but  with  garbled  extracts  from  the 
extracts  mentioned,  was  reprinted  at  Bonn  in  1S39 — 
1840  by  Dr  0.  Boehtlingk,  who  added  to  it  remarks 
of  his  own  and  some  indices. — For  the  literature 
connected  with  P.,  see  Colebrooke's  preface  to  hia 
Grammar  of  the  Sanscrit  Language  (Calc.  1S05), 
and  Goldstiicker's  Pdn'ini,  &c,  as  mentioned 
above. 

PANIPU'T,  the  chief  town  of  a  district  of  the 
same  name  in  the  province  of  Delhi,  is  situated  54 
miles  (by  road  7S  miles)  north  by  west  from  Delhi, 
in  a  fertile  tract,  the  resources  of  which  are  largely 
developed  by  artificial  irrigation.  Pop.  (1868)  25,- 
276.  Being  a  station  on  the  great  military  road 
between  Afghanistan  and  the  Punjab,  and  to  some 
extent  an  outpost  of  Delhi,  it  has  been  at  various 
times  the  scene  of  strife  between  the  inhabitants  of 
India  and  invaders.  The  first  great  battle  of  P. 
was  fought  in  1526,  and  gained  by  Mirza  Baber,  the 
ex-ruler  of  Ferghana,  at  the  head  of  12,000  Mongols, 
over  Ibrahim  the  emperor  of  Delhi,  whose  unwar- 
like  array  numbered  100,000  men,  with  1000 
elephants.  This  victory  seated  Baber  on  the 
throne  of  Hindustan  as  the  first  of  the  'Great 
Mogul'  dynasty.  The  second  great  battle  was 
fought,  in  1556,  by  the  Mongols  under  Akbar, 
grandson  of  Baber,  and  third  of  the  Mogul  emperors. 
against  Hemu,  an  Indian  prince  who  had  usurped 
the  throne  of  Delhi.  Hemu's  army  was  defeated 
with  great  slaughter,  and  himself  slain.  The  third 
battle  was  fought  on  the  14th  of  January,  1761, 
between  Ahmed  Abdalli,  rider  of  Afghanistan, 
and  the  till  then  invincible  Mahrattas.  The  Jats, 
who  had  been  forced  to  join  the  Mahrattas,  deserted 
to  the  Afghans  at  a  time  when  victory  seemed  to  t>e 
declaring  for  tbe  former ;  and  this  act  of  treachery, 
together  with  the  loss  of  their  leaders,  threw  the 
Mahrattas  into  confusion,  and  in  spite  of  their 
most  resolute  valour  they   suffered  a   total  defeat 


PANIZZI--PANNONIA. 


They  left  50,000  slain  on  the  field  of  battle,  including 
all  their  leaders  except  Holkar,  and  30,000  men 
were  killed  in  the  pursuit,  which  was  continued  for 
four  days.  The  Mahrattas  never  recovered  this 
crushing  blow.  It  was  at  Kurnaul,  a  town  a  little 
to  the  north  of  P.,  that  Nadir  Shah  of  Persia,  in 
1739,  won  the  celebrated  battle  over  the  Mogul 
emperor,  which  placed  North- Western  India  at  hia 
feet 

PANIZZI,  Sin  Antonio,  an  eminent  bibliogra- 
pher and  critic,  was  born  <>n  the  16th  of  Septemher, 
1797,  at  Brescello,  in  the  ci-devant  duchy  of  Modena. 
For  bis  education  he  was  sent  first  to  the  public 
school  of  Reggio,  and  afterwards  to  the  university 
of  Padua,  where,  in  1818,  he  took  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Laws,  with  a  view  to  practising  at  the 
bar.  Early  in  life  his  sympathies  were  enlisted  on 
behalf  of  the  friends  of  Italy,  as  opposed  to  domestic 
tyranny  and  foreign  intrusion,  and  when,  in  1821, 
the  popular  revolution  broke  out  in  Piedmont,  the 
young  advocate  became  one  of  its  leaders.  The 
attempt,  however,  failed;  and  P.,  who  had  been 
denounced  by  a  pretended  friend,  was  arrested  at 
Cremona.  Having  by  some  means  contrived  to 
escape,  he  took  refuge  in  Lugano,  and  from  thence 
in  a  short  time  found  his  way  to  Geneva.  Mean- 
while, during  his  absence,  he  was  tried  at  home  per 
contumaciam,  as  it  is  called,  and  sentenced  to  death, 
with  confiscation  of  property.  Nor  was  he  allowed 
to  remain  at  Geneva.  The  governments  of  Austria 
and  Sardinia  demanded  from  the  Swiss  Confederation 
the  expulsion  of  all  concerned  in  the  recent  out- 
break, and  among  these  P.  was  obliged  to  depart. 
Forbidden  to  pass  through  France,  he  readied 
England  by  way  of  Germany  and  the  Netherlands. 
He  now  resided  for  about  a  month  in  London, 
whence  he  proceeded  to  Liverpool,  with  an  intro- 
duction from  Ugo  Foscolo  to  Roscoe  the  historian, 
who  received  him  with  the  utmost  hospitality.  At 
Liverpool,  where  he  was  introduced  into  the  best 
circles  by  Mr  Roscoe,  he  taught  Italian,  and 
continued  to  reside  in  that  town  until  1828,  when 
he  came  to  London  again,  and  was  chosen  professor 
of  Italian  in  the  university  of  London,  just  then 
opened  for  students.  In  1S31,  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  Lord  Brougham,  he  was  appointed  one 
of  the  assistant-librarians  in  the  British  Museum ; 
and  upon  the  retirement  of  the  R,ev.  Mr  Baber,  in 
1S37,  from  the  office  of  Keeper  of  the  Printed  Books, 
Mr  P.  was  appointed  his  successor.  In  the  previous 
year  there  had  been  a  parliamentary  committee  on 
the  state  of  the  British  Museum,  before  which  Mr 
P.  gave  valuable  evidence,  and  likewise  urged  the 
adoption  of  measures  for  the  improvement  and 
augmentation  of  the  library,  which,  upon  becoming 
keeper,  he  was  in  a  still  better  position  to  advocate. 
In  1838  he  superintended  the  removal  of  the  printed 
books  from  the  old  suite  of  rooms  in  Montague 
House  to  the  new  library ;  and  in  the  same  year, 
in  conjunction  with  some  of  his  assistants,  he  drew 
up  the  well-known  91  rules  for  the  formation  of  a 
new  catalogue  of  the  library.  These  rules  were 
approved  by  the  trustees,  and  the  first  volume  of 
a  catalogue  framed  after  them  was  printed  and 
published  in  1S41.  No  other  volume  has  been  since 
published,  and  Mr  P.,  before  a  royal  commission  of 
inquiry  into  the  Museum  in  1847,  justified  the 
suspension  of  the  printing  until  the  whole  catalogue 
should  be  finished.  In  1845,  Mr  P.  drew  up  an 
elaborate  report  of  the  deficiencies  existing  in  the 
library,  in  consequence  of  which  the  trustees  applied 
to  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury  for  'an  annual  grant 
ot  £10,000  for  some  years  to  come,  for  the  purchase 
of  books  of  all  descriptions.'  This  grant  having 
been  obtained,  the  library  rapidly  increased  in 
numbers,  to  such  a  degree  that  in  1849  the  books 


amounted  to  435,000,  as  compared  with  235,000, 
the  ascertained  number  in  1838.  The  number  of 
volumes  is  now  estimated  at  between  ("('10,(1110  and 
700,000.  Upon  the  resignation  of  Sir  H.  Ellis,  in 
1856,  Mr  P.  was  appointed  to  the  post  of  principal 
librarian  of  the  British  Museum,  l>nt  resigned  in  July, 
1865.  In  a  literary  capacity,  Mr  P.  is  known  by  an 
edition  of  the  Orlando  Innamorato  di  Boiardo,  and 
Orlando  Furioso  di  Ariosto :  with  »«  Essay  on  the 
Romantic  Narrative  Poetry  of  the  ftalians,  Memoirs 
and  Notes,  by  A.  Panizzi  (9  vols.,  Lond.  ls.'iO  -1.S34,. 
He  has  also  edited  the  Sonetti  e  Canzone  of  BoiardJn 
(Lond.  1835),  and  a  collection  of  reprints  of  the  tirst 
four  editions  of  the  Divina  Commedia,  printed  at 
tho  expense  of  Lord  Vernon  (Lond.  1858).  He  is  also 
the  author  of  a  privately-printed  pamphlet,  Chi  fra 
Francesco  da  Bologna,  tending  to  prove  the  identity 
of  the  type-founder  employed  by  Aldus,  and  the 
inventor  of  the  well-known  Aldine  or  Italic  type, 
with  the  celebrated  painter  Francesco  Francia. 
Mr  P.  is  also  understood  to  have  written  some 
articles  of  literary  or  historic  character  for  more  than 
one  of  the  Quarterly  Reviews. 

PA'NJIM.     See  Goa. 

PA'NNAH,  or  PU'NNAH,  a  decayed  town  of 
India,  in  the  district  of  Bundelcund,  stanch?  on  the 
north-eastern  slope  of  a  plateau,  115  miles  south- 
west of  Allahabad.  It  was  formerly  a  large,  thriving, 
and  well-built  town ;  but  whole  streets  are  now 
desolate,  or  are  tenanted  only  by  monkeys,  which, 
posted  on  the  roof  or  at  the  windows,  view  the 
town's-people  without  alarm.  The  palace  of  the 
rajah  is  a  beautiful  building,  surmounted  by  elegant 
kiosks,  but  is  in  many  places  ruinous.  The  source 
of  the  former  prosperity  of  P.  was  its  rich  diamond 
mines.  Owing  to  the  diminished  value  of  the  gem, 
however,  and  the  increased  tax  upon  the  produce  of 
the  mines,  this  branch  of  industry  has  much  fallen 
off.  The  diamonds  are  generally  tinted  with  colour ; 
very  few  of  them  being  of  first-water,  or  completely 
colourless.  This  town  is  the  chief  place  of  a  territory 
of  the  same  name,  which  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  British  district  of  Banda,  and  on  the  south 
by  the  British  district  of  Nerbudda.  See  Bundel- 
cund. 

PANNELS,  in  Artillery,  are  the  carriages  upon 
which  mortars  and  their  beds  are  conveyed  on  a 
march. 

PANNO'NIA,  a  province  of  the  ancient  Eoman 
empire,  bounded  on  the  N.  and  E.  by  the  Danube, 
on  the  W.  by  the  mountains  of  Xoricum,  and  on  the 
S.  reaching  a  little  way  across  the  Save  ;  and  thus 
including  part  of  modern  Hungary,  Slavonia,  parts 
of  Bosnia,  of  Croatia,  and  of  Carniola,  Styria,  aud 
Lower  Austria.  It  received  its  name  from  the 
Pannonians,  a  race  of  doubtful  origin,  but  who  at 
first  dwelt  in  the  country  between  the  Dalmatian 
Mountains  and  the  Save,  in  modern  Bosnia,  and 
afterwards  more  to  the  south-east  in  Moesia.  The 
Roman  arms  were  first  turned  against  them  and 
their  neighbours,  the  Iapydes,  by  Augustus  in  35 
B.C.,  and  after  the  conquest  of  Segestica  or  Siscis 
(Siszek)  he  subdued  them.  An  insurrection  took 
place  in  12  B.  c,  which  Tiberius  crushed  after  a  long 
struggle  ;  and  a  more  formidable  one  of  the  Dalma- 
tians and  Pannonians  together  in  G  A.  D.,  which  was 
suppressed  by  Tiberius  and  Germanicus,  but  not 
till  8  a.  D.  Fifteen  legions  had  to  be  assembled 
against  the  Pannonians,  who  mustered  200,000 
warriors.  Hereupon  the  Pannonians  settled  in  the 
more  northern  countries,  which  received  their  name, 
and  of  which  the  former  inhabitants,  the  Celtio 
Boii,  had  been  in  great  part  destroyed  in  Cesar's 
time.     The  countrv  was  now  formed  into  a  Roman 

m 


PANORAMA— PANTAGRAPH 


province,  which  was  secured  against  the  inroads  of 
the  Marcomunni  and  Quadi  by  the  Danube,  and  on 
its  other  frontiers  had  a  line  of  fortresses.  Military 
roads  were  constructed  by  the  conquerors,  who  also 
planted  in  the  country  many  colonies  and  municipia, 
and  thus  gave  it  a  rough  coating  of  civilisation. 
Great  numbers  of  the  Pannonian  youth  were  drafted 
into  the  Roman  legions,  and  proved,  when  disci- 
plined, among  the  bravest  and  most  effective  soldiers 
iu  the  imperial  army.  P.  was  subsequently  divided 
into  Upper  (or  Western)  and  Lower  (or  Eastern)  P., 
and  under  Galerius  and  Oonstantine  underwent  other 
changes.  Upper  Pannonia  was  the  scene  of  the 
Marcomannic  war  in  the  2d  century.  In  the  5th 
c.  it  wa3  transferred  from  the  Western  to  the 
Eastern  Empire,  and  afterwards  given  up  to  the 
Huns.  After  Attila's  death,  in  453,  the  Ostrogoths 
obtained  possession  of  it.  The  Longobards  under 
Alboin  made  themselves  masters  of  it  iu  527,  and 
relinquished  it  to  the  Avari  upon  commencing  their 
expedition  to  Italy.  Slavonian  tribes  also  settled 
in  the  south.  Charlemagne  brought  it  under  his 
sceptre.  In  the  reigns  of  his  successors,  the  Slavo- 
nians spread  northward,  and  the  country  became 
a  part  of  the  great  Moravian  kingdom,  till  the 
Magyars  or  Hungarians  took  it  in  the  end  of  the 
9th  century.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans,  Siscia 
(Siszek),  Vindobona  (Vienna),  Carnuntum  (near 
Haimburg),  and  Arrabo  (Raab)  were  among  its 
principal  towus. 

PANORA'MA  (Gr.  pan,  all,  orama,  a  view),  a 
pictorial  representation  of  the  whole  surrounding 
landscape  as  seen  from  one  point.  The  invention 
of  the  panorama  is  claimed  by  the  Germans  for 
Professor  Breisig  of  Danzig,  but  it  does  not  appear 
that  he  ever  constructed  one.  The  real  inventor 
was  Mr  Barker,  an  ingenious  artist  of  Edinburgh, 
to  whom  the  idea  occurred  while  taking  a  sketch 
of  the  city  from  the  top  of  Arthur  Seat.  After 
8urmouuting  numerous  difficulties — one  of  which 
was  the  invention  of  a  new  kind  of  perspective  for 
the  horizontal  lines — he  succeeded  in  producing  an 
effective  panoramic  view  of  Edinburgh,  which  was 
exhibited  in  that  city  in  1788,  and  in  London  in 
the  following  year.  The  next  panorama  executed 
by  Barker  was  a  view  of  London  from  the  top  of 
the  Albion  Mills.  A  large  building  was  now  erected 
in  Leicester  Square  for  the  exhibition  of  such  views. 
On  Mr  Barker's  death  in  1806,  he  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  in  partnership  with  a  pupd,  Mr  Burford, 
the  painter  of  the  chief  modern  panoramas.  The 
first  step  in  the  construction  of  a  panorama  is  to 
obtain  sketches  of  the  entire  region  to  be  repre- 
sented ;  each  sketch  is  a  representation  of  a  portion 
of  the  landscape  iu  the  form  of  a  sector  of  a  circle, 
with  the  sketcher's  position  as  a  centre,  and  the 
horizon  for  circumference.  The  canvas  to  which 
the  sketches  are  to  be  transferred  is  hung  rouud 
the  sides  of  a  circidar  room,  and  forms  the  surface 
of  a  cylinder,  on  the  inside  of  which  the  panorama 
is  paiuted.  The  canvas,  brushes,  &c,  are  of  the 
finest  description  manufactured,  and  the  painting 
and  colouring  are  elaborated  in  the  most  careful 
mann  t,  in  order  to  render  the  optical  illusion — 
which  every  one  who  has  seeu  a  good  panorama 
must  have  experienced — as  complete  as  possible. 
The  stage  from  which  the  picture  is  viewed  is 
placed  in  the  centre  of  the  room,  about  30  feet  on 
every  side  from  the  picture ;  the  picture  itself  is 
fastened  above  to  a  strong  circular  hoop,  and, 
hanging  down,  has  its  lower  edge  fastened  to  a 
similar  hoop,  which  is  heavily  weighted  to  keep  the 
picture  steady.  The  light  is  admitted  by  an  aper- 
ture in  the  roof,  which  is  concealed  by  an  awning 
from  the  spectators  on  the  stage.  Notwithstanding 
important  defects  in  the  panorama,  one  of  which  is 

231 


that  the  light  more  stroDgly  illumines  the  upper  than, 
the  lower  parts  of  the  picture — thus  throwing  the 
foreground  comparatively  into  shade — many  cases 
are  on  record  of  spectators  being  for  the  time  com* 
pletely  under  the  influence  of  mental  illusion.  One 
of  the  best  instances  of  this  occurred  during  the 
exhibition  of  the  third  panorama  in  Loudon. 
Part  of  the  view  consisted  of  a  representation  of 
the  wreck  of  a  ship's  boat,  with  sailors  struggling 
in  the  waves ;  and  at  sight  of  this,  a  dog  belonging 
to  one  of  the  spectators  at  once  leaped  over  the 
handrail  to  the  rescue  of  the  supposed  drowning 
men.  Panoramas,  though  frequently  exhibited  in 
France,  Germany,  and  other  European  countries, 
have  met  with  little  success  out  of  Great  Britain. 
The  most  popular  panorama  ever  executed  was  that 
of  the  Battle  of  Waterloo,  the  exhibition  of  which 
brought  in  ten  thousand  pounds.  There  are  many 
modifications  of  the  panorama,  but  that  above 
described  ia  the  most  important. 

PANSLAVISM.  This  term  is  applied  to  the 
movement  lately  set  on  foot,  and  generally  ascribed 
to  Russian  influence,  for  the  amalgamation  of  all 
races  of  Slavonic  descent  into  one  body,  having  one 
language,  one  literature,  and  one  social  polity.  The 
writings  of  Adam  Gurowski  and  Kollar,  and  the 
anonymous  pamphlet  which  appeared  at  Leipzig  in 
1S37,  under  the  title  of  Die  Europ'disclve  Pentarchie, 
have  exercised  a  very  widespread  influence  in  thia 
direction  among  all  the  Slavonic  people  of  the 
German  states ;  and  although  the  other  nations  of 
Europe  have  hitherto  had  no  reason  to  anticipate 
any  practical  results  from  a  movement  towarda 
Panslavism,  the  Slavonians  of  the  Austrian  empire 
have  always  taken  occasion  to  shew  that  they 
regarded  themselves  as  standing  apart  from  Ger- 
man interests  in  times  of  public  disturbance.  Thua, 
in  1848,  instead  of  taking  part  with  their  fellow- 
citizens  in  the  election  of  representatives  to  the 
German  parliament  at  Frankfurt,  the  leading 
promoters  of  Panslavism  summoned  a  Slavonio 
congress  at  Prague,  which  was  attended  by 
Slavonians  from  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia, 
and  by  Slavonic  Poles,  Croats,  Servians,  and 
Dalmatians,  who  appeared  in  their  national  costumes. 
The  impracticability  of  the  grand  schemes  promul- 
gated in  the  manifestoes  of  the  conclave,  wras  suffi- 
ciently shewn  by  the  necessity  under  which  the 
members  found  themselves  of  employing  Germau 
as  the  only  language  commonly  understood  by  all. 
Disunion  and  dissensions  were  the  speedy  result  of 
this  incongruous  meeting,  whose  seditious  tur- 
bulence at  last  was  summarily  put  down  by  the 
bombardment  of  the  city  of  Prague,  and  the  im- 
prisonment of  the  leading  agitators.  Since  that 
period,  the  striving  towards  Pauslavism.  although 
ever  present  as  the  guiding  influence  of  all  Slavonio 
insurrectionary  movements,  has  found  no  further 
public  expression. 

PANSY.    See  Violet. 

PANTAGRAPH  (Gr.  panta,  all,  grapliein,  to 
delineate),  an  instrument  by  the  aid  of  which  any 
engraving  may  be  copied  on  paper,  though  its  use  is 
in  practice  restricted  to  the  copying  of  maps  and 
plans.  The  copy  can  be  drawn  to  any  scale.  The 
instrument  consists  of  four  rods,  AB,  AC,  DF, 
and  EF,  joiuted  together,  as  in  the  figure  ;  the 
points  D  and  E  are  so  taken  that  AD  is  equal  to 
EF,  and  AE  to  DF,  and  consequently  ADEF  is 
always  a  parallelogram.  If  C  be  a  determinate 
point  near  the  end  of  the  rod  AE,  and  any  line, 
CHB,  be  drawn  cutting  the  other  three  rods, 
the  triangles  BAC  and  BDH  are  similar;  so  that 
when  the  point  B  is  fixed,  the  points  C  and  H, 
which   can,  from   the   structure  of   the   instrument. 


PANTELLARIA— PANTHEISM. 


move  in  any  direction,  will  describe  similar  figures 
different  in  size  ;  that  described  by  C  being  to  that 
described  by  11  in  the  proportion  Of  CB  to  11 B.  The 
practical  working  of  the  instrument  is  as  follows: 
The  points  11  ami  B  are  determined  by  the  ratio 
Bit  tn  BC,  which  is  the  proportion  the  scale  of  the 
copy  bears  to  that  of  tbe  original ;  a  socket,  which 


slides  along  the  arm,  is  fastened  exactly  at  B  on  the 
under  side  ;  below  tliis  is  placed  a  heavy  weight, 
with  a  stalk  fitting  into  the  socket,  thus  rendering 
B  the  ceutre  of  motion  of  the  instrument,  if  the 
weight  be  heavy  enough.  A  pencil  is  fitted  into 
another  socket  at  H,  and  a  rod  of  metal  with  a 
sharp  point,  called  the  tracer,  is  fastened  at  C, 
and  the  instrument  is  fitted  with  castors  at  various 
points  underneath,  to  allow  of  its  being  moved 
freely.  The  operator  then  passes  the  tracer  over 
the  outline  to  be  copied,  and  simultaneously  the 
pencil  at  H  makes  the  copy  on  the  required  scale. 
If  a  copy  on  a  scale  nearly  as  large  as  the  original 
be  recpured,  the  fulcrum  must  be  placed  in  DF,  and 
the  pencil  in  DB  ;  while  if  a  magnified  copy  be 
required,  the  pencd  and  tracer  must  exchange  the 
positions  assigned  them  in  the  first  case.  The 
defects  of  this  instrument  are  its  weight  and  the 
difficulty  of  rendering  it  perfectly  mobile,  both 
of  which  prevent  that  steady  motion  of  the  tracer 
which  is  necessary  for  making  an  accurate  copy. 

To  remedy  these  defects,  the  pantagraph  has  been 
constructed  in  a  variety  of  forms,  all  of  which, 
however,  like  the  one  described,  depend  upon  the 
principle  that  the  two  triangles  which  have  for  their 
angular  points,  the  fulcrum  the  pencil-point  and  a 
joint,  and  the  fulcrum  the  tracer-point  and  a  joint, 
must  always  preserve  their  similarity. 

PANTELLA'RIA,  a  volcanic  island  of  Italy,  in 
the  Mediterranean,  36  miles  in  circumference  and 
lying  60  miles  south-west  of  the  Sicilian  coast. 

PANTHAYS,  a  Mohammedan  community  occupy- 
ing the  province  of  Yun-nan  in  the  south-westof  China, 
who  asserted  their  independence  in  1855.  Their  leader 
Wen-Soai  (King  Suleiman)  established  his  authority 
over  about  4,000,000  people,  of  whom  not  above  a 
tenth  were  Mohammedans.  In  1866,  the  Chinese 
government  recognized  the  independence  of  the  P., 
and  in  1872  their  king  sent  his  son  Hassan  on  a  mis- 
sion to  Europe.  Meanwhile  the  Chinese  again  attack- 
ed the  P.,  defeated  them  utterly,  and  finally  suppressed 
their  empire.  P.  is  an  anglicised  form  of  Pan-Si,  the 
name  by  which  the  Mohammedans  call  themselves. 

PANTHEISM  (Gr.  pan,  all,  and  theos,  God),  the 


name  given  to  that  system  of  speculation  which,  in 
its  spiritual  form,  identities  the  universe  with  God, 
and  therefore  may  be  called  akosiniam,  and  in  its 
more  material  form,  God  With  the  universe.  It  is 
only  the  latter  kind  of  pantheism  that  is  logically 
open  to  the  accusation  of  Atheism  (q.  v.) ;  the 
former  has  often  been  the  expression  of  a  profound 
and  mystic  religiosity.  The  antiquity  of  pantheism 
is  undoubtedly  great,  for  it  is  prevalent  in  the  oldest 
known  civilisation  in  the  world — the  Hindu.  Yet 
it  is  a  later  development  of  thought  than  Polytheism 
(q.  v.),  the  natural  instinctive  creed  of  primitive 
races,  and  most  probably  originated  in  the  attempt 
to  divest  the  popular  system  of  its  grosser  features, 
and  to  give  it  a  form  that  would  satisfy  the  require? 
ments  of  philosophical  speculation.  Hindu  pantheism 
as  ako8mi8in  is  taught  especially  by  the  Upanishada 
(q.  v.),  the  Vedanta  (q.  v.),  and  Yoga  (q.v.)  phil- 
osophies, and  by  those  poetical  works  which  embody 
the  doctrines  of  these  systems ;  for  instance,  the 
Bhagavadgita,  which  follows  the  Yoga  doctrine.  It 
is  poetical  and  religious,  rather  than  scientific,  at 
least  in  its  phraseology ;  but  it  is  substantially 
similar  to  the  more  logical  forms  developed  in 
Europe.  The  Hindu  thinker  regards  man  as  born 
into  a  world  of  illusions  and  entanglements,  from 
which  his  great  aim  should  be  to  deliver  himself. 
Neither  sense,  nor  reason,  however,  is  capable  of 
helping  him  ;  only  through  long  continued,  rigorous, 
and  holy  contemplation  of  the  supreme  unity 
(Brahma)  can  he  become  emancipated  from  the 
deceptive  influence  of  phenomena,  and  lit  to  appre- 
hend that  he  and  they  are  alike  but  evanescent 
modes  of  existence  assumed  by  that  infinite,  eternal, 
and  unchangeable  Spirit  who  is  all  in  all.  Hindu 
pantheism  is  thus  purely  spiritual  in  its  character  ; 
matter  and  (finite)  mind  are  both  alike  absorbed 
in  the  fathomless  abyss  of  illimitable  and  absolute 
being. 

Greek  pantheism,  though  it  doubtless  originated 
in  the  same  way  as  that  of  India,  is  at  once  more 
varied  in  its  form,  and  more  ratiocinative  in  its 
method  of  exposition.  The  pliilosophy  of  Anaxi- 
mander  (q.  v.)  the  Milesian  may  almost,  with  equal 
accuracy,  be  described  as  a  system  of  atheistic 
physics  or  of  materialistic  pantheism.  Its  leading 
idea  is,  that  from  the  infinite  or  indeterminate  {to 
apeiron),  which  is  '  one  yet  all,'  proceed  the  entire 
phenomena  of  the  \miverse,  and  to  it  they  return. 
Xenophanes  (q.  v.),  however,  the  founder  of  the 
Eleatic  school,  and  author  of  the  famous  meta- 
physical mot,  Ex  nlhilo,  nihil  fit,  is  the  first  classical 
thinker  who  promulgated  the  higher  or  idealistic 
form  of  pantheism.  Denying  the  possibility  of 
creation,  he  argued  that  there  exists  only  an  eternal, 
infinite  One  or  All,  of  which  individual  objects  and 
existences  are  merely  illusory  modes  of  representa- 
tion ;  but  as  Aristotle  finely  expresses  it— and  it  is 
this  last  conception  which  gives  to  the  pantheism  oi 
Xenophanes  its  distinctive  character — '  casting  his 
eyes  wistfully  upon  the  whole  heaven,  he  pro- 
nounced that  unity  to  be  God.'  Heracleitus  (q.  v.), 
who  flourished  a  century  later,  reverted  to  the 
material  pantheism  of  the  Ionic  school,  and  appears 
to  have  held  that  the  '  All '  first  arrives  at  con- 
sciousness in  man,  whereas  Xenophanes  attributed 
to  the  same  universal  entity,  intelligence,  and  self- 
existence,  denying  it  only  personality.  But  it  is 
often  extremely  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  draw 
or  to  see  the  distinction  between  the  pantheism  of 
the  earlier  Greek  philosophers  and  sheer  atheism. 
In  general,  however,  we  may  affirm  that  the  pan- 
theism of  the  Eleatic  school  was  penetrated  by  a 
religious  sentiment,  and  tended  to  absorb  the  world 
in  God,  while  that  of  the  Ionic  school  was  thoroughly 
materialistic,  tended  to  absorb   &od  in  the  world, 

235 


PANTHEON— PANTHER. 


and  differed  from  atheism  rather  in  name  than  in 
fact.  But  the  most  decided  and  the  most  spiritual 
representatives  of  this  philosophy  among  the  Greeks 
were  the  so-called  'Alexandrian'  Neo-Platonists 
(q.  v.),  in  whom  we  see  clearly,  for  the  first  time,  the 
influence  of  the  East  upon  Greek  thought.  The 
doctrines  of  Emanation,  of  Ecstasy,  expounded  by 
Plotinus  (q.  v.)  and  Proclus  (q.  v.),  no  less  than  the 
fantastic  Dsemonism  of  Iamblichus  (q.  v.),  point  to 
Persia  and  India  as  their  birthplace,  and  in  fact 
differ  from  the  mystic  teaching  of  the  Vedanta  only 
by  being  presented  in  a  more  logical  and  intelligible 
form,  and  divested  of  the  peculiar  mythological 
allusions  in  which  the  philosophy  of  the  latter  is 
sometimes  dressed  up. 

During  the  middle  ages,  speculation  was,  for  the 
most  part,  held  in  with  tight  reins  by  the  church, 
and  in  consequence  we  hear  little  of  pantheism. 
Almost  the  only  philosopher  who  advocated,  or  who 
even  seems  to  have  thought  about  it,  is  John  Scotus 
Erigena  (see  Erigena),  who  was  probably  led  to  it 
by  his  study  of  the  Alexandrians,  but  his  specula- 
tions do  not  appear  to  have  been  thought  by  him 
incompatible  with  a  Christian  faith  ;  and  in  point 
of  fact  there  are  several  profoundly  mystical 
expressions  employed  in  the  New  Testament,  espe- 
cially in  the  Epistles  of  John,  in  which  the  soaring 
spiritualism  of  Christianity  culminates  in  language 
that  has  at  least  a  pantheistic  form  ;  e  g.,  '  God  is 
love  ;  and  he  that  dwelleth  in  love  dwelleth  in 
God,  and  God  in  him.'  Erigena  is  regarded  as  the 
link  that  unites  ancient  and  modern  pantheism. 
We  find  in  him  now  a  reflection  of  the  East  and  of 
Greece,  and  now  a  foreshadowing  of  the  doctrines 
of  Schelling  and  HegeL  His  opinions  were,  with 
Borne  scholastic  modifications,  introduced,  in  the 
12th  and  13th  centuries,  into  theology  by  Amalric 
or  Amaury  de  Chartres  (a  disciple  also  of  Abelard), 
and  his  pupil  David  de  Dinant,  who  were  condemned 
as  heretics  by  a  council  held  at  Paris. 

Modern  pantheism  first  shews  itself  in  Giordano 
Bruno  (q.  v.),  burned  at  Rome  for  his  opinions  in 
1600.  In  Bruno  reappear  the  speculations  of  the 
Eleatics  and  of  the  Neo-Platonists,  but  with  a  still 
more  definite  recognition  than  we  meet  with  in 
them  of  an  absolutely  perfect  supreme  spirit.  The 
Universe,  in  the  eyes  of  the  unfortunate  Italian,  is 
not,  properly  speaking,  a  creation,  but  only  an 
emanation  of  the  Infinite  mind — the  eternal  expres- 
sion of  its  infinite  activity ;  and  hence  the  Infinite 
tnind  penetrates  and  fills,  with  different  degrees  of 
consciousness,  all  the  heights  and  depths  of  the 
universe.  To  see  God  everywhere,  to  realise  that 
He  alone  is,  and  that  all  else  is  but  a  perishable 
phenomenon  or  passing  illusion — that  there  is  but 
one  intelligence  in  God,  man,  beast,  and  what  we 
call  matter — this  should  be  the  aim  of  all  true 
philosophy.  Spinoza  (q.  v.)  comes  next  among  pan- 
theists in  the  order  of  time,  but  he  is  perhaps  the 
greatest,  certainly  the  most  rigorous  and  precise  of 
the  whole  class  that  either  the  ancient  or  the 
modern  world  has  seen.  His  system  is  based,  like 
the  geometry  of  Euclid,  on  certain  definitions  and 
axioms,  and  he  claims  to  have  given  it  as  conclusive 
and  mathematical  a  demonstration  as  the  latter. 
None  will  deny  the  keenness  and  cogency  of  his 
ratiocination.  But  human  beings  will  not  be  forced 
into  pantheistic  convictions  by  any  mere  logical 
goad,  however  sharp ;  and  the  system,  impregnable 
as  it  seems,  has  never  had  a  formal  adherent.  The 
principal  result  at  which,  after  a  long,  firm-linked 
chain  of  reasoning,  Spinoza  arrives,  is,  that  there 
is  but  one  substance,  infinite,  self-existent,  eternal, 
necessary,  simple,  and  indivisible,  of  which  all  else 
are  but  the  modes.  This  substance  is  the  self- 
existent  God.  Tc  call  Spinoza  an  atheist  is  ridi- 
230 


culous.  The  extravagant  phrase  of  Schleiermacher, 
'  a  God-intoxicated  man'  (ein  gott-trunkener  mann), 
would  be  greatly  nearer  the  truth,  for  no  human 
system  of  philosophy  whatever  exhibits  euch  an 
all-controlling  and  even  overwhelming  sense  of 
the  omnipresent  God.  Many  critics  have  said 
that  he  was  far  more  of  an  old  Hebrew  in  nis 
system  than  he  dreamed.  Although  he  had  no 
direct  followers,  he  exercised  great  influence  on 
the  development  of  metaphysical  speculation  in 
Germany,  where,  with  the  exception  of  Kant  (q.  v.), 
the  three  greatest  philosophers  of  recent  times— 
Fichte  (q.  v.),  Schelling  (q.  v.),  and  Hegel  (q.  v.) — 
have  all  promulgated  systems  of  a  thoroughly  pan- 
theistic and  ideal  character.  Neither  England, 
France,  nor  America  has  produced  a  single  great 
pantheistic  philosopher  (unless  Mr  Emerson  be 
regarded  as  such) ;  but  there  is  an  immense  amount 
of  pantheistic  sentiment  floating  about  in  the  poetry, 
criticism,  theology,  and  even  in  the  speculative 
thinking,  in  these  and  all  European  countries  in 
the  present  age.  This  is  attributable  to  the  ravages 
made  by  biblical  criticism,  and  the  progress  of  the 
physical  sciences  in  the  region  of  religious  beliefs. 
Multitudes  of  men  are  puzzled  what  to  think  and 
what  to  believe.  They  do  not  like  to  face  the  fact 
that  they  have  actually  lost  faith  in  revelation, 
and  are  no  longer  relying  for  help  and  guidance  on 
the  Spirit  of  God,  but  on  the  laws  of  nature  ;  so 
they  take  refuge  from  the  abhorred  aspect  of  the 
naked  truth  that  they  are  'atheists'  in  a  cloud  of 
rose-coloured  poetical  phrases,  which,  if  they  mean 
anything,  mean  pantheism. 

PANTHE'ON,  a  Greek  or  Roman  temple  dedi- 
cated to  all  the  gods.     The  '  Pantheon '  of  Rome 


Half  Section  of  Pantheon  (from  Fergusson). 

(now  a  church)  is  a  building  deservedly  celebrate* 
for  its  fine  dome.  It  suggested  the  idea  of  the  domes 
of  modern  times. 

PANTHER  (Fclis  pardus),  one  of  the  larges' 
Felidce,  now  generally  supposed  to  be  identical 
with  the  Leopard  (q.  v.),  or  a  riere  variety  of  it, 
differing  only  in  a  somewhat  larger  size,  and 
deeper     colour.       Cuvier,     however,     distinguishes 


PANTHER— PAOLT. 


the   P.    from    the    Leopard,    hut    without    stating 
auy  characters  other  than  those  of   colour.      The 


American  Panther  (Fclis  concolor). 

nnme  P.  (vulg.  'Painter')  is  given  to  the  Puma  in 
America  (/■'.  concolor). 

PANTHER,  in  Heraldry,  is  home  gardant,  and 
incensed,  L  e.,  with  tire  issuing  from  his  mouth  and 
ears. 

PA'NTOMIME,  among  the  ancient  Romans, 
denoted  not  a  spectacle  but  a  person.  The  panto- 
mimes were  a  class  of  actors  who  (as  the  name 
implies)  acted  not  by  speaking,  but  wholly  by 
mimicry — gesture,  movements,  and  posturings — cor- 
responding therefore  pretty  closely  to  the  modern 
ballet-dancers.  When  they  first  made  their  appear- 
ance in  Rome  cannot  be  ascertained  ;  probably  the 
histriones  (Etrusc.  faster,  a  dancer)  brought  from 
Etruria  to  Rome  364  B.  c.  were  pantomimes ;  but 
the  name  does  not  once  occur  during  the  republic, 
though  it  is  common  enough  from  the  very  dawn  of 
the  empire.  Augustus  shewed  great  favour  to  this 
class  of  performers,  and  is  consequently  supposed 
by  some  writers  to  have  been  himself  the  inventor 
of  the  art  of  dumb  acting.  The  most  celebrated 
pantomimes  of  the  Augustan  age  were  Bathyllus  (a 
freedman  of  Maecenas),  Pylades,  and  Hylas.  The 
class  soon  spread  over  all  Italy  and  the  provinces, 
and  became  so  popular  with  the  Roman  nobles  and 
knights  (who  used  to  invite  male  and  female  per- 
formers to  their  houses  to  entertain  their  guests), 
that  Tiberius  reckoned  it  necessary  to  administer  a 
check  to  their  vanity,  by  issuing  a  decree  forbidding 
the  aristocracy  to  frequent  their  houses,  or  to  be 
Been  walking  with  them  in  the  streets.  Under 
Caligula  they  were  again  received  into  the  imperial 
favour ;  and  Nero,  who  carried  every  unworthy 
weakness  and  vice  to  the  extremity  of  caricature, 
himself  acted  as  a  pantomime.  From  this  period 
they  enjoyed  uninterrupted  popularity  as  long  as 
paganism  held  sway  in  the  empire. 

As  the  pantomimes  wore  masks,  no  facial  mimicry 
was  possible ;  everything  depended  on  the  move- 
ments of  the  body.  It  was  the  hands  and  fingers 
chiefly  that  spoke  ;  hence  the  expressions,  mam.ua 
loquaclssimcB,  digiti  clamosi,  &c.  To  such  perfection 
was  this  art  carried,  that  it  is  said  the  pantomimes 
could  give  a  finer  and  more  precise  expression  to 
passion  and  action  than  the  poets  themselves.  The 
subjects  thus  represented  in  dumb  show  were  always 
mythological,  and  consequently  pretty  well  known 
to  the  spectators.  The  dress  of  the  actors  was 
made  to  reveal,  and  not  to  conceal  the  beauties  of 
their  person  ;  and  as,  after  the  2d  c,  women  began 
to  appear  in  public  as  pantomimes,  the  effect,  as 


may  easily  be  supposed,  of  the  sesthetical  costume 
was  injurious  to  morality.  Sometimes  the  ■  panto- 
mimic actresses  even  appeared  quite  naked  before 
an  audience — a  thing  which  could  never  nave 
happened  had  the  Roman  communities  not  become 
thoroughly  base,  sensual,  and  inquire.  It  was  quite 
natural,  therefore,  that  pantomimic  exh 
should  have  been  denounced  by  the  early  Christian 
writers,  as  they  even  were  by  pagan  moralists  like 
Juvenal. 

Under  Harlequin  is  described  the  character  of 
the  modern  pantomimes,  which  word  denotes  not 
the  performers,  but  the  pieces  performed,  A  few 
additional  facts  are  here  given  to  complete  that 
notice.  The  Christmas  Pantomime,  or  Harlequinade, 
is,  in  its  present  shape,  essentially  a  British  enter- 
tainment, and  was  first  introduced  into  this  country 
by  a  dancing-master  of  Shrewsbury  named  Weaver, 
in  1702.  One  of  his  pantomimes,  entitled  The  Loves 
of  Mars  and  Venus,  met  with  great  success.  The 
arrival,  in  the  year  1717,  in  London  of  a  troupe  of 
French  pantomimists  with  performing  dogs  gavj  an 
impetus  to  this  kind  of  drama,  which  was  further 
developed  in  1758  by  the  arrival  of  the  Grimaldi 
family,  the  head  of  which  was  a  posture-master  and 
dentist.  Under  the  auspices  of  this  family,  the  art 
of  producing  pantomimes  was  greatly  cultivated, 
and  the  entertainment  much  relished.  Joueph 
Grimaldi,  the  son  of  the  dentist,  was  clever  at 
inventing  tricks  and  devising  machinery,  and  Mother 
Goose,  and  others  of  his  harlequinades,  had  an 
extended  ran.  At  that  time  the  wit  of  the  clown 
was  the  great  feature  ;  but  by  and  by,  as  good 
clowns  became  scarce,  other  adjuncts  were  supplied, 
such  as  panoramas  or  dioramic  views ;  and  now  the 
chief  reliance  of  the  manager  is  on  scenic  effects, 
large  sums  of  money  being  lavished  on  the  mise  en 
scene.  This  is  particularly  the  case  as  regards  the 
transformation  scene — i.  e.,  the  scene  where  the 
characters  are  changed  into  clown,  harlequin,  &c. — 
as  much  as  £1000  being  frequently  spent  on  this  one 
effort.  In  London  alone,  a  sum  of  about  £40,000  is 
annually  expended  at  Christmas  time  on  panto- 
mimes. The  King  oj  the  Peacocks,  a  pantomime 
produced  at  the  London  Lyceum  Theatre  during 
the  management  of  Madame  Vestris,  cost  upwards 
of  £3000.  Even  provincial  theatres,  such  as  those 
of  Manchester  or  Edinburgh,  consider  it  right  to  go 
to  considerable  expense  in  the  production  of  their 
Christmas  pantomime. 

PA'OLI,  Pasquale  de,  a  Corsican  patriot,  was 
born  in  1726,  at  Morosaglia,  in  Corsica.  His  father, 
having  taken  a  leading  part  in  the  unsuccessful 
insurrection  of  the  islanders  against  the  Genoese 
and  their  French  allies,  was  obliged  to  retire  to 
Naples  in  1739,  taking  his  son  with  him.  Here 
P.  received  an  excellent  education.  In  July  1755, 
he  was  summoned  by  the  supreme  magistracy  to 
Corsica,  and  was  elected  captain-general  of  the 
island,  and  the  chief  of  a  democratic  government, 
possessing  all  the  power  of  a  king,  but  without  the 
title.  He  energetically  and  successfully  applied 
himself  to  the  reformation  of  the  barbarous  laws 
and  customs  of  the  island,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
the  expidsion  of  the  Genoese,  who,  notwithstanding 
the  aid  they  received  from  an  influential  section  of 
the  islanders,  were  deprived  of  nearly  all  their 
strongholds,  their  fleet  was  defeated,  and  they  were 
finally  obliged  to  seek  help  from  France.  After  the 
withdrawal  of  the  French  troops,  they  were  again 
speedily  deprived  of  the  places  they  had  recaptured, 
and  in  1768  they  ceded  the  island  to  France.  P. 
refused  all  the  advantageous  offers  by  which  the 
French  government  sought  to  bribe  him,  as  he  had 
before  refused  those  of  the  Genoese,  and  continued 
to  struggle  for  the  independence  of  his   country, 

287 


PAPA— PAPAL  STATES. 


but  he  was  signally  defeated  by  the  Comte  de 
Vaux,  at  the  head  of  the  French  troops,  and  the 
French  became  masters  of  the  island.  After  one 
year's  struggle,  P.  was  compelled  to  take  refuge 
on  board  of  a  British  frigate,  in  which  he  sailed 
for  England,  where  he  was  treated  with  general 
sympathy.  Twenty  years  afterwards,  the  French 
revolution  of  1789  recalled  him  to  Corsica, 
and  as  a  zealous  republican  he  entered  into  the 
schemes  of  the  revolutionary  party ;  but  during  the 
anarchy  of  France  in  1792 — 1793,  he  conceived  a 
scheme  for  making  Corsica  an  independent  republic. 
Until  this  time  he  had  been  on  the  best  terms 
with  the  Bonaparte  family,  but  they  now  joined  the 
Jacobin  party  whilst  he  allied  himself  with  Britain, 
favoured  the  landing  of  2000  British  troops  in  the 
island  in  1794,  and  joined  them  in  driving  out  the 
French.  He  then  surrendered  the  island  to  George 
III.,  but  becoming  dissatisfied  with  the  govern- 
ment, he  quarrelled  with  the  British  viceroy,  whilst 
many  of  his  countrymen  were  displeased  with  the 
course  he  had  adopted  in  allying  himself  with  the 
British.  He  therefore  retired  from  the  island  in 
1796,  and  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  London.  P.  died  near  London, 
February  5,  1807. 

PA'PA,  a  large  market-town  in  the  west  of 
Hungary,  stands  in  a  beautiful  district  on  the 
Tapolcza,  an  affluent  of  the  Marczal,  60  miles  south- 
south-east  of  Presburg.  It  contains  a  stately  castle, 
with  a  beautiful  garden,  handsome  Catholic  and 
Lutheran  churches,  a  Catholic  gymnasium,  Reformed 
college,  and  an  hospital.  Stoneware,  cloth,  and 
pipes  are  manufactured,  and  a  trade  in  wine  is 
carried  otu     Pop.  (1870)  14,223. 

PAPA,  the  Latin  form  of  the  title  now,  in  the 
Western  Church,  given  exclusively  to  the  Bishop 
of  Pome.  Originally,  however,  meaning  simply 
4  father,'  it  was  given  indiscriminately  to  all  bishops. 
Tertullian  (De  Pudicitia,  cxiii.)  so  employs  it. 
Dionysius,  a  priest  of  Alexandria,  calls  his  bishop 
Papa  Heraclias.  St  Cyprian,  in  the  letters  of  his 
clergy,  is  addressed  Beatissimo  Papce  Cijpriano. 
The  same  form  is  employed  towards  him  by  the 
clergy  of  Rome  itself.  Even  Arius  so  addresses  his 
own  bishop  Alexander.  In  the  next  century,  St 
Jerome  addresses  the  same  title  to  Athanasius,  to 
Epiphanius,  and  most  of  all  to  Augustine.  Indeed 
it  would  appear  certain  that  down  to  the  time  of 
Gregory  of  Tours  it  was  used  not  uncommonly  of 
bishops  in  the  Western  Church.  And  there  are 
evidences  of  its  being  occasionally  applied  to  the 
inferior  clergy,  for  whom,  however,  some  adjunct 
was  employed,  in  order  to  distinguish  them  from 
bishops.  Thus,  we  sometimes  read  of  papce  pisinni, 
minor  popes ;  and  the  tonsure  was  called  by  the 
name  papa  letra.  In  the  Greek  Church,  as  is  well 
known,  whether  in  Greece  Proper  or  in  Russia,  papa 
is  the  common  appellation  of  the  clergy.  The  cir- 
cumstance of  its  having  been  originally  of  general 
application,  is  acknowledged  by  all  learned  Roman 
Catholic  controversialists  and  historians. 

PA'PACY.     See  Popes. 

PAPAL  STATES  (Italian,  Stati  della  Chiesa, 
or  Stati  Pontifici),  a  territory,  or  rather  group  of 
states  in  Central  Italy,  formerly  united  into  one 
sovereignty,  with  the  pope  for  its  head.  It  was  of 
an  irregidar  form,  resembling  tbo  letter  Z,  the  upper 
portion  lying  to  the  east  of  the  Apennines,  the  lower 
to  the  west  of  that  range,  these  two  being  connected 
by  a  third  strip,  which  crossed  the  peninsula  from 
east  to  west.  The  P.  S.  were  bounded  on  the  N. 
by  the  Po,  on  the  S.  by  Naples,  on  the  E.  by 
the  Gulf  of  Venice  and  Naples,  and  on  the  W. 
Dv     Modena,    Tuscany,    and    the    Tyrrhenian    Sea. 


Detached  portions,  as  Benevento  and  Pontecorvo, 
lay  within  the  Neapolitan  territory.  The  country 
is  traversed  by  the  Apennines,  which  attain  their 
highest  elevation  in  the  Monte  della  Sibilla,  which 
is  about  7402  feet  above  sea-level.  Owing  to  this 
range,  which  traverses  the  peninsula  in  the  direction 
of  its  length,  lying  so  much  nearer  the  east  than  the 
west  coast,  the  streams  to  the  east  of  it  have  a 
short  course  and  little  volume,  being,  in  fact,  mere 
mountain  torrents  ;  while  on  tbe  west  side  a  few  of 
the  rivers  are  of  considerable  size.  Of  the  latter, 
the  Tiber  (q.  v.)  is  the  largest.  The  eastern  coast 
is  bold  and  rugged,  and  destitute  of  proper  harbours, 
that  of  Ancona  alone  excepted ;  towards  the  north, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Po,  it  gradually  subsides  into 
a  low,  level,  marshy  tract,  with  numerous  lagunes. 
The  country  west  of  the  Apennines  is  traversed 
by  ranges  of  hills  parallel  to  them,  and  gradually 
decreasing  in  elevation  as  they  approach  the  sea. 
The  coast  itself  is  almost  wholly  flat,  sandy,  or 
marshy,  with  no  deep  bays  and  few  good  harbours 
besides  Civita  Vecchia.  There  are  numerous  small 
lakes,  principally  in  the  northern  portion  of  the 
country,  the  chief  of  which  are  Lake  Bolsena,  Lake 
Perugia,  and  Lake  Bracciano,  the  last  an  old  crater, 
situated  almost  1000  feet  above  sea-level. 

The  country  was  divided  for  administrative 
purposes  into  20  districts,  as  follows :  1  Comarca, 
including  Rome  and  the  Agro  Romano  ;  6  Legations, 
Bologna,  Ferrara,  Forli,  Ravenna,  Urbino,  Velletri ; 
and  13  Delegations,  Ancona,  Ascoli,  Benevento, 
Camerino,  Civita  Vecchia,  Fermo,  Frosinone,  Ma- 
cerata,  Orvieto,  Perugia,  Spoleto,  Rieti,  Viterbo; 
with  a  total  area  of  15,774  English  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  about  3,000,000.  The  Legations 
of  Bologna,  Ferrara,  Foili,  and  Ravenna  constituted 
the  Bomagna  ;  Spoleto  and  Perugia  were  known  as 
Umhrla  ;  and  Ancona,  Fermo,  Macerata,  and  Ascoli 
constituted  the  March  of  Ancona.  The  inhabitants, 
with  the  exception  of  16,000  Jews,  are  of  Italian 
race,  and  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  The 
only  provinces  remaining  under  the  papal  rule  after 
the  year  1859  were  Rome  with  the  Comarca,  the  lega- 
tion of  Velletri,  and  the  delegations  of  Civita  Vec- 
chia, Frosinone  (excepting  Pontecorvo),  and  Vi- 
terbo, with  a  total  area  of  4493  English  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  about  700,000.  The 
chief  cities  and  towns  in  this  territory  are,  Rome  (the 
capital),  Viterbo,  Velletri,  Alatri,  and  Civita  Vec- 
chia. 

Climate  and  Products. —  The  climate  of  this  tern 
tory  is  one  of  the  finest  in  fiie  world,  and  the  heat  of 
summer  is  tempered  by  the  mild  and  cooling  sea- 
breezes  ;  but  in  the  flats  south  of  the  Po  and  in  the 
Campagna  of  Rome,  the  noxious  atmosphere  pro- 
duced by  the  exhalations  from  the  marshes  is  most 
destructive  of  human  life.  Fever  and  ague  are 
very  prevalent  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  neigh- 
bouring districts,  and  notwithstanding  the  attempts 
to  remedy  the  deadly  influence  of  the  marshes 
by  drainage  and  cultivation,  it  has  hitherto  been 
undiminished  (see  Maremme).  Violent  siroccos 
are  occasionally  experienced  on  the  west  coast. 
The  northern  portion,  from  its  elevation,  is  exposed 
to  severe  cold  during  winter.  The  soil  of  the  P.  S. 
is  in  general  extremely  fertile ;  but  the  higher 
mountain  districts  are  either  quite  barren,  or  only 
adapted  for  pasture ;  and  not  more  than  one-third 
of  the  whole  surface  is  under  cultivation.  Th« 
practice  of  agriculture  is  in  its  most  primitive 
state,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  agriculture, 
as  a  science,  originated  here,  and  was  practised 
for  many  centuries  before  it  was  introduced  into 
the  other  countries  of  Europe ;  but  the  many 
political  changes  and  revolutions  which  have  con- 
vulsed the   country,  have  acted  as  a  bar  to  all 


PAPAL  STATES. 


enterprise.      It    must,    however,    l>n    mentioned,    that 

the  late  pope,  by  salutary  enactments,  and  by  the 
establishment  of  agricultural  societies,  did  very  much 

for  the  improvement  of  this  branch  of  industry. 
The  products  are  similar  to  those  of  the  rest  of 
Italy.  The  manufactures  nro  comparatively  un- 
important—  silks,  woollens,  and  leather  are  the 
chief;  but  plate-glass,  rope,  sailcloth,  cotton  goods, 
paper,  artificial  Bowere,  wax-candles,  soap,  stone- 
ware, &C,  are  also  manufactured  in  various  places. 
The  fisheries  are  important.  The  chief  minerals  are 
alum,  vitriol,  saltpetre,  sulphur,  coal,  rock-salt, 
marble,  and  alabaster. 

Many  of  the  manufactured  goods,  and  wine,  olive 
oil,  wool,  hemp,  tobacco,  bread-stuffs,  catgut,  &c,  of 
this  territory,  are  exported,  the  total  exports  formerly 
amounting  to  about  11,500,000  scudi  (£2,500,000) 
annuallv;  while  the  imports  reached  the  value  of 
13,500,000  scudi  (£2,900,000).  Latterly,  no  reliable 
statistics  of  the  trade  of  the  districts  remaining  under 
the  pontifical  rule  were  published. 

Government. — The  pope  formerly  possessed  absolute 
and  unlimited  power,  but  the  members  of  the  college 
of  cardinals,  who  elected  him,  generally  kept  the  chief 
offices  of  state  in  their  own  hands,  and  assisted  the 
pope  in  the  government  of  his  states,  as  well  as  in  the 
affairs  of  the  church.  The  secretary  of  state  was  at 
the  head  of  political  affairs,  and  was  nominated  by  the 
pope.  He  presided  over  both  the  ministerial  council 
and  the  council  of  state.  The  former  council,  which 
consisted  of  five  or  more  ministers,  heads  of  depart- 
ments, selected  by  the  pope,  had  a  voice  in  legislation, 
and  also  the  right  of  authoritative  interpretation  of 
the  laws ;  the  latter,  which  consisted  of  thirteen  mem- 
bers, also  nominated  by  the  pope,  had,  in  matters  of 
legislature  and  finance,  only  the  right  of  giving  ad- 
vice ;  but  it  settled  any  question  of  competency  that 
might  arise  between  the  various  branches  of  the  admin- 
istration. After  1850,  there  was  also  a  separate 
finanz-consulta  for  the  regulation  of  financial  affairs. 
The  Comarea,  which  was  more  directly  under  the  cen- 
tral government,  was  ruled  by  a  cardinal-president; 
the  Legation  was  ruled  by  a  cardinal-legate,  aided  by 
a  provincial  chamber  of  deputies.  There  were  civil 
and  criminal  courts  in  all  the  provinces,  minor  courts 
in  the  communes,  -with  courts  of  appeal  in  all  the 
chief  cities,  and  a  central  tribunal  at  .Rome.  All  the 
proceedings  of  these  courts  were  public,  except  trials 
for  political  offences.  Loud  complaints  have  been 
made  of  abuses  in  all  departments  of  the  administra- 
tion. Ecclesiastically,  the  country  is  divided  into 
archbishoprics  and  bishoprics. 

The  papal  army,  which  formerly  amounted  to 
'20,000  men,  in  1869  numbered  only  16,334  men, 
infantry,  cavalry,  artillery,  &c.  included.  A  consid- 
erable portion  of  the  papal  territory  was  garrisoned 
for  20  years  by  French  troops,  without  whose  aid  the 
pope's  power  could  not  have  been  maintained. 

The  income  and  expenditure  for  1859,  the  last 
year  of  the  entirety  of  the  P.  S.,  were  respectively 
14,453,325  scudi  (£3,126,038),  and  15,029,346  scudi 
(£3,248,038);  but  the  three  succeeding  years  shewed 
a  vastly  different  result;  the  expenses  being  largely 
increased  by  the  cost  of  wars,  while  from  the  rebel- 
lious provinces  scarcely  any  taxes  were  collected.  The 
income  and  expenditure  for  the  three  years  1860 — 2, 
and  1868,  were  nearly  as  follows: 


Expenditure. 

Income. 

I860 

.       £4.720,809     . 

.      £1,716,658 

1861     . 

.     4,291.644 

.     1,716,658 

1862 

2,145,822    . 

1,072,911 

1868     . 

.    2,957,992 

.     1,153,774 

The  finances  continued  in  the  same  deplorable  con- 
dition, and  the  public  debt  amounted,  in  1867,  to 
about  $150,000,000.  The  tax,  known  as  'Peter's 
pence,'  which  was  lately  collected  from  all  the  Roman 


Catholic  countries,  had  produced  at  the  beginning 
of  1863  about  £1,080,000. 

History. — During  the  rule  of  the  Gotha  and  Lom- 
bards in  Italy,  the  inhabitants  of  Rome  and  all  who 
desired  to  live  free  from  the  barbarian  yoke,  feeling 
that  the  Greek  empire  was  incapable  of  protecting 
them,  and  at  the  same  timo  observing  the  perti- 
nacity and  energy  with  which  the  pope  asserted  the 
importance  and  dignity  of  Rome,  naturally  looked 
up  to  him  as  in  some  sort  a  protector ;  and  it  is  to 
the  gradual  growth  and  spread  of  this  feeling  that 
the  important  position  subsequently  taken  by  the 
popes  as  authorities  in  temporal  matters  is  chiefly 
due.  About  720  a.d.,  Gregory  III.,  having  quarrelled 
with  the  Emperor  Leo  the  Isaurian,  declared  the  inde- 
pendence of  Rome.  In  726,  Pepin  le  Bref  compelled 
the  Lombard  king  to  hand  over  Ravenna,  Rimini, 
Pesaro,  Fano,  Cesena,  Urbino,  Forli,  Comacchio 
and  fifteen  other  towns,  to  the  pepe,  who  now 
assumed  the  state  of  a  temporal  sovereign.  Pepin's 
example  was  followed  by  his  son  Charlemagne; 
but,  notwithstanding,  the  pope's  sovereignty  was 
more  nominal  than  real,  as  the  towns  were  not  in 
his  possession,  and  he  only  obtained  a  small  share 
of  their  revenues.  In  the  11th  c,  the  Normans 
greatly  aided  to  increase  the  papal  temporal  autho- 
rity, and  in  1053  the  duchy  of  Benevento  was 
annexed.  In  1102,  the  Countess  Matilda  of 
Tuscany  left  to  the  pope  her  fiefs  of  Parma,  Mantua, 
Modena,  and  Tuscany  ;  but  these  were  immediately 
seized  by  the  German  emperor,  and  of  this  magnifi- 
cent bequest  only  a  few  estates  came  into  the  pope's 
hands.  Between  this  period  and  the  end  of  the 
13th  a,  the  popes  succeeded,  often  by  unscrupulous 
means,  in  obtaining  from  many  of  the  free  towns  of 
Italy  an  acknowledgment  of  the  superiority  of  the 
Roman  see  over  them ;  and  in  1278  the  Emperor 
Rodolf  I.  confirmed  the  popes  in  the  acquisitions  thus 
obtained,  defined  authoritatively  the  boundaries  of 
the  P.  S.,  and  acknowledged  the  pope's  exclusive 
authority  over  them,  by  absolving  their  inhabitants 
from  their  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  empire.  The 
P.  S.  at  this  time  included  Perugia,  Bologna,  Berti- 
noro,  the  Duchy  of  Spoleto,  the  Exarchy  of  Ravenna, 
and  the  March  of  Ancona  ;  but  many  of  the  towns 
were  either  republics  or  hereditary  principalities, 
and  in  none  did  the  pope  possess  real  authority. 
Sixtus  IV.,  in  the  end  of  the  15th  c,  managed 
to  annex  the  Romagna  to  his  dominions ;  in 
effecting  which  he  is  accused  of  having,  employed 
intrigue,  perjury,  and  murder.  His  successors, 
Alexander  VI.  and  Julius  II.,  increased  the  P.  S. 
by  the  addition  of  Pesaro,  Rimini,  Faenza,  Parma, 
Placentia,  and  Reggio.  By  the  victory  of  the 
French  at  Marignan  (1515),  the  very  existence  of 
the  papal  power  was  threatened ;  but  the  able  policy 
of  Leo  X.  averted  the  threatened  danger.  In  1545, 
Paul  III.  alienated  Parma  and  Placentia,  and  erected 
them  into  a  duchy  for  his  son,  Pietro  Luigi  Farnese ; 
but  this  loss  was  partly  made  up  by  the  acquisi- 
tions of  Gregory  XIII.  "  In  1598,  the  possessions  of 
the  House  of  Este,  viz.,  Ferrara,  Comacchio,  and  a 
part  of  the  Romagna,  were  seized  by  Pope  Cle- 
ment VIII.  ;  and  the  P.  S.  received  their  final 
additions  in  Urbino  (1623),  Ronciglione,  and  the 
duchy  of  Castro  (1650).  The  Romagna  was  seized 
by  Napoleon  in  1797,  and  incorporated  in  the 
Cisalpine  Republic ;  and  in  the  following  year, 
Rome  was  taken  by  the  French,  aud  the  P.  S. 
erected  into  the  Roman  Republic.  Pius  VII.,  in 
1800,  obtained  possession  of  his  states,  but  they 
were  almost  immediately  retaken  by  the  French, 
and  finally  (1809)  incorporated  with  France,  Rome 
being  reckoned  the  second  city  of  the  empire.  In 
1814,  the  pope  returned  to  his  dominions,  and  was 
formally  reinstated  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  mainly 


PAPAVERACE^E— PAPENBURG. 


through  the  exertions  of  the  non-Roman  Catholic 
powers,  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Britain  ;  but  the 
clerical  misgovernment  contrasted  so  strongly  with 
the  liberal  administration  of  France,  that  in  1830 
the  people  of  Ancona  and  Bologna  rose  in  rebellion. 
They  were  put  down  by  the  aid  of  an  Austrian 
army,  but  the  abuses  in  the  administration  were  so 
flagrant,  that-  even  Austria  urged  the  necessity  for 
reform.  Her  remonstrances,  however,  were  not 
attended  to,  and  the  Bolognese  again  rebelled.  This 
second  revolt  supplied  Austria  with  a  pretext  for 
occupying  the  northern  Legations,  and  the  French 
at  the  same  time  garrisoned  Ancona.  Occasional 
risings  took  place  from  time  to  time  up  to  1846, 
when  the  present  pope,  Pius  IX.,  assumed  the  tiara, 
and  burst  upon  the  astonished  world  in  the  new 
character  of  a  reforming  pope.  His  projects  were 
of  a  most  liberal  character,  and  were  put  in  force 
with  great  energy,  despite  the  opposition  of 
Austria ;  but,  alarmed  at  the  spread  of  revolution 
in  Europe  during  1848,  he  halted  in  his  career,  just 
at  the  critical  moment  when  to  halt  was  to  be  lost. 
The  people  rose,  and  Pius  IX.  fled  to  Gaeta, 
•whilst  Rome  was  proclaimed  a  republic.  He  was 
restored,  and  his  subjects  reduced  to  submission, 
by  the  arms  of  France,  Austria,  Naples,  and  Spain. 
The  Austrians  held  the  Legations  in  subjection 
to  the  pope's  authority  till  1859 ;  the  French 
occupied  Rome  in  his  behalf  till  1870.  In  July  1859,  the 
four  northern  Legations  (the  Romagna),  taking 
advantage  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  Aiistrian 
troops,  quietly  threw  off  the  papal  authority,  and 
proclaimed  their  annexation  to  Sardinia,  which 
was  formally  acknowledged  by  Victor  Emmanuel 
in  March  1860.  The  pope  now  raised  a  large  body 
of  troops,  appointing  Lamoriciere,  an  eminent 
French  general,  to  command  them,  for  the  purpose 
of  resisting  any  further  encroachments  on  his 
dominions ;  but  the  news  of  Garibaldi's  success 
in  Sicily  and  Naples  produced  revolt  in  the  Lega- 
tion of  Urbino  and  in  the  Marches,  the  people 
proclaiming  Victor  Emmanuel.  The  Sardinians 
accordingly  marched  into  the  P.  S.,  defeated 
Lamoriciere,  who  retired  into  Ancona,  where  he  was 
compelled  to  surrender  Avith  his  whole  army.  The 
revolted  provinces  of  Umbria,  Urbino,  and  the  Marches, 
and  part  of  Frosinone,  were  annexed  to  Sardinia.  In 
Sept.,  1870,  the  remaining  states  were  occupied  by  the 
Italian  troops,  and  the  pope  was  removed  from  temporal- 
power.  On  Oct.  2,  1870,  the  people  pronounced  their 
annexation  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  with  which  the 
territory  of  the  States  of  the  Church  was  incorporated 
by  decree  of  9th  October,  and  General  Marmora  ap- 
pointed governor  of  the  new  provinces. 

PAPAVERA'CEjE,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  herbaceous  or  half  shrubby,  usually  with  a 
milky  or  coloured  juice.  The  leaves  are  alternate, 
without  stipides ;  the  flowers  on  long  one-flowered 
stalks.  The  fruit  is  pod-shaped  or  capsular ;  the 
seeds  numerous.  The  order  is  distinguished  for 
narcotic  properties.  Opium  (q.  v.)  is  its  most  import- 
ant product.  The  juice  of  Celandine  (q.  v.)  is  very 
acrid.  A  number  of  species  are  used  in  their  native 
countries  for  medicinal  purposes.  The  seeds  yield 
fixed  oil,  which,  with  the  exception  of  that  obtained 
from  Argemone  Mexicana,  is  quite  bland.  See 
Poppy.  The  flowers  of  many  species  are  large  and 
shewy,  most  frequently  white  or  yellow,  sometimes 
red.  Several  kinds  of  Poppy  and  Eschscholtzia 
are  frequent  in  our  gardens.  There  are  in  all 
about  130  known  species,  natives  of  all  quarters 
of  the  world,  and  of  tropical  and  temperate  climates, 
but  they  abound  most  of  all  in  Europe. 

PAP  AW   {Carica  Papaya),  a  South  American 
tree  of    the  natural    order   Papayacece — of  which 
840 


order  about  30  species  are  known — which  ham  now 
been  introduced  into  many  tropical  and  subtropical 
countries.  It  grows  to  the  heighi  of  15 — 3C  feet, 
with  leaves  only  at  the  top,  where  also  the  fruit 
grows  close  to  the  stem.  The  leaves  are  20—30 
inches  long.  The  fruit  is  of  a  green  colour,  very 
similar  in  appearance  to  a  small  melon,  and  with 
a  somewhat  similar  flavour.  It  is  eaten  either  raw 
or  boiled.  The  seeds  are  round  and  black,  and 
when  chewed,  have  in  a  high  degree  the  puugency 
of  cresses.  The  powdered  seeds  and  the  juice  of 
the  unripe  fruit  are  most  powerful  anthelmintics, 
A  constituent  of  this  juice  is  Fibrine,  otherwise 
unknown  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  except  in  the 
Fungi.  The  milky  juice  of  the  tree  is  very  acrid. 
The  leaves  are  used  by  negroes  instead  of  soap  to 
wash  linen.  The  juice  of  the  fruit  and  the  sap 
of  the  tree  have  the  singular  property  of  rendering 
the  toughest  meat  tender  in  a  short  time.    Even 


Papaw  Tree  [Carica  Papaya). 

the  exhalations  from  the  tree  have  this  property ; 
and  joints  of  meat,  fowls,  &c,  are  hung  among  its 
branches  to  prepare  them  for  the  table.  It  is  a 
tree  of  extremely  rapid  growth,  bears  fruit  all  the 
year,  and  is  exceedingly  prolific.  The  fruit  is 
often  cooked  in  various  ways. — The  Chambv.ru  (C. 
digitata),  another  species  of  the  same  genus,  a 
native  of  Brazil,  is  remarkable  for  the  extremely 
acrid  and  poisonous  character  of  its  juice,  and  the 
disgusting  stercoraceous  odour  of  its  flowers. — In 
the  middle  and  southern  states  of  America  the  name 
P.  is  given  to  the  Uvaria  (or  Asimina)  triloba,  a 
small  tree  of  the  natural  order  Anonaceaz,  the  fruit 
of  which,  a  large  oval  berry,  three  inches  long,  is 
eaten  by  negroes,  but  not  generally  relished  by 
others.     All  parts  of  the  plant  have  a  rank  smell. 

PA'PENBURG,  a  small  town  of  Hanover,  in  the 
bailiwick  of  Osnabruck,  on  a  canal  navigable  for 
sea-going  vessels,  27  miles  south-south-east  of 
Emden  on  Dollart  Bay,  by  the  Emden  and  Hanover 
Railway.  It  originated  in  a  small  colony  which 
sprung  up  here,  and  was  supported  principally  by 
peat-cutting,  an  employment  for  which  the  fens 
and  moors  of  the  vicinity  afford  abundant  facilities. 
The  town  is  cleanly  built,  after  the  Dutch  model; 
its  houses  stretch  along  the  banks  of  the  canal.  It 
possesses  130  ships,  and  carries  on  manufactures  of 


TAPER. 


sail-cloth  and  ropes.  Its  commerce  is  considerable. 
Pop.  (1871  )  6(177. 

PAPER.  This  well-known  fabric  is  usually 
composed  of  vegetable  fibres  in  a  minute  state  of 
division,  and  recombined  into  thin  sheets,  either  by 
simple  drying  in  contact,  or  with  the  addition  of 
■ize  or  some  other  adhesive  material.  Probably  the 
earliest  use  of  paper  was  for  the  purpose  of  writing 
upon,  and  its  earliest  form  was  the  Papyrus  (q.  v.)  of 
tho  Egyptians.  The  stem  i  of  the  papyrus  plant,  which 
arw  often  eight  or  ten  feet  long,  are  soft  and  green, 
externally  like  the  common  rush  ;  and  the  interior 
consists  of  a  compact  cellular  tissue  or  pith.  At 
the  bottom  of  each  stem  the  portion  immersed  in 
the  mud  and  water  is  whiter  and  more  compact ; 
and  under  the  outer  skin  a  number  of  thin  pellicles 
lie  one  above  the  other.  These  were  removed,  and 
laid  side  by  side  with  their  edge3  overlapping  each 
other,  and  crosswise  upon  these  was  placed  one  or 
more  similar  layers,  until  the  sheet  was  sufficiently 
thick ;  pressure  was  then  applied  for  a  time,  and 
Afterwards  the  sheet  was  dried  in  the  sun.  The 
width  of  such  sheets,  of  course,  depended  upon  the 
length  of  the  portion  of  papyrus  stems  taken  ;  but 
they  could  be  made  any  length  by  joining  a  number 
of  the  squares  end  to  eud  by  glue  or  any  other 
adhesive  material.  The  scapus,  or  roll,  usually 
consisted  of  about  20  of  them. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  various  layers  of  the 
papyrus  decrease  in  thickness  as  they  are  nearer  to 
the  centre  of  the  stem,  the  makers  were  enabled  to 
produce  papers  of  different  qualities ;  and  in  the  time 
of  the  Romans  many  varieties  were  known,  which 
differed  as  to  the  quality  of  the  material,  and  the 
size  of  the  pieces  of  which  the  sheets  were  composed. 
The  finest  quality  was  made  from  the  innermost 
layer  of  membrane,  and  was  called  Hieratica,  or 
paper  of  the  priests.  This  was  made  for  the 
Egyptian  priests,  who  interdicted  its  sale  until 
covered  with  sacred  writing.  In  this  state  it  was, 
however,  an  article  of  trade,  and  the  Romans  found 
a  means  of  removing  the  writing,  and  sold  the 
palimpsest  sheets  in  Rome  under  the  name  of 
Augustus  paper,  used  as  a  Latin  equivalent  for  its 
former  Greek  name  of  hieratica.  It  was,  however, 
supposed  by  many  that  it  was  named  after  the 
Emperor  Augustus,  and  in  consequence  a  second 
quality  was  called  after  his  wife,  Lavinia  ;  and  the 
original  name  of  the  first  quality  came  in  time  to  be 
applied  to  the  third  quality.  The  next  quality  was 
called  Amphilheatrica,  it  is  supposed,  from  its 
having  been  made  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Alexandrian 
amphitheatre.  This  last,  when  imported  to  Rome, 
was  partly  remanufactured  by  Q.  Remmius  Fannius 
Palasmon,  the  schoolmaster  and  paper-maker,  who, 
by  a  pecidiar  process  of  his  own,  reduced  its 
thickness,  and  rendered  it  equal  to  the  first  quality, 
when  it  was  sold  under  the  name  of  Fanniana. 
There  were  other  inferior  qualities,  of  which  one 
called  Emporetica  was  used  as  shop-paper. 

Pliny,  from  whom  we  get  these  very  interesting 
particulars,  tells  us  that  all  these  kinds  were  manu- 
factured in  Egypt,  and  required  the  Nile  water  for 
their  formation.  He  says,  that  '  when  it  is  in  a 
muddy  state  it  has  the  peculiar  qualities  of  glue, 
and  the  various  kinds  of  paper  are  made  on  a  table 
where  they  are  moistened  with  this  water.  The 
leaves  or  sheets  of  membrane  are  laid  upon  it 
lengthwise,  as  long  indeed  as  the  papyrus  will 
admit  of,  the  jagged  edges  being  cut  off  at  either 
end  ;  after  which  a  cross  layer  is  placed  over  :  the 
same  way,  in  fact,  that  hurdles  are  made.  When 
this  is  done,  the  leaves  are  pressed  together,  and 
dried  in  the  sun.'  The  idea  of  the  adhesive  quality 
of  the  Nile  water  is  erroneous,  but  it  is  very  probable 
the  Egyptian  manufacturers  encouraged  the  error. 
328 


It  is  obvious  the  whole  merit  consisted  in  using  the 
membranes  fresh,  whilst  their  own  natural  gum  was 
in  proper  condition  to  make  them  adhere  togel  ben 

In  India  and  China,  the  art  of  writing  with  a 
style  or  sharp  point  upon  dried  palm  and  other 
leaves,  and  also  some  kinds  of  bark,  is  common 
even  at  the  present  day,  especially  in  Ceylon,  where 
we  find  it  common  to  employ  the  leaves  of  tho 
talipot  and  other  palms  as  paper.  Perhaps  it  was 
from  the  employment  of  these  materials,  or  it  is 
even  possible  from  watching  the  operations  of  the 
paper-making  wasps  and  other  insects,  that  the 
manufacture  of  larger  pieces,  by  pulping  the 
materials  and  spreading  them  out  to  a  greater 
extent,  was  suggested.  Whatever  was  the  true 
origin  of  the  art,  it  is  now  lost  in  the  vista  of  time. 

it  is  known  that  the  Chinese  were  acquainted 
with  the  art  of  making  paper  from  pulp  artificially 
prepared  as  early  as  the  commencement  of  tht> 
Christian  era  ;  and  it  is  thought  that  they  used  tho 
bark  of  various  trees,  the  soft  parts  of  bamboo 
stems,  and  cotton.  In  the  7th  c,  the  Arabians 
learned  the  art  of  making  it  of  cotton  from  tho 
Chinese,  and  the  first  manufactory  was  established, 
about  706  a. d.,  at  Samarcand.  From  thence  it  was 
transplanted  to  Spain,  where,  under  the  Moors, 
paper  was  made  not  only  of  cotton,  but  it  ia 
thought  also  of  hemp  and  flax.  The  exact  time  of 
the  introduction  of  paper  made  of  linen  rags  is 
very  uncertain  ;  but  the  best  evidence  is  offered  by 
the  Arabian  physician  Abdollatiph,  who  writes,  in 
an  account  of  his  visit  to  Egypt  in  the  year 
1200,  '  that  the  cloth  found  in  the  catacombs,  and 
used  to  envelop  mummies,  was  made  into  garments, 
or  sold  to  the  scribes  to  make  paper  for  shopkeepers ;' 
and  as  there  is  no  doubt  that  these  mummy-cloths 
were  linen,  it  proves  that  the  use  of  this  material  is 
of  no  mean  antiquity.  Of  the  use  of  linen  rags  in 
Europe,  the  earliest  proof  is  in  the  celebrated  docu- 
ment found  by  Ichwandner  in  the  monastery  of 
Goss,  in  Upper  Styria,  which  purports  to  be  a  man- 
date of  Frederick  II.,  emperor  of  the  Romans,  and 
is  dated  1242.  It  is  written  on  paper  which  has 
been  proved  to  be  made  of  linen.  The  practice  of 
making  a  distinctive  water-mark  on  the  paper,  by 
means  of  an  impression  on  the  fine  sieve  of  threads 
or  wires  upon  which  the  floating  pulp  is  received 
(fig.  1),  was  also  of  very  early  date,  as  MSS.  as  old 
as  the  13th  c.  bear  it.  But  there  is  really  no 
satisfactory  information  respecting  the  exact  time 
or  place  of  the  introduction  of  paper-making  into 
Europe  ;  by  some  it  is  supposed  that  Spain  was  the 
first  to  receive  the  art,  and  that  thence  it  spread  to 
France  and  Holland,  and  afterwards  to  England.  It 
is  quite  certain  that  England  was  a  long  time  behind 
these  countries.  As  a  proof  of  this,  we  find  that 
the  first  patent  for  paper-making  was  taken  out  in 
1665,  by  one  Charles  Hildeyerd,  but  it  was  for  '  The 
way  and  art  of  making  blew  paper  used  by  sugar- 
bakers  and  others.'  The  second  was  in  1675,  by 
Eustace  Barneby,  for  'The  art  and  skill  of  making 
all  sorts  of  white  paper  for  the  use  of  writing  and 
printing,  being  a  new  manufacture,  and  never  prac- 
tised in  any  way  in  any  of  our  kingdomes  or  domi- 
nions.' This,  then,  was  the  first  commencement  of 
the  making  of  writing  and  printing  paper  ;  but  that 
it  did  not  equal  the  manufactures  of  other  coun- 
tries is  shewn  by  the  specification  of  another  patent, 
taken  out  by  John  Briscoe  in  the  year  16S5,  which 
is  thus  expressed :  'The  true  art  and  way  for  making 
English  paper  for  writing,  printing,  and  other  uses, 
both  as  ijood  and  as  serviceable  in  all  respects,  and 
especially  as  white  as  any  French  or  Dutch  pxiper.' 
As  a  general  rule,  it  was  the  custom  of  paper- 
makers  to  employ  linen  rags  for  fine  papers,  but  a 
great  variety  of  other  materials  have  been  in  use 

241 


PAPER, 


from  its  first  introduction ;  for,  as  early  as  16S0, 
Nathaniel  "Bladen  took  out  a  patent  for  '  An  engine 
method  and  mill,  whereby  hemp,  flax,  lynnen, 
cotton,  cordage,  silke,  woollen,  and  all  sorts  of 
materials'  might  be  made  into  paper  and  paste- 
board ;  and  from  that  time  innumerable  efforts  have 
been  made  to  prepare  other  materials  than  cotton 
and  linen  rags  for  the  manufacture  of  paper.  The 
following  is  a  summary  of  the  patents  which  have 
been  taken  out  in  Britain  for  making  paper  from 
various  materials,  with  the  dates,  which  will  shew 
to  those  engaged  in  this  investigation  in  what 
directions  the  inquiry  has  been  previously  con- 
ducted. The  arrangement  is  alphabetical,  and 
consequently  not  in  the  order  of  dates. 


Asbestos,  .         •         • 
Bagging  or  Sacking, 


Banana  Fibre,      .       . 
Barks  of  various  kinds, 


Bass  or  Bast,       * 

Bean-stalks,  &c, 
Cane  (Sugar),       . 


Cocoa-nut  Fibre, 

Cocoa-nut  Kernel, 
Clover,       .       . 

Cotton,         •       * 


Dung,       . 

Esparto  or  Alfa, 
Flax, 


Flax,  New  Zealand, 

Fresh-water  Weeds, 
Fur,      . 

Grasses,     . 


Gutta-percha, 
Hair, 
Hay,      . 

Heath, 
Hemp,  •       . 


(Tops,    .       . 


Husks  of  Grain, 
Jute,         •        • 

Leather, 

Leaves,     .       < 

343 


Names  of  Inventors,  and  Dates  of  Patents. 


Berrv,     1838  ;    D'Harcourt,    1838; 

Small,  1838;    May,  1852;  Burke, 

1855. 
Maniere,  1853. 
Stiff.  1853;  Wheeler  and  Co.,  1854; 

Ro^siter   and    Co.,    1854;    Smith 

and  Co.,  1855. 
Berry,   1838;    Lilly,  1854;    Jullion, 

1855  ;  Burke,  1855  ;  Hook,  1857. 
Koops,  1800;  Balmano.  1838  ;  Nerot, 

1816:    Coupier,    1852;     Johnson, 

1855;  Kelk,  1855;   Lotteii,  1855; 

Niven,  1856;    Broad,  1857;  Hope 

and  Co.,  1S57. 
Ruck  and  'louche,    1856;   Touche, 

1857. 
D'Harcourt,  1838;  Brooman,  1855. 
Berry,  1S38;  Coupier,  1852;  John- 
son,  1855;    Jnllion,   1855;    Ruck 

and  Touche,  1856  ;  Hook,  1857. 
Newton,   1852;    Holt   and   Forster, 

1854. 
Diaper,  1854. 
Coupland,   1854  ;   Holt  and  Fraser, 

1S54;  flunkett,  1857. 
Bladen,     1682  ;     Williams,     1833  ; 

Coupier,    1852;     Crossley,    1854; 

Siblet,  1857. 
Jones,  1805;   Zander,  1839;  Lloyd, 

1852;  Hill,  1854. 
Routledge,  1856. 
Bladen,  1682  ;   Koops,  1800 ;  Jones, 

1805;    Ball,   1817;    Berry,   1838; 

Gibbs,  1833;  De  la  Garde,  1825; 

Coupier,     1832  ;     Collins,     1853 ; 

Pownal,    1852;    Coupland,    1854; 

Broad,  1857. 
Berry,  1838  ;  Gibbs,  1S33  and  1857  ; 

Gillman,  1854. 
Archer,  1855. 
Williams,  1833. 
Stiff,  1853  ;  Evans,  1854  ;  Clift,  1854 

Coupland,     1854;     Jeyes,     1854 

Crossley,    1854;    Jackson,    1854 

Johnson,    1855  ;     Frasor,    1855 

Gilhee,   1855;    Holt   and  Fraser, 

1854 ;  Pariset,  1856. 
Hancock,  1846. 
Williams,  1833. 
Koops,1800;  Castelain,1854;  Pariset, 

1850. 
Crossley,  1854. 
Bladen,  1682  ;  Hooper,  1790 ;  Koops, 

1800 ;   De  la  Garde,  1825  ;  Gibbs, 

1832  ;  Coupier,  1852  ;  Collins,  1853 ; 

Bargnano,  1853;    Jackson,   1854; 

Hrlin,  1854  ;    Broad,  1857  ;    Ball, 

1817. 
De    la  Garde,    1825;     D'Harcourt, 

1838  ;  Balmano,  1838  ;  M'Guaran, 

1839  ;  Sheldon,  1843  ;  Barling, 
1854 ;  Ciossley,  1854  ;  Holt  and 
Fraser,  1854  ;  Taylor,  1854;  Broad, 
1857  ;  Plunkett,  ls£7. 

Wilkinson,  1852. 

Calvert,  1846  ;  Nerot,  1846  ;  Coupier, 

1852;  Helin,  1854;  Jackson,  1854; 

Smith  and  Hollingworth,  1855. 
Hooper,  1790  ;  Trappes,  1854 ;  Ocks, 

1856  ;  Van  den  Hout,  1856  ;  Lich- 

tenstadt,  1857. 
Balmano,    1833  ;      Warner,    1853  ; 

Vivien,     1853 ;     Johnson,    1855  ; 

Moll,   1855;    Ruck  and  Touche, 

1857. 


Maize,  Husk,  and  Stems, 

Manilla  Hemp  or  Plan-) 
tain  Fibre,         .        f 
Moss,  .        .        . 

Nettles, 

Old  Writing  Paper, 
Tea  Stalk, 
Peat  or  Turf, 


Roots  of  various  kinds, 

Sawdust,      .        . 
Sea-weeds,         .        . 

Silk 

Straw,       .       •       • 


Tan  (Spent  Bark), 


Thistle-down, 
Thistles,    . 

Tobacco-stalks, 
Wood,  . 


Wool, 

Wrack  Grass  or  Zostera, 


Names  of  Inrentors,  and  Dates  of  Patents. 


D'Harcourt,  1838;    Balmano,  1838  j 
Buck  and  Touche,  1857. 

Newton,  1852. 

Nesbitt,     1824  ;     Bellford,     1854  ; 

Johnson,  1855. 
J.mes,   1805;    De    la   Garde,    1825; 

Clift,  1854. 
Koops,  1800. 
D'Harcourt,  1838. 
Ley,    1852;     Clarke,    1853;     Lalle- 

mande,    1853;      Crossley,     1854; 

Hemming,1857;  Westerman,18£3. 
Balmano,   1838;     De    la    Bertoche, 

1855;    Johnson,    1855;    Ackland, 

1854;  Barling,  1835 ;  Dubus,  1857. 
Wilkinson,  1852;  Johnson,  1855. 
MartenolideManonoi,1855;  Archer, 

1855. 
Bladen,  1682  ;  Bull,  1817 ;  Williams, 

1833. 
Koops,  1800  ;  Lambert,  1824 ;  Zmder, 

1839;  Counier,  1852;  Stiff,  1853; 

Poole,  1853;  Helin,  1854;  Fraser, 

1855;  Chanchard,  1856;  Castelain, 

1854  ;  Bioad,  1857  ;  Wheeler,  1857. 
Crossley,  1854;    Jeyes,  1S54;    Holt 

and  Forster,  1854;  Horton,  1855; 

Rossiter  and  Bishop,  1854. 
Bellford,  1854. 
Koops,  1800;  Lord  Berrirla'.e,  1854; 

Lilie,  1S54. 
Adcock,  1854. 
Koops,     1801  ;     Desgrand,     1838 ; 

Brooman,  1853;   Swindells,  1854; 

Newton,    1852;     Johnson,    1855; 

Kelk,  1855;  Martin,  1855;  Prede- 

val,    1S55  ;     De    Frontur,     1855 ; 

Chanchard,   1856;   Amyot,    1856; 

Newton    (Voelter),  1857;   Poisat, 

1857;  Coupier,  1852. 
Bladen,     1682;      Williams,     1833; 

Dickenson,  1807;  Crossley,  1854. 
Spooner,  1857. 


But  whatever  the  material  employed,  the  process 
for  nearly  all  is  the  same.  The  rags,  bark,  fibres, 
or  other  substance,  have  to  be  reduced  with  water 
into  a  fine  smooth  pulp.  This,  in  the  early  stages  of 
the  manufacture,  was  accomplished  by  macerating 
and  boiling  the  material,  until,  in  the  case  of  bark, 
fibres,  or  other  raw  material,  the  fibres  could  be 
drawn  out  from  the  cellulose  matter,  after  which  it 
was  beaten  with  mallets,  or  with  pestles  in  mortars, 
or  stampers  moved  by  some  power.  Water  is  gener- 
ally used,  but  in  Holland  wind-mills  do  this  work. 
The  beating  is  continued  until  the  material  is 
reduced  to  a  very  smooth  pulp.  The  pulping,  in  our 
machine  paper-mills,  is  much  more  rapidly  accom- 
plished by  boiling  the  linen  or  cotton  rags,  or  other 
material,  in  a  strong  lye  of  caustic  alkali.  This 
effectually  cleans  the  rags,  and  other  vegetable  fibre* 


Fig.L 

are  softened  and  separated  in  a  remarkable  manner 
by  it ;  they  are  then  put  into  a  machine  called  the 
washing-machine  (fig.   1),  which  washes   out  dirt 


PAPER. 


and  everything  but  the  pure  vegetable  fibre.  This 
machine  (figs.  1,  2,  and  3)  ia  a  large  cast-iron  vessel, 
usually  about  10  feet  in  length,  44  feet  in  width, 
and  2^  feet  in  depth.  In  the  middle,  occupying 
about  two-thirds  of  its  length,  is  a  partition, 
always  cast  with  it,  called  the  mid-feather,  a 
(flgfl.  1  and  2),  to  support  the  axle  or  driving- shaft,  b 


Fig.  2. 

(rigs.  1  and  2).  This  turns  the  cylinder  c  (fig.  1), 
which  has  a  large  number  of  teeth  or  ridges  running 
across  it,  which  grip  and  tear  the  rags,  or  other 
materials,  as  they  are  drawn  under  it  by  the  current 
formed  by  its  revolutions.  In  order  to  facilitate 
this,  a  peculiar  form  is  given  to  the  bottom  of  the 
part  in  which  the  cylinder  works,  as  seen  in  fig.  3. 
The  rise,  a  (fig.  3),  is  called  the  back-fall,  and  the 


^j— -^ 


Fig.  3. 

materials  are  drawn  up  to,  and  through  the  narrow 
space  at  b,  by  the  current ;  then,  as  they  pass  over 
the  ridged  surface,  c,  they  come  in  contact  with  the 
ridged  surface  of  the  cylinder,  and  are  thus  violently 
Cround  and  drawn  through,  the  stream  carrying 
them  round  and  round  until  they  are  thoroughly 
washed  and  partly  pidped ;  or,  as  it  is  technically 
called,  broken  in.  The  washing-machine  is  supplied 
with  a  continued  flow  of  clean  water,  and  the  soiled 
water  as  regularly  escapes  through  a  fine  gauze 
screen,  in  the  ends  of  the  cylinders,  in  which  is  an 
ingenious  arrangement  for  raising  it  and  carrying  it 
away  through  the  axis,  which  is  hollow.  The  con- 
tents of  the  washing-machine  are  then  allowed  to 
flow  out  through  a  large  valve,  opening  downwrards 
intc  the  draining-chest.  Here  the  water  is  drained 
away,  and  the  stuff  is  then  placed  in  the  bleaching 
vats,  which  are  made  of  stone,  and  each  calculated 
to  contain  a  hundredweight  of  stuff,  which  is  here 
submitted  to  the  action  of  a  strong  solution  of 
chloride  of  lime  for  about  twenty-four  hours,  and 
frequently  agitated  ;  after  which  it  is  transferred 
to  a  hydraulic  press,  and  pressed  so  as  to  remove  the 
greater  portion  of  the  liquid  and  chloride  of  lime.  It 
s  then  placed  in   another  washing- engine,  and  for 


mi  hour  is  submitted  to  the  some  process  .-is  in  the 
first;    by  which  all  restiges  of  the  bleaching  mate* 

rials  are  removed,  and  the  stuff  so  much  more 
broken  down  as  to  be  called  iuilf-ntuff.  From  this 
engine  it  is  let  out  by  a  valve,  and  finds  its  way  into 
the  beating-engine,  which  is  placed  at  a  lower 
level  so  as  to  receive  it.  Here  the  arrangement  is 
nearly  the  same  as  in  the  washing  and  intermediate' 
engines  ;  but  the  ridges  on  the  bars  below  the  cylin- 
der, and  on  the  cylinder  itself,  are  much  sharper,  and 
the  disintegration  of  the  fibres  is  carried  on  witn 
great  rapidity  until  they  are  quite  separated;  and 
the  flow  of  the  water  in  a  rapid  current,  as  it  paescs) 
the  cylinder,  draws  them  out  and  arranges  them  in 
the  water  in  much  the  same  way  as  wool  or  cotton  is 
laid  on  the  carding-cylinders  of  a  carding-machine. 
This  operation  takes  about  five  hours,  at  the  end 
of  which  time  the  materials  have  been  worked  up 
with  the  water  into  an  almost  impalpable  pidp. 
This  is  then  let  out  into  the  pulp  vat,  where  it 
is  kept  continually  agitated  by  a  wooden  wheel 
revolving  in  it,  called  a  hog,  and  from  this  the 
hand- workman  or  machine  is  supplied. 

We  will  now  suppose  the  pulp  formed  and  ready 
for  use  in  the  vat,  and  will  first  describe  the 
process  of  hand-making,  as  formerly  practised  in 
all  countries,  and  stdl  in  use,  more  or  less,  in  all 
paper-making  countries.  The  workman  or  vatman 
takes  an  imple- 
ment called  a 
mould,  which  con- 
sists of  a  sheet 
of  very  fine  net- 
work, attached  to 
a  frame,  as  in  fig. 
4.  In  Europe, 
this  network  was 
always  made  of 
very  fine  wire ;  but 
in  India,  China, 
and  Japan  it  is 
usually  made  of 
fine  fibres  of  bamboo,  which  the  workmen  of  these 
countries  split  and  weave  with  remarkable  skilL 
There  are  usually  two  kinds  of  moulds  employed. 
In  one,  as  in  fig.  4,  the  wires  are  woven  across  each 
other,  forming  a  very  fine  gauze,  and  paper  made 
with  them  is  known  as  wove.  In  the  other,  there 
are  several  cross-bars  in  the  frame,  and  straight 
wires  are  laid  from  side  to  side,  and  about  four  or 
five  to  each  half  sheet  are  laid  across  them  length- 
wise, to  keep  them  in  position  ;  the  transverse  wires 
are  about  twenty  to  the  inch  ;  the  longitudinal  ones 
are  a  little  more  than  an  inch  apart.  Paper  made 
on  such  moulds 
is  called  laid,  and 
is  easily  known 
by  the  impression 
of  the  wires  upon 
it.  Whichever 
kind  of  mould  ia 
used,  another  im- 
plement called 
the  deckle  (fig.  5) 
is  required.  It 
is  a  thin  frame, 
which  exactly 
corresponds  to 
the  frame  of  the  mould,  and  the  workman  first 
places  the  deckle  on  the  mould,  and  then  dips 
them  into  the  pulp;  the  deckle  forms  a  ridge  which 
retains  just  enough  of  the  liquid  pulp  for  the 
sheet  of  paper.  The  water  of  the  pulp  speedily 
drains  through  the  wire  gauze,  and  after  it  has 
stood  in  an  inclined  position  for  a  few  minutes, 
another  workman,  called  the  coucher,  applies   the 

213 


PAPER. 


face  of  the  sheet  of  pulp  to  a  piece  of  felt  or 
flannel  cloth  stretched  on  a  board,  called  the 
couch,  and  the  sheet  thus  pressed,  leaves  the  mould, 
and  is  left  on  the  couch.  Every  successive  sheet 
is  similarly  treated,  and  they  are  piled  one  on 
another,  with  a  sheet  of  felt  between  each,  until 
from  four  to  eight  quires,  or  a  post,  as  it  is  called, 
is  formed.  Each  post  is  put  in  a  press,  and  under 
pressure  parts  with  nearly  all  the  moisture  in 
the  sheets  of  paper.  The  felts  are  then  removed, 
und  after  several  pressings,  and  other  minor  opera- 
tions, the  paper  is  hung  on  hair  ropes,  called  tribbles, 
in  the  drying-loft ;  and  when  dried,  resembles 
blotting-paper,  and  cannot  be  written  upon.  This 
is  remedied  by  dipping  it  in  a  weak  solution  of  hot 
size,  sometimes  tinged  with  colour,  after  which  it  is 
pressed,  dried,  folded,  and  made  up  iuto  quires.  Hot 
pressing  and  glazing  are  done  by  passing  the  sheets 
through  hot  and  polished  iron  rollers. 

In  Britain  very  little  paper  is  now  made  by 
hand,  the  wonderful  paper-machine  having  entirely 
changed  the  character  of  the  manufacture.  It  is 
usually  stated  that  Louis  Ptobert,  a  Frenchman, 
invented  the  paper-machine,  and  that  it  was 
brought  to  this  country  by  Didot  of  Paris  in  an 
imperfect  state,  but  received  improvements  from 
Fourdrinier.  This  ingenious  manufacturer  certainly 
did  very  much  to  make  the  paper-machine  useful 
and  perfect,  but  it  must  not  be  overlooked  that 
Braniah  took  out  a  previous  patent  in  1805,  rather 
more  than  a  year  before  Fourdrinier,  for  very  similar 
improvements  to  those  described  in  Fourdrinier' s 
specification.  The  object  of  all  was  to  cause  an 
equal  and  well-regulated  supply  of  the  pulp  to  flow 
upon  an  endless  wire-gauze  apron,  which  would 
revolve  and  carry  on  the  paper  until  it  is  received 
on  an  endless  sheet  of  felt,  passing  around  and 
between  large  couching  cylinders.  These  machines 
have  now  been  brought  to  such  perfection,  that 
paper  can  be  made  in  one  continuous  web  of  any 
length ;  and  before  leaving  the  machine,  is  dried, 
calendered,  hot  pressed,  and  cut  into  sheets.  Dif- 
ferent engineers  have  varied  the  construction  of  the 
paper-machine,  but  the  general  principles  of  all  are 
the  same.  We  therefore  select  for  illustration  the 
machine  which  was  exhibited  by  Mr  George  Ber- 
tram of  Edinburgh,  and  which  was  universally 
acknowledged  to  be  by  far  the  most  complete  and 
perfect  which  was  presented  in  the  International 
Exhibition  of  1862. 

Fig.  6  is  a  side  view  of  the  machine,  and  fig.  7  a 
vertical  one.  The  principle  of  the  machine  is  very 
simple ;  it  contains  a  pulp  vat,  A  (figs.  6  and  7), 
with  a  hog  or  wheel  inside  to  agitate  the  pulp,  and 
an  arrangement  for  pouring  the  pulp  over  the 
wire-gauze  mould,  B,  B,  B,  B,  which  instead  of 
being  in  single  squares,  as  in  the  hand-process, 
ia  an  endless  sheet  moving  round  two  rollers,  a,  b, 
which  keep  it  stretched  out  and  revolving  when 
in  operation.  Under  the  part  which  receives 
the  pulp  there  is  a  series  of  small  brass  rollers,  d 
(fig.  6),  these,  being  nearly  close  together,  keep  it 
perfectly  level,  which  is  a  most  necessary  condition  ; 
Besides  which,  there  is  a  shallow  trough,  ee  (fig.  6), 
called  the  save  all,  which  catches  and  retains  the 
water,  which  always  escapes  with  some  pulp  in 
Buspension ;  and  an  arrangement  of  suction  boxes 
and  tubes, /,/,/(fig.  6),  worked  by  air-pumps,  which 
draw  much  of  the  water  out  as  the  pidp  passes 
over  them.  The  pulp  is  kept  from  running  over 
the  sides  by  straps  called  the  deckles,  which  are 
aIbo  endless  bands,  usually  of  vulcanised  India- 
ruDber,  earned  round  moving  rollers,  so  that  they 
travel  with  the  wire-gauze,  and  therefore  offer  no 
resistance  to  it.  In  addition  to  all  this,  the  frame- 
work on  which  the  surface  of  the  wire-gauze  rests 
Hi 


has  a  shogging  motion, 
or  side-shake,  which 
has  an  important 
effect  in  working  the 
fibres  together  before 
the  pulp  finally  settles 
down.  When  it  reaches 
the  couching  -  rolls, 
which  press  out  most 
of  the  remaining  mois- 
ture, and  carry  it 
forward  to  the  first 
and  second  series  of 
press -rolls  by  means 
of  an  endless  web  of 
felt  which  passes 
round  them,  the  speed 
of  these  rollers  and 
the  travelling  sheet  of 
felt,  CC  (figs.  6  and  7), 
is  nicely  calculated,  so 
as  to  prevent  a  strain 
upon  the  still  very 
tender  web  of  paper. 
Sometimes  the  upper 
rollers  of  these  two 
series  are  filled  with 
steam,  in  order  to 
commence  drying  the 
web.  The  paper  is 
now  trusted  to  itself, 
and  passes  on,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  arrows, 
from  the  second  press- 
rolls  to  the  first  set  of 
drying  cylinders,  DD 
(figs.  6  and  7),  where 
it  again  meets  with  a 
felt  sheet,  which  keeps 
it  in  close  contact  with 
the  drying  cylinders, 
which  are  of  large  size, 
and  filled  with  steam. 
Around  these  it  passes, 
drying  as  it  goes ;  is 
then  received  between 
the  two  smoothing-rolls, 
or  damp  calenders, 
which  press  both  sur- 
faces, and  remove  the 
marks  of  the  wire  and 
felt,  which  are  until 
then  visible  on  the 
paper.  This  is  neces- 
sarily done  before  the 
drying  is  quite  com- 
pleted ;  and  from  the 
smoothing  -  rolls  it 
passes  to  the  second 
series  of  drying  cylin- 
ders, E  (figs.  6  and  7), 
where  the  drying  isCALENDERS. 
finished,  and  thence 
to  the  calenders,  which 
are  polished  rollers  of 
hard  cast-iron,  so 
adjusted  as  to  give  a 
considerable  pressure 
to  the  paper,  and  at 
the  same  time  a  glossi- 
ness of  surface.  For 
writing  -  papers,  the 
paper  passes  through 
a  shallow  trough  of 
size  after  leaving  the 
drying  cylinders,  and 


SMOOTHING 
ROLLS. 


Fig.  6. 


PAPER. 


Pig.  7. 


then  panes  over  another  series  ol  skeleton  cylinders, 
with  fans  moving  inside,  by  which  it  in  again  <lried 
without  heat,   and  afterwards    passes  through    the 
calenders.     Printing  and  other  papers  arc   usually 
sized  by  mixing  the  size  in  the  pnlp,  in  which  Btage 
the  colouring  materials— such  as  ultramarine  for  the 
liluc  tint  of    foolscap— are  also   mtrodrced.      Still 
following  the  paper  weh  in  the  drawing  (fig.  6),  it  la 
Been  to  pass  from  the  calenders  to  another  machine, 
F-   this  slirs  the  weh  into  widths,  winch  arc  again 
cross  cut  into  sheets,  the  size  of  which  is  regulated 
at  will.     The  water-mark  is  impressed  on  machine- 
made  paper  by  means  of  a  tine  lightrwire  cylinder 
with  a  wire-woven  pattern;    this  is  placed   ovei    the 
wire-gauze  sheet  upon  which  the  pulp    is  spread, 
hut   near   the   other    end  of    it,    so   that   the    light 
impression  of  the  marker  may  act  upon  the  paper 
just  when  it  ceases  to  be  pulp,  and  this  remains  all 
through  its  course.    There  are  many  other  inter- 
esting points  about   the  paper-machine,  but  their 
introduction  here  would  rather  tend  to  confuse  the 
reader.     Its  productive   power  is   very   great;    it 
moves  at  a  rate  of  from  30  to  70  feet  per  minute, 
spreading  pulp,  couching,  drying,  and  calendering  as 
it  goes,  so  that  the  stream  of  pulp  flowing  in  at  one 
end  is  in  two  minutes  passing  out  finished  paper 
at  the  other.     It  has  been  computed  that  an  ordi- 
nary machine,  making  webs  of  paper  54  inches  wide, 
will  turn  out  four  miles  a  day,  and  that  the  total 
production  of  all  the  mills  in  Britain  is  not  less  than 
6,000,000  of  yards,  or  3400  miles  daily. 

For  very  obvious  reasons,  the  manufacture  of 
paper  has  been  localised  on  the  banks  of  streams 
that  afford  an  abundant  supply  of  pure  water  for 
washing  and  pulping.  Kent  is  celebrated  for  its 
paper-mills  and  for  the  fine  quality  of  its  paper  and 
is  the  chief  county  in  this  respect.  Next  follow 
Hertfordshire  (where  it  was  first  commenced  in 
England  in  1490  by  John  Tate  of  Stevenage,  of 
whom  it  is  said  in  a  book  printed  by  Caxton, 

Which  late  hathe  in  England  doo  make  thya  paper 

Thatfn'ow  in  our  Englyssh  thys  booke  is  printed  inne ; 

and  the  same  John  Tate  is  mentioned  in  Henry 
VII  's  Household  Book,  under  dates  May  25,  1493 
and  1499,  ■  for  a.  rewarde  geven  at  the  paper-mylne, 
and  '  geven  in  rewarde  to  Tate  of  the  mylne,  6s.  8cf  ), 
Buckinghamshire,     Oxfordshire,     and     Lancashire. 
It  was  introduced  into  Scotland  in  the  year  1695, 
when   a   company  was   formed  for  carrying  it  on 
under  'Articles'  signed  at  a  general  meeting  held 
in  Edinburgh,  which  articles  are  now  in  the  Library 
of  the   British    Museum.      It  has  become   a   very 
important  branch  of  manufacture ;  and  not  only  m 
paper  of  a  very  fine  quality  made  from  rags  and  the 
new  material  Esparto,  Alfa,  or  Spanish  Grass  (the 
Lvneum  Sparteum  of  botanists),  but  also  the  manu- 
facture of  paper-machines  is  carried  on  most  sue- 
cessfullv  both  for  foreign  and  home  use.     Both  ot 
these  manufactures  are  carried  on  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  Edinburgh.     Since  the  introduction 
of  The  pennv  postage,  penny  papers,  and  other  econom- 
ical measures,  especially  the  abolition  of  the  excise- 
dutv    an  enormous  impetus  has  been  given  to  this 
branch  of  British  manufacture,  and  considerable  diffi- 
cultv  has  been  found  in  supplying  the  makers  with 
raw  material :  this  difficulty  has  been  much  increased 
by  the  export  duties  laid  by  other  countries  upon  the 
export  of  rags.     The  greatest  relief  has  been  experi- 
enced from  improved  methods  for  preparing  paper  pulp 
from  straw,  and  from  the  introduction  of  the  Esparto, 
which  yields  half  its  weight  of  paper.     Of  this  mate- 
rial English  imports  in  1869  had  risen  to  about  90,000 
tons,  which  represented  45,000  tons  of  paper.     The 
British  imports  of  rags  have  been  also  very  large 

215 


PAPER-BOOK— PAPER-HANGINGS. 


during  the  last  eight  vears.  They  are  as  follows  ■ 
1862,  22,130  tons;  1863,  25,520  tons;  1864,23,888 
tons;  1865,  18,368  tons;  1866,  24,403  tons;  1867, 
18,548  tons;  1868,  17,902  tons;  1869,  17,021  tons. 
The  manufacture  of  paper  has  attained  vast  dimen- 
sions in  the  United  States.  In  1860  there  were  555 
mills,  producing  131,508,000  pounds  of  printing, 
22,268,000  pounds  of  writing,  33,379  tons  of  wrap- 
ping, 8150  tons  of  straw  board,  1,944,000  pounds  of 
coloured,  91,960  pounds  of  bank-note,  and  3097  tons  of 
wall  paper — a  total  of  253,778,240  pounds,  valued  at 
$21 ,216,802.  The  increase  of  the  product  over  that  of 
1850  was  108*2  per  cent.  See  the  Eighth  Census, 
Manufactures,  Washington,  1865.  Printing-paper 
is  acw  made  on  a  large  scale  at  Manayunk,  Philadel- 
phia, from  the  wood  of  the  tulip  poplar  (Liriodcndron 
tulipifera)  and  hemlock  spruce  (Abies  Canadensis); 
twenty  per  cent,  of  straw  pulp  is  introduced. 

The  following  are  the  principal  varieties  of  ordi- 
nary paper,  and  the  sizes  of  the  sheets  given  in 
inches : 

1.  Writing  and  Printing  Papers. — Pot  (so  named 
from  its  original  water-mark,  a  tankard),  124  by 
15;  Double  Pot,  15  by  25.  Foolscap,  164  by  13£; 
Sheet-and-third  Do.,  224  by  13| ;  Sheet-and-half  Do., 
224  by  13|;  Double  Do.,  27  by  17.  Post  (so  called 
from  its  use  in  letter- writing ;  one  of  its  original 
■water-marks  was  a  postman's  horn),  lSf  by  15| ; 
Large  Do.,  20f  by  164  ;  Medium  Do.,  18  by  224  5 
Double  Do.,  304  by  19.  Copy,  20  by  16|.  Double 
Crown,  20  by  30.  Demy,  20  by  15 ;  Printing  Do., 
22£  by  17f ;  Medium  Do.,  22  by  17  J;  Medium 
Printing  Do.,  23  by  18|.  Royal,  24  by  19 ;  Printing 
Do.,  25  by  20 ;  Super-royal,  27  by  19 ;  Super-royal 
Printing,  21  by  27.  Imperial,  30  by  22.  Atlas,  34 
by  26.  Columbier,  34£  by  23£.  Elephant,  28  by 
23  ;  Double  Do.,  26|  by  40.  Antiquarian,  53  by  31 : 
this  is  generally,  if  not  always,  hand-made. 

These  sizes  are  somewhat  lessened  by  ploughing 
and  finishing  off  the  edges  previous  to  sale. 

2.  Coarse  Papers  for  wrapping  and  other  pur- 
poses.— Kent-cap,  21  by  18 ;  Bag-cap,  19^  by  24 ; 
Havon-cap,  21  by  16 ;  Imperial-cap,  22.J-  by  29. 
Double  2-lb.,  17  by  24;  Double  44b.,  21  by  31; 
Double  6-lb.,  19  by  28.  Cartridge,  Casing,  and 
Middle-hand,  &c.,  21  by  16.  Lumber-hand,  19j  by 
22i  ;  Royal-hand,  20  by  25;  Double  Small-hand,  19 
by'29. 

Purple  papers  of  a  soft  texture,  unsized,  are  used 
in  very  large  quantities  by  sugar-refiners,  of  the 
following  sizes:  Copy-loaf,  16f  by  21  f  ;  Powder- 
loaf,  18  by  26 ;  Double-loaf,  16A  by  23  ;  Single-loaf, 
214  by  27  ;  Lump,  23  by  33  ;  Hambro',  16k  by  23  ; 
Titler,  29  by  35 ;  Prussian,  or  Double  Lump,  32  by 
42. 

Blotting  and  Filtering  Paper. — This  is  unsized 
paper,  made  of  good  quality,  and  usually  coloured 
pink  or  red,  and  of  the  same  size  as  demy. 

Even  as  regards  materials,  varieties  are  endless. 
In  an  old  German  book  by  Jacob  Christian  Schaffers, 
published  at  Regensburg  in  1772,  there  are  no  less 
than  eighty-one  samples  of  different  kinds  of  paper 
bound  up  and  forming  part  of  the  book,  and 
innumerable  others  have  been  made  since. 

Rije  paper  is  a  beautiful  material  imported  from 
China,  about  which  numberless  errors  have  been 
written.  It  is  now  known  to  be  formed  of  thin 
slices  of  the  pith  of  the  plant  called  Aralia 
papyrifera.  This  pith  can  be  obtained  from  the 
stems  in  beautiful  cylinders,  from  one  to  two  inches 
in  diameter,  and  several  inches  in  length.  The 
Chinese  workmen  apply  the  blade  of  a  sharp, 
straight  knife  to  these  cylinders  of  pith,  and,  turning 
them  round  dexterously,  pare  them  from  the  cir- 
cumference to  the  centre,  making  a  rolled  layer  of 
equal  thickness  throughout.  This  is  unrolled,  r.nd 
216 


weights  are  placed  upon  it  until  it  is  rendered  per- 
fectly smooth  and  flat.  Sometimes  a  number  are 
joined  together  to  increase  the  size  of  the  sheets. 
It  will  be  seen  that  this  more  nearly  resembles  the 
ancient  papyrus  than  modern  paper ;  but  it  is  more 
beautiful  than  the  former,  beiug  a  very  pure  pearly 
white,  and  admirably  adapted  to  the  peculiar  style 
of  painting  of  the  Chinese. 

The  ordinary  papers  of  the  Chinese,  Japanese, 
and  East  Indians  have  much  resemblance  to  each 
other,  which  arises  from  the  manufacture  and 
material  being  similar ;  the  bark  of  the  paper 
mulberry  (Broussonetia  papyrifera)  being  chiefly 
used.  The  Chinese  and  Japanese  are  the  most 
skilful  paper-makers  in  the  world,  and  some  of  the 
East  Indian  papers  surpass  the  European  manu- 
factures completely. 

Some  useful  kinds  of  paper  are  the  residt  of 
manipulations  subsequent  to  the  paper-maker's 
work.     Thus : 

Lithographic  Paper  is  prepared  from  good  print- 
ing-paper by  laying  on  one  side  of  the  sheets  a  pre- 
paration consisting  of  six  parts  of  starch,  one  of 
alum,  and  two  of  gum-arabic  dissolved  in  warm 
water,  and  applied  whilst  hot  with  a  proper  brush. 
Generally  a  little  gamboge  is  added,  to  give  it  a 
slight  yellow  colour. 

Copying  Paper,  for  manifold- writers,  is  made  by 
applying  a  composition  of  lard  and  black-lead  to 
one  side  or  both  of  sheets  of  writing-paper ;  and  after 
leaving  it  on  for  a  day  or  so,  it  is  carefully  and 
smoothly  scraped  off  and  wiped  with  a  soft  cloth. 

Tracing  Paper  is  good  printing-paper  rendered 
transparent  by  brushing  it  over  with  a  mixture  of 
Canada  balsam  and  oil  of  turpentine,  or  nut  oil 
and  turpentine.  In  either  case  it  must  be  carefully 
dried  before  using. 

There  are  two  distinct  classes  of  coloured  papers. 
In  one,  the  colour  is  introduced  into  the  pulp,  and 
is  consequently  in  the  body  of  the  paper;  in  the 
other,  the  colours  are  mixed  with  size,  and  applied 
to  the  surface.  There  have  been  many  ingenious 
and  tasteful  inventions  for  decorating  the  surface  of 
paper,  such  as  by  giving  it  a  marbled  and  even  a 
beautiful  iridescent  appearance,  but  they  are  too 
numerous  for  the  limits  of  this  article. 

Paper  is  subject  to  much  adulteration.  China- 
clay  and  gypsum  are  generally  used  for  the  white 
sorts,  and  the  heavy  ferruginous  ochres  for  the 
coarse  and  brown  kinds. 

PAPER-BOOK,  in  English  Law,  is  the  name 
given  to  the  pleadings  on  botli  sides  in  an  action  at 
law,  when  the  issue  is  one,  not  of  fact,  but  of  law. 

PAPER-HANGINGS.  This  name  is  applied  to 
the  webs  of  paper,  papiers  peints  of  the  French, 
usually  decorated,  with  which  interior  walls  are 
often  covered.  Previous  to  the  invention  of  the 
paper-machine,  sheets  of  paper  of  the  size  called 
Elephant,  22  by  32  inches,  were  pasted  together,  to 
make  12  yard  lengths,  before  the  pattern  was 
imprinted ;  but  this  is  now  rendered  unnecessary  by 
the  facility  of  making  webs  of  any  length.  Upon  the 
paper  it  is  usual  first  to  spread  a  ground-colour, 
with  proper  brushes,  taking  care  to  produce  a 
perfectly  smooth  surface.  The  colours  employed 
are  opaque,  and  are  mixed  with  size,  and  sometimes 
also  with  starch,  and  most  of  the  ordinary  pigments 
are  used.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  art,  it  was  usual 
to  have  the  patterns  stencilled  (see  Stencilling)  on 
the  ground-colour.  The  stencilling  plates  were 
usually  pieces  of  pasteboard,  one  being  required 
for  every  differently-coloured  portion  of  the  pattern 
Afterwards,  wooden  blocks  were  adopted,  similar 
to  those  used  in  calico-printing,  made  of  pear  oi 
poplar   wood,   generally   the    width    of    the    paper, 


PAPER  MULBERRY— PAPIAS. 


forming,  indeed,  huge  woodcuts,  on  which  the 
pattern  is  in  high  relief.  As  many  blocks  arc 
required  as  there  are  colours  in  the  pattern,  each 
bearing  only  so  much  of  the  pattern  as  is  repre- 
sented by  the  colour  to  which  it  is  assigned.  Of 
course,  the  whole  beauty  of  the  work  depends  upon 
the  nice  adjustment  of  one  portion  of  the  pattern  to 
another ;  and  this  is  determined  by  guide-pins  in 
the  blocks,  which  are  so  managed  as  not  to  disfigure 
the  surface  with  their  points.  The  pattern-block, 
being  coated  with  its  particular  colour  from  the 
colour-tub,  is  laid  on  the  paper,  which  is  stretched 
Ojt  for  the  purpose  on  a  table,  and  a  lever  is  brought 
to  bear  upon  it  with  sufficient  pressure  to  make  the 
■whole  of  the  block  bear  equally  upon  the  paper. 
When  one  block  has  been  printed  the  whole  length 
of  the  paper  by  a  succession  of  impressions,  the 
piece  is  taken  to  the  drying-room,  and  dried,  previous 
to  receiving  the  next  colour;  and  it  often  happens 
that  the  same  operations  have  to  be  repeated  a 
dozen  different  times  before  the  pattern  is  com- 
pleted. This  process  is  now  being  rapidly  super- 
seded by  the  cylinder  printing-machines,  which  are 
of  the  same  kind  as  are  used  in  printing  textde 
fabrics.  In  these  machines,  the  pattern  is  engraved 
on  a  series  of  copper  cylinders,  and  each  part  or 
colour  has  a  separate  cylinder,  and  an  arrangement 
for  keeping  it  constantly  supplied  with  colour  when 
Working.  The  cylinders  are  so  arranged  as,  by  the 
sum  of  their  revolutions,  to  make  the  pattern  com- 
plete ;  so  that  as  the  web  of  paper  passes  the  first, 
it  receives  the  colour  for  one  portion  of  the  pattern, 
and  reaches  the  second  in  exact  time  to  have  the 
next  colour  applied  in  the  right  places.  In  this  way 
the  entire  piece  only  occupies  a  few  seconds  in 
receiving  the  complete  decoration. 

The  polished  or  glazed  papers  have  the  ground 
prepared  with  gypsum  or  plaster  of  Paris,  and  the 
surface  dusted  with  finely-powdered  steatite,  or 
French  chalk.  When  perfectly  dry,  this  is  rubbed 
hard  with  a  burnishing-brush,  until  the  whole  is 
evenly  polished.  This  is  generally  done  before 
the  pattern  is  printed,  but  in  some  cases  pattern 
and  ground  are  both  polished.  In  making  the 
flock-papers,  the  printing  is  done  in  the  same 
way  as  in  the  block-printing,  only,  instead  of 
coloured  material,  a  composition  called  encaustic  is 

Erinted  on.  It  consists  of  linseed-oil,  boiled  with 
tharge,  and  ground  up  with  white-lead  ;  sufficient 
litharge  is  used  to  make  it  dry  quickly,  as  it  is 
very  adhesive.  The  flock  is  prepared  from  the 
shearings  of  woollen  cloths  from  the  cloth-mills, 
by  washing  and  dyeing  the  shearings  to  the  various 
colours,  then  stove-drying  and  grinding  them  in  a 
peculiar  mill,  which,  in  their  brittle  state,  after 
leaving  the  stove,  breaks  them  short.  After  this 
they  are  sifted,  to  obtain  various  degrees  of  fineness. 
By  nice  management,  the  prepared  flock  is  so 
sprinkled  over  the  whole  of  the  printed  surface  as 
to  coat  the  encaustic,  and  adhere  evenly  and  firmly 
to  it.      The   same   adhesive    material   is   used  for 

grinting  in  gold  and  other  metals.  The  pattern 
eing  printed  with  the  encaustic,  gold  or  other 
metallic  leaf  is  applied,  and  when  it  is  properly 
fixed,  the  loose  metal  is  brushed  away  with  a 
hare's-foot  or  other  soft  brush.  Some  of  the  finest 
French  papers  have  much  of  the  pattern  actually 
painted  in  by  hand,  a  process  which,  of  course, 
renders  them  veiy  costly. 

PAPER  MULBERRY.    See  Mulberry. 
PAPER  NAUTILUS.     See  Argonaut. 

PAPHLAGO'NIA,  anciently  a  province  of  Asia 
Minor,  extending  along  the  southern  shores  of  the 
Black  Sea,  from  the  Halys  on  the  east,  to  the  Parthe- 
nius  on  the  west  (which  separates  it  from  Bithyma), 


and  inland  on  the  south  to  Galatia.  Its  limits,  how- 
ever, were  somewhat  different  at  dill'erent  times. 
The  Paphlagonian  mountains  were  covered  with 
forests,  and  the  inhabitants  were  famous  as  hunters. 
Croesus  made  P.  a  part  <f  the  kingdom  of  Lydia, 
and  Cyrus  united  it  to  Persia;  it  subsequently 
became  part  of  the  empire  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  afterwards  of  the  kingdom  of  Pontua,  was 
included  in  the  Roman  province  of  Galatia,  and  in 
the  4th  c.  of  the  Christian  era  was  made  a  separate 
province  by  Constantine.  Its  capital  was  Sinope. 
The  Paphlagonians  are  supposed  to  have  been  of 
Syrian,  or  at  least  of  Semitic  origin,  like  the  Cappa- 
dociaus.  They  were  proverbially  rude,  coarse,  and 
deficient  in  understanding,  but  this  probably  refers 
only  to  the  country-people  in  the  interior. 

PA'PHOS,  anciently  the  name  of  two  cities  in  the 
isle  of  Cyprus.  The  older  city,  sometimes  called 
Palaipaphos  (now  Kuklos  or  Konuklia),  was  situated 
in  the  western  part  of  the  island,  about  1\  miles 
from  the  coast.  It  was  probably  founded  by  the 
Phoenicians,  and  was  famous,  even  before  Homer'a 
time,  for  a  temple  of  Venus,  who  was  said  to  have 
here  risen  from  the  sea  close  by,  whence  her  epithet 
Aphrodite,  'foam-sprung,'  and  who  was  designated 
the  Paphian  goddess.  This  was  her  chief  residence, 
and  hither  crowds  of  pilgrims  used  to  come  in 
ancient  times.  —The  other  Paphos,  called  Neopuphos 
(now  Baffa),  was  on  the  sea-coast,  about  seven  or 
eight  miles  north-west  of  the  older  city,  and  was 
the  place  in  which  the  apostle  Paul  proclaimed  the 
gospel  before  the  proconsul  Sergiua. 

PA'PIAS,  Bishop  of  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia,  was  a 
Christian  writer,  who  flourished  in  the  2d  century. 
According  to  Irenreus,  he  was  a  disciple  of  the 
apostle  John  ;  but  Eusebius,  who  quotes  [Historia 
Ecclesiastica,  chap.  39)  the  words  of  Irenteus,  imme- 
diately subjoins  a  passage  from  P.  himself,  in  which 
the  latter  distinctly  states  that  he  did  not  receive 
his  doctrines  from  any  of  the  apostles,  but  from  the 
'  living  voice '  of  such  followers  of  theirs  as  '  are 
still  surviving.'  He  was,  however,  an  'associate* 
of  Polycarp,  a  bishop  in  the  same  province  of  pro- 
consular Asia ;  and  as  the  latter  was  a  disciple  of 
the  apostle  John,  it  is  probable  that  Irenasus — a 
somewhat  hasty  writer — inferred  that  his  companion 
must  have  been  the  same.  The  Paschal  or  Alex- 
andrian  Chronicle  states  that  he  suffered  martyrdom 
at  Pergamus,  163  A.  D.  Eusebius  describes  P.  as 
'well  skilled  in  all  manner  of  learning,  and  well 
acquainted  with  the  Scriptures  ;'  but  a  little  further 
on,  he  speaks  of  him  as  a  man  'of  limited  under- 
standing' {smikros  on  ton  noxLn),  and  a  very  credidous 
chronicler  of '  unwritten  tradition,'  who  had  collected 
'certain  strange  parables  of  our  Lord  and  of  his 
doctrine,  and  some  other  matters  rather  too  fabulous.' 
The  work  in  which  these  were  contained  was 
entitled  Logion  Kuriakon,  Exegeseos  Biblia  E'.  (Five 
Books  of  Commentaries  on  the  Sayings  of  our  Lord). 
It  is  now  lost,  but  certain  fragments  of  it  have  been 
preserved  by  Irenaeus,  Eusebius,  Maximus  Confessor, 
and  other  writers.  These  fragments  are  extremely 
interesting,  because  of  the  light  which  they  throw 
on  the  origin  of  the  New  Testament  Scriptures,  and 
their  importance  may  be  estimated  from  the  fact, 
that  they  contain  the  earliest  information  which 
we  possess  on  the  subject.  It  is  P.  who  is  our 
authority  for  the  statement,  that  the  evangelist 
Matthew  drew  up  a  collection  of  our  Lord's  sayings 
and  doings  (to  Ionia)  in  the  Hebrew  (probably  Syro- 
Chaldaic  or  Aramaic)  dialect,  and  that  every  one 
translated  it  as  he  was  able.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  this  is  a  perplexing  statement,  suggesting 
as  it  does  the  delicate  question  :  '  If  Papias  is  correct, 
who  wrote  our  present  Matthew,  which  is  in  Greek, 

247 


PAPIER-MACHE— PAPIN. 


and  not  in  Hebrew  ?'  (For  a  consideration  of  this 
point,  see  Matthew.)  P.  also  tells  us,  either  on  the 
authority  of  John  the  Presbyter,  or  more  probably 
on  that  of  one  of  his  followers,  that  the  evangelist 
Mark  was  the  interpreter  (Hermeneutes)  of  Peter, 
and  wrote  'whatsoever  he  [Peter]  recorded,  with 
great  accuracy.'  But  the  passage  is  far  from 
implying  that  Mark  was  a  mere  amanuensis  of 
Peter,  as  some  have  asserted,  but  only,  as  Valesius 
has  shewn,  that  Mark  listened  attentively  to  Peter's 
preaching,  culled  from  it  such  things  as  most  strictly 
concerned  Christ,  and  so  drew  up  his  gospel.  P.,  it 
remains  to  be  said,  was  an  extreme  millennarian. 
See  Millennium. 

PAPIER-MACHE  (Fr.  mashed  or  pulped  paper). 
This  manufacture  has  certainly  been  in  use  for 
more  than  a  centiuy  in  Europe ;  but  it  is  not 
improbable  that  it  was  first  suggested  by  some  of 
the  beautiful  productions  of  Sincle  and  other  parts 
of  India,  where  it  is  employed  in  making  boxes, 
trays,  &c,  as  well  as  in  China  and  Japan.  Its  first 
application,  as  far  as  we  know,  was  to  the  manu- 
facture of  snuff-boxes  by  a  German  named  Martin, 
in  1740,  who  learned  it  of  a  Frenchman  named 
Lefevre ;  but  the  French  say  that  he  learned  the 
art  in  England.  Properly  speaking,  papier-mache 
is  paper-pulp  moulded  into  shape,  and  it  has  been 
used,  not  only  to  make  small  articles,  such  as  boxes, 
trays,  &c,  but  in  the  interior  decoration  of  houses 
for  cornices,  ceilings,  &c.  The  ceilings  in  Chester- 
field House,  and  some  other  fine  Elizabethan  struc- 
tures, are  made  of  this  material,  which  at  one  time, 
owing  to  a  combination  of  the  stucco-workers  to 
raise  the  price  of  their  labour,  took  the  place 
almost  entirely  of  stucco  in  house  ornamentation. 
At  present,  a  combination  of  both  stucco  and 
paper  is  simdarly  employed  under  the  name  of 
Carton-pierre.  From  the  extension  of  the  appli- 
cations of  papier-mache  to  the  manufacture  of  a 
number  of  light  and  useful  articles,  modifications 
have  taken  place  in  its  composition,  and  it  is  now 
of  three  kinds — 1st,  the  true  kind,  made  of  paper- 
pulp  ;  2d,  sheets  of  paper  pasted  together  after  the 
manner  of  pasteboard,  but  submitted  to  far  greater 
pressure ;  and  3d,  sheets  of  thick  millboard  cast 
from  the  pulp  are  also  heavily  pressed.  The  term 
papier-mache  is  in  trade  held  to  apply  rather  to  the 
articles  made  of  the  pulp  than  to  the  pulp  itself ; 
and  a  vast  manufacture  has  sprung  up  during  the 
present  century,  particularly  in  Birmingham,  in 
which  a  great  variety  of  articles  of  use  and  ornament 
are  made  of  this  material.  They  are  coated  with 
successive  layers  of  asphalt  varnish,  which  is  acted 
upon  by  heat  in  ovens  until  its  volatile  parts  are 
dissipated,  and  it  becomes  hard,  and  capable  of 
receiving  a  high  polish.  Mother-of-pearl  is  much 
used  in  their  decoration,  for  which  purpose,  when 
several  layers  of  the  varnish  still  remain  to  be 
applied,  thin  flakes  of  the  shell  of  the  form  of  the 
pattern  are  placed  on  the  varnish,  and  are  covered 
by  the  succeeding  layers,  giving  rise  to  elevations 
where  they  are  hidden  by  the  coats  of  varnish. 
The  surface  is  then  ground  down  smooth  and 
polished,  and  the  grinding  down  brings  to  light  the 
pieces  of  mother-of-pearl  shell,  which  thus  present 
the  appearance  of  inlaid  patterns.  The  fine  surface 
which  can  be  given  to  the  asphalt  varnish,  also 
permits  of  burnished  gilding  and  other  decorative 
applications  with  excellent  effect. 

PAPI'LIO.    See  Butterfly. 

PAPILIONA'CEiE,  a  suborder  of  the  natural 
order  of  plants  generally  called  Leguminosce  (q.  v.). 
^•The  plants  of  this  suborder  are  the  only  plants 
known  which  have  flowers  of  the  peculiar  structure 
called  papilionaceous,  and  of   which  the  Pea  and 

248 


Bean  afford  familiar  examples.  The  name  is  derived 
from  Lat.  papilio,  a  butterfly.  Papilionaceous  flowera 
have  five  petals,  imbricated  in  estivation  (bud),  one 
of  which,  called  the  vexillum,  or  stayulard,  is  superior, 
turned  next  to  the  axis,  and  in  estivation  folded 
over  the  rest ;  *  two,  called  the  alee,  or  wings,  are 
lateral  ;  and  two  are  inferior,  which  are  often 
united  by  their  lower  margins,  forming  the  carina, 
or  keel.  The  number  of  the  P.  is  very  great — about 
4800  species  being  known.  They  are  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  world,  abounding  in  the  tropics.  Many 
have  superb  and  beautiful  flowers  ;  many  are  plants 
of  beautiful  form  anil  foliage,  trees,  shrubs,  or  herba- 
ceous plants ;  many  possess  valuable  medicinal 
properties;  and  many  are  of  great  importance  as 
furnishing  food  for  man  and  for  domestic  animals, 
others  as  furnishing  dyes,  fibre,  timber.  &c.  See 
Broom,  Laburnum,  Clover,  Bean,  Pea,  Lucerne, 
Liquorice,  Indigo,  Sandal-wood,  &c. 

PAPI'LLiE.  This  term  is  applied  by  anatomists 
to  minute,  elongated,  conical  processes,  projecting 
from  the  surface  of  the  true  skin  into  the  epidermis, 
highly  vascular  and  nervous  in  their  character,  and 
taking  an  active  part  in  the  sense  of  touch.  Their 
form  and  structure  are  described  in  the  article 
Skin.  The  mucous  membrane  of  the  tongue  also 
contains  three  varieties  of  papillae,  which  are 
described  in  the  article  Taste,  Organ  and  Sense  of. 

PAPIN,  Denis,  a  celebrated  French  physicist, 
was  born  at  Blois,  22d  August  1647,  and  studied 
medicine  in  Paris,  where,  after  receiving  his  degree, 
he  practised  for  some  time  as  a  physician.  He  now 
became  acquainted  with  Huyghens— an  incident 
which  strengthened  in  him  an  original  predilection 
for  physical  science  ;  and  from  this  time,  he  devoted 
himself  almost  exclusively  to  his  favourite  study. 
Before  P.'s  time,  the  intense  force  which  can  be 
generated  in  water,  air,  &c,  under  the  action  of 
heat,  was  well  known,  but  he  was  one  of  the  first  to 
indicate  the  principal  features  of  a  machine  by 
which  this  property  could  be  made  of  practical 
utility.  He  soon  acquired  a  wide  reputation ;  and 
on  visiting  England,  was  received  with  open  arms 
by  the  philosophers  of  that  country,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1681.  While  in 
England,  P.  and  Boyle  (q.  v.)  together  repeated  their 
experiments  on  the  properties  of  air,  &c. ;  but  in 
1687,  P.  was  called  to  the  chair  of  Mathematics  in 
the  university  of  Marburg  in  Hesse-Cassel,  the 
duties  of  which  office  he  discharged  with  zeal  and 
success  for  many  years.  He  died  at  Marburg 
about  1714.  The  French  Academy  of  Sciences, 
withholding  from  P.  the  honour  of  'associate,' 
enrolled  him  among  its  'correspondents' — a  pro- 
ceeding on  the  part  of  the  Academy  which  has, 
with  reason,  excited  the  astonishment  of  F.  Arago. 
To  P.  undoubtedly  belongs  the  high  honour  of 
having  first  applied  steam  to  produce  motion  by 
raising  a  piston  ;  he  combined  with  this  the  simplest 
means  of  producing  a  vacuum  beneath  the  raised 
piston — viz.,  by  condensation  of  aqueous  vapour; 
he  is  also  the  inventor  of  the  'safety-valve,'  an 
essential  part  of  his  'Digester'  (q.  v.).  By  this 
latter  machine,  P.  shewed  that  liquids  in  a  vacuum 
can  be  put  in  a  state  of  ebullition  at  a  much  lower 
temperature  than  when  freely  exposed  to  the  air. 
P.'s  sagacity  led  him  to  many  other  discoveries  ;  he 
discovered  the  principle  of  action  of  the  siphon, 
improved  the  pneumatic  machine  of  Otto  de 
Guericke  (q.  v.),  and  took  part  against  Leibnitz  in 
the  discussion  concerning  '  living '  and  '  dead '  forces. 
Unfortunately  for  science,  P.'s  numerous  writings 
have  not  yet  been  collected,  but  many  of  them  will 
be  found  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  Acta 
Eruditomin,  and  the  Eecaeil  de  Diverses  Pieces.    He 


PAPINIANUS-PAPPUS. 


published  two  works — one  being  an  explanation  of 
the  construction,  and  uses  of  his  'digester'  (Lund. 
1081),  afterwards  (1682)  translated  into  French,  and 
his  experiments  entitled  NouveUe*  Experiences  du 
Vide  (Paris,  1074).  It  was  not  till  nearly  a  century 
after  that  the  great  value  of  P.'s  discoveries  was 
perceived. 

PAPINIA'NUS,  /Emtlius  Paullus,  the  most 
Celebrated  of  Roman  jurists,  was  horn  towards  the 
middle  of  the  '2d  c.  ;  and  during  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Severus  (q.  v.),  whom  he  succeeded  as 
Advocatua  Fisci,  and  whose  second  wife  is  said  to 
have  been  P.'s  relative,  he  held  the  office  of  Libel- 
lorum  Magister,  and  afterwards  that  of  Pnefectua 
Prcetorio.  After  the  death  of  Severus,  his  son  and 
successor,  Caraealla,  dismissed  P.  from  his  office,  and 
soon  afterwards  caused  him  to  he  put  to  death  on 
Various  pretexts,  the  real  reason,  however,  appear- 
ing to  he  that  the  emperor  was  afraid  the  influence 
of  a  man  so  ahle  and  upright  would  he  dangerous  to 
his  power.  P.'s  works  consist  chiefly  of  37  books 
of  Qucestiones,  19  of  Responsa,  2  of  Definiliones, 
two  works,  De  Adultenis,  and  a  Greek  fragment  ; 
and  from  these  works  there  are  in  all  595  excerpts 
in  the  Digest  (q.  v.).  The  pupils  of  P.  include  the 
most  famous  names  in  Roman  jurisprudence,  such 
as  Ulpian,  Paullus,  Pomponius,  Africanus,  Flor- 
entine, and  Modestinus,  but  the  master  stands 
superior  to  them  all.  The  high  reputation  he 
enjoyed  among  his  contemporaries  and  successors 
may  he  gathered  from  the  epithets  Prudentissimus, 
Consullissimus,  Disertissimus,  bestowed  upon  him 
by  various  emperors,  and  from  the  first  book  of 
the  Codex  Theodosii,  De  Responsis  Prudentum,  in 
which,  after  declaring  the  works  of  P.,  Paullus, 
Cains,  Ulpian,  Modestinus,  and  four  others,  to  be 
authority  for  a  judge's  decision,  it  is  declared  that 
should  these  jurists  be  equally  divided  in  opinion, 
that  opinion  which  was  maintained  by  P.  was  to  be 
considered  right ;  while  his  commentator,  the  cele- 
brated Cujacius  (q.  v.),  goes  so  far  as  to  declare  '  that 
Papinianus  was  the  first  of  all  lawyers  who  have 
been,  or  are  to  be,'  and  that  '  no  one  ever  will  equal 
him.'  His  high  reputation  as  a  jurist  was  much 
enhanced  by  the  strong  moral  feeling  and  stern 
Unbending  honesty  which  were  equally  characteristic 
of  him,  and  which  have  stamped  his  works  with  an 
ineffaceable  impress.  P.'s  works  were  studied  both 
before  and  after  Justinian's  time  by  Roman  legal 
Btudeuts  of  the  third  year,  who  were  for  this  reason 
denominated  Papinianistae.  The  fragments  of  P.'s 
works  which  now  remain  are  somewhat  obscure,  and 
the  excerpts  from  them  in  the  Digest  are  in  general 
Bo  brief,  that  the  aid  of  a  commentator  is  required. 

PAPIST  (Lat.  papista,  an  adherent  of  the  pope) 
is  a  name  applied,  generally  with  some  admixture  of 
contempt,  to  members  of  the  Roman  Church.  Of 
itself,  it  implies  nothing  more  than  that  they  are 
adherents  of  the  pope ;  but  in  its  popular  use  it 
includes  all  the  distinctive  doctrines  of  Roman 
Catholics,  and  especially  those  which  are  supposed 
to  be  peculiarly  cherished  by  the  supporters  of  the 
papal  authority.  It  is  therefore  in  many  cases  held 
to  be  synonymous  with  the  profession  of  the 
extremest  opinions  permitted  in  the  Church  of 
Rome,  and  even  those  which  are  popularly  regarded 
as  superstitious.  Understood  literally,  no  consistent 
Roman  Catholic  would  disclaim  it ;  but  in  the 
imputed  signification  explained  above,  it  is  held  to 
be  offensive. 

PAPPENHEIM,  Gottfried  Heinrich,  Count 
VON,  an  imperial  general  of  great  note  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  was  born  at  Pappenheim,  in 
Middle  Franconia,  Bavaria,  29th  May  1594,  of  a 
very  ancient  Swabian  family,  in  which  the  dignity 


of  Marshal  of  the  Empire  became  hereditary  about 
the  13th  or  14th  c,  and  many  of  whose  members 
had  greatly  distinguished  themselves  in  the  wars 
of  the  middle  ages.  When  about  20  years  of  age, 
P.  went  over  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and 
thenceforth  signalised  himself  by  his  fiery  zeal 
in  its  cause.  After  serving  under  the  king  oi 
Poland  in  his  wars  with  the  Russians  and  Turks, 
P.  joined  the  army  of  the  Catholic  League,  and 
in  the  battle  of  Prague  (1620)  stayed  the  Bight  of 
the  Austrian  cavalry,  and  by  a  well-timed  and 
furious  charge  turned  the  tide  of  battle  against  the 
Bohemians.  In  1G23,  he  received  from  the  emperor 
the  command  of  a  cavalry  regiment  of  the  famous 
'  Pappenheimer  Dragoons;'  and  in  102"),  became 
general  of  the  Spanish  horse  in  Lombardy  ;  but  in 
1626  re-entered  the  Austrian  service,  and  after  sup- 
pressing a  dangerous  revolt  of  the  peasants  of  Upper 
Austria,  in  which  40,000  of  the  peasants  perished, 
he  joined  the  army  which  was  opposed  to  the  Pro- 
testant league,  and,  in  association  with  Tilly,  carried 
on  many  campaigns  against  the  Danes,  Swedes,  and 
Saxons.  It  was  P.  who  urged  and  induced  Tilly 
to  take  Magdeburg  by  assault,  and  himself  led  and 
directed  the  attack.  Moreover,  it  is  he,  rather  than 
Tilly,  who  was  to  blame  for  the  ferocious  massacres 
which  followed.  His  reckless  bravery  involved 
Tilly,  against  his  will,  in  the  disastrous  battle  of 
Breitenfeld ;  but  to  some  extent  he  retrieved  his 
character  by  his  strenuous  efforts  to  remedy  the  loss, 
ami  protect  the  retreat  of  the  army.  After  Tilly's 
death,  he  was  associated  with  Wallenstein,  who 
detached  him  with  eight  regiments  to  protect 
Cologne,  but  on  hearing  of  the  advance  of  Gustavus, 
sent  an  urgent  order  for  his  return.  P.  arrived  at 
Liitzen  at  the  moment  when  Wallenstein's  army 
was  on  the  point  of  being  completely  routed,  and  at 
the  head  of  his  cuirassiers,  charged  the  left  wing  of 
the  Swedes,  throwing  it  into  confusion,  and  almost 
changing  the  fortune  of  the  battle  by  his  extra- 
ordinary bravery.  He  was  mortally  wounded  in 
the  last  charge,  and  died  a  few  hours  afterwards  at 
Leipzig,  November  7, 1632,  with  a  smile  on  his  counte- 
nance, after  learning  that  Gustavus  Adolphus  had 
died  before  him.  '  God  be  praised ! '  he  said  ;  '  I  can 
go  in  peace,  now  that  that  mortal  enemy  of  the 
Catholic  faith  has  had  to  die  before  me.' 

PA'PPUS,  in  Botany,  an  appendage  of  the  fruit 
of  plants  belonging  to  certain  natural  orders,  of 
which  the  great 
natural  order  Com- 
posite is  the  chief. 
It  consists  either  of 
simple  (figs.  1  and  4)  i 
or  feathery  (figs.  2 
and  5)  hairs,  sessile  or 
stalked,  arising  from 
the  summit  of  th6 
fruit,  and  is  pro- 
duced  by  a  develop- 
ment of  the  tube 
and  limb  of  the  per- 
sistent calyx.  Its 
object  appears  to  be 
to  waft  the  ripened 

seed  to  the  new  situation  in  which  it  is  to  grow. 
Thistle-down  is  the  pappus  of  the  thistle.  —The  pappus 
is  sometimes  represented  by  mere  teeth  or  scales. 

PAPPUS  of  Alexandria,  one  of  the  later  Greek 
geometers,  of  whose  history  nothing  is  known  ;  he 
is  said  by  Suidas  to  have  lived  during  the  reign 
of  Theodosius  the  Great,  emperor  of  the  East 
(379—395).  Some  writers  are  of  opinion  that  he 
lived  two  centuries  earlier,  but  the  former  is  much 
the  more  probable  opinion.    The  chief  work  of  P, 

219 


Pappus : 

1  and  2,  sessile  ;  3,  -sealeJ.  ke; 

4  and  5,  stalked. 


PAPPUS-PAPUA. 


is  his  Mathematical  Collections,  of  which  the  last  six, 
out  of  eight  books,  are  extant.  The  Collections,  as 
their  name  implies,  are  an  assemblage  into  one  book 
of  scattered  problems  and  theorems,  the  work  of 
Apollonius,  Archimedes,  Euclid,  Theodosius,  &c,  to 
which  he  has  joined  his  own  discoveries.  The 
first  two  books  are  supposed  (on  insufficient 
grounds)  to  have  treated  of  arithmetic  and  arith- 
metical problems,  but  only  a  small  fragment  of  the 
Beccnd  book  is  extant :  the  third  book  is  a  collection 
of  problems,  mostly  of  solid  geometry :  the  fourth 
treats  of  curves  other  than  the  circle,  according  to 
the  method  of  pure  geometry:  the  tilth  contains 
problems  of  maxima  and  minima  :  the  sixth  treats 
of  the  geometry  of  the  sphere  :  the  seventh,  which 
is  by  far  the  most  important  to  modern  geometers, 
as  it  is  almost  the  sole  authority  we  possess  on  the 
Bubject  of  the  history  and  methods  of  the  Greek 
geometrical  analysis:,  treats  principally  of  analysis ; 
it  also  contains  the  proposition  now  known  as 
•  Guldinus'  Theorem,'  which  was  plagiarised  from 
P.  by  Father  Guldin :  the  eighth  and  last  book 
treats  of  machines.  P.  was  the  author  of  several 
other  works  which  are  lost,  excepting  only  a  frag- 
ment of  his  Commentary  on  Four  Books  of  Ptolemy's 
Syntaxis.  P.,  as  an  independent  investigator,  enjoys 
a  high  reputation,  and  is  considered  by  Des  Cartes 
as  one  of  the  most  excellent  geometers  of  antiquity. 
Some  of  his  problems  have  been  looked  upon 
with  high  interest  by  all  succeeding  geometers.  The 
Matliematical  Collections  have  been  published  in 
whole  or  part,  at  various  periods,  but  the  only  com- 
plete editions  are  the  two  Latin  versions,  the  first 
by  Commandine  (Pisa,  158S),  and  the  second  by 
Manolessius  (Bologna,  1660),  and  the  Greek  edition 
of  H.  J.  Eisenmann  (Paris,  1824).  The  portion  of 
the  Greek  text  of  the  2d  book,  which  was  wanting 
in  Commandine's  MS.,  was  published  (16S8)  in 
London  by  Dr  Wallis. 

PA'PUA,  or  NEW  GUINEA,  if  we  except 
Australia,  the  largest  island  on  our  globe,  lies  in  the 
Australian  Archipelago,  in  0°  30' — 10°  4'  S.  lat., 
and  131—151°  30'  E.  long.,  and  is  about  1200 
miles  in  length  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  on 
the  north-west  to  South-East  Cape.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  S.  by  Torres  Strait,  W.  by  the  Moluccas 
Sea,  N.  and  N.E.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  outline 
P.  is  very  irregular,  the  western  part  being  nearly 
insulated  by  Geelvink  Bay,  entering  from  the  north, 
and  the  Gulf  of  M'Clure  from  the  west,  whilst  in 
the  south  it  ends  in  a  long  and  narrow  peninsula 
of  lofty  mountains.  A  line  passing  through  the 
island  in  141°  E.  long,  is  over  300  miles  ;  at  the 
head  of  Geelvink  Bay  and  the  Gulf  of  M'Clure, 
not  more  than  twenty.  It  is  indented  by  numerous 
gulfs  and  bays,  besides  the  two  already  mentioned. 
Geelvink  Bay  is  260  miles  broad  at  its  mouth,  and 
trends  inland  200  miles  to  within  a  short  distance  of 
the  Bay  of  Lakahia,  on  the  south-west  coast.  It 
receives  the  waters  of  many  rivers,  and  is  studded 
with  islands,  of  which  Jobi  is  the  largest,  being 
66  miles  in  length  from  east  to  west,  lofty,  well 
wooded,  and  abounding  in  all  sorts  of  tropical  fruits 
and  birds. 

The  principal  capes  are,  South-East  Cape,  at  the 
extreme  east  of  the  island;  King  William's  Cape, 
Cape  Rigny,  Cape  Bonplaud,  Cape  Dnperre ;  Cape 
D'Urville,  on  the  north  ;  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  on 
the  north-west ;  and  Cape  Van  den  Bosch,  on  the 
eouth-west. 

Chief  rivers  are  the  Ambernon  or  Rochussen, 
which  has  its  source  in  the  mountains  of 
the  interior,  and  flowing  towards  the  north-west, 
falls,  by  many  mouths,  through  an  extensive 
alluvial  delta,  into  Geelvink  Bay ;  Aird's  River, 
vhich  flows  into  the  Great  Bight ;  the  Oeta-Nata, 
250 


which,  by  three  channels,  enters  the  sta  in  4°  30'  S. 
lat.,  and  136°  30'  E.  long. ;  the  Karoefa,  to  the 
north  of  Caoe  Van  den  Bosch,  which  enters  Kanirao 
Bay  on  the  south-west  side,  in  3°  48'  S.  lat.,  and 
133°  28'  E.  long,  and  is  half  a  mile  wide. 

The  island  is  mountainous,  except  certain  tracts  of 
swampy  land  which  have  been  formed  by  the  river 
deposits.  The  southern  peninsula  is  a  mountain 
range  with  peaks  far  surpassing  those  of  Australia 
in  altitude,  Mount  Owen  Stanley  being  13,205  feet; 
Obree,  10,200;  Yule  Mountain,  9700;  and  many 
others  of  the  same  range  approaching  similar  eleva- 
tions. Passing  in  a  line  towards  the  north-west, 
the  chain  appears  at  different  distances  from  the 
north  coast,  rises  to  the  west  of  Humboldt's  Bay 
into  the  Cyclops,  the  highest  peak  of  which  ia 
7000  feet,  leaves  its  impress  on  Geelvink  Bay,  in 
the  lofty  island  of  Jobi,  and  further  to  the  west 
shoots  up  in  the  Arfak  and  Amberbakin  ranges, 
mountains  of  upwards  of  9000  feet  .in  height.  The 
south-west  coast  is  chiefly  composed  of  lofty  lime- 
stone hills,  rising  in  terraces  towards  the  interior 
till  they  attain  the  snow-line,  Genofa,  to  the  north 
of  Kaimani  Bay,  being  5000,  the  Charles  Louia 
8852,  and  the  Snow  Mountains  15,400  feet  above 
the  sea-level. 

Along  the  south-west  shore  are  many  coral  banks, 
and  the  mountains  are  chiefly  composed  of  white 
limestone,  sometimes  approaching  to  crystallisation. 
At  Argoeni  Bay,  and  other  parts  of  the  interior, 
they  are  of  a  brownish-gray  sandstone.  In  the 
island  of  Lakahia,  the  Netherlands  Scientific  Com- 
mission, in  1858,  found  blue  clay  mixed  with 
kidneys  of  ironstone,  several  croppings  out  of  coal, 
and  also  sandstone.  Nothing,  however,  is  accurately 
known  either  of  the  mineral  or  vegetable  wealth  ol 
the  interior,  the  hostile  and  retiring  nature  of  the 
mountaineers  having  hitherto  closed  it  to  fc'iti  pair 
uralist.  On  the  north  coast,  near  Humbohil's  Ba -, 
the  earth  and  clay  are  of  a  brownish-red  colour,  with 
blocks  of  quartz  here  and  there  imbedded  m  it,  the 
mountains  being  schistose,  with  the  crystals  of  n.ica 
very  small  and  compact.  It  has  been  said  that  P. 
produces  gold,  but  it  is  as  yet  unknown,  and  the  na- 
tives possess  no  ornaments  or  tools,  except  of  wood, 
stone,  and  bone,  but  what  are  brought  to  theui  from 
Ceram. 

P.  is  everywhere  clothed  with  the  most  luxuriant 
vegetation,  cocoa-nut,  betel,  sago,  banar.n,  bread 
fruit,  orange,  lemon,  and  other  fruit  trees  lining  th« 
shoi'es;  while  in  the  interior  are  abundaice  of  fine 
timber  trees,  as  the  iron-wood,  ebony,  canary  wood, 
the  wild  nutmeg,  and  the  masooi,  the  fragrant  bark 
of  which  is  a  leading  article  of  export  from  the 
south-west  coast.  In  the  districts  of  tl  e  Arfak  and 
Amberbakin  Mountains  the  sugar-cane  tobacco,  and 
i-ice  are  cultivated.  The  flower-garlanr/ed  and  fruit- 
bearing  forests  are  filled  with  multi  ,udes  of  the 
most  beautiful  birds,  of  which  are  vsi  ious  kinds  of 
birds  of  paradise,  the  Crown-pigeon,  parrots,  lories, 
&c.  Fish,  of  which  upwards  of  250  sorts  have  been 
enumerated,  are  plentiful,  and  rxe  a. her  speared  or 
shot  with  the  arrow,  except  at  Hamboldt's  Bay, 
where  tbey  are  caught  with  nets  made  from  vege- 
table fibres,  with  large  shells  attached  as  sinkers. 
The  larger  animals  are  uuknowu,  br.t  wild  swine, 
ksingaroos,  the  koesi-koesi  (a  kind  of  wood-cat),  are 
plentiful,  as  also  a  small  Jrind  of  domesticated  dog 
used  in  hunting. 

The  exports  are  masooi,  bark,  trepang  or  beche-de- 
mer,  tortoise-shell,  pearls,  nutmegs,  birds  of  paradise, 
crown -pigeons,  ebony,  resin,  slave;.,  &c,  which  are 
brought  to  the  islands  of  Sirotta,  Namatotte,  and 
Adi,  on  the  south- we:  ,t  coart,  where  they  are 
bartered,  to  the  traders  f.-cm  C'.ram,  for  hatchets, 
rice,  large  beads,  priutcd  ootlors,  knives,  earthen w-.re, 


PATOA. 


iron  pans,  oopper,  tobacco,  Bago,  and  other  necessary 
articles.  The  produce  in  tallied  to  Singapore  aud 
the  Arroo  Islands. 

Except  in  the  swampy  districts,  the  climate  is  not 
unhealthy,  though  the  temperature  varies  greatly, 
the  thermometer  sometimes  indicating  95°  F.  by 
day,  and  falling  to  75°  by  night  On  the  south-west 
coast,  the  east  monsoon  or  rainy  season  begins  about 
the  middle  of  April,  and  ends  in  September;  the  dry 
■eason  is  from  September  to  April ;  and  on  the  north 
Coast  they  are  just  reversed. 

The  limestone  rocks  on  the  south-western  shore 
have  many  natural  caverns,  which  serve  as  reposi- 
tories tjt  the  bones  of  the  dead;  and  within  the 
Bight  of  Lakahia  is  a  fine  mountain-girt  bay,  which 
tiie  Scientific  Commission,  appointed  by  the  Nether- 
lands government  in  185S,  called,  after  their  steam- 
ship, Etna  Bay,  at  the  extremity  of  which  is  a 
splendid  waterfall,  300  feet  in  height  and  50  in 
breadth,  which,  seen  in  contrast  with  the  bright 
green  foliage,  appears  like  a  broad  silver  ribbon 
thrown  over  the  forest  trees. 

P.  is  surrounded  by  countless  islands,  some  of 
which  are  of  considerable  size.  Towards  the  south 
is  the  Louisiade  Archipelago,  stretching  over  several 
degrees  of  longitude,  out  of  which  Aignan  rises  to 
the  height  of  3000  feet,  and  South-East  Island  to 
2500.  Near  the  Great  Bight  is  Prince  Frederik 
Hendrik  Island,  separated  from  the  mainland  by 
the  Princess  Marianne  Strait.  Namatotte,  a  lofty 
island  in  Speelman's  Bay,  in  3°  50'  S.  lat.,  and  133° 
56'  E.  long.,  having  good  anchorage  on  the  west  side, 
and  one  of  the  chief  trading-places  on  the  coast ; 
Aidoena,  at  the  entrance  of  Triton's  Bay,  in  134°  20' 
E.  long. ;  and  Adi,  or  Wessels,  to  the  south-east  of 
Cape  Van  den  Bosch,  are  the  principal  islands  on 
the  south-west  coast  On  the  north,  at  the  mouth 
of  Geelvink  Bay,  lie  the  Schouten  Islands,  in 
135°— 137°  50'  E.  long.,  Mafor,  Jobi,  and  many  of 
less  importance.  Salawatti  is  a  large  and  populous 
island,  to  the  west  of  P.,  and  further  west  is  Batanta, 
separated  from  Salawatti  by  Pitt's  Strait ;  west  and 
south  is  the  large  island  of  Misool,  or  Waigamme, 
in  1°  45'-2°  3'  S.  lat,  and  129°  30'— 130°  31'  E. 
long.,  having  an  area  of  7S0  square  miles,  and  a 
large  population.  It  is  highly  probable  that  at  no 
very  distant  geological  period  the  Arroo,  Misool, 
Waigion,  Jobi,  and  other  islands,  formed  part  of 
the  mainland  of  P.,  banks  and  soundings,  reached  by 
the  100-fathom  line,  connecting  them  with  it.  Only 
in  the  trackless  wilds  of  P.  aud  the  adjacent  islands 
are  found  the  birds  of  paradise,  with  their  marvellous 
development  of  plumage  and  incompai*able  beauty. 
Mr  A.  It.  Wallace,  who  recently  visited  these  regions 
as  a  naturalist,  states  that  the  coast  districts  of  the 
northern  part  of  P.  contain  Paradisea,  papuana  and 
P.  regia  pretty  generally  distributed ;  while  P. 
magnified,  P.  alba,  and  Sericulus  aureus  are  scarce 
and  local.  The  central  mountains  of  the  northern 
peninsula  are  alone  inhabited  by  Lopliorina  superba, 
Parotia  eexsetacea,  Astrapia  nigra,  Epimachus 
tno.gnus,  and  Craspedophora  magnijica,  the  unique 
Diphgllodes  Wilsoni  and  Paradigalla  carunculata 
probably  also  existing  there.  The  Arroo  Islands 
contain  P.  apoda  and  P.  regia ;  Misool  has  P. 
papuana,  P.  regia,  and  P.  magnijica ;  Waigion,  P. 
rubra ;  Salawatti  has  P.  regia,  P.  magnijica,  Ep. 
albus,  and  Sericidus  aureus  ;  Jobi,  P.  papuana,  and 
other  species.  The  Key  Islands,  Ceram,  &c,  which 
aie  separated  by  deep  sea,  have  no  Paradisea;. 

The  population  of  P.  and  the  immediately  adjacent 
islauds  is  supposed  to  be  about  800,000 ;  the  part 
claimed  by  the  Netherlands,  as  having  formerly 
been  tributary  to  the  sultans  of  Tidore,  stretching 
from  Cape  Bonpland,  on  the  east  of  Humboldt's  Bay, 
in  140°  47'  E.  long.,  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 


further  west  and  south-wot  to  14l'J  ES.  long.,  with 
the  islands  on  the  coast,  is  estimated  to  have 
920,000.  The  natives  of  the  interior  never  acknow- 
ledged the  supremacy  of  the  Bnltans  of  Tidore,  but 

the   eoasts   and    islands   are   governed    l>y   rajahs   and 

other  ehie's  appointed  by  them  to  certain  districts 
or  temgdous.  This  power  is  still  exercised  by  the 
sultan  of  Tidore,  BUDJect  to  the  approval  of  the 
Netherlands'  resident  at  Teniate. 

According  to  the  system  of  Buryde  St  Vincent, 
the  natives  of  P.  are  a  race  Bprnng  from  Neptunians 
and  Oceanians,  in  character,  features,  and  hair 
standing  between  the    Malays   and    Negroes.      I)r 

Latham    places   them    under    the    Bub-class,    Oceanic 

Mongolidffi.  See  Ethnology.  Those  who  Live 
on  the  coast  and  islands  are  called  Papuans,  prob*- 
ably  from  the  Malay  word  Papoewafa  or  Poewah- 
l'oewah,  which  signifies  curly  or  woolly;  the 
inhabitants  of  the  interior,  Alfoers.  The  Papuans 
are  of  middle  stature  and  well  made,  have  regular 
features,  intelligent  black  eyes,  small  white  teeth, 
curly  hair,  thick  lips,  and  large  mouth ;  the  nose  is 
sharp,  but  flat  beneath,  the  nostrils  large,  and  the 
skin  dark  brown.  Around  Ilunihohlt's  Bay  the 
men  stain  their  hair  with  the  red  earth  which  is 
abundant  in  that  locality.  Generally,  the  met?  are 
better-looking  than  the  women,  but  neither  are 
repulsively  ngly,  as  has  been  repeatedly  said.  The 
Papuans  of  the  coast  are  divided  into  small  distinct 
tribes,  frequently  at  war  with  each  other,  when 
they  plant  the  paths  to  their  villages  with  pointed 
pieces  of  bamboo  or  Nipa  palm,  called  randjoes, 
which  run  into  the  feet  of  a  party  approaching  to 
the  attack,  and  make  wounds  which  are  difficult  to 
cure.  The  men  build  the  houses,  hollow  the  trmiks 
of  trees  into  canoes,  hunt  and  fish  ;  while  the  women 
do  all  the  heaviest  work,  cultivating  the  fields, 
making  mats,  pots,  and  cutting  wood.  Their  food 
consists  of  maize,  sago,  rice,  fish,  birds,  the  ilesh  of 
wild  pigs  and  fruits. 

The  Alfoers  of  the  interior  do  i.ot  differ  much  in 
appearance  from  the  Papuans,  b  it,  lower  sunk  in 
the  savage  life,  are  independent  nomades,  warlike, 
and  said  to  be  in  some  districts  cannibals.  They 
are  called  by  the  coast-peoplf'  Woeka,  or  moun- 
taineers, and  bring  down  from  their  forest  retreats 
the  fragrant  Masooi  bark,  nutmegs,  birds  of  Paradise, 
and  crown-pigeons  to  the  coast,  bartering  them 
for  other  articles.  The  natives  of  the  Arfak  and 
Amberbakin  ranges  are  mora  settled  in  their  habits, 
and  also  cidtivate  the  sugar-cane  and  tobacco  as 
articles  of  commerce,  but  never  build  their  houses  at 
a  lower  level  than  1000  feet  from  the  base  of  the 
mountains.  The  people  of  the  south-west  coast  are 
perfectly  honest,  open-hearted,  and  trustworthy. 
They  have  no  religious  worship,  though  some  idea  of 
a  Supreme  Being,  called  Auwre,  according  to  whose 
v.-ill  they  live,  act,  and  die,  but  to  whom  no  reverence 
is  offered.  They  reckon  time  by  the  arrival  and 
departure  of  the  Ceram  traders,  or  the  beginning  and 
ending  of  the  dry  and  rainy  seasons,  and  number 
only  up  to  ten.  Their  dead  are  buried,  and  after  a 
year  or  more,  the  bones  taken  up,  and  placed  in  the 
family  tomb,  erected  near  the  house,  or  selected 
from  the  natural  caverns  in  the  limestone  rocks.  The 
women  cover  the  lower  part  of  the  body ;  the  men  go 
all  but  naked,  have  their  hair  plaited  or  frizzled  out, 
and  ornamented  with  shells  and  feathers.  Marriages 
are  contracted  early,  and  are  only  dissolved  by  death, 
and  the  women  are  chaste  and  modest.  At  Doreh, 
on  the  north  coast,  the  bridegroom  leads  the  bride 
home,  when  her  father  or  nearest  male  relative 
divides  a  roasted  banana  between  them,  which  they 
eat  together  with  joined  hands,  and  the  marriage  is 
completed.  They  have  no  religion,  but  believe 
that  the  soul  of  the  father  at  death  returns  to  the 

251 


PAPULA  AND  PAPULAR  DISEASES-PAPYRL 


son,  and  of  the  mother  to  the  daughter.  The  Papu- 
ans of  Humboldt's  Bay  are  further  advanced  than 
those  of  any  other  part  of  the  island,  carve  wood, 
make  fishing-nets,  build  good  houses  above  the  water 
of  the  bay,  and  connect  them  with  the  mainland  by 
bridges  ;  each  village  has  also  an  octagonal  temple, 
ornamented  within  and  without  with  figures  of 
animals  and  obscene  representations,  though  nothing 
is  known  of  their  religion.  The  largest  temple,  that 
of  Tobaddi,  received  in  1858  the  present  of  a 
Netherlands  flag,  which  is  flying  from  its  spire,  the 
natives  little  suspecting  it  to  be  a  sign  of  asserted 
foreign  supremacy.  They  are  brave  and  open 
enemies,  but  bold  and  notorious  thieves. 

All  attempts  of  the  sultans  of  Tidore  to  introduce 
the  Mohammedan  religion  in  P.  have  failed.  On  the 
island  of  Massanama,  to  the  east  of  Doreh  harbour, 
the  Protestant  missionaries  Ottow  and  Gieszler  have 
been  settled  since  1855,  and  are  well  treated  by  the 
natives.  These  have  formed  a  pretty  complete 
vocabulary  of  the  Myfore  language  of  that  district, 
which  has  no  resemblance  to  that  of  the  south-west 
coast. 

P.  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  commanders 
Antonio  dAbreu  and  Francisco  Serram  in  1511,  in 
part  visited  by  the  Dutch  under  Schouten  in  1615  ; 
and  in  1S28  the  Netherlands  built  a  fort,  called  Du 
Bus,  in  Triton's  Bay,  3°  42'  S.  lat.,  and  133°  51'  5"  E. 
long.,  which  after  a  few  years  was  abandoned,  on 
account  of  the  deadly  climate  of  the  district.  In 
1845,  Captain  Blackwood,  in  H.M.S.  Fly,  surveyed  a 
portion  of  the  Great  Bight.  Captain  Staidey,  in  the 
Rattlesnake,  and  Lieutenant  Yide  of  the  Bramble, 
eurveyed  the  Louisiade  in  1848.  Most  important 
knowledge  regarding  the  south-west  and  north  coasts 
up  to  141°  E.  long,  has  been  obtained  through  the 
Scientific  Commission  sent  by  the  Netherlands 
government  in  1 S58 ;  but  much  of  the  coast,  and 
almost  the  whole  of  the  interior,  are  still  a  terra 
incognita. 

See  G.  W.  Earl,  Tlie  Native  Races  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago  (Lond.  1853) ;  De  Zuid-  West  East  van 
N.  Guinea,  door  J.  Modera  (Haarlem,  1830) ; 
N.  Guinea  onderzocht  en  beschreven,  door  eene  Neder- 
landsche  Commime  (Amsterdam,  1862) ;  Narrative 
of  Search  after  Birds  of  Paradise,  by  A.  R.  Wallace, 
F.Z.S.,  in  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society  of 
London  for  1862 ;  and  De  Papoewa's  van  de  Geel- 
vinksbaai,  by  A.  Goudsvvaard  (Schiedam,  1863). 

PAPULAE  and  PAPULAR  DISEASES. 
Papula;,  or  pimples,  constitute  one  of  the  eight  orders 
of  Bateman  and  Willan's  classification  of  cutaneous 
diseases.  They  occur  as  little  elevations  of  the  cuticle, 
of  a  red  colour,  containing  neither  pus  nor  any  other 
fluid,  and  ending  usually  in  a  scurf.  They  are 
generally  supposed  to  denote  inflammation  of  the 
papillae  of  the  skin ;  but  Erasmus  Wilson  believes 
that  they  represent  an  inflammatory  condition  of  the 
secretory  orifices,  whether  sudoriferous  or  sebaceous. 
The  diseases  regarded  as  papular  are  Strophulus, 
Lichen,  and  Prurigo ;  but  there  are  other  diseases 
in  which  the  first  external  symptom  is  a  papular 
eruption,  as,  for  example,  small-pox,  in  which  the 
papula  speedily  develops  itself  into  a  pustule. 

PAPYRI.  Rolls  made  of  the  paper  of  the 
papyrus  plant  are  commonly  known  as  papyri, 
corresponding  to  the  Greek  biblia.  These  rolls 
are  of  a  very  remote  antiquity,  some  of  the  still 
remaining  Egyptian  papyri  being  certainly  as  old  as 
the  6th  dynasty,  and  others  as  old  as  the  12th,  or 
from  about  2000  B.C.  This  is  owing  to  their  mode 
of  preservation,  and  to  the  peculiarly  dry  character 
of  Egypt.  These  rolls  have  been  found  deposited  in 
different  ways,  those  of  a  religious  nature  being 
placed  upon  the  bodies  of  mummies,  at  the  feet, 
arms,  or  oven  in  the  hands,  sometimes,  indeed,  I 
252 


packed  or  laid  between  the  bandages,  or  even 
spread  over  the  whole  bandages,  like  a  shroud.  At 
the  time  of  the  19th  and  20th  dynasties  (1320—1200 
B.  c),  they  were  often  deposited  in  hollow  wooden 
figures  of  the  god  Ptah  Socharis  Osiris,  or  of  the  god 
Osiris,  which  were  placed  near  the  mummies. 
Papyri  of  a  civil  nature  were  deposited  in  jars  or 
boxes,  which  were  placed  near  the  mumniies,  or 
have  been  found  in  the  remains  of  ancient  libraries. 
The  following  are  the  principal  kinds  of  Egyptian 
papyri  :  I.  Hieroglypkical  papyri,  always  accom- 
panied by  pictures  or  vignettes,  and  consisting  of 
three  classes  :  1.  Solar  litanies  or  texts,  and  pictures 
relating  to  and  describing  the  sun's  passage  through 
the  hours  of  the  night,  when  that  luminary  was 
supposed  to  enter  the  Egyptian  Hades  or  Hell.  2. 
Books  of  the  empyreal  gate,  or  heaven,  with  vign- 
ettes of  deities,  and  other  representations  referring 
to  the  genesis  of  the  cosmos  or  universe.  3.  The 
so-called.  Ritual,  consisting  of  a  series  of  sacred  or 
hermetic  books,  some  of  a  very  remote  antiquity, 
accompanied  with  rubrical  titles  and  directions  as 
to  their  efficacy  and  employment,  and  comprising 
various  formulas  ordered  to  be  placed  on  the 
coffins,  amulets,  and  other  furniture  of  the  dead,  for 
the  better  preservation  of  the  souls  of  the  dead  and 
of  the  mummies  in  the  future  state.  In  this  book, 
chapters  giving  an  account  of  the  future  judgment, 
of  the  ma/chenu,  or  boat  of  the  dead,  of  the  Elysian 
Fields,  and  of  the  Halls  through  which  the  dead 
had  to  pass,  are  also  found.  The  work  was  con- 
sidered by  the  Egyptians  themselves  mystic,  and 
parts  were  supposed  to  be  written  by  the  god  Thoth 
himself.  A  copy  more  or  less  complete,  according 
to  the  wealth  of  the  deceased,  was  deposited  with 
all  the  principal  mummies  ;  and  from  the  blank 
spaces  left  for  the  name,  which  were  afterwards 
filled  up,  it  is  evident  they  were  kept  ready  made. 
— II.  Hieratic  papyri,  written  in  the  hieratic  or 
cursive  Egyptian  hand,  comprising  a  more  extensive 
literature  than  the  hieroglyphic  paj>yri.  This  hand- 
writing being  used  for  civil  as  well  as  religious 
purposes,  the  papyri  found  in  it  differ  considerably 
from  one  another,  and  comprise  rituals  of  the  class 
already  mentioned,  principally  in  use  about  the 
26th  dynasty,  or  the  6th  c.  B.C.,  but  fouud  also  on 
some  few  papyri  of  a  remote  period ;  a  book 
called  the  Lamentations  of  Isis ;  magical  papyri, 
containing  directions  for  the  preparation  of  charms 
and  amulets,  and  the  adjuration  of  deities  for 
their  protection ;  civil  documents,  consisting  of  the 
examination  of  persons  charged  with  criminal 
offences,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  are  that  of  an 
offender  charged  with  the  practice  of  magic  in  the 
19th  dynasty,  another  of  a  criminal  charged  with 
robbing  the  royal  storehouses,  plunder  of  public 
property,  violation  of  women,  and  other  crimes,  in 
the  reign  of  Sethos  I.,  and  the  procts-verbal  of  an 
offender  charged  with  violating  the  sepulchres  of 
the  kings  in  the  reign  of  Rameses  IX.  Besides 
these,  there  are  several  letters  of  various  scribes 
upon  subjects  connected  with  the  administration  of 
the  country  and  private  affairs  ;  laudatory  poems  of 
Egyptian  monarchs,  one  describing  the  campaign 
of  Rameses  II.  against  the  Khita  or  Hittites ;  his- 
torical documents,  the  journeys  of  official  persons 
in  foreign  parts  ;  works  of  fiction,  one  written  by  a 
scribe  for  a  young  prince,  containing  the  adven- 
tures of  two  brothers,  the  death  of  the  younger, 
owing  to  the  false  accusation  of  the  wife  of  the 
elder,  his  revival,  and  transformation  into  a  bull 
and  a  Persea  tree.  Prophecies  or  denunciations, 
and  works  on  plants  and  medical  subjects,  books 
of  proverbs,  lists  of  kings,  historical  accounts — all 
occur  amongst  these  documents. — III.  The  last  class 
of  Egyptian  papyri,  those  written  in  the  demotio 


PAPYRI-PAPYRUS. 


or  enchorial  character,  consist  of  rituals,  contracts 
for  the  sale  of  mummies  and  lands,  accounts  and 
letters,  and  miscellaneous  documents.  These  papyri 
are  often  bilingual,  sometimes  accompanied  with 
hieratic  or  Greek  versions.  Many  of  these  papyri 
have  been  translated  by  M.  do  Rouge,  Caabas, 
Heath,  Goodwin,  Birch,  and  others.  Many  Greek 
papyri  have  been  found  belonging  to  the  archives 
of  the  Serapeion,  referring  to  t lie  administration  of 
that  temple,  the  orations  of  Hypereides,  and  some 
of  the  books  of  Homer.  At  all  times  in  the  history 
of  Egypt,  libraries  of  papyri  seem  to  have  existed, 
and,  under  the  Ptolemies,  are  said  to  have  contained 
as  many  as  700,000  rolls. 

Another  class  of  ancient  papyri,  those  of  Pompeii 
and  Herculaneum,  are  of  considerable  interest,  as 
shewing  the  condition  and  arrangement  of  a  Roman 
library.  The  papyri  of  Herculaneum  are  from  8£  to 
12|  inches  wide,  and  are  roiled  up  in  a  cylindrical 
roll  (volumen),  upon  a  stick  or  inner  roll  (bacillus, 
umbilicus),  having  a  stud  at  the  end  (cornu).  They 
had  their  titles  written  on  a  strip  (lorum),  in  red 
letters,  and  the  writing  was  cither  on  blind  lines,  or 
else  on  lines  ruled  with  lead.  About  1800  papyri 
were  discovered  at  Herculaneum,  in  1753,  in  the 
library  of  a  small  house,  charred  to  a  cinder,  and 
some  of  these,  by  the  greatest  skill  and  care,  have 
been  unrolled  by  a  very  laborious  process  at  Naples. 
Unfortunately,  they  have  not  answered  the  literary 
expectations  formed  of  them,  consisting  of  the 
works  of  philosophers  of  the  Epicurean  school, 
which  the  proprietor  of  the  library  seems  to  have 
collected.  Some  of  the  papyri  were  in  Latin,  and 
more  difficult  to  unrolL  Many  of  them  have  been 
published.  They  are  only  written  on  one  side. 
When  a  small  number  were  required,  they  were 
placed  in  a  cylindrical  bronze  chest  (cista),  packed 
tightly  in  a  perpendicular  position,  and  were  taken 
out  single,  and  /ead  by  unrolling  from  one  end. 
These  papyri  were  of  various  prices ;  old  ones,  like 
old  books,  being  of  immense  value,  but  those  con- 
taining the  works  of  contemporary  authors  were 
not  dearer,  perhaps,  than  modern  books.  Many 
extensive  private  and  public  libraries  existed  in 
Greece  and  Rome,  but  all  have  perished  except 
those  exhumed  from  Herculaneum. 

Wilkinson,  Man.  and  Cust.  iii.  62, 147,  188,  v.  482 ; 
Mabillon,  De  Re  Diplom.  i.  c.  8,  p.  38;  Winckelmann, 
ii.  Bd.  i.  1. ;  Chabas,  Pap.  cT  Harris  (Chalon,  1860) ; 
Papyrus  Uieratiques  (8vo,Chalon,  1863);  Voyage <Vnn 
Egyptien  (1866);  Pleyte,  Papyrus  de  Turin  (1869 — 
1874);  Cambridge  Essays  (1858),  p.  227  ;  De  Rouge", 
Bev.  Contemp.,  xxvii.,  p.  389  ;  Devena,  Papyrus  Judi- 
cione  de  Turin  (1868);  Trans.  Soc.  Bibl.  Arch.  (1874). 

PAPY'RUS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Cyperacew,  of  which  there  are  several  species, 
the  most  important  being  the  Egyptian  P.  or 
Papyri  x  of  the  ancients  (P.  antiquorum,  Cyperus 
papyrus  of  Linnaeus) ;  a  kind  of  sedge,  8  to  10  feet 
high ;  with  a  very  strong,  woody,  aromatic,  creep- 
ing root ;  long,  sharp-keeled  leaves ;  and  naked, 
leafless,  triangular,  soft,  and  cellular  stems,  as  thick 
as  a  man's  arm  at  the  lower  part,  and  at  their  upper 
extremity  bearing  a  compound  umbel  of  extremely 
numerous  drooping  spikelets,  with  a  general  invo- 
lucre of  8  long  filiform  leaves,  each  spikelet  con- 
taining 6 — 13  florets.  By  the  ancient  Egyptians 
it  was  called  papu,  from  which  the  Greek  papyrus 
is  derived,  although  it  was  also  called  by  them 
byblos  or  deltos.  The  Hebrews  called  it  gome,  a 
word  resembling  the  Coptic  gom,  or  volume;  its 
modern  Arabic  name  is  Bercli.  So  rare  is  the  plant 
in  the  present  day  in  Egypt,  that  it  is  supposed  to 
have  been  introduced  either  from  Syria  or  Abyssinia ; 
%ut  it  has  been  seen  till  lately  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Lake   Menzaleh,    and   specimens   sent    to    England; 


and  as  it  formerly  was  considered  the  emblem  ol 
Northern  Egypt,  or  the  Delta,  and  only  grown  there 
if  introduced,  it  must  have  come  from  some  country 


Papyrus  (P.  antiquorum). 

lying  to  the  north  of  Egypt.  It  has  been  found  in 
modern  times  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jaffa,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Anapus,  in  the  pools  of  the  Liane,  near 
Syracuse,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Lake  Thrasyme- 
nus.  It  is  represented  on  the  oldest  Egyptian  monu- 
ments, and  as  reaching  the  height  of  about  ten  feet. 
It  was  grown  in  pools  of  still  water,  growing  ten  feet 
above  the  water,  and  two  beneath  it,  and  restricted  to 
the  districts  of  Sais  and  Sebennytus.  The  P.  was 
used  for  many  purposes  both  ornamental  and  usefid, 
such  as  crowns  for  the  head,  sandals,  boxes,  boats, 
and  cordage,  but  principally  for  a  kind  of  paper 
called  by  its  name.  Its  pith  was  boiled  and  eaten, 
and  its  root  dried  for  fuel.  The  papyrus  or  paper 
of  the  Egyptians  was  of  the  greatest  reputation  in 
antiquity,  and  it  appears  on  the  earliest  monuments 
in  the  shape  of  long  rectangular  sheets,  which  were 
rolled  up  at  one  end,  and  on  which  the  scribe  wrote 
with  a  reed  called  hash,  with  red  or  black  ink  made 
of  an  animal  carbon.  The  process  of  making  paper 
from  the  papyrus  is  described  in  the  article  Paper. 
When  newly  prepared,  it  was  white  or  brownish  white 
and  lissom;  but  in  the  process  of  time,  those  papyri 
which  have  reached  the  present  day  have  become 
of  a  light  or  dark  brown  colour,  and  exceedingly 
brittle,  breaking  to  the  touch.  While  papyrus  was 
commonly  used  in  Egypt  for  the  purposes  of  writing, 
and  was,  in  fact,  the  paper  of  the  period,  although 
mentioned  by  early  Greek  authors,  it  does  not  appear 
to  have  come  into  general  use  among  the  Greeks  till 
after  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  when  it  was 
extensively  exported  from  the  Egyptian  ports  under 
the  Ptolemies.  Fragments,  indeed,  have  been  found 
to  have  been  used  by  the  Greeks  centuries  before. 
It  was,  however,  always  an  expensive  article  to  the 
Greeks,  and  a  sheet  cost  more  than  the  value  of  a 
dollar.  Among  the  Romans,  it  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  in  use  at  an  early  period,  although  the 
Sibylline  books  are  said  to  have  been  written  on  it, 
and  it  was  cultivated  in  Calabria,  Apulia,  and  the 
marshes  of  the  Tiber.  But  the  staple  was  no  doubt 
imported  from  Alexandria,  and  improved  or  adapted 
by  the  Roman  manufacturers.   So  extensive  was  the 

253 


PAR— PARABOLA. 


Alexandrian  manufactory,  that  Hadrian,  in  his  visit 
to  that  city,  was  struck  by  its  extent ;  and  later 
in  the  empire,  an  Egyptian  usurper  (Firmus,  272 
A.D.)  is  said,  to  have  boasted  that  he  could  support 
an  army  off  his  materials.  It  continued  to  be 
employed  in  the  Eastern  and  Western  Empire  till 
the  12th  c,  and  was  used  amongst  the  Arabs  in  the 
8th ;  but  after  that  period,  it  was  quite  superseded 
by  parchment.  At  the  later  periods,  it  was  no 
longer  employed  in  the  shape  of  rolls,  but  cut  up 
into  square  pages,  and  bound  like  modern  books. 

As  a  matter  of  scientific  interest,  experiments  on 
the  manufacture  of  paper  from  the  P.  have  been 
made  in  recent  times  by  Landolina,  Seyffarth,  and 
others. —  Another  species  of  P.  {P.  corymbosus  or 
P.  Panr/orei)  is  much  used  in  India  for  making 
mats.    See  Indian  Grass  Matting. 

PAR,  or  PARR,  a  small  fish,  also  called 
Brandling  and  Fingerling  in  different  parts  of 
Britain,  inhabiting  rivers  and  streams,  and  at 
one  time  believed  to  be  a  distinct  species  of  the 
genus  Saltno,  but  now  almost  universally  regarded 
as  the  young  of  the  salmon.  The  question  will  be 
noticed  in  the  article  Salmon.  It  may  here,  how- 
ever, be  mentioned,  that  it  is  difficult  to  discriminate 
the  young  of  different  species  of  this  genus.  The 
par  rises  with  extraordinary  readiness  to  the  arti- 
ficial fly ;  and  until  it  began  to  receive  protection 
as  the  fry  of  the  salmon,  vast  numbers  were  killed 
both  by  youthful  and  adult  anglers. 

PARA',  or  BELETM,  a  thriving  city  and  seaport 
of  Brazil,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name, 
stands  on  the  east  bank  of  the  river  Para,  80 
miles  from  its  mouth.  Lat.  1°  28'  S.,  long.  48° 
2S'  W.  The  harbour  is  formed  by  an  abrupt  curve 
or  inlet  of  the  channel  of  the  river,  which  is  here 
20  miles  broach  Vessels  of  the  largest  size  are 
admitted ;  the  anchorage  is  roomy,  safe,  and  easy 
of  access.  The  streets  are  paved  and  macadamised ; 
the  houses,  like  those  of  most  Brazilian  towns,  have 
whitened  walls  and  red-tiled  roofs.  Among  the 
principal  buildings  are  the  palace  of  the  president, 
the  cathedral,  and  the  churches,  all  ample  in  size, 
and  imposing  in  structure.  There  are  also  numerous 
public  squares,  a  college,  and  a  beautiful  botanic 
garden.  The  city  is  supplied  with  water  by  water- 
carts  that  perambulate  the  streets.  The  'Amazon 
Navigation  Company,'  a  Brazilian  association,  has 
erected  large  workshops,  coal  depots,  and  wharfs ; 
and  steam-navigation  is  rapidly  extending.  In  1865, 
the  total  number  of  ships  which  entered  and  cleared 
the  port  of  P.  was  96,  with  39,709  tonnage;  in  1866, 
139,  with  52,168  tonnage;  and  in  1867,  160,  with 
58,798  tons.  There  also  entered  in  1867,  80  Brazilian 
vessels  (coasters),  of  59,927  tons.  The  imports  were 
principally  cotton  manufactures,  wheat  and  flour, 
cutlery  and  hardware,  wool,  gold  and  silver  wares, 
coins,  and  wine.  The  exports  were  coffee,  sugar, 
raw  cotton,  hides,  tobacco,  diamonds,  cocoa,  and 
india-rubber.  Pop.  28,000.  P.  is  the  mart  through 
which  passes  the  whole  commerce  of  the  Amazon 
and  its  affluents.  The  city  was  the  seat  of  revo- 
lution during  the  whole  of  the  year  1835,  when 
a  great  number  of  fives  were  lost  and  houses 
destroyed,  and  grass  grew  in  streets  that  previously 
had  been  the  centre  of  business.  It  is  only  since 
1848  that  the  city  can  be  said  to  have  fairly 
entered  upon  the. path  of  orderly  commercial  pro- 
gress ;  and  since  that  period,  its  advance  has  been 
rapid. 

PARA',  an  important  province  of  the  empire  of 
Brazil,  in  the  extreme  north  of  the  country,  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Guiana  and  the  Atlantic,  on 
the  E.  by  Maranhao  and  Goyaz,  on  the  S.  by  Matto 
Gro<so,  and  on  the  W.  by  Amazonaa.    Area,  532,000 


square  miles;  pop.  (in  1867),  350,000.  It  is  by  far 
the  largest  province  of  Brazil — having  an  area  more 
than  twice  the  extent  of  Austria — is  watered  by 
the  Amazon  and  its  great  affluents  the  Tapajos, 
Xingu,  and  Tocantins  ;  and  forms  a  portion  of  a 
district— the  Amazon  Valley — which  has  been  des- 
cribed by  the  most  thorough  explorer  of  this  region 
as  unequalled  for  richness  of  vegetable  production 
and  fertility  of  soil.  The  surface  of  the  country 
is  level,  and  consists  of  great  plains,  intersected  by 
rivers,  and  covered  with  primeval  forests,  and  in 
some  cases  with  rich  pasture.  The  climate,  though 
warm,  is  not  unhealthy.  The  precious  metals,  with 
diamonds,  iron,  and  coal,  are  found,  but  are  not 
worked.  The  timber  is  valuable,  and  the  chief  crops 
raised  upon  the  very  limited  area  as  yet  brought 
under  cultivation  are  coffee,  rice,  millet,  and  cotton. 

PARA',  the  name  of  the  south  arm  of  the  Amazon, 
forming  an  outlet  for  that  river  into  the  Atlantic, 
on  the  southern  side  of  the  island  of  Marajo  (q.  v.). 
It  is  200  miles  in  length,  is  20  miles  broad  opposite 
the  city  of  Para,  and  is  40  miles  broad  at  its  mouth. 
Its  most  important  affluent,  and  the  source  whence 
it  draws,  perhaps,  the  great  mass  of  its  volume  of 
waters,  is  the  Tocantins.  Formerly,  the  name  Para, 
which  is  said  to  signify  '  father  of  waters,'  was 
applied  in  a  general  way  to  the  river  Amazon.  At 
the  time  of  the  spring-tides,  the  bore  rushes  up  the 
river  with  enormous  force,  forming  a  wave  15  feet 
high. 

PARA',  a  coin  of  copper,  silver,  or  mixed  metal, 
though  most  generally  of  copper,  in  use  in  Turkey 
and  Egypt ;  it  is  the  40  th  part  of  a  piastre,  is  divided 
into  3  aspers,  and  varies  much  in  value,  owing  to  the 
debased  and  complicated  condition  of  the  Turkish 
coinage.  Pieces  of  5  paras  are  also  in  use.  The 
para  is  equal  to  about  -jfgth  0f  a  penny  sterling  in 
Turkey,  and  T\th  of  a  penny  sterling  in  Egypt. 
See  Piastre. 

PARA  GRASS.     See  Piassaba. 

PA'RABLE  (Gr.  paraboU,  a  comparison)  was 
originally  the  name  given  by  the  Greek  rhetoricians 
to  an  illustration  avowedly  introduced  as  such.  In 
Hellenistic  and  New  Testament  Greek,  it  came 
to  signify  an  independent  fictitious  narrative, 
employed  for  the  illustration  of  a  moral  rule  or 
principle.  This  kind  of  illustration  is  of  Eastern 
origin,  and  admirable  examples  are  to  be  found  in 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  particularly  in  the 
discourses  of  our  Lord.  It  is  no  less  interesting 
than  curious  to  learn  that  many  of  Christ's  parables, 
or  at  least  much  of  his  parabolic  imagery,  are  to  be 
found  in  the  writings  of  Hillel,  Sharamai,  and  other 
great  rabbis,  as,  for  example,  the  parables  of  the 
Pearl  of  Great  Price,  the  Labourers,  the  Lost  Piece 
of  Money,  the  Wise  and  Foolish  Virgins,  &c. 
Among  modern  writers,  the  German  divine  Krum- 
macher  (q.  v.)  has  greatly  distinguished  himself  in 
this  species  of  composition.  The  parable  differs 
from  the  Fable  (q.  v.)  in  the  probability  or  veri- 
similitude of  the  story  itself,  and  agrees  with  it  in 
the  essential  requisites  of  simplicity  and  brevity.  In 
the  course  of  time,  the  word  parable  came  to  lose 
its  significance  of  figurative  speech,  and  to  mean 
speech  generally.  From  the  parabola  of  the  Latin 
Vulgate,  came  the  medieval  Latin  parabolare, 
whence  the  modern  French  parler  and  parole.  An 
excellent  work  on  the  parables  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment— probably  the  best  in  the  English  language — 
is  that  by  Archbishop  Trench. 

PARA'BOLA,  one  of  the  conic  sections,  is 
produced  by  a  plane  not  passing  through  the 
vertex,  which  cuts  the  cone  in  a  direction  parallel 
to  that  of  a  plane  touching  the  convex  surface  ol 
the  cone.     A  little  consideration   will  shew  that 


PARABOLANI— PARACELSUS. 


a  section  so  produced  cannot  be  a  closed  curve,  but 
its  two  branches,  though  continually  widening  out 
from  each  other,  do  m>t  diverge  so  rapidly  as  in 
the  Hyperbola  (q.  v.).  The  nearer  the  cutting  plane 
is  to  that  which  touches  the  cone,  the  less  do  the 
two  branches  diverge;  and  when  the  two  planes 
coincide,  the  branches  also  coincide,  forming  a 
straight  line,  which  is  therefore  the  limit  of  the 
parabola.  It  may  otherwise  be  considered  as  a 
curve,  every  point  of  which  is  equally  distant  from 
a  lixed  straight  line  and  a  given  point ;  the  fixed 
Straight  line  is  called  the  directrix,  and  the  given 
point  the  focus.     Thus  (see  tig.)  PAP'  is  a  parabola, 

any    point     P     in 
which     is    equally 
distant     from     the 
focus    S    and    the 
directrix     CB,     or 
PS  =  PD.    If,  from 
S,  a  perpendicular, 
SE,    be    drawn    to 
the    directrix,    and 
produced         back- 
wards, this  line,  AO, 
is  the  axis  or  prin- 
cipal   diameter     of 
the    parabola,   and 
the   curve  is   sym- 
metrical    on    both 
sides  of  it     As  A 
is   a   point   in   the 
parabola,  AS  =  AE, 
or   the   vertex  of  a 
parabola  bisects  the 
perpendicular    from    the    focus    to    the    directrix. 
All  lines    in    a    parabola  which    are    parallel    to 
the    axis  cut    the   curve  in  only  one  point,   and 
are  called  diameters.     All  lines,  such  as  PP',  which 
cut  the  curve   in   two   points,   are   ordinates,   and 
the    diameter    to    which    they    are    ordinates,    is 
that    one    which    bisects    them;    the    portion    of 
this   diameter   which   is   intercepted  between  the 
ordinate    and    the    curve,    is    the    corresponding 
abscissa.     From  the  property  of  the  parabola  that 
PS  =  PD,  the  equation   to   the   curve   may  be   at 
once  deduced ;    for  PS  =  PD  =  EN,  therefore  PS2 
(which  =  PN2  +  NS*)  =  EN2;  hence  PN2  =  EN2 
-  NS2  =  (ES  +  SN)2  -  NS2  =  ES2  +  2ES  .  SN  = 
(since  ES  =  2AS)  4AS2  +  4AS .  SN  =  4AS  (AS  +  SN) 
=  4AS .  AN ;  and  calling  PN,  the  semiordinate,  y » 
AN,  the  abscissa,  x ;  and  AS,  a ;  the  equation  to  the 
parabola  becomes  if  —  4ax,  where  a  (the  distance 
of  the  vertex  from  the  focus)  remains  the  same  for 
all  points  in  the  same  curve.      It  is  evident  from 
the    equation,   as  well    as    from    the  geometrical 
derivation  of  the  parabola,  that  it  must  have  two, 
and  only  two  branches,  and  that  the  further  it  is 
extended  the  nearer  its  branches  approach  to  the 
condition   of   straight    lines    parallel  to    the   axis, 
though  they  never  actually  become  so.     The  para- 
bola has  no  asymptotes,  like  the  hyperbola,  but  it 
possesses  many  properties  which  are  common  to  it 
with  that  curve    and    the  ellipse.      In  fact,  the 
parabola  is  nothing  more  than  an  ellipse,   whose 
major  axis  is  infinitely  long. 

If  parallel  rays  of  light  or  heat  fall  upon  the 
eoncave  surface  of  a  paraboloidal  (see  Paraboloid) 
mirror,  they  are  reflected  to  the  focus,  and  con- 
versely, if  a  light  be  placed  in  the  focus  of  a 
paraboloidal  reflector,  its  rays  will  be  reflected  in 
parallel  directions,  and  would  appear  equally  bright 
at  all  distances  did  light  move  without  deviation, 
and  unabsorbed.  Also,  if  a  body  be  projected  in  a 
direction  not  vertical,  but  inclined  to  the  direction 
ol  gravity,  it  would,  if  undisturbed  by  the  resisting 
force    of    the    atmosphere    describe    accurately    a 


parabola  whose  axis  is  vertical,  and  whose  vertex  is 
the  highest  point  reached  by  the  body  (see  Pao- 
jkctii.ks). 

The  term  parabola  is  used  in  analysis  in  a  general 
sense,  to  denote  that  class  of  curves  in  which  some 
power  of  the  ordinate  is  proportional  to  a  lower 
power  of  the  abscissa.  Thus,  the  curve  we  have  just 
described,  and  which  is  distinguished  as  the  common 
or  Apollonian  parabola,  has  the  square  of  its  ordinate 
proportional  to  its  abscissa  ;  the  cubical  parabola  has 
the  cube  of  its  ordinate  proportional  to  its  abscissa ; 
and  the  semi-cubical  parabola  has  the  cube  of  its 
ordinate  proportional  to  the  square  of  its  abscissa. 

PARABOLA'NI  (Gr.  parabolos,  a  desperate 
person),  a  class  of  functionaries  in  the  early  church, 
by  some  writers  reckoned  as  members  of  the  clergy, 
and  included  in  the  ranks  of  the  minor  orders,  but 
more  probably  religious  associations,  whose  duty  it 
was  to  assist  the  clergy,  especially  in  the  more 
laborious  and  the  menial  offices  of  religion  or  of 
charity.  The  etymology  of  the  name  is  somewhat 
curious,  being  derived  or  applied  from  that  of  those 
desperate  adventurers  of  the  arena  who  hired  them- 
selves for  the  wild-beast  fights  of  the  amphitheatre. 
The  chief  duty  of  the  parabolani  was  the  tending  of 
the  sick,  whether  in  ordinary  diseases  or  in  times  of 
pestilence.  By  some,  the  association  is  believed  to 
have  originated  at  Alexandria,  and  perhaps  to 
have  been  peculiar  to  that  church ;  but  although 
the  parabolani  were  certainly  very  numerous  at 
Alexandria,  amounting  to  some  500  or  GOO,  it  is 
beyond  all  question  that  they  were  also  enrolled  in 
other  churches.  We  find  them  at  Ephesus,  at  the 
time  of  the  council  in  449.  They  held  the  same 
place  in  regard  of  ministrations  to  the  living,  that 
the  Fossores  of  Rome  or  the  Kopiatai  of  the  Greeks 
did  in  relation  to  the  burial  of  the  dead.  The 
parabolani  are  made  the  subject  of  formal  legislation 
by  Theodosius  the  younger.  At  first  they  were 
subject  to  the  Prsefectus  Augustalis,  but  a  later 
decree  placed  them  directly  under  the  authority  of 
the  bishop. 

The  name  parabolani  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  epithet  parabolarius,  which  the  pagans 
applied  to  the  Christian  martyrs,  from  the  reckless- 
ness with  which  they  gave  their  live3  for  their 
faith. 

PARA'BOLOID,  a  solid  figure  traced  out  by  a 
Parabola  (q.  v.)  revolving  round  its  principal  axis. 
Sections  of  this  solid  parallel  to  the  principal  axis 
are  parabolas,  and  those  perpendicular  to  it,  circles. 
The  term  '  paraboloidal,'  for  which  '  parabolic '  is 
frequently  but  improperly  substituted,  is  applied 
either  to  bodies  having  the  form  of  a  paraboloid,  or 
to  concave  surfaces  which  seem  to  have  taken  their 
peculiar  hollow  shape  from  the  impress  of  a  para- 
boloidal body. 

PARACE'LSUS.  About  the  end  of  the  15th  c. 
there  lived  in  the  small  town  of  Marien-Einsiedeln, 
near  Zurich  in  Switzerland,  William  Bombast  von 
Hohenheim,  a  physician  and  chemist ;  he  was 
married  to  the  lady-superintendent  of  the  hospital 
attached  to  the  convent  of  Einsiedeln ;  they  had  an 
only  son,  Philip  Aureolus  Theophrastus,  born,  it  is 
thought,  about  1493.  The  name  Paracelsus,  by 
which  he  is  now  known,  is  a  rude  rendering  into 
Greek  and  Latin  of  his  patronymic.  It  seems 
doubtful  if  he  ever  attended  any  regular  school,  but 
he  received  from  his  father  the  rudiments  of  Latin, 
and  whatever  else  he  could  teach.  He  soon  took  to 
roaming,  and  even  pursued  his  travels  into  Asia  and 
Africa.  How  he  maintained  himself  during  his 
pdgrimage  is  unknown  ;  probably  by  necromancy 
and  quack  cures — that  is,  proclaiming  he  had  certain 
specifics,  and  bargaining  for  the  amount  he  was  to 

365 


PARACHUTE— PARADOX. 


receive  if  he  performed  a  cure.  He  was  a  diligent 
chemist,  investigating  the  processes  of  the  prepara- 
tion of  metals,  and  making  experiments  as  to  their 
medicinal  virtues ;  also  to  discover  the  philosopher's 
stone.  As  a  chemist  he  lived  with  Sigismund 
Fugger,  one  of  a  family  celebrated  for  its  patronage 
of  art  and  science.  His  cures,  real  or  pretended, 
became  noised  abroad,  and  he  was  called  to  prescribe 
for  all  the  great  men  of  his  day.  When  he  was 
thirty-three,  he  boasted  of  having  cured  thirteen 
princes,  whoso  cases  had  been  declared  hopeless. 
He  was  then  at  his  zenith,  and  at  the  recommenda- 
tion of  Ecolampadius  was  appointed  professor  of 
physic  and  surgery  at  Basel.  He  commenced  his 
academic  career  by  publicly  burning  Galen's  works, 
exclaiming  Galen  did  not  know  as  much  as  his  shoe- 
latchets.  'Reading  never  made  a  physician,'  he  said ; 
'  countries  are  the  leaves  of  nature's  code  of  laws — 
patients  his  only  books.'  His  class-room  at  first 
was  full  to  overflowing,  but  was  soon  deserted,  and 
he  fell  into  habits  of  excessive  intemperance  ;  indeed 
his  secretary  asserts  he  was  drunk  every  day ;  never 
undressed,  and  went  to  bed  with  his  famous  sword 
by  his  side,  which  he  would  draw,  and  flourish 
about  the  room.  The  reason  of  his  departure  from 
Basel  was,  that  a  certain  dignitary,  suffering  from 
gout,  in  his  agony  sent  for  Paracelsus,  and  promised  to 
give  him  100  florins  if  he  cured  him.  Paracelsus  gave 
him  three  laudanum  pills  ;  the  canon  felt  comfort- 
able, and  the  doctor  claimed  his  fee,  but  the  church- 
man refused  to  pay.  Paracelsus  took  him  into 
court,  but  the  judge  decided  against  the  professor, 
who  lost  his  temper,  and  abused  the  legal  functionary 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  matter  was  taken  up 
by  the  town  council,  and  ended  in  the  expulsion 
of  Paracelsus.  He  recommenced  his  wanderings. 
Wherever  he  went  he  excited  the  regular  faculty 
to  a  state  of  violent  hatred,  not  wholly  undeserved. 
At  Salzburg  he  had  given  offence  in  the  usual  way, 
and  the  result  was,  'he  was  pitched  out  of  the 
window  at  an  inn  by  the  doctor's  servants,  and  had 
his  neck  broken  by  the  fall.'  This  took  place  in 
1541. 

That  a  man  whose  life  was  such  an  incoherent 
medley  should  exert  an  influence  for  centuries 
after  his  death,  may  well  be  a  matter  of  surprise, 
but  he  and  the  age  were  fitted  for  each  other.  He 
struck  the  weak  point  of  the  prevailing  system  of 
medicine ;  he  appealed  to  the  public  as  to  whether 
it  were  not  a  false  system  that  could  only  lead  to 
failure,  and  he  proposed  a  system  of  his  own,  which, 
though  shrouded  in  absurdity  and  obscurity,  inaugur- 
ated a  new  era  of  medicine.  The  prominent  idea 
of  his  system  is,  that  disease  does  not  depend  upon 
an  excess  or  deficiency  of  bile,  phlegm,  or  blood,  but 
that  it  is  an  actual  existence,  a  blight  upon  the 
body  subject  to  its  own  laws,  and  to  be  opposed  by 
some  specific  medicine.  See  the  works  of  Para- 
celsus ;  also  of  Schulz  (1831)  ;  Lessing  (1839) ; 
Rademacher  (1848)  ;  and  Russell  (History  and 
Heroes  of  Medicine,  1861). 

PA'RACHUTE  (Fr.  chute,  a  fall),  a  machine 
invented  for  the  purpose  of  retarding  the  velocity 
of  descent  of  any  body  through  the  air,  and  employed 
by  aeronauts  as  a  means  of  descending  from  balloons. 
It  is  a  gigantic  umbrella,  strongly  made,  and  having 
the  outer  extremities  of  the  rods,  on  which  the  canvas 
is  stretched,  firmly  connected  by  ropes  or  stays  to 
the  lower  part  of  the  handle.  The  handle  of  the 
parachute  is  a  hollow  iron  tube,  through  which 
passes  a  rope  connecting  the  balloon  above  with  the 
car  (in  which  are  the  aeronauts  and  their  apparatus) 
beneath,  but  so  fastened,  that  when  the  balloon  is 
cut  loose,  the  car  and  parachute  still  remain  con- 
nected. When  the  balloon  ascends,  the  parachute 
collapses  like  an  umbrella;  but  when  the   balloon 

ast 


rope  is  severed,  and  the  car  begins  to  descend,  the 
parachute  is  extended  by  the  action  of  the  air,  and 
prevents  the  car  from  acquiring  a  dangerous  velocity 
of  descent ;  the  final  velocity  in  those  cases  where 
the  machine  is  of  a  size  proportioned  to  the  weight 
it  has  to  support,  being  no  more  than  would  be 
acquired  by  a  person  leaping  from  a  height  of 
between  two  and  three  feet.  But  the  slightest 
derangement  of  the  parachute's  equilibrium,  such  as 
might  be  caused  by  a  breath  of  wind,  or  the 
smallest  deviation  from  perfect  symmetry  in  the 
parachute  itself,  immediately  produces  an  oscillatory 
motion  of  the  car,  having  the  apex  of  the  parachute 
as  a  centre,  and  the  oscillations  becoming  gradually 
greater  and  more  rapid,  the  occupants  of  the  car 
are  in  most  cases  either  pitched  out,  or  are  along 
with  it  dashed  on  the  ground  with  frightful  force. 
This  defect  in  the  parachute  has  been  attempted  to 
be  remedied  in  various  ways,  but  hitherto  without 
success.  The  first  successful  experiment  with  the 
parachute  was  made  by  Blanchard  at  Strasburg  in 
1787,  and  the  experiment  has  been  often  repeated 
by  Garnerin  and  others ;  very  frequently,  however, 
with  fatal  results. 

The  parachute  was  employed  by  Captain  Boxer, 
R.N.,  as  an  essential  part  of  his  patent  light-ball, 
for  discovering  the  movements  of  an  enemy  at 
night,  and  was  so  arranged  as  to  open  up  when  the 
lighted  ball  had  attained  its  greatest  elevation,  so 
as  to  keep  it  for  a  considerable  period  almost  sus- 
pended in  the  air. 

PARA'DE  (from  parare)  signified  in  its  original 
sense  a  prepared  ground,  and  was  applied  to  tho 
courtyard  of  a  castle,  or  to  any  enclosed  and  level 
plain.  From  the  practice  of  reviewing  troops  at 
such  a  spot,  the  review  itself  has  acquired  the  name 
of  parade.  In  its  modern  military  acceptation,  a 
parade  is  the  turning  out  of  the  garrison,  or  of  a 
regiment  in  full  equipment,  for  inspection  or  evolu- 
tions before  some  superior  officer.  It  is  the  boast 
of  British  troops  that  their  line  and  discipline  are 
as  perfect  under  an  enemy's  fire  as  on  the  parade 
ground. 

PA'RADISE.    See  Eden. 

PARADISE,  Bird  op.    See  Bird  of  Paradise 

PARADOS — another  name  for  Traverse — is  an 
intercepting  mound,  erected  in  various  parts  of  a 
fortification  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the 
defenders  from  a  rear  or  ricochet-fire.     See  FoRTl- 

FICATION. 

PA'RADOX  (Gr.  para,  beside,  or  be}',ond,  and 
doxa,  an  opinion),  a  term  applied  to  whatever  is  con- 
trary to  the  received  belief.  Cicero,  in  his  book  on 
paradoxes,  states  that  the  Stoics  called  by  this  name 
all  those  unusual  opinions  which  contradict  the 
notions  of  the  vulgar.  It  follows  from  this  that  a 
paradox  is  not  necessarily  an  opinion  contrary  to  truth. 
There  have  been  bold  and  happy  paradoxes  whose 
fortune  it  has  been  to  overthrow  accredited  errors, 
and  in  the  course  of  time  to  become  universally 
accepted  as  truths.  It  is,  perhaps,  even  one  of  the 
prerogatives  of  genius  to  bring  such  into  the  world, 
and  thereby  to  alter  the  character  of  an  art,  a 
science,  or  a  legislation  ;  but  this,  the  highest  form 
of  paradox,  which  is  only  another  name  for  origin- 
ality of  thought,  or  for  novelty  of  scientific  dis- 
covery, is  rare.  The  paradox  which  springs  from  a 
passion  for  distinction,  and  which,  in  its  efforts  to 
achieve  it,  despises  good  sense  and  the  lessons  of 
experience,  is  far  more  frequent.  It  may  not  be  at 
bottom  a  positive  error  in  thought,  but  it  is  so 
exaggerated  in  expression,  that  if  taken  literally  it 
actually  does  mislead.  This  is  the  besetting  sin  of 
the  brilliant  and    epigrammatic  class    of    writers, 


PARAFFIN-PARAGUAY. 


abundant  examples   of  which  are  to  be   found   in 
modern  French  literature. 

PA'RAFFIN  is  the  name  given  to  several  closely- 
allied  substances,  which  are  composed  of  mixtures 
of  polymeric  hydrocarbons,  of  the  olefiant  gas  series 
(that  is  to  say,  of  the  formula  <  '„ E  l  >,. ),  and  are 
cilit  lined  from  the  drv  distillation  of  wood,  peat,  bitu- 
minous coal,  wax,  Ac.  P.  is  particularly  abundant 
in  beech  tar,  but  according  to  Reiehenbach,  to  whom 
its  name  (which  is  formed  from  parum  affinis,  'little 
allied,'  in  consequence  of  its  resisting  the  action  of 
the  strongest  acids  and  alkalies)  is  due,  and  who 
may  be  regarded  as  its  discoverer ;  it  is  also  found 
in  the  tar  of  both  animal  and  vegetable  substances. 
At  ordinary  temperatures  paraffin  is  a  hard,  white, 
crystalline  substance,  devoid  of  taste  or  odour,  and 
resembling  spermaceti,  both  to  the  touch  and  in 
appearance.  The  paraffin  obtained  from  wood  fuses 
at  about  111",  but  the  varieties  obtained  from  other 
substances  have  considerably  higher  boiling-points. 
When  carefully  heated,  it  sublimes  unchanged  at  a 
little  below  700°.  It  dissolves  freely  in  hot  olive  oil, 
iD  oil  of  turpentine,  in  benzol,  and  in  ether,  but  it  is 
01  dy  slightly  soluble  in  boiling  alcohol,  and  is  quite 
ir  soluble  in  water.  It  does  not  burn  readily  in. 
tl  e  air,  unless  with  the  addition  of  a  wick,  when  it 
ei  olves  so  brilliant  and  smokeless  a  flame  that  it 
h)8  been  applied  to  the  manufacture  of  candles, 
w  rich  rival  those  made  of  the  finest  wax.  The 
pt  raffin  of  commerce  was  formerly  obtained  from  the 
B  tghead  cannel-coal,  but  petroleum  now  affords  it 
mDre  cheaply.  A  bituminous  shale  near  Bonn  for- 
merly supplied  much  of  the  continental  demand. 

PARAFFIN  OIL  is  the  term  applied  to  the  oily 
matter  which  is  given  off  in  the  distillation  of 
cannel-coal,  petroleum,  and  peat.  By  rectification 
ir  may  he  separated  into  three  portions,  one  of 
which  remains  liquid  at  very  low  temperatures, 
boils  at  about  420°,  and  is  much  used  under  a 
variety  of  names  for  illuminating  purposes,  while  a 
mixture  of  the  two  less  volatile  portions  (which 
may  be  regarded  as  composed  of  paraffin  dissolved 
in  a  mixture  of  hydrocarbons  of  nearly  the  same 
composition  as  paraffin)  is  largely  employed  for  the 
purpose  of  lubricating  machinery,  for  which  it  is 
admirably  adapted  by  its  power  of  resisting  the 
oxidising  action  of  the  atmosphere,  and  by  its  very 
slow  evaporation.     See  Naphtha. 

PARAGUAY',  an  independent  republic  of  South 
America.  As  represented  in  most  maps,  it  is  con- 
fined to  the  peninsula  between  the  rivers  Paraguay 
and  Parana,  but  its  frontiers  were  not  well  defined 
previous  to  the  war  of  1865 — 1870,  large  tracts  con- 
sidered to  form  a  part  of  it  being  claimed  by  Brazil, 
Bolivia,  and  the  Argentine  Confederation.  By  a 
secret  treaty  of  alliance  between  Brazil,  the  Argen- 
tine Confederation,  and  Uruguay,  signed  May  1,  1865, 
its  boundaries  were  fixed  at  22°  to  27°  S.  lat.,  and 
57°  to  60°  W.  Ion.  Under  its  old  limits  the  area  of 
1J.  was  103,145  sq.  m. ;  the  result  of  the  recent  war 
has  lieen  to  reduce  it  to  57,303  sq.  m.  In  1857,  the 
pop.  amounted  to  1,337,431,  consisting  of  whites  of 
Spanish  descent,  native  Indians,  negroes,  and  a 
mixture  of  these  several  races.  In  1871,  according 
to  an  official  return,  it  had  fallen  to  1,200,000.  A 
mountain-chain  called  Sierra  Anambahy,  which  trav- 
erses it  in  the  general  direction  of  from  north  to 
south,  and  bifurcates  to  the  east  and  west  towards  the 
southern  extremity,  under  the  name  of  Sierra  Ma- 
racaju,  divides  the  tributaries  of  the  Parana  from 
those  of  the  Paraguay,  none  of  which  are  very 
considerable,  although  they  are  liable  to  frequent 
and  destructive  overflows.  As  regards  its  physical 
character,  the  northern  portion  of  the  country  is 
mountainous,  and  in  part,  especially  towards  the  east, 
329 


occupied  by  native  tribes,  and  little  known.  The 
southern  portion  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  listricta  ot 
South  America,  consisting  of  hills  and  gentle  slopes 

richly  wooded,  of  wide  BUVannahs,  which  afford  excel 
lent  pasture-ground,  and  of  rich  alluvial  plains,  some 
Of  which,  indeed,  are  marshy,  or  covered  with  shallow 
pools  of  water  (only  one  lake,  that  of  Vpao,  deserving 
special  notice),  but  a  large  proportion  are  of  extra- 
ordinary fertility  and  highly  cultivated  The  banks 
of  the  rivers  Parana  and  Paraguay  are  occasionally 
belted  with  forest;  but,  in  general,  the  low  lands 
are  destitute  of  trees.  The  climate,  for  a  tropical 
country,  is  temperate,  the  temperature  occasionally 
rising  to  100°  in  summer,  but  in  winter  being  usually 
about  45°.  In  geological  structure,  the  southern 
part  belongs  generally  to  the  tertiary  formation  ;  the 
north  and  east  presenting  greywaeke  rocks  in  some 
districts.  The  natural  productions  are  very  varied, 
although  they  do  not  include  the  precious  metals  or 
other  minerals  common  in  South  America.  .Much 
valuable  timber  is  found  in  the  forests,  and  the 
wooded  districts  situated  upon  the  rivers  possess  a 
ready  means  of  transport.  Among  the  trees  are 
several  species  of  dye-wood,  several  trees  which 
yield  valuable  juices,  as  the  India-rubber  and  its 
cognate  trees ;  and  an  especially  valuable  shrub, 
called  the  Male  (q.  v.),  or  Paraguay  tea-tree,  which 
forms  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  commerce,  being 
in  general  use  throughout  La  Plata,  Chili,  Peru, 
and  other  parts  of  South  America.  The  tree 
grows  wild  in  the  north-eastern  districts,  and  the 
gathering  of  its  leaves  gives  employment  in  the 
season  to  a  large  number  of  the  native  population. 
Many  trees  also  yield  valuable  gums.  Wax  and 
honey  are  collected  in  abundance,  as  is  also  cochi- 
neal, and  the  medicinal  plants  are  very  numerous. 
The  chief  cultivated  crops  are  maize,  rice,  coffee, 
cocoa,  indigo,  mandioc,  tobacco,  sugar-cane,  and 
cotton.  One-half  of  the  land  is  national  property, 
consisting  partly  of  the  lands  formerly  held  by 
the  Jesuit  missions,  or  by  other  religious  corpora- 
tions, partly  of  lands  never  assigned  to  individuals, 
partly  of  lands  confiscated  in  the  course  of  the 
revolutionary  ordeal  through  which  the  country 
has  been  passing.  The  national  estates  have,  for 
the  most  part,  been  let  out  in  small  tenements, 
at  moderate  rents,  the  condition  of  the  tenure 
being  that  they  shall  be  properly  cultivated. 
Under  the  dictator  Francia,  agriculture  made  con- 
siderable progress,  but  nevertheless  it  is  still  far 
from  the  standard  of  European  progress.  Only 
about  30,000  square  miles  of  the  whole  territory 
is  in  cultivation.  The  breed  of  cattle  and  of 
horses  also  has  been  much  improved,  and  the 
stock  increased,  as  well  in  the  public  farm  estab- 
lishments instituted  by  the  dictator  as  in  those  of 
private  individuals.  There  are  few  manufactures 
— sugar,  rum,  cotton,  and  woollen  cloths  and  leather 
being  the  only  industrial  productions.  Indeed  the 
commerce  of  the  country  is  chiefly  in  the  hands 
of  the  government,  which  holds  a  monopoly  of  the 
export  of  P.  tea,  and  in  great  part  of  the  timber 
trade.  Until  the  war  of  1865—1870  P.  had  no  na- 
tional debt,  but  the  terrible  losses  then  incurred  com- 
pelled it  to  contract  (1871)  a  foreign  loan  of  £2,000,- 
000,  and  in  the  same  year  authorized  the  sale  ot 
public  lands  to  the  value  of  £5,200,000.  The  military 
force,  which  was  raised  during  the  war  to  60,000  men, 
is  now  reduced  to  2000.  The  established  i-eligion  is 
the  Roman  Catholic,  the  ecclesiastical  head  of  which 
is  the  Bishop  of  Asuncion.  Education  is  very  widely 
diffused  ;  and  it  is  said  that  there  are  but  few  of  the 
people  who  are  not  able  to  read  and  write. 

The  history  of  P.  is  highly  interesting.  It  was 
discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1526,  but  the  first 
colony  was  settled  in  1535  by  Pedro  de  Mendoza,  who 

257 


PARAGUAY— PARALLAX. 


founded  the  city  of  Asuncion,  and  established  P.  as 
a  province  of  the  viceroyalty  of  Peru.  The  warlike 
native  tribe  of  the  Guaranis,  however,  a  people  who 
possessed  a  certain  degree  of  civilisation,  and  pro- 
fessed a  dualistic  religion,  long  successfully  resisted 
the  Spanish  arms,  and  refused  to  receive  either  the 
religion  or  the  social  usages  of  the  invaders.  In  the 
latter  half  of  the  16th  c,  the  Jesuit  missionaries 
were  sent  to  the  aid  of  the  first  preachers  of  Chris- 
tianity in  P. ;  but  for  a  long  time  they  were  almost 
entirely  unsuccessful,  the  effect  of  their  preaching 
being  in  a  great  degree  marred  by  the  profligate  and 
cruel  conduct  of  the  Spanish  adventurers,  who 
formed  the  staple  of  the  early  colonial  population. 
In  the  17th  c.  the  home  government  consented  to 
place  in  their  hands  the  entire  administration, 
civil  as  well  as  religious,  of  the  province ;  which, 
from  its  not  possessing  any  of  the  precious  metals, 
was  of  little  value  as  a  source  of  revenue  ;  and  in 
order  to  guard  the  natives  against  the  evil  influ- 
ences of  the  bad  example  of  European  Christians, 
gave  to  the  Jesuits  the  right  to  exclude  all  other 
Europeans  from  the  colony.  From  this  time  for- 
ward the  progress  of  civilisation  as  well  as  of  Chris- 
tianity was  rapid.  The  legislation,  the  adminis- 
tration, and  the  social  organisation  of  the  settle- 
ment were  shaped  according  to  the  model  of  a 
primitive  Christian  community,  or  rather  of  many 
communities  under  one  administration ;  and  the 
accounts  which  have  been  preserved  of  its  condition, 
appear  to  present  a  realisation  of  the  ideal  of  a 
Christian  Utopia.  On  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits 
from  P.  in  176S,  the  history  of  which  is  involved  in 
much  controversy,  the  province  was  again  made 
Bubject  to  the  Spanish  viceroys.  For  a  time  the 
fruits  of  the  older  civilisation  maintained  them- 
selves ;  but  as  the  ancieut  organisation  fell  to  the 
ground,  much  of  the  work  of  so  many  years  was 
undone  ;  the  communities  lapsed  into  disorganisa- 
tion, and  by  degrees  much  of  the  old  barbarism 
returned.  In  1776,  P.  was  transferred  to  the 
newly-formed  viceroyalty  of  Rio  de  La  Plata; 
and  in  1810  it  joined  with  the  other  states  in 
declaring  its  independence  of  the  mother  kingdom 
of  Spain,  which,  owing  to  its  isolated  position,  it  was 
the  earliest  of  them  all  to  establish  completely.  In 
1814,  Dr  Francia  (q.  v.),  originally  a  lawyer,  and  the 
secretary  of  the  first  revolutionary  junta,  was  pro- 
claimed dictator  for  three  years  ;  and  in  1817,  his 
term  of  the  office  was  made  perpetual.  He  con- 
tinued to  hold  it  till  his  death  in  1840  ;  and 
although  many  of  his  measures  tended  to  improve 
the  condition  of  the  country,  and  to  develop  its 
internal  resources,  yet  his  rule  was  arbitrary  and 
despotic  in  the  highest  degree ;  and  his  attempt  to 
isolate  the  territory  from  commercial  intercourse 
with  the  rest  of  the  world,  was  attended  with  a 
complete  stagnation  of  commerce  and  the  enterprise 
to  which  it  leads.  On  his  death,  the  government 
was  vested  in  consuls,  and  in  1844  a  new  constitu- 
tion was  proclaimed,  the  head  of  which  is  a  presi- 
dent, Don  Carlos  Antonio  Lopez,  elected  in  that 
year  for  ten  years,  re-elected  in  1854  for  three 
years,  and  a^ain  in  1857  for  seven  years  further. 
Don  Carlos  having  died  in  1862,  his  son,  Francisco 
Solano  Lopez,  succeeded  to  supreme  power  without 
opposition.  He  opposed  the  government  of  Brazil  to 
protect  the  independence  of  Uruguay,  and  his  territo- 
ries were  invaded  by  the  Brazilian  and  Argentine 
army,  June,  1 865.  After  a  struggle  of  five  years  he  was 
defeated  and  killed  in  the  battle  of  Aquidaban,  March 
1  1870.  A  congress  met  in  June,  1870,  at  Asuncion, 
under  Brazilian  protection,  and  voted  a  new  constitu- 
tion for  P.  on  the  model  of  that  of  the  Argentine 
Confederation,  and  Don  Cyrillo  Rivarola  was,  on 
August  1,  1870,  elected  president  for  six  years. 
258 


See  Com.  Thomas  G.  Page,  La  Plata,  the  A  rgen- 
tine.  Confederation,  a n<l  Paraguay,  New  York,  1867; 
Washburn,  C.  A.,  History  of  the  War,  &c,  Boston, 
1871. 

PARAGUAY,  an  important  river  of  South 
America,  an  affluent  of  the  Parana  (q.  v.),  rises  in 
the  Brazilian  province  of  Mato  Grosso,  on  a  plateau 
of  red  sandstone,  in  lat.  13°  30' S.,  long,  about  55° 
50'  W.,  9535  feet  above  sea-level.  The  sources  of 
the  river  are  a  number  of  deep  lakes,  and  eight 
miles  from  its  source,  the  stream  already  has  con- 
siderable volume.  Pursuing  a  south-west  course, 
and  after  flowing  through  a  level  country  covered 
with  thick  forests,  the  P.  is  joined  from  the  west 
by  the  Jauru,  in  lat.  16°  30'  S.  It  then  continues  to 
flow  south  through  the  Marsh  of  Xarayes,  which, 
during  the  season  when  the  stream  rises,  is  an 
expansive  waste  of  waters,  stretching  far  on  each 
side  of  the  stream,  and  extending  from  north  to  south 
over  about  200  miles.  The  river  still  pursues  a 
circuitous  but  generally  southward  course,  forming 
from  20°  to  22°  S.  the  boundary-line  between  Brazil 
and  Bolivia,  thence  flowing  south-south-west  through 
the  territories  of  Paraguay  to  its  junction  with  the 
Parana,  in  lat.  27°  17'  S.,  a  few  miles  above  the  town 
of  Corrientes.  Its  chief  affluents  are  the  Cuyaba, 
Tacoary,  Mondego,  and  Apa  on  the  left,  and  the 
Jauru,  Pilcomayo,  and  Vermejo  on  the  right.  Except 
in  the  marshy  districts,  the  country  on  both  banks 
of  the  river  is  rich  and  fertile,  and  abounds  in 
excellent  timber.  The  entire  length  of  the  river  is 
estimated  at  1800  miles  ;  it  is  on  an  average  about 
half  a  mile  in  width,  and  is  navigable  for  steamers 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Cuyaba,  100  miles  above  the 
town  of  Corumba.  The  waters  of  the  P.,  which  are 
quite  free  from  obstructions,  were  declared  open  to 
all  nations  in  1852 ;  and  since  1S58  the  great  water 
system,  of  which  this  river  forms  such  an  important 
part,  is  regularly  traversed  by  steamers  which  ply 
between  Buenos  Ayres  on  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and 
Cuyaba,  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  one  of  the 
head  waters  of  the  Paraguay. 

PARAGUAY  TEA.     See  Mat& 

PARAHI'BA,  one  of  the  most  eastern  maritime 
provinces  of  Brazil,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Rio 
Grande  do  Norte,  on  the  S.  by  Pernambuco,  on  the 
W.  by  Ceara,  and  on  the  E.  by  the  Atlantic.  Area, 
21,700  square  miles ;  pop.  300,000.  It  is  traversed 
by  a  river  of  the  same  name,  by  a  number  of  smaller 
streams,  and  by  mountainous  ridges,  between  which 
are  valleys,  the  soils  of  which  are,  for  the  most 
part,  dry  and  sandy.  Cotton  of  excellent  quality, 
mandioc,  and  tobacco  are  grown ;  and  cotton,  sugar, 
and  timber  are  exported.     Capital,  Parahiba  (q.  v.). 

PARAHIBA,  a  seaport  of  Brazil,  capital  of  the 
province,  and  situated  on  the  river  of  the  same 
name,  about  10  miles  from  the  sea.  Besides  the 
cathedral,  it  contains  a  number  of  religious  houses, 
two  colleges,  and  other  educational  institutions.  About 
250  vessels,  of  upwards  of  50,000  tons,  enter  and  clear 
the  port  annually.     Pop.  15,000. 

PA'RALLAX  is  the  apparent  displacement  of  an 
object  caused  by  a  change  of  place  in  the  observer. 
When  an   object  at  M  is   looked  at  from    P,  it 


Kg.  L 

appears  in  line  with  some  object,  S;   bnt  after  tfi* 
observer  has  moved  to  E,  M  has  apparently  retro- 


PARALLAX -PARALLEL  FORCES. 


graded  to  a  position  in  line  with  S' ;  this  apparent 
retrogression  is  denominated  parallcuo.  The  angle 
l'.M  K  is  called  the  'angle  of  parallax,'  or  the  '  paral- 
laotio  angle,1  and  is  the  measure  of  the  amount  of 
parallax.  To  astronomers,  the  determination  of  the 
parallax  of  the  heavenly  bodies  is  of  the  utmost 
importance,  for  two  reasons — lirst,  from  the  neces- 
sity of  referring  all  observations  to  the  earth's 
centre,  i.  e.,  so  modifying  them  as  to  make  it  appear 
as  if  they  had  been  actually  made  at  the  earth's 
centre  ;  and  secondly,  because  parallax  is  our  only 
means  of  determining  the  magnitude  and  distance  of 
the  heavenly  bodies.  The  geocentric  or  daily  paral- 
lax— as  the  apparent  displacement  of  a  heavenly 
body,  due  to  its  being  observed  from  a  point  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  instead  of  from  its  centre, 
is  called— is  determined  as  follows  :  Let  P  and  P'  be 
two  stations  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  (tig.  2),  E  its 


centre,  M  the  object  to  be  observed,  and  Z  and  71 
the  zeniths  respectively  of  the  observers  at  P  and  P' 
(points  which,  if  possible,  should  be  on  the  same 
meridian  exactly) ;  then  at  P  and  P'  let  the  zenith 
distances,  ZPM  and  Z'P'M,  be  observed  simul- 
taneously, and  since  the  latitudes  of  P  and  P',  and 
consequently  their  difference  of  latitude,  or  the  angle 
PEP',  is  known,  from  these  three  the  angle  PMP' 
(the  sum  of  the  parallaxes  at  P  and  P')  is  at  once 
found  ;  and  then,  by  a  trigonometrical  process, 
the  separate  angles  or  parallaxes  PME  and  P'ME. 
When  the  parallax  of  M,  as  observed  from  P,  is 
known,  its  distance  from  E,  the  centre  of  the  earth, 
can  be  at  once  found.  When  the  heavenly  body  is 
on  the  horizon,  as  at  0,  its  parallax  is  at  a  maxi- 
mum, and  is  known  as  the  horizontal  parallax.  The 
geocentric  parallax  is  of  use  only  in  determining 
the  distances  of  those  heavenly  bodies  at  which 
the  earth's  radius  subtends  a  considerable  angle ; 
and  as  the  moon  and  Mars  (when  in  opposition) 
are  the  only  such  bodies,  the  parallax  of  the  other 
celestial  bodies  must  be  determined  in  a  different 
manner.  The  parallax  of  the  sun  is  found  by 
observation  of  the  l'ransit  (q.  v.)  of  Venus  across 
his  disk,  a  much  more  accurate  method  than  that 
above  described.  The  parallaxes  of  the  other 
planets  are  easily  determined  from  that  of  Mars. 

In  the  case  of  the  fixed  stars,  at  which  the  earth's 
radius  subtends  an  infinitesimal  angle,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  make  use  of  a  much  larger  base-line 
than  the  earth's  radius,  and  as  the  largest  we  can 
employ  is  the  radius  of  the  earth's  orbit,  it  accord- 
ingly is  made  use  of,  and  the  displacement  of  a 
star,  when  observed  from  a  point  in  the  earth's 
orbit  instead  of  from  its  centre,  the  sun,  is  called 
the  annual  or  heliocentric  parallax.  Here  the  base- 
line instead,  as  in  the  former  case,  of  being  4000 
miles,  is  about  92,000,000  miles,  and  the  two 
observations  necessary  to  determine  the  parallactic 
angle  are  made  from  two  points  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  earth's  orbit,  at  an  interval  as  nearly  as 
possible  of  half  a  year.     Yet,  notwithstanding  the 


enormous  length  of  the  base  line,  it  bears  so  small  a 
proportion  to  the  distances  of  the  stars,  that  only 

m    three   Or   four   cases    have   they    been   found    to 

exhibit  any  parallactic  motion  whatever,  and  in 
no  case  does  the  angle  of  parallax  amount  to  1" 
(gee  Stars).  The  geocentric  horizontal  parallax  of 
the  moon  is  about  57'  4"-2 ;  that  of  the  sun,  about 
8"'6;  and  of  the  double  star,  01  Cygni,  the  helio- 
centric parallax  has  been  determined  l.y  BeSBel  to 
be  -348",  equivalent  to  about  15  millionth*  of  a 
second  of  geocentric  horizontal  parallax.  Parallax 
affects  every  observation  of  angular  measurement 
in  the  heavens,  and  all  observations  must  be 
corrected  for  parallax,  or,  in  astronomical  phrase. 
referred  to  the  earth's  centre  before  they  can  be 
made  use  of  in  calculation.  The  position  of  a  body, 
when  noted  from  the  surface  of  the  earth,  is  called 
its  apparent  position  ;  and  when  referred  to  the 
centre,  its  real  position. 

PA'RALLEL  FORCES  are  those  forces  which 
act  upon  a  body  in  directions  parallel  to  each  other. 
Every  body,  being  an  assemblage  of  separate 
particles,  each  of  which  is  acted  on  by  gravity,  may 
thus  be  considered  as  impressed  upon  by  a  system 
of   parallel   forces.      The   following   demonstration 

will   exhibit  the   mode  in  _^ 

which  the  amount  and 
position  of  the  resultant 
force  are  found :  Let  P  and 
Q  be  two  parallel  forces 
acting  at  the  points  A  and 
B  respectively,  either  in 
the  same  (fig.  1)  or  in  oppo- 
site (fig.  2)  directions ;  join 
AB,  and  in  this  line,  at 
the  points  A  and  B,  apply 
the  equal  and  opposite 
forces  S  and  S,  which  coun- 
terbalance each  other,  and 
therefore  do  not  affect  the  system.  Find  M  and  N 
(see  Composition  and  Resolution  of  Forces),  the 
resultants  of  P  and  S,  and  Q  and  S  respectively,  and 
produce  their  directions  till  they  meet  in  D,  at 
which  point  let  the  resultants  be  resolved  parallel 
to  their  original  directions  ;  then  there  are  two 
equal  forces,  S  and  S,  acting  parallel  to  AB,  but 
in  opposite  directions,  and  th\is,  as  they  counter- 
balance each  other,  they  may  be  removed.  There 
then  remain  two  forces,  P  and  Q,  acting  at  D,  in 
the  line  DC,  parallel  to  their  original  directions, 
and  their  sum  (fig.  1)  or  difference  (fig.  2),  repre- 
sented by  R,  is  accordingly  the   residtant   of  the 


Y 

/  v 

?J     f 

/              / 

B             J 
— C 

kL^- 

V 

7 

/,       i 

r           / 

Fig.  2. 

original  forces  at  A  and  B.  To  find  the  posi- 
tion of  C,  the  point  in  AB,  or  AB  produced, 
through  which  the  resultant  passes,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  make  use  of  the  well-known  property 
denominated  the  Triangle  of  Forces  (q.  v.),  accord* 
ing  to  which  the  three  forces  S,  M,  and  P  are  pro- 
portional to  the  lengths  of  AC,  AD,  DC,  the  sides 
of  the  triangle  ADC  ;  then  S  :  P  :  :  AC  :  CD,  simi- 
larly Q  :  S  :  :  DC  :  CB,  therefore  Q  :  P  :  :  AC  :  BC 


PARALLELEPIPED— PARAL"X  SIS. 


and  Q  ±  P  or  R  :  P  :  :  AC  ±  BC  or  AB  :  BC, 
from  which  proportions  we  derive  the  principle  of 
the  lever,  P  X  AC  =  Q,  X  BC,  and  also  that  R  X 

p 
BC  =  P  x  AB,  whence  BC  =  p  x  AB,and  the  point 

C  is  found.  The  failing  case  of  thia  proposition  ia 
when  P  and  Q  acting  in  opposite  parallel  direc- 
tions at  different  points  are  equal,  in  which  case 
the  resultant  R  =  Q  -  P  =  Q  -  Q  =  0.  In  all 
other  cases  there  i8  a  progressive  motion,  such  as 
would  be  caused  by  the  action  of  a  single  force 
•  R(=  Q  ±  P)  acting  at  the  point  C  in  the  direction 
CR ;  but  in  the  failing  case,  since  R  =  O,  there 
is  nt  progressive  motion,  but  a  rotatory  movement 


Fig.  3. 

round  the  centre  of  AB.  See  Couple.  It 
is  of  no  consequence  whether  A  and  B  be  the 
true  points  of  application  of  the  forces  P  and  Q, 
provided  their  directions  when  produced  pass 
through  these  points,  and  the  point  of  application 
of  the  resultant  need  not  be  in  the  line  joining  the 
points  of  application  of  the  component  forces,  but 
its  direction  must  when  produced  pass  through  C. 
If  there  be  more  than  two  parallel  forces,  the 
resultant  of  the  whole  is  found  by  compounding  the 
resultant  of  the  first  two  with  the  third  in  the  way 
given  above,  thus  obtaining  a  new  resultant,  which 
is  similarly  combined  with  the  fourth  force ;  and  so 
on  till  the  final  resultant  is  found.  The  centre 
of  gravity  i3  only  a  special  name  for  the  point 
of  application  of  the  final  resultant  of  a  number  of 
parallel  forces. 

PARALLELEPI'PED  (Gr.),  frequently,  but  im- 
properly written  Parallelopiped,  is  a  solid  figure 
having  six  faces,  the  faces  being  invariably  paral- 
lelograms, and  any  two  opposite  faces  equal,  similar, 
and  parallel.  If  the  faces  are  all  squares,  and 
consequently  equal,  the  parallelepiped  becomes  a 
cube.  The  volume  of  a  parallelepiped  is  found  by 
multiplying  the  area  of  one  face  by  its  distance  from 
the  opposite  one. 

PARALLELOGRAM,  in  Mathematics,  is  a 
quadrilateral  rectilineal  figure  which  has  its  opposite 
sides  parallel ;  the  opposite  sides  are  therefore  equal, 
and  so  are  the  opposite  angles.  If  one  angle  of  a 
parallelogram  be  a  right  angle,  all  its  angles  are 
right  angles,  and  the  figure  is  then  called  a  rect- 
angular parallelogram,  or  shortly,  a  rectangle;  and 
if  at  the  same  time  all  the  sides  are  equal,  the 
fhmre  is  a  square,  otherwise  it  is  an  oblong.  If  the 
angles  are  not  right  angles,  but  all  the  sides  are 
equal,  it  is  called  a  rhombus;  and  if  the  opposite 
sides  only  are  equal,  a  rhomboid.  The  two  lines 
which  connect  the  opposite  corners  of  a  parallelogram 
are  called  its  diagonals,  each  bisects  the  parallelo- 
gram, and  they  bisect  each  other  ;  the  sum  of  their 
squares  also  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  of 
the  sides  of  the  parallelogram. 
260 


All  parallelograms  which  have  equal  bases  and 
equal  altitudes  are  equal  in  area,  whether  they  be 
similar  in  shape  or  not,  and  the  u.'ea  of  a  parallelo- 
gram is  found  by  multiplying  its  base  by  the  height. 

PARALLELOGRAM     OF     FORCES.       See 

Composition  of  Forces. 

PARALLELS,  in  Military  language,  are  trenches 
cut  in  the  ground  before  a  fortress,  roughly 
parallel  to  its  defences,  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
cover  to  the  besiegers  from  the  guns  of  the 
place.  The  parallels  are  usually  three,  with  zig- 
zag trenches  leading  from  one  to  another.  The 
old  rule  used  to  be  to  dig  the  first  at  600  yards 
distance,  but  the  improvements  in  artillery  have 
rendered  a  greater  distance  necessary;  and  at 
Sevastopol,  the  allies  made  their  first  trench  2000 
yards  from  the  walls.  The  third  trench  is  very 
near  to  the  besieged  works,  and  from  it  saps 
and  zigzag  approaches  are  directed  to  the  covert- 
way. — The  bearing  of  parallels  in  the  general 
conduct  of  a  Siege  will  be  found  described  under 
that  head. 

PARALLELS  or  CIRCLES  OF  LATITUDE 
are  circles  drawn  round  the  surface  of  the  earth 
parallel  to  the  equator.  They  may  be  supposed  to 
be  the  intersections  with  the  earth's  surface  of 
planes  which  cut  the  earth  at  right  angles  to  its 
axis.  The  greatest  of  these  circles  is  the  equator, 
which  has  the  centre  of  the  earth  for  its  centre,  the 
radius  for  its  radius,  and  is  equally  distant  at  all 
points  from  each  pole.  It  is  evident  that  of  the 
others,  those  next  the  equator  are  greater  than 
those  more  remote,  and  that  they  become  less  and 
less  till  at  the  poles  they  vanish  altogether.  The 
radius  of  any  one  circle  is  evidently  equal  to  the 
earth's  radius  multiplied  into  the  cosine  of  its 
latitude  or  distance  from  the  equator.  The  rotary 
velocity  of  the  earth's  surface,  which  is  about 
17}  miles  per  minute  at  the  equator,  ia  only  8| 
miles  in  lat.  60°,  in  lat.  82^°  (the  most  northerly 
point  yet  reached)  is  only  2^  miles  ;  and  in  lat.  894" 
(within  35  miles  of  the  pole)  is  not  more  than  267 
yards  per  minute. 

The  most  important  parallels  of  latitude  are  the 
Tropics  of  Cancer  (23°  28'  N.  lat.)  and  Capricorn 
(23°  28'  S.  lat.),  and  the  Arctic  (66°  32  N.  lat.)  and 
Antarctic  Circles  (66°  32'  S.  lat.). 

PARA'LYSIS  (Gr.,  a  loosing  or  relaxing),  or 
PALSY,  is  a  loss,  more  or  less  complete,  of  the 
power  of  motion ;  but  by  some  writers  the  term  is 
employed  to  express  also  loss  of  sensation.  When 
the  upper  and  lower  extremities  on  both  sides, 
and  more  or  less  of  the  trunk,  are  involved,  the 
affection  is  termed  General  Paralysis.  Very  fre- 
quently only  one-half  of  the  body  laterally  ia 
affected,  the  other  side  remaining  sound ;  to  thia 
condition  the  term  Hemiplegia  ia  given.  When  the 
palsy  is  confined  to  all  the  parts  below  an  imaginary 
transverse  line  drawn  through  the  body,  or  to  the 
two  lower  extremities,  the  condition  is  termed  Para- 
plegia.  When  one  part  of  the  body,  as  a  limb,  one 
side  of  the  face,  &c,  i3  exclusively  attacked,  the 
affection  is  known  as  local  palsy.  In  some  cases  the 
loss  of  sensation  and  the  power  of  motion  in  the 
paralysed  part  is  entire,  while  in  others  it  is  not  so. 
In  the  former  the  paralysis  is  said  to  be  complete, 
in  the  latter,  partial.  In  most  cases,  but  not 
invariably,  sensibility  and  motion  are  simultaneously 
lost  or  impaired.  When  motion  is  lost,  but  sensation 
remains  unimpaired,  the  affection  has  received  the 
name  of  akinesia  (Gr.  a,  not,  and  kinesis,  motion). 
More  rarely,  there  is  a  loss  of  sensibility  while  the 
power  of  motion  is  retained ;  and.  to  such  cases 
the  term  anaesthesia  (Gr.  a,  not,  and  aisthesus, 
sensation)  is   applied.      This   affection  occurs   most 


PARALYSIS. 


frequently  in  the  organs  of  sense  ;  as  in  tlie  tongue, 
for  example,  in  which  the  sense  of  taste  may  be 
lost,  without  any  defect  of  movement. 

Paralysis  is  in  must  cases  a  mere  symptom  of 
disease  existing  in  some  other  part  than  that 
apparently  affected;  as,  for  example,  in  the  brain 
or  spinal  cord,  or  in  the  conducting  nerves  between 
either  of  these  organs  and  the  palsied  organ. 
Sometimes,  however,  it  is  a  purely  local  affection, 
depending  upon  a  morbid  condition  of  the  terminal 
extremities  of  the  nerves.  The  varieties  iu  the 
condition  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  which 
occasion  paralysis  are  somewhat  numerous ;  as, 
for  example,  congestion,  hemorrhagic  and  serous 
effusion,  softening,  fatty  degeneration,  fibrinous 
exudation,  suppuration,  hydatids,  various  morbid 
growths,  depressed  bone  from  external  violence, 
&c.  It  is  highly  probable,  also,  that  palsy  may 
sometimes  result  from  mere  functional  disorder 
of  the  nervous  centres — a  view  which  is  confirmed 
by  the  fact  that  a  post  mortem  examination  of  a 
patient  who  has  suffered  from  this  att'ection  some- 
times fails  to  detect  any  apparent  lesion.  Paralysis 
may  originate  in  a  nervous  trunk,  if  it  is  compressed 
by  a  tumour,  or  otherwise  mechanically  affected,  or 
if  it  is  the  seat  of  morbid  action  tending  in  any  way 
to  disorganise  it ;  or  it  may  be  due  to  an  abnormal 
condition  of  the  terminations  of  the  nerves,  which 
may  be  rendered  unfit  for  receiving  impressions 
either  from  the  external  world  or  from  the  brain  by 

Iwo longed  disuse,  by  continuous  or  severe  pressure, 
>y  exposure  to  cold,  by  disorganisation  of  their 
own  tissue,  or  by  the  depressing  action  of  various 
metallic  poisons,  especially  lead 

We  shall  briefly  notice  the  symptoms  and  causes 
of  the  most  important  forms  of  paralysis,  before 
offeriug  any  remarks  on  the  general  principles  of 
treatment.  Hemiplegia  (Gr.  hemi,  half,  plesso, 
I  strike)  affects  one  lateral  half  of  the  body,  and 
is  that  form  of  palsy  to  which  the  term  paralytic 
stroke  is  commonly  applied.  The  parts  generally 
affected  are  the  upper  and  lower  extremities,  the 
muscles  of  mastication,  and  the  muscles  of  the 
tongue  on  one  side.  In  a  well-marked  case  the 
patient  when  seized  falls  to  the  ground,  all 
power  of  motion  in  the  affected  arm  and  leg  being 
lost.  The  palsy  of  the  face  which  accompanies 
hemiplegia  is  usually  quite  distinct  from  the  affec- 
tion known  as  facial  palsy,  which  is  an  affection 
of  the  facial  nerve  or  portio  dura.  See  Nervous 
System,  It  is  the  motor  branches  of  the  fifth  or 
trifacial  nerve  going  to  the  muscles  of  mastication 
which  are  generally  involved  in  hemiplegia,  and 
consequently  the  cheek  is  flaccid  and  hangs  down, 
and  the  angle  of  the  mouth  is  depressed  on  the 
affected  side.  The  tongue  when  protruded  points 
towards  the  paralysed  side,  and  there  ia  often 
imperfect  articulation,  in  consequence  of  the  lesion 
commonly  affecting  the  hypoglossal  nerve.  Hemi- 
plegia may  arise  from  lesions  of  various  kinds,  as, 
for  example,  (1)  from  hemorrhage,  or  some  other 
morbid  change  in  the  brain,  iu  which  case  the  palsy 
is  on  the  side  of  the  body  opposite  to  the  lesion,  in 
consequence  of  the  decussation  or  crossing  over  of 
nervous  fibres  from  one  side  to  the  other  that  occurs 
at  the  upper  part  of  the  Spinal  Cord  (q.  v.)  ;  (2)  from 
spinal  disease  below  the  point  of  decussation  just 
noticed ;  in  this  case  the  palsy,  and  the  lesion 
causing  it,  are  on  the  same  side  of  the  body.  It  is 
also  sometimes  associated  with  hysteria,  epilepsy, 
and  chorea,  but  in  these  cases  it  usually  disappears 
in  a  few  hours. 

Paraplegia  (Gr.)  is  usually  confined  to  the  two 
lower  extremities,  but  the  muscles  of  the  lower  part 
of  the  trunk  and  *»f  the  bladder  and  rectum  are 
sometimes  affected.    There  are  at  least  two  distinct 


forms  of  paraplegia,  viz.  (1)  Paraplegia  dependent  on 

primary  disease  of  the  spinal  cord  or  its  membranes, 
and  especially  on  Myelitis  (q.  y.) ;  and  (2)  Reflex 
Paraplegia,  i.  «•.,  paraplegia  consequent  on  di 

the  kidneys,  bladder,  urethra,  prostate,  womb,  &c. 
These  two  forms  of  paraplegia  differ  in  many  of 
their  phenomena,  and  the  most  important  of  these 
points  of  difference  have  been  arranged  in  a  tabular 
form,  by  Dr  Brown  Sequard  in  his  Lectures  on 
Paralysis  of  the  Lower  Extremities,  to  which  we 
must  refer  for  the  best  information  on  this  form  of 
palsy.  Paraplegia  usually  comes  on  slowly,  with  a 
gradual  increase  of  its  symptoms.  The  reflex  form 
is,  of  course,  by  far  the  most  favourable,  as  it  usually 
abates  spontaneously  on  the  subsidence  of  the 
primary  disease. 

Fermi  Palsy,  although  locally  affecting  only  a 
small  part  of  the  body,  is  a  disorder  of  sufficient 
importance  to  require  a  definite  notice.  In  this 
affection  there  is  a  more  or  less  perfect  loss  of  power 
over  all  the  muscles  supplied  by  the  portio  dura,  or 
facial  nerve.  The  following  graphic  account  of  the 
appearance  of  the  patient  is  condensed  from  Dr 
Watson's  Lectures  on  the  Practice  of  Physic.  From 
one-half  of  the  countenance  all  power  of  expression 
is  gone  ;  the  features  are  blank,  still,  and  unmean- 
ing ;  the  eyelids  apart  and  motionless.  The  other 
half  retains  its  natural  cast,  except  that,  in  some 
cases,  the  angle  of  the  mouth  on  that  side  seems 
drawn  a  little  awry,  in  consequence  of  the  want  of 
counterpoise  from  the  corresponding  muscular  fibres 
of  the  palsied  side.  The  patient  cannot  laugh  or 
weep,  or  frown,  or  express  any  feeling  or  emotion 
with  one  side  of  his  face,  while  the  featui'es  of  the 
other  may  be  iu  full  play,  nor  can  he  spit  or  whistle 
properly.  One-half  of  the  aspect,  with  its  unwink- 
ing eye,  its  fixed  and  solemn  stare,  might  be  that  of 
a  dead  person ;  the  other  half  is  alive  and  merry. 
To  those  who  do  not  comprehend  the  possible 
extent  of  the  misfortune,  the  whimsical  appearance 
of  the  patient  is  a  matter  of  mirth  and  laughter ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  his  friends  imagine  that 
he  has  had  a  stroke,  and  that  he  is  in  a  very 
dangerous  state.  The  nerve  may  be  unable  to  dis- 
charge its  duties  in  consequence  of  disease  within 
the  cavity  of  the  skull,  and  in  that  case  there  is  very 
serious  danger ;  but  in  the  great  majority  of  cases 
the  nervous  function  is  interrupted  in  that  part  of 
the  portio  dura  which  lies  encased  in  the  temporal 
bone,  or  in  the  more  exposed  part  which  issues  in 
front  of  the  ear ;  and  hence  this  form  of  palsy  is 
generally  unattended  with  any  danger  to  life.  It 
may  arise  from  various  causes.  Sometimes  it  is  the 
consequence  of  mechanical  violence,  sometimes  of 
tumours  pressing  on  it  in  the  region  of  the  parotid 
gland,  and  it  very  frequently  arises  from  the  mere 
exposure  of  the  side  of  the  face  for  some  time  to  a 
stream  of  cold  air. 

It  yet  remains  to  notice  certain  kinds  of 
paralysis  which  differ  either  in  their  characters, 
or  in  their  causes,  from  those  which  have  been 
already  described — viz.,  Shaking  Palsy,  or  Par- 
alysis Agitans  ;  and  the  palsies  induced  by  vari- 
ous poisons.  Shaking  Palsy  has  been  defined  as 
'  involuntary  tremulous  motion,  with  lessened 
muscular  power  in  parts  not  in  action,  and  even 
when  supported ;  with  a  propensity  to  bend  the 
trunk  forwards,  and  to  pass  from  a  walking  to  a 
running  pace ;  the  senses  and  intellect  being 
uninjured.'  \t  is  chiefly  an  affection  of  old  age,  and 
often  goes  nu  further  than  to  cause  an  unceasing 
nodding  and  wagging  of  the  head  in  all  directions. 
Somewhat  analogous  to  this  form  of  palsy  is  that 
peculiar  kind  of  trembling  which  is  often  noticed  in 
persons  who  are  much  exposed  to  the  vapour  of 
mercury  :  Mercurial  Tremor,  as  it  is  termed  by  the 

26X 


PARALYSIS— PARAMARIBO. 


physicians,  and  The  Trembles,  as  the  patient  usually 
calls  it.  It  consists  in  a  convulsive  agitation  of  the 
voluntary  muscles,  especially  when  an  attempt  is 
made  to  cause  them  to  act  under  the  influence  of 
the  will ;  a  patient  with  this  affection  walks  with 
uncertain  steps,  his  limbs  trembling  and  dancing  as 
if  they  had  been  hung  upon  wires.  When  sitting 
down  he  exhibits  little  or  no  indication  of  his 
disease,  but  on  rising  he  cannot  hold  his  legs  steady, 
nor  direct  them  with  precision  ;  and  in  severe  cases 
he  falls  to  the  ground  if  not  supported.  The  arms 
are  similarly  agitated,  and  the  tongue  is  usually  so 
tremulous  as  to  render  the  articulation  hurried  and 
unnatural.  The  disease  is  especially  common  in 
artisans  employed  in  the  gilding  of  metals,  and 
particularly  of  silver,  by  means  of  heat ;  it  is  also 
frequent  among  the  workers  of  quicksilver  mines, 
in  which  the  crude  metal  is  purified  by  heat.  The 
time  required  for  the  production  of  the  disease 
varies  extremely  in  different  cases  (according  to  Dr 
Watson,  from  two  years  to  five-and-tvventy).  The 
duration  of  the  complaint  is  considerable  ;  it  may 
last  two  or  three  months,  or  longer,  but  it  is  seldom 
fatal. 

The  palsy  arising  from  the  absorption  of  lead  has 
been  already  noticed  in  the  article  Lead-poisoning. 

A  specific  form  of  paralysis  of  the  lower  extrem- 
ities, consequent  on  the  use  of  flour  from  the  beans 
of  the  Lathyrus  sativus,  is  common  in  certain  parts 
of  India  and  in  Thibet.  The  ripe  bean  is  an  ordi- 
nary article  of  food  when  made  into  flour,  but  it  is 
generally  used  with  wheat  or  barley  flour ;  it  is 
only  when  it  exceeds  one-twelfth  part  that  it  is  at 
all  injurious,  and  when  it  exceeds  one-third  that 
the  paralysis  set3  in.  Other  species  of  Lathyrus 
have  been  known  occasionally  to  induce  similar 
symptoms  in  European  countries. 

We  shall  enter  into  no  details  regarding  the  treat- 
ment of  hemiplegia  and  paraplegia,  as  the  manage- 
ment of  these  serious  affections  should  be  exclu- 
sively restricted  to  the  physician.  When  a  patient 
has  an  attack  of  hemiplegia  (or  a  paralytic  stroke) 
all  that  should  be  done  before  the  physician  arrives 
is  to  place  him  in  a  horizontal  position,  with  the 
head  slightly  raised,  and  to  remove  any  impediments 
presented  by  the  dress  to  the  free  circulation  of  the 
blood.  Should  the  physician  not  arrive  in  an  hour 
or  two,  it  may  be  expedient  to  give  the  patient  a 
sharp  purge  (half  a  scruple  of  calomel,  followed  in  a 
few  hours  by  a  black  draught,  if  he  can  swallow  ; 
and  two  drops  of  croton  oil,  mixed  with  a  little 
melted  buttei*,  and  placed  on  the  back  of  his  tongue, 
if  the  power  of  deglutition  is  lost),  and  without 
waiting  for  its  action,  to  administer  an  injection  (or 
clyster)  consisting  of  half  an  ounce  of  oil  of  turpen- 
tine suspended  (by  rubbing  it  with  the  yolk  of  an 
egg)  in  half  a  pint  of  thin  gruel ;  and  cold  lotions 
may  be  applied  to  the  head,  especially  if  its  surface 
be  hot.  The  question  of  blood-letting— the  uni- 
versal treatment  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago— must 
be  left  solely  to  the  physician.  It  should,  however, 
be  generally  known,  that  if  the  patient  be  cold  and 
collapsed;  if  the  heart's  action  be  feeble  and  inter- 
mittent ;  if  there  be  an  anasmic  state  ;  if  the  patient 
be  of  advanced  age ;  if  there  is  evidence  of  extensive 
disease  of  tne  heart  or  arterial  system  ;  or  lastly,  if 
there  is  reason,  from  the  symptoms,  to  believe  that 
a  large  amount  of  hemorrhage  has  already  taken 
place  in  the  brain ;  these  singly,  and  a  fortiori 
conjointly,  are  reasons  why  blood  should  not  be 
abstracted. 

Facial  palsy,  unless  the  seat  of  the  disease  be 
within  the  cavity  of  the  cranium,  will  usually  yield 
in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  to  cupping  and 
blistering  behind  the  ear  of  the  affected  side, 
pu:gative8,  and  small  doses  of  corrosive  subhmate 
363 


(one-twelfth  of  a  grain  three  times  a  day,  combined 
with  a  little  of  the  compound  tincture  of  bark), 
which  must  be  stopped  as  soon  as  the  gums  are 
at  all  affected  Exposure  to  cold  air  must  be 
carefully  avoided  during  treatment. 

Little  or  nothing  can  be  done  to  cure  Paralysis 
Agitans.  Iu  the  treatment  of  Mercurial  Tremor, 
the  first  step  is  to  remove  the  patient  from  the 
further  operation  of  the  poison,  while  the  second 
is  to  remove  the  poison  already  absorbed  into  the 
system,  which  is  effected  by  the  administration 
of  iodide  of  potassium.  This  salt  combines  with 
the  metallic  poison  iu  the  system,  and  forms  a 
soluble  salt  (a  double  iodide  of  mercury  and  potas- 
sium), which  is  eliminated  through  the  kidneys. 
Good  food  and  tonics  (steel  or  quinia,  or  the  two 
combined)  should  be  at  the  same  time  freely  given. 

The  writer  of  thi3  article  has  no  personal  know- 
ledge of  the  treatment  that  should  be  recommended 
in  the  paralysis  produced  by  the  use  of  Lathyrus 
sativus,  but  cases  are  reported  which  seem  to  have 
been  benefited  by  good  diet,  tonics,  strychnia,  and 
the  application  of  blisters  to  the  loins. 

PARAMA'RIBO,  the  capital  of  Dutch  Guiana, 
is  situated  on  the  western  bank  of  the  river  Suri- 
nam, about  10  miles  from  its  mouth,  in  5°  45'  N. 
lat.,  and  55°  15'  W.  long.  It  forms  a  rectangle  of 
nearly  a  mile  and  a  half  in  length  by  three-quarters 
in  breadth.  The  streets  are  broad,  covered  with 
shell-sand,  and  planted  on  both  sides  with  orange, 
lemon,  tamarind,  and  other  trees.  Near  the  river, 
the  houses,  which  are  chiefly  of  wood,  stand  some- 
what closely  together,  but  in  the  remoter  parts 
each  is  surrounded  by  its  own  garden.  The  rooms 
are  wainscoted  with  the  choicest  woods,  and 
elegantly  furnished. 

In  approaching  P.  from  the  sea,  Port  Zeelandia  is 
first  reached ;  then  the  Bureau  of  Finance  and 
Court  of  Justice  on  the  Government  Plain,  which  is 
surrounded  by  stately  cabbage-palms ;  the  gover- 
nor's house,  with  shady  double  avenue  of  tamarind- 
trees  ;  and  lastly,  the  business  streets  stretching 
along  the  river  side.  There  are  a  Dutch  Reformed, 
a  Lutheran,  Moravian,  two  Roman  Catholic  churches, 
and  two  synagogues.  Fort  Zeelandia  has  a  large 
and  beautiful  barrack,  with  several  roomy  houses 
for  the  officers.  P.  has  a  neat,  pleasant,  and  pictur- 
esque appearance,  the  white  painted  houses,  with 
bright-green  doors  and  windows,  peeping  out  from 
the  shady  trees,  and  the  river  being  thronged  with 
the  tent- boats  and  canoes  which  are  constantly 
arriving  and  departing. 

On  1st  January  1875,  the  population  amounted  to 
21,755.  The  militia  numbers  24  officers  and  437  rank 
and  tile.  The  23  schools  are  attended  by  about  3000 
pupils.  By  decree  of  6th  February  1851,  the  flogging 
of  slaves  in  the  Netherlands  West  Indies  was 
forbidden,  except  through  officers  appointed  for  the 
purpose,  and  the  number  of  lashes  w7as  limited 
This  check,  however,  was  frequently  evaded,  and 
the  greatest  barbarities  practised,  so  that  the  feeling 
in  favour  of  emancipation  increased  in  the  Nether- 
lauds,  and  a  bill  was  passed,  Sth  August  1SG2,  for 
emancipating  the  slaves  on  the  1st  July  1S63. 

P.  being  the  only  port,  except  Nickerie  Point,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Corentyn,  enjoys  a  considerable 
export  and  import  trade.  In  1870,  the  total  arrivals 
in  Dutch  Guiana  were  205  ships,  of  which  24  were 
Netherlands,  38  United  States,  and  143  of  othei 
nations;  the  outward  bound  numbered  192.  About 
a  fourth  part  of  the  shipping  cleared  at  Nickerie, 
which  is  the  most  productive  portion  of  the  colony; 
one  estate,  the  Nursery,  producing  annually  about 
1,500,000  lbs.  sugar;  75,985  gallons  molasses;  and 
37,000  gallons  rum. 

The  climate  of  Dutch  Guiana  is  not  particularly 


PARAMATTA— PARAPET. 


healthy.  From  tliis  and  other  causes  the  deaths  an- 
nually exceed  the  births.  In  1*74,  there  were  1  r> is 
births  and  3364  deaths,  of  the  births  1 198  werenol  in 
wedlock,  Daring  that  year  14or>  coolies,  principally 
from  British  India,  arrived  in  the  colony,  and  among 
these  laborers  the  average  death  rate  was  I3.8.r>  percent, 
while  thai  of  the  Creoles  averaged  5.70  per  cent  Ele- 
phantiasis Arabum  and  Lepra  are  fearfully  prevalent 
among  the  black  population  of  1'.  and  neighbourhood. 
Tho  maximum  fall  of  rain  is  in  May,  the 
minimum  in  September  and  October.  By  obser- 
vations made  at  live  diil'ereut  points,  daring  eight 
successive  years,  it  was  found  that  the  quantity 
varies  much,  being  smallest  at  Xickerie,  in  the  west, 
ami  largest  at  Moiitbyou  in  the  east  of  the  colony. 
The  averages  of  the  eight  years,  from  1847  to 
lSi4,  were,  Nickerie,  6670  inches;  Groningen,  on 
the  river  Saramacca,  9050 ;  Paramaribo,  9385 ; 
Geldcrland,  011  the  river  Surinam,  108*25 ;  ami 
Montbyoo,  12775.  In  Georgetown,  British  Guiaua, 
the  average  fall  is  10050  inches. 

The  coast  of  Butch  Guiana  is  an  alluvial  deposit 
formed  by  the  rivers  and  equatorial  stream  which 
flows  eastwards.  Further  inland,  the  soil  is  dilu- 
vial loam,  bearing  the  finest  timber  trees ;  and  south 
of  this  line  are  extensive  savannahs  of  white  sand, 
stretching  towards  the  hills  aud  mountains  of  the 
interior,  which  are  chiefly  of  gneiss  and  granite. 

In  1870,  the  letters  which  passed  through  the  post- 
office  numbered  37,441  ;  the  newspapers,  39,758. 
The  principal  exports  are  sugar,  coffee,  and  cotton. 

PARAMATTA  is  a  light  worsted  twilled  fabric 
for  female  dress.  It  was  invented  at  Bradford,  in 
Yorkshire,  and  has  become  an  important  manu- 
facture of  that  place.  The  weft  consists  of  combed 
merino  wool,  and  the  warp  of  cottou.  It  resembles 
in  texture  the  Coburg  and  Orleans  cloths. 

PARAMATTA,  a  pleasantly  situated  town  of 
New  South  Wales,  stands  near  the  west  extremity 
of  Port  Jackson,  on  a  small  river  of  the  same  name,  and 
is  15  miles  by  land  west-north-west  of  Sydney,  with 
which  it  is  connected  both  by  steamer  and  railway. 
The  houses  are  mostly  detached,  and  the  streets  are 
wide  and  regular,  the  principal  one  being  about  a 
mile  in  length.  The  institutions  comprise  churches, 
schools,  an  orphan  and  a  lunatic  asylum,  and  a 
prison.  There  was  formerly  an  observatory  here ; 
but  it  wa3  removed  to  Sydney  in  1S5S.  '  Colonial 
tweeds,'  ■  Paramatta  cloths,'  and  salt  are  manufac- 
tured    Pop.  5577. 

The  town  of  P.,  formerly  called  Rosehill,  is,  with 
the  exception  of  Sydney,  the  oldest  in  the  colony. 
The  first  grain  raised  in  the  colony  was  grown  here, 
and  the  first  grants  of  land  made. 

PARAMETER,  or  LATUS  RECTUM,  a  term 
used  in  conic  sections,  denotes,  in  the  case  of 
the  parabola,  a  third  proportional  to  the  abscissa 
of  any  diameter  and  its  corresponding  ordinate  ;  in 
the  ellipse  and  hyperbola,  a  third  proportional  to  a 
diameter  and  its  conjugate.  The  parameter  of  any 
diameter  is,  in  the  case  of  the  parabola,  the  same  as 
the  double  ordinate  of  that  diameter  which  passes 
through  the  focus,  and  is  four  times  as  long  as  the 
distance  between  the  diameter's  vertex  and  the 
directrix.  The  term  parameter  was  also  at  one  time 
used  to  denote  any  straight  line  about  a  curve, 
upon  which  its  form  could  be  made  to  depend,  or  any 
constant  in  its  equation,  the  value  of  which  deter- 
mined the  individual  curve;  but  its  employment 
in  this  sense  is  now  discontinued,  except  in  the 
theory  of  homogeneous  differential  equations,  where 
the  constants,  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  the  solu- 
tion, are  supposed  to  vary;  and  the  method  is 
consequently  denominated  the  'Variation  of  the 
Parameters.'    In  the  application  of  this  method  to 


determine   tin-  orbital    motions  of   the  planets,  the 

'seven  accessary  data'  (see  OBBIT)  were  tailed  para- 
meters, but  for  this  the  term  'element-'  is  now  sub- 
stituted. 

PARANA',  a  province  in  the  south  of  Brazil,  is 

hounded  on  the  N.  by  the  province  of  Sao  Paulo,  on 
the  K.  by  the  Atlantic,  S.K.  by  Santa  Catharine, 
S.  by  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  W.  by  Uruguay  and 
Paraguay.  Ana  stated  at  115,000  Bqunro  mile*. 
Pop.  120,01)0,  one-tenth  of  whom  are  slaves  '1  he 
capital  is  Curitiba,  and  previously  to  1SV_'  this 
province  formed  a  territory  called  the  Comarca 
of  Curitiba,  included  in  the  province  of  Sao  Paulo. 
It  fully  commenced  its  provincial  career  in  1^.").'!. 
The  sea  coast  is  indented  by  several  bays,  but 
the  chief  and  almost  the  only  port  as  yet  is 
Paranagua.  A  line  of  mountains  runs  parallel  to 
the  coast  at  a  distance  of  about  80  miles  inland, 
and  throws  out  spurs  and  branches  westward.  The 
streams  flowing  east  from  this  water-shed,  though 
numerous,  are  inconsiderable ;  while  the  rivers 
flowing  westward,  into  the  Parana  (q.  v.),  which 
forms  the  western  boundary  of  the  province,  are  all 
about  or  upwards  of  400  miles  in  length.  The 
principal  are  the  Paranapanema,  Ivay,  Piquery,  and 
Yguassu.  The  climate  is  unusually  healthy ;  the  soil 
is  fertile  ;  and  agriculture,  rearing  cattle  and  swine, 
and  gathering  mate  or  Paraguay  tea  are  the  chief 
employments. 

The  port  of  Paranagua,  situated  in  a  picturesque 
district,  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  is  about 
400  miles  south-west  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  town 
is  clean  and  pretty,  and  contains  about  3000 
inhabitants.  Mate  to  the  value  of  1,000,000  dollars 
is  exported  annually  from  this  town. 

PARANA,  au  important  river  of  Brazil,  rises  in 
the  province  of  Minas  Geraes,  about  100  miles 
north-west  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It  flows  west  for 
upwards  of  500  miles,  through  the  provinces  of 
Minas  Geraes  and  Siio  Paulo.  In  the  latter  it  is 
joined  by  the  Parnahiba,  after  which  its  course 
alters,  aud  it  flows  south-south-west  to  Candelaria. 
Passing  this  town,  it  flows  west  for  200  miles  to  its 
confluence  with  the  Paraguay  (q.  v.),  and  then  bend- 
ing southward,  passes  Santa  Fe,  below  which  its 
channel  frequently  divides  and  encloses  numerous 
islands.  After  passing  Santa  Fe,  it  rolls  onward 
in  a  south-east  direction,  and  unites  with  the 
Uruguay  in  forming  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  Entire 
length  about  2400  miles.  It  draws  a  number 
of  considerable  tributaries  from  the  province  of 
Parana  (q.  v.)  ;  and  of  the  others,  the  chief  are  the 
Paraguay,  Uruguay,  Pardo,  Tiete,  and  Parnahiba. 
For  vessels  drawing  7A  feet  it  is  navigable  to 
Corrientes,  upwards  of  000  miles  from  its  mouth. 

PA'RAPET  (Ital.  pa?-a-petto,  from  parare,  to 
protect,  and  petto,  the  breast),  a  wall  raised  higher 
than    the    gutter    of    a    roof    for    protection ;    in 


Ornamented  Gothic  Parapet. 

military  works,  for  defence  against  missiles  from 
without  (see  Fortification);  in  domestic  buildings, 
churches,  &c,  to  prevent  accident  by  falling  from 
the  roof.  Parapets  are  of  very  ancient  date.  The 
Israelites  were  commanded  to  build 'a  battlement' 
round  their  flat  roofs.  In  classic  architecture, 
balustrades  were  used  as  parapets.  In  Gothio 
architecture,  parapets  of  all  kinds  are  used.      In 

263 


PARAPH— PARASITIC  DISEASES. 


early  work  they  are  generally  plain,  but  in  later 
buildings  they  are  pierced  and  ornamented  with 
tracery,  which  is  frequently  of  elaborate  design, 
especially  in  French  Flamboyant  work.  Shields 
and  little  arcades  are  also  used  as  ornaments  to 
parapets;  and  the  battlements  of  castles  are  imi- 
tated in  the  parapets  of  religious  and  domestic 
buildiugs. 

PA'RAPH  (Gr.  para,  and  hapto,  to  touch),  an 
addition  to  the  subscription  of  a  name  formed  by  a 
flourish  of  the  pen,  which,  during  the  middle  ages, 
constituted  some  sort  of  provision  against  forgery. 
Its  use  is  not  altogether  extinct  in  diplomacy,  aud  in 
Spain  the  paraph  is  still  a  usual  part  of  a  signature. 

PARAPHERNA'LIA  (Gr.  para,  beside,  or 
beyond ;  pherne,  dower)  is  a  term  borrowed  from 
the  Roman  law  to  denote  certain  articles  of  personal 
adornment  and  apparel  belonging  to  a  married 
woman.  According  to  the  usual  rule  in  the  law  of 
England,  all  the  personal  property  of  a  woman 
becomes  the  property  of  her  husband  when  the 
marriage  takes  place,  unless  there  is  a  marriage 
settlement ;  but  there  is  an  exception  as  regards  the 
trinkets  and  dress  of  the  wife  so  far  as  suitable  to 
her  rank  in  life,  and  which  she  continues  to  use 
during  the  marriage.  In  such  a  case  the  property 
in  these  articles  does  not  vest  absolutely  iu  the 
husband.  He  cannot  bequeath  them  by  his  will  to 
a  third  person,  but  if  he  gave  them  to  the  wife,  he 
may  pawn,  or  sell,  or  give  them  away,  and  they  can 
be  seized  in  execution  to  pay  his  debts,  except  so 
far  as  they  constitute  necessary  clothing.  And  if 
he  were  to  die  insolvent,  they  may,  except  that  part 
which  is  necessary  clothing,  be  taken  by  the 
husband's  creditors.  If  the  paraphernalia  were 
given,  not  by  the  husband  but  by  a  third  party 
before  or  during  marriage,  then  they  are  presumed 
to  be  given  for  the  wife's  separate  use,  and  the 
husband  or  his  creditors  cannot  in  any  way  inter- 
fere with  them.  In  the  law  of  Scotland,  the  para- 
phernalia of  a  married  woman  include  not  merely 
personal  clothing  and  trinkets,  but  articles  of  furni- 
ture, such  as  a  chest  of  drawers.  The  husband 
there  can  neither  pawn,  nor  pledge,  nor  give  away 
the  paraphernalia,  nor  can  his  creditors  attach 
them  either  during  his  life  or  after  his  death. 

PA'RAPHRASE  (Gr.  para,  beside,  and  phrazein, 
to  speak)  is  the  name  given  to  a  verbal  expan- 
sion of  the  meaning  either  of  a  whole  book,  or 
of  a  separate  passage  in  it.  A  paraphrase  conse- 
quently differs  from  Metaphrase,  or  strictly  literal 
translation,  in  this,  that  it  aims  to  make  the  sense  of 
the  text  clearer  by  a  lucid  circumlocution,  without 
actually  passing  into  commentary.  The  versified 
passages  of  Scripture,  forming  part  of  the  Psalmody 
of  the  Scottish  Church,  are  popularly  known  as  '  the 
Paraphrases.' 

PARAPLEGIA.     See  Pakalyshs. 

PARAS'ARA  is  the  name  of  several  celebrated 
personages  of  ancient  India,  met  with  in  the  Mahd- 
bhdrata  (q.  v.),  the  Purdn'as  (q.  v.),  and  other 
works.  Of  one  personage  of  this  name,  the  Mahd- 
bhdrata  relates  that  he  was  the  son  of  S'akti,  who 
was  the  son  of  the  patriarch  Vasisht'ha.  King 
Kalmashapada  once  meeting  with  S'akti  in  a  narrow 
path  in  a  thicket,  desired  him  to  stand  out  of  the 
way.  The  sage  refused  ;  on  which  the  Raja  beat  him 
with  his  whip,  and  S'akti  cursed  him  to  become  a 
Rakshasa,  or  demon.  The  Raja,  in  this  transforma- 
tion, killed  and  ate  S'akti,  together  with  the  other 
sons  of  Vasisht'ha.  S'akti,  however,  had  left  his 
wife,  Adris'yanti,  pregnant,  and  she  gave  birth  to 
Paras'ara,  who  was  brought  up  by  his  grandfather. 
When  he  grew  up,  and  was  informed  of  his  father's 
2S4 


death,  he  instituted  a  sacrifice  for  the  destruction  of 
all  the  Rakshasas,  but  was  dissuaded  from  its  com- 
pletion by  Vasisht'ha  and  other  sages.  The  same 
legend  is  referred  to  by  the  Vishu'u-Purdn'a,  where 
P.  is  introduced  as  relating,  himself,  part  of  this 
story,  and  adding,  that  the  saint  Pulastya,  one 
of  the  mind-born  sons  of  Brahma,  in  reward  of  the 
clemency  he  had  shewn  even  towards  such  beings 
as  the  Rakshasas,  bestowed  on  him  the  boon  of 
becoming  the  author  of  a  compendium,  or  rather 
the  compiler,  of  the  Purdn'as,  and  of  the  Viehn'u- 
Purdn'a  in  particular.  'This  tradition,'  1'rofessor 
Wilson  observes  (  Vishn'u-Purdn'a,  ed.  Hall,  vol.  L  p. 
10),  '  is  incompatible  with  the  general  attribution  of 
all  the  Purdn'as  to  Vyasa ; '  but  it  may  perhaps 
point  to  a  later  recension  when,  to  the  native  mind, 
Vyasa  Avould  still  remain  the  reputed  author  of 
the  older  Purdn'as,  although,  of  course,  even  this 
assumption  has  little  claim  to  historical  truth. — A 
P.,  probably  different  from  the  one  named,  is  the 
author  of  a  celebrated  code  of  laws ;  he  is  men- 
tioned by  Yajnavalkya  in  his  standard  work,  and 
often  quoted  by  the  commentaries. — A  probably 
third  P.  is  the  reputed  author  of  a  Tantra  (q.  v.); 
and  a  fourth,  the  author  of  an  astronomical  work. 
— Paras'aras  (in  the  plural)  designates  the  whole 
family  to  which  the  different  Paras'aras  belong. 

PA'RASITE  (Gr.  from  para,  beside ;  sitos,  food ; 
one  who  eats  with  another ;  hence  one  who  eats  at 
the  expense  of  another),  a  common  character  in 
the  Greek  comedies  ;  a  low  fellow,  who  is  ready  to 
submit  to  any  indignity,  that  he  may  be  permitted 
to  partake  of  a  banquet,  and  who  lives  as  much  as 
possible  at  the  expense  of  others. 

PARASI'TIC  ANIMALS  are  numerous.  Some 
of  them  are  Entozoa,  and  some  are  Epizoa.  See 
these  heads.  They  belong  to  different  classes,  and 
even  to  different  divisions  of  the  animal  king- 
dom ;  all,  however,  are  invertebrate.  Many  are  of 
the  division  Articulata,  and  many  of  the  division 
Radiala.  Besides  worms  of  various  kinds,  there 
are  among  parasites  not  a  few  crustaceans,  as  the 
Lernaeaus,  &c,  and  not  a  few  insects,  as  the  Louse. 
These  insects  constitute  the  order  Parasita  or  Ano- 
plura.  The  characters  of  the  order  are  noticed  in  the 
article  Louse.  It  remains,  however,  to  be  added, 
that  the  order  is  divided  into  two  sections — in  the 
first  of  which,  Pediculklea,  the  mouth  is  small  and 
quite  suctorial ;  whilst  in  the  second,  Nirmidea,  it 
is  furnished  with  mandibles  and  hooked  maxdlae. 
The  species  of  the  first  section  are  found  only  on  man 
aud  mammals ;  those  of  the  second  section,  almost 
exclusively  on  birds,  although  one  infests  the  dog. 
The  Nirmidea  shew  much  greater  activity  than  the 
Pediculidea.  When  a  bird  dies,  the  bird-lice  congre- 
gate near  the  beak,  and  seem  disquieted,  apparently 
anxious  to  change  their  abode.  Some  of  the 
cirrhapods  which  live  in  the  skin  of  large  marine 
animals,  as  whales,  cau  scarcely  be  regarded  as 
parasitic  animals,  but  rather  bear  to  them  a 
relation  such  as  Epiphytes  do  to  parasitical  plants, 
not  deriving  their  food  from  the  animal  on  which 
they  live.  Tape-worms,  ascarides,  and  other  intes- 
tinal worms,  do  not  directly  draw  sustenance  from 
the  animal  in  which  they  live,  by  extracting  its 
juices,  but  they  live  at  its  expense,  by  consuming 
its  food,  after  the  food  has  undergone,  in  great  pait, 
the  process  of  digestion. 

PARASITIC  DISEASES  constitute  one  of  the 
recognised  orders  of  disease  in  Dr  Farr's  classifica- 
tion. See  Nosology.  In  these  diseases,  certain 
morbid  conditions  are  induced  by  the  presence  of 
animals  or  vegetables  which  have  found  a  place  of 
subsistence  within  some  tissue  or  organ,  or  upon 
some  surface  of  the  body  of  man  or  of  other  animals. 


PARASITIC  DISEASES— PARASITIC  PLANTS. 


Even  plants  are  not  exempt  from  disorders  of  this 
nature  (see  Parasitic  Plants).  The  forms  of  ani- 
mal life  giving  rise  to  parasitic  diseases  are  described 
in  the  articles  AflOARIDBB,  Ckstoidka,  Entozoa, 
ElMZOA,  GUINEA-WOKM,  Itch-Insect,  LotTSE,  Nk.ma- 
TKI.MIA,    StKONGYLUS,    TAPEWORMS,     TRICHINA,    &C. 

With  the  vegetable  structures  which  give  rise  to 
■pedal  diseases  we  are  less  accurately  acquainted, 
in  consequence  of  the  limited  knowledge  of  cryp- 
togamio  botany  possessed  by  many  writers  who 
have  recorded  their  experience  of  these  cases. 
These  parasites  are  either  fungi  or  algae,  and  are 
Composed  of  simple  sporules,  germs,  or  cells,  or  of 
cells  arranged  in  rows  or  groups,  which  are  so 
minute  as  to  require  the  microscope  for  their  recog- 
nition. Fungi  are  the  most  numerous  of  all 
plants  in  regard  to  genera  and  species,  and  their 
growth  is  associated  with  serious  injury  both  to 
animal  and  vegetable  life.  It  is  not,  however, 
always  easy  to  determine  whether  they  are  the 
direct  cause  of  disease,  or  whether  the  diseased 
tissue  has  merely  afforded  a  suitable  nidus  for  their 
development.  '  It  is  certain,'  says  Dr  Aitken,  who 
has  entered  more  fully  into  this  subject  than  any 
other  English  writer  on  the  practice  of  medicine, 
'that  wherever  the  normal  chemical  processes  of 
nutrition  are  impaired,  and  the  incessant  changes 
between  solids  and  fluids  slacken,  then,  if  the  part 
can  furnish  a  proper  soil,  the  cryptogamic  parasites 
will  appear.  The  soil  they  select  is,  for  the  most 
part,  composed  of  epithelium  or  cuticle,  acid  mucus 
or  exudation.  Acidity,  however,  though  favourable 
to  their  growth,  is  not  indispensable,  since  some  of 
the  vegetable  parasites  grow  upon  alkaline  or 
neutral  ground,  as  on  ulcerations  of  the  trachea,  or  in 
fluid  in  the  ventricles  of  the  brain.  Certain  atmo- 
spheric conditions  seem  favourable  to  the  occurrence 
of  these  vegetable  parasites.  For  example,  Tinea 
tonsurans  may  be  quite  absent  for  years  in  places  such 
as  workhouses,  where  it  commonly  exists,  and  then 
for  several  months  every  second  or  third  child  in  the 
place  gets  the  disease. 

There  is  undoubted  evidence  from  the  observations 
and  experiments  of  Devergie,  Von  B'arensprung,  and 
others,  that  these  parasitic  diseases  maybe  transmitted 
by  contagion  from  horses,  oxen,  and  other  animals  to 
man ;  while  conversely,  Dr  Fox  mentions  an  instance 
of  a  white  cat  which  contracted  the  mange  from  Tinea 
tonsurans  (ringworm  of  the  scalp),  which  affected 
the  children  of  the  family  to  which  it  belonged — 
the  fungus  of  the  mange  in  the  cat  being  the  same 
fungus  as  that  of  Tinea  in  the  human  subject,  viz., 
the  Tricophyton  (Gr.  trie  (trie-),  of  a  hair,  and 
phyton,  a  plant). 

The  principal  vegetable  parasites  associated  in 
man  with  special  morbid  states  are  arranged  by 
Aitken  {The  Science  and  Practice  of  Medicine,  1863, 
2d  edit.  vol.  ii.  p.  177)  as  follows  :  1.  The  Trico- 
phyton tonsurans,  which  is  present  in  the  three 
varieties  of  Tinea  tondens— viz.,  T.  circinatus  (ring- 
worm of  the  body),  T.  tonsurans  (ringworm  of  the 
scalp),  and  T.  sycosis  menti  (ringworm  of  the  beard). 
2.  The  Tricophyton  sporuloides,  which,  together  with 
the  above,  is  present  in  the  disease  known  as  Plica 
Polonica.  3.  The  Achorion  Schonleinii  and  Puccinia 
favi,  which  are  present  in  T.  favosa,  known  also  as 
Favus  (q.  v.),  and  Porrigo  scutulata  (the  honeycomb 
ringworm).  4.  The  Microsporon  mentagrophyta, 
which  is  present  in  Mentagra.  5.  The  Microsporon 
furfur,  which  occurs  in  Pityriasis  versicolor.  6.  The 
Microrporon  Audouini,  which  is  present  in  Porrigo 
decalvans.  7-  The  Mycetoma  or  Chionyphe  Carteri, 
which  gives  rise  to  the  disease  known  as  the 
•  fungus  foot  of  India,'  &c.  8.  The  Oidium  albicans 
of  diphtheria  and  aphtha.  9.  The  Gryptococcus  Cere- 
visiae,  or  Yeast  Plant,  occurring  in  the  urine  and 


contents  of  the  stomach,  if  there  is  saccharine 
fermentation,  10.  The  Sarcina  GhodterU,  or  Meri- 
spasdia  ventriculi  (of  Robin),  found  in  vomited 
matters  and  in  the  urine.  There  are  strong  grounds, 
baled  partly  on  botanical  and  partly  on  clinical 
observation,  for  believing  that  the  various  fungi 
already  described  are  mere  varieties  of  two  or  more 
species  in  various  phases  of  development. 

We  shall  conclude  this  article  with  a  brief  notice 
of  the  most  dangerous  of  all  the  parasitic  diseases — 
the  Fungus  Foot,  or  Fungous  Disease  of  India.  It 
occurs  in  many  parts  of  India,  and  the  north-east 
shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  is  a  disease  which 
occurs  among  natives  only,  so  far  as  has  been  yet 
observed,  and  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  presence  of 
a  fungus  which  eats  its  way  into  the  bones  of  the 
foot  and  the  lower  ends  of  the  tibia  and  fibula,  [pene- 
trating by  numerous  fistulous  canals  through  the 
tissue  of  the  entire  foot,  and  tending  to  cause  death 
by  exhaustion,  unless  amputation  is  performed  in 
due  time.  Dr  Carter  has  described  three  forms  of 
this  disease,  in  which  both  the  symptoms  and  the 
fungoid  material  differ  considerably  from  each  other. 
A  few  remarks  on  the  first  of  these  forms  will  suffice 
as  an  illustration  of  parasitic  disease.  In  this  form, 
the  bones  of  the  foot  and  the  lower  ends  of  the  leg- 
bones  are  perforated  in  every  direction  with  roundish 
cavities,  varying  in  size  from  that  of  a  pea  to  that 
of  a  pistol-bullet,  the  cavities  being  filled  with  the 
fungoid  matter.  The  surrounding  muscles,  and 
subsequently  the  tendinous  and  fatty  structures,  are 
converted  into  a  gelatiniform  mass,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  foot  presents  a  peculiar  turgid  appear- 
ance. The  structure  of  the  globular  fungoid  masses 
is  shewn  in  the  accompanying  figure,  which  was 


drawn  by  Dr  H.  J.  Carter  from  a  specimen 
which  he  examined  immediately  after  amputation. 
Examined  under  the  microscope,  the  fungoid  mass 
is  found  to  consist  of  short,  beaded,  tawny  threads 
or  filaments,  arising  from  a  common  centre,  and 
having  at  their  tips  large  spore-like  cells.  For 
further  information  regarding  this  remarkable  form 
of  disease,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Dr  Carter's 
paper  in  the  fifth  volume  (new  series)  of  the 
Transactions  of  the  Medical  and  Physical  Society  of 
Bombay,  and  to  the  Rev.  M.  J.  Berkeley's  account; 
of  his  examination  of  the  fungus,  in  the  second 
volume  of  The  Intellectual  Observer,  p.  248. 

Further  notice  of  the  parasitic  diseases  of  the 
skin  will  be  found  in  the  articles  Pityriasis  (var. 
versicolor),  Ringworm,  Scald-head,  &c. 

PARASITIC  PLANTS  are  plants  which  grow 
on  other  plants,  and  derive  subsistence  from  their 
juices ;  the  plants  which  live  parasitically  on 
animal  tissues  being  generally  called  Entophytes 
(q.  v.),  although  the  distinction  between  these  terms 
is  not  always  preserved.      Epiphytes  (q.  v.)  differ 

265 


PARASOL— PARCHMENT. 


from  parasitical  plants  in  not  subsisting  on  the 
juices  of  the  plant  which  supports  them,  but  merely 
on  decayed  portions  of  its  bark,  &c,  or  drawing  all 
their  nourishment  from  the  air.  Parasitical  plante 
are  numerous  and  very  various ;  the  greater  number, 
however,  and  the  most  important,  being  small  fungi, 
as  Rust,  Brand,  Bunt,  Smut,  &c,  the  minute  spores 
of  which  are  supposed,  in  some  cases,  to  circulate 
through  the  juices  of  the  plants  which  they  attack. 
Concerning  some  minute  fungi,  as  the  Mildews,  it  is 
doubted  if  they  are  truly  parasitical,  or  if  their 
attacks  are  not  always  preceded  by  some  measure 
i>f  decay.  But  among  parasitic  plants  are  not  a 
few  phanerogamous  plants,  some  of  which  have 
green  leaves ;  and  6ome  are  even  shrubby,  as  the 
Mistletoe,  Loranthus,  &c. ;  whilst  the  greater  number 
have  brown  scales  instead  of  leaves,  as  Dodder, 
Broom-rape,  Lathnea,  &c,  and  the  whole  of  that 
remarkable  order  or  class  of  plants  called  Rhiz- 
antlieve  or  Rhhogens,  of  which  the  genus  Raffilesia  is 
distinguished  above  all  other  plants  for  the  magni- 
tude of  its  flowers.  Some  parasitic  plants,  as  the 
Bpecies  of  Dodder,  begin  their  existence  by  inde- 
pendent growth  from  the  ground  ;  but  when  they 
have  found  suitable  plants  to  take  hold  of  and  prey 
on,  the  connection  with  the  ground  ceases.  Not  a 
few,  as  Broom-rape  and  Lathrsea,  are  root-parasites, 
attaching  themselves  only  to  the  roots  of  other 
plants,  generally  of  trees  or  shrubs  ;  whilst  there 
are  some,  as  the  Eyebright  (Euphrasia  officinalis), 
Yellow  Rattle  (RhinanthUs  crista  galli),  Cow-wheat 
(Mtlampyrum  arvense),  &c,  which  are  parasitical 
only  occasionally  and  partially,  preying  on  the  roots 
of  other  herbaceous  plants  in  their  vicinity.  These 
last  are  chiefly  common  on  neglected  grass  lands, 
and  are  generally  to  be  regarded  as  injurious  weeds. 
Root-parasites  generally  attach  themselves  by  means 
of  little  tubercles,  which  gradually  bury  themselves 
under  the  bark. 

PA'RASOL  (from  the  Ital.  parare,  to  parry  or 
keep  off,  and  sole,  the  sun),  a  small  umbrella  used 
by  ladies  to  shade  themselves  from  the  sun. 

PA'RBUCKLE  is  a  mode  of  drawing  up  or 
lowering  down  an  inclined  plane  any  cylindrical 
object,  as  a  barrel  or  a  heavy  gun,  without  the  aid 
of  a  crane  or  tackle.  It  consists  in  passing  a  stout 
rope  round  a  post  or  some  suitable  object  at  the  top 
of  the  incline,  and  then  doubling  the  ends  under 


Parbuckle. 

and  over  the  object  to  be  moved.  This  converts 
the  cask  or  gun  into  a  pulley  in  its  own  behalf,  and 
limits  the  pressure  at  each  end  of  the  rope  to  one- 
fourth  the  weight  of  the  object  moved,  as  felt  on 
the  incline.  By  hauling  in  the  ends  equally,  the 
cask  ascends,  or  vice  versa. 

PA'RCiE  (from  the  root  pars,  a  part),  the  name 

S'ven  by  the  Romans  to  the  goddesses  of  Fate  or 
estiny,  who  assigned  to  every  one  his  'part 'or 
lot.     The  Greek  name,  Moire:,  has  the  same  mean- 
ing  (from  mero8,  a  share).     They  are   only  once 
266 


mentioned  by  Homer,  who  in  every  other  instance 
speaks  of  Fate  (Moira)  in  the  singular,  and  whose 
Fate  was  not  a  deity  but  a  mere  personification, 
the  destinies  of  men  being  made  by  him  to  depend 
upon  the  wdl  of  the  gods ;  whilst,  according  to  the 
later  Greeks  and  the  Romans,  the  gods  themselves 
were  subject  to  the  control  of  the  P.  or  Moirce. 
Hesiod,  however,  who  is  almost  contemporary  with 
Homer,  speaks  of  three  Fates,  whom  he  calls 
daughters  of  Night — Clotho,  the  spinner  of  the 
thread  of  life  ;  Laehesis,  who  determines  the  lot  of 
life ;  and  Atropos,  the  inevitable.  They  were  usually 
represented  as  young  women  of  serious  aspect ; 
Clotho  with  a  spindle,  Laehesis  pointing  with  a 
staff  to  the  horoscope  of  man  on  a  globe,  and  Atropoe 
with  a  pair  of  scales,  or  sun-dial,  or  an  instrument 
to  cut  the  thread  of  life.  In  the  oldest  representa- 
tions of  them,  however,  they  appear  as  matrons, 
with  staffs  or  sceptres.  They  had  places  conse- 
crated to  them  throughout  all  Greece,  at  Corinth, 
Sparta,  Thebes,  Olympia,  &c. 

PARCELS,  in  the  law  of  England,  is  the 
technical  word  describing  the  piece  of  land  or 
premises  included  in  a  conveyance. 

PARCENER.     See  Coparcener. 

PA'RCHIM,  a  town  of  the  grand-duchy  of 
Mecklenburg- Schwerin,  stands  on  the  Elde,  which 
is  here  divided  into  two  arms,  23  miles  south-east 
of  Schwerin.  It  is  very  old,  is  irregularly  built, 
surrounded  by  beautiful  gardens,  and  has  a  gym- 
nasium and  two  churches.  Pop.  8107,  who  are 
employed  in  agriculture,  in  the  manufacture  of 
tobacco,  cloth,  leather,  and  brandy,  and  in  weaving. 

PA'RCHMENT,  one  of  the  oldest  inventions  of 
writing  materials,  was  known  at  least  as  early  as 
500  years  B.C.  Herodotus  speaks  of  books  written 
upon  skins  in  his  time.  Pliny,  without  good  grounds, 
places  the  invention  as  late  as  196  B.  c,  stating 
that  it  was  made  at  Pergamos  (hence  the  name 
Pergamena,  corrupted  into  Eng.  parchment)  in 
the  reign  of  Eumenius  II.,  in  consequence  of 
Ptolemy  of  Egypt  having  prohibited  the  export- 
ation of  papyrus.  Possibly  the  Pergamian  inven- 
tion was  an  improvement  in  the  preparation 
of  skins  which  had  certainly  been  used  centuries 
before.  The  manufacture  rose  to  great  importance 
in  Rome  about  a  century  B.  c,  and  soon  became  the 
chief  material  for  writing  on ;  and  its  use  spread  all 
over  Europe,  and  retained  its  pre-eminence  until 
the  invention  of  paper  from  rags,  which  from  its 
great  durability  proved  a  fortunate  circumstance  for 
literature. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  parchment,  prepared 
from  the  skins  of  different  animals,  according  to 
their  intended  uses.  The  ordinary  writing  parchment 
is  made  from  those  of  the  sheep  and  of  the  she-goat ; 
the  finer  kind,  known  as  vellum,  is  made  from  those 
of  very  young  calves,  kids,  and  lambs  ;  the  thick 
common  kinds,  for  drums,  tambourines,  battle- 
dores, &c,  from  those  of  old  he-goats  and  she-goats, 
and  in  Northern  Europe  from  wolves ;  and  a  peculiar 
kind  is  made  from  asses  skins,  the  surface  of  which 
is  enamelled.  It  is  used  for  tablets,  as  blacklead 
writing  can  be  readily  removed  from  it  by  moisture. 
The  method  of  making  parchment  is  at  first  the 
same  as  in  dressing  skins  for  leather.  The  skins 
are  limed  in  the  lime-pit  until  the  hair  is  easily 
removed.  They  are  then  stretched  tightly  and 
equally,  and  the  flesh  side  is  dressed  as  in  currying, 
until  a  perfectly  smooth  surface  is  obtained  Jt  is 
next  ground  by  rubbing  over  it  a  flat  piece  of 
pumice-stone,  previously  dressing  the  flesh  side 
only  with  powdered  chalk,  and  slaked  lime  sprinkled 
over  it.  It  is  next  allowed  to  dry,  still  tightly 
stretched  on  the  frame.    The  drying  process  is  an 


PARCHMENT  -PARELLA. 


important  one,  and  must  bo  rather  slowly  carried 
on.  for  which  purpose  it  must  be  in  the  shade. 
Sometimes  these  operations  have  to  be  repeated 
several  times,  iu  order  to  insure  an  excellent  quality, 
and  much  depends  upon  the  skill  with  which  the 
pumice-stone  is  used,  and  also  upon  the  fineness  of 
the  pumice  itself.  When  quite  dried,  the  lime  and 
chalk  are  removed  by  rubbing  with  a  soft  hunb- 
skiu  with  the  wool  on. 

PARCHMENT,  Vegetable.  This  remark- 
able Bubstance  was  made  known  by  Mr  \V.  E. 
Gaino  in  1854,  and  again  by  the  Rev.  J.  Barlow  in 
1857.  It  resembles  animal  parchment  so  closely, 
that  it  is  not  easy  to  distinguish  the  difference.  It 
is  m  ide  from  the  water-leaf,  or  unsized  paper,  by 
immersing  it  only  for  a  few  seconds  in  a  bath  of 
oil  of  vitriol,  diluted  with  one-half  its  volume  of 
wateic  The  exactness  of  this  dilution  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  the  success  of  the  results. 
The  dilute  acid  must  not  be  used  immediately  after 
mixing,  but  must  be  suffered  to  cool  to  the  ordinary 
temperature;  without  attention  to  these  apparently 
trifling  points,  the  operator  will  not  succeed. 

The  alteration  which  takes  place  in  the  paper  is  of 
a  very  remarkable  kind.  No  chemical  change  is 
effected,  nor  is  the  weight  increased ;  but  it  appears 
that  a  molecular  change  takes  place,  and  the 
material  is  placed  in  a  transition  state  between  the 
cellulose  of  woody  fibre  and  dextrin. 

Vegetable  parchment  has  become  a  regular  article 
of  trade,  and  legal  and  other  documents  are  engrossed 
upon  it.  In  some  respects  it  is  preferable  to  the  old 
kind,  for  insects  attack  it  less.  It  is  admirably 
adapted  for  engineers'  plans,  as  it  can  be  made  so 
thin  as  to  be  used  for  tracing  paper,  and  it  will 
bear  exposure  to  wet  without  injury.  Messrs  De  la 
Ruo  are  entitled  to  the  credit  of  giving  practical 
effei  it  to  the  invention. 

FARE,  Ambroise,  a  renowned  French  surgeon, 
and  the  father  of  modern  surgery,  was  born  about 
the  beginning  of  the  16th  c,  at  Laval,  department 
of  Mayenne,  France.  His  father,  who  was  a 
trunk-maker,  was  unable  to  afford  him  a  literary 
education,  and  apprenticed  him  to  a  barber  and 
surgeon.  P.,  after  a  brief  term  of  service,  acquired 
such  a  fondness  for  surgery  and  anatomy,  that, 
abandoning  his  master,  he  went  to  Paris  to 
prosecute  his  studies.  His  means  for  doing 
so  were  very  limited;  he  could  afford  to  obtain 
instruction  from  only  the  more  obscure  teachers  ; 
few  books  were  within  his  reach,  yet  by  dint  of 
perseverance  and  the  exercise  of  a  rare  discrimi- 
nation, combined  with  the  valuable  practice  in  the 
H6tel  de  Dieu  of  Paris,  he  laid  a  solid  foundation 
for  future  eminence.  In  1536,  P.  was  received  as 
a  master  barber- surgeon,  and  joined  in  this  capacity 
the  army  of  Marshal  Renti  de  Mont-Jean,  which 
was  on  the  point  of  starting  for  Italy.  During  this 
campaign  he  improved  the  mode  of  treatment  of 
gun-shot  wounds,  which  had  up  to  this  time  been 
o*  the  most  barbarous  kind — namely,  cauterisa- 
tion with  boiling  oil.  His  reputation  as  well  as 
Ins  skill  were  greatly  heightened  during  this  cam- 
paign, and  as  he  himself  says :  '  If  four  persons 
were  seriously  wounded  I  had  always  to  attend 
three  of  them  ;  and  if  it  were  a  case  of  broken  arm 
or  leg,  fractured  skull,  or  fracture  with  dislocation,  I 
was  mvariably  summoned.'  In  1539,  he  returned  to 
Paris,  whither  his  high  renown  had  preceded  him, 
and  was  received  with  distinction  by  the  Royal 
College  of  Chirurgery,  of  which  he  was  subsequently 
appointed  president.  On  the  war  being  renewed, 
he  was  again  attached  to  the  army,  under  the 
Vicocice  de  Rohan,  afterwards  under  Antoine  de 
tJourbon    Duke  of  Vendome.      It   was   during   this 


campaign  that  he  cured  Francois,  the  second  Duke 
of  Guise,  of  the  wound  which  conferred  upon  him 
the  sobriquet  of  Balafri,  and  that  be  substituted 
ligature  of  the  arteries  for  cauterisation  with  a 
red-hot  iron  after  amputation.  The  idea  of  this 
mode  of  repressing  hemorrhage  had  long  been  in 
existence,  but  lie  was  the  first  to  shew  that  it  could 
safely  lie  applied  to  practice.  Many  other  important 
improvements  in  surgery  were  introduced  by  him 
at  this  time.  In  September  1552  he  was  appointed 
Burgeon  to  King  Henry  II.,  and  in  the  following 
year  was  taken  prisoner  at  Hcsdin  ;  he  was  however 
released,  in  consideration  of  his  having  cured  Colonel 
de  Vaudeville,  after  rejecting  the  brilliant  offers 
made  him  by  the  Duke  of  Savoy  to  remain  in  his 
service.  Returning  to  Paris,  honours  were  showered 
upoii  him;  and  though  he  was  ignorant  of  Latin, 
the  conditio  sine  qucL  non  of  a  liberal  education  at 
that  time,  no  hesitation  was  shewn  in  conferring 
upon  him  learned  titles  and  degrees.  He  attended 
Francis  II.  on  his  death-bed,  and  continued  to  hold 
the  office  of  king's  surgeon  to  his  successors,  Charles 
IX.  and  Henry  III.  The  former  of  these  monarchs, 
whose  life  had  been  gravely  threatened  by  an  injury 
inflicted  by  his  physician  Portail,  and  who  had  been 
preserved  by  P.,  testified  for  him  the  greatest  esteem, 
and  saved  him  during  the  massacre  of  St  Bartho- 
lomew by  locking  him  up  in  his  own  chamber. 
During  the  latter  part  of  P.'s  life,  he  was  much 
employed  in  the  publication  of  his  various  writings, 
and  suffered  considerable  annoyance  from  the 
envious  spirit  displayed  towards  him  by  his  profes- 
sional bi'ethren,  who  showered  obloquy  upon  him 
for  having,  as  they  said,  'dishonoured  science  by 
writing  in  the  vulgar  tongue.'  P.  died  at  Paris, 
December  22,  1590.  His  writings  have  exercised  a 
great  influence  on  the  practice  of  surgery  in  all 
countries  to  which  they  have  penetrated,  and  are 
held  of  the  highest  authority  on  the  subject  of 
gun-shot  wounds.  The  first  complete  edition  of 
them  appeared  at  Lyon  in  1562,  and  the  last, 
edited  by  M.  Malgaigne,  at  Paris  (1840—1841,  3 
vols.).  Besides  these  are  8  Latin  editions,  and 
more  than  15  translations  into  English,  Dutch, 
German,  &c.  As  an  instance  of  his  great  popularity 
in  the  army,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  soldiers 
of  the  garrison  of  Metz,  of  their  own  accord,  gave 
him  a  triumphal  reception  on  his  entering  that 
town. 

PAREGO'RIC,  or  PAREGORIC  ELIXIR  (from 
the  Gr.  paregoricos,  soothing),  the  Compound 
Tincture  of  Camphor  of  the  London,  and  the 
Camphorated  Tincture  of  Opium  of  the  British 
Pharmacopoeia,  consists  of  an  alcoholic  solution  of 
opium,  benzoic  acid,  camphor,  and  oil  of  anise,  every 
fluid  ounce  containing  two  grains  each  of  opium 
and  benzoic  acid,  and  a  grain  and  a  half  of  camphor. 
This  preparation  is  much  used  both  by  the  pro- 
fession and  the  public.  In  doses  of  from  one  to 
three  drachms,  it  is  an  excellent  remedy  for  the 
chronic  winter-cough  of  old  people,  the  opium 
diminishing  the  bronchial  secretion  and  the  sensi- 
bility  of  the  pulmonary  mucous  membrane,  while 
the  benzoic  acid  and  oil  of  anise  act  as  stimulating 
expectorants.  It  has  also  been  found  useful  in 
chronic  rheumatism. 

PAREI'RA-BRA'VA.     See  Cissampelos. 

PARE'LLA  (Fr.  parelle  or  perelle),  a  name  often 
given  to  some  of  those  crustaceous  lichens  which 
are  used  to  produce  Archil,  Cudbear,  and  Litmus ; 
but  which  more  strictly  belongs  to  one  species, 
Lecanora  parella,  resembling  the  Cudbear  Lichen, 
but  with  somewhat  plaited  warty  crust,  and  shields 
[apothecia)  having  a  concave  disk  of  the  same  colour 
as  the  thick  tumid  even  border.     Like  the  Cudbear 


PARENCHYMA— PARENT  AND  CHILD. 


Lichen — to  which  it  is  far  superior  in  the  quality  of 
the  dye-stuff  obtained  from  it — it  grows  on  rocks 
in  mountainous  districts  both  in  Britain  and  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  being  particularly  abundant 
in  Auvergne  and  other  parts  of  France. 

PARE'NCHYMA.     See  Cellular  Tissue. 

PARENT  AND  CHILD.  The  legal  relation 
between  parent  and  child  is  one  of  the  incidents  or 
consequences  of  the  relation  of  husband  and  wife, 
and  flows  out  of  the  contract  of  marriage.  The 
legal  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  natural  rela- 
tion, for  two  persons  may  be  by  the  law  of  nature 
})arent  and  child,  while  they  are  not  legally  or 
egitimately  so.  Hence  a  radical  distinction  exists 
between  natural  or  illegitimate  and  legitimate 
children,  and  their  legal  rights  as  against  their 
parents  respectively  are  very  different.  Legitimate 
children  are  the  children  of  two  parents  who  are 
recognised  as  married  according  to  the  laws  of  the 
country  in  which  they  are  domiciled  at  the  time  of 
the  birth ;  and  according  to  the  law  of  England,  if 
a  child  is  illegitimate  at  the  time  of  the  birth, 
nothing  that  can  happen  afterwards  will  ever  make 
it  legitimate,  the  maxim  being  'once  illegitimate 
always  illegitimate '-—a  maxim  which,  as  will  be 
stated,  has  some  exceptions  in  Scotland.  In  treating 
of  the  laws  affecting  the  mutual  relation  of  parent 
and  child,  the  laws  of  England  and  Ireland,  which 
differ  from  the  law  of  Scotland  in  material  respects, 
will  first  be  stated. 

1.  As  to  Legitimate  Children. — These  laws  relate 
first  to  the  liability  of  the  parent  to  maintain  the 
child,  and  the  rights  of  the  child  in  the  event  of  the 
parent's  death.  As  regards  the  maintenance  of  the 
child,  it  is  somewhat  singular  that,  according  to  the 
law  of  England,  there  is  no  duty  whatever  on  the 
parent  to  support  the  child,  and  consequently  no 
mode  of  enforcing  such  maintenance.  The  law  of 
nature  was  probably  considered  sufficient  to  supply 
the  motives  which  urge  a  parent  to  support  the  child, 
but  the  municipal  law  of  England  has  not  made 
this  duty  compulsory.  This  defect  was  to  some 
extent  remedied  when  what  is  called  the  Poor- Law 
was  created  by  statute  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
by  which  law  parents  and  children  are  compellable 
to  a  certain  small  extent,  but  only  when  having  the 
pecuniary  means  to  do  so,  to  support  each  other,  or 
rather  to  help  the  parish  authorities  to  do  so.  But 
apart  from  the  Poor-Law  statutes,  there  is  no  legal 
obligation  on  the  parent  to  support  the  child,  nor 
on  the  child  to  support  the  parent.  Hence  it  follows, 
that  if  the  child  is  found  in  a  destitute  state,  and 
is  taken  up,  fed,  clothed,  and  saved  from  starvation 
by  a  stranger,  such  stranger  cannot  sue  the  parent 
for  the  expense,  or  any  part  of  it,  however  necessary 
to  the  child's  existence.  In  order  to  make  the  father 
liable  for  maintenance,  there  must  in  all  cases  be 
made  out  against  him  some  contract,  express  or 
implied,  by  which  he  undertook  to  pay  for  such 
expense ;  in  other  words,  the  mere  relationship 
between  the  parent  and  child  is  not  of  itself  a  ground 
of  liability.  But  when  the  child  is  living  in  the 
father's  house,  it  is  always  held  by  a  jury  or 
court  that  slight  evidence  is  sufficient  of,  at 
least,  an  implied  promise  by  the  father  to  pay  for 
such  expenses.  As,  for  example,  if  the  child  orders 
clothes  or  provisions,  and  the  father  see  these  in  use 
or  in  process  of  consumption,  it  will  be  taken  that 
he  assented  to  and  adopted  the  contract,  and  so  will 
be  bound  to  pay  for  them.  So  if  a  parent  put  a 
child  to  a  boarding-school,  very  slight  evidence  of 
a  contract  will  be  held  sufficient  to  fix  him  with 
liability.  Nevertheless,  in  strictness  of  law,  it  is  as 
necessary  to  prove  a  contract  or  agreement  on  the 
part  of  the  parent  to  pay  for  these  expenses  as  it  is 
368 


to  fix  him  with  liability  in  respect  of  any  other 
matter.     When  it  is  said  that  a  parent  is  not  com- 
pellable by  the  common  law  to  maintain  his  child, 
it  must,  at  the  same  time,  be  observed  that  if  a 
child  is  put  under  the  care  and  dominion   of   an 
adult  person,  and  the  latter  wilf idly  neglect  or  refuse 
to  feed  or  maintain  such  child,  whereby  the  child 
dies  or  is  injured,  such  adult  will  incur  the  penalties 
of  misdemeanour;  but  this  offence  does  not  result 
from  the  relationship  of  parent  and  child,  and  may 
arise  between  an  adult  and  child  in  any  circum- 
stances, as  where  a  child  is  an  apprentice  or  servant 
The  change  as  to  the  liability  of  parents  to  main- 
tain their  children  created  by  the  Poor-Laws  amounts 
merely  to  this,  that  if  a  person  is  chargeable  to  the 
parish,  which  means  that  such  person   is   utterly 
destitute,   and    if  the   overseers    or  guardians   are 
bound  to   support   him   or    her,   then    the    parish 
authorities    may  reimburse    themselves    this    out- 
lay, or  part  of  it,  by  obtaining  from  justices  of  the 
peace  an  order  commanding  the  parent  or  child  of 
such  pauper  to  pay  a  certain  sum  per  week  towards 
the  relief.     This  is,  however,  only  competent  when 
the  relative   is  able  to  pay  such   sum,  and  in  all 
cases  the  sum  is  of  necessity  very  small.     Not  only 
parents,  but   grand-parents,   are   liable  under  the 
Poor-Law  Act  to  the  extent  mentioned.     Another 
provision  in  the  Poor-Law  and  other  kindred  acts  is, 
that  if  a  parent  runs  away  and  deserts  his  children, 
leaving  them  destitute  and  a  burden  on  the  parish, 
the  overseers  are  entitled  to  seize  and  sell  his  goods, 
if  any,  for  the   benefit  and   maintenance  of   such 
children  ;  and  if  the  parent,  so  deserting  the  chil- 
dren, is  able  .by  work  or  other  means  to  support 
them,  such  parent  may  be  committed  to  prison  as 
a  rogue  and  vagabond.     Not  only,  therefore,  is  a 
parent  during  life  not  bound  to  maintain  his  or  her 
child  (with  the  above  exceptions),  but  also  after  the 
parent's   death    the   executors  or  other  represen- 
tatives of  the  parent,  though  in  possession  of  funds, 
are  not  bound.     It  is  true  that  if  the  parent  die 
intestate,  both  the  real  and  personal  property  will 
go  to  the  children  ;  but  the  parent  is  entitled,  if  he 
choose,  to  disinherit  the  children,  and  give  away  all 
his  property  to  strangers,  provided  he  execute  his 
will  in  due  form,  which  he  may  competently  do  on 
death-bed  if  in  possession  of  his  faculties. 

Another  important  point  of  law,  affecting  the 
mutual  relation  of  parent  and  child,  is  the  right  of  the 
parent  to  the  custody  of  the  child.  At  common  law 
it  is  the  father  who  has  the  right  to  the  custody 
of  the  child  until  majority  at  least,  as  against 
third  parties,  and  no  court  will  deprive  him  of  such 
custody  except  on  strong  grounds.  Whenever  the 
child  is  entitled  to  property,  the  Court  of  Chancery 
so  far  controls  his  parental  right,  that  if  the  father 
is  shewn  to  act  with  cruelty,  or  to  be  guilty  of 
immorality,  a  guardian  will  be  appointed.  A  court 
of  common  law  also  has  often  to  decide  in  cases  of 
children  brought  before  it  by  habeas  corpus,  when 
parties  have  had  the  custody  against  the  father's 
will.  In  such  cases,  if  the  child  is  under  fourteen, 
called  the  age  of  nurture,  and  the  father  is  not  shewn 
to  be  cruel  or  immoral,  the  court  will  order  the 
child  to  be  delivered  up  to  him ;  but  if  the  child  is 
above  fourteen,  or,  as  some  say,  above  sixteen,  the 
court  will  allow  the  child  to  choose  where  to  go. 
So  the  father  is  entitled  by  his  will  to  appoint  a 
guardian  to  his  children  while  they  are  under  age. 
The  mother  had,  at  common  law,  no  right  as  against 
the  father  to  the  custody  of  the  chddren,  however 
young ;  but  under  Talfourd's  Act  (2  and  3  Vict.  51), 
she  is  entitled  to  the  custody  of  the  child  while 
under  seven  years  of  age,  or  rather  she  is  entitled 
to  apply  to  the  Court  of  Chancery  for  leave  to  keep 
the  children  whde  under  that  age,  provided  she  is 


PARENT  AND  CHILD. 


not  acting  immorally,  or  is  otherwise  onobjection- 
able  in  pouit  of  character.  In  all  such  applications 
the  court  has  a  discretion  to  giant  or  refuse  her 
the  favour,  and  is  guided  l>y  information  as  to  the 
mother's  character.  In  case  of  divorce  or  judicial 
reparation,  the  Court  of  Divorce  has  power  to  direct 
who  is  to  have  the  custody  of  the  children. 

2.  Illegitimate  Children. — It  has  been  already 
stated  that,  at  common  law,  the  parent  of  a  legiti- 
mate child  is  not  bound  to  maintain  it,  ami  this  is 
equally  true  of  an  illegitimate  child — i.e.,  a  child 
born  not  in  wedlock.  In  strictness  of  law,  an  ille- 
gitimate child  has  no  father,  which  means  practi- 
cally that  in  case  of  the  death  of  the  father  without 
making  a  will,  the  law  will  not  treat  such  child  as 
entitled  to  the  ordinary  legal  rights  of  a  legitimate 
child — i.  e.,  to  a  share  of  the  father's  property.  The 
child  is  not  legally  related  to  the  father  in  this 
sense.  With  regard  to  the  mother,  she  also  is  not 
bound  to  maintain  her  child  according  to  the  com- 
mon law  ;  but  the  Poor- Law  Acts  have  made  an 
important  qualification  of  her  rights  and  duties. 
As  between  the  father  and  mother  of  the  child,  the 
law  is  this :  The  father  is  not  bound  even  by  the 
Poor-Lawa  to  maintain  the  child,  and  the  parish 
officers  cannot  now  institute  any  proceeding  what- 
ever against  him  for  this  purpose ;  but  the  mother 
can,  to  a  certain  extent,  enforce  against  him  not  the 
entire  maintenance  of  the  child,  but  a  contribution 
towards  such  maintenance.  It  is  entirely  discre- 
tionary on  the  mother  to  take  any  proceeding 
against  the  father,  but  if  she  chooses  she  can  do  so  ; 
and  the  first  step  is  to  go  before  a  justice  of  the 
peace,  and  obtain  a  summons  of  affiliation.  The 
father  is  thus  cited  before  the  magistrate,  and  if  the 
mother  swears  that  he  is  the  father  of  the  child, 
and  is  corroborated  in  some  material  part  of  this 
statement  by  a  third  party,  the  magistrate  may 
make  an  order  against  the  father  to  pay  the 
expenses  of  lying-in,  and  a  weekly  sum  not  exceed- 
ing half-a-crown  till  the  child  attains  the  age  of 
thirteen.  The  mother  may  make  this  application 
either  a  few  months  before  the  birth,  or  within 
twalve  months  after  the  birth  ;  and  even  after  that 
time,  provided  she  can  prove  that  the  putative 
father  paid  her  some  money  on  account  of  the  child 
within  such  twelve  months.  The  putative  father, 
in  these  cases,  is  a  competent  witness  on  his  own 
behalf.  The  utmost,  therefore,  that  the  father  can 
be  made  to  contribute  towards  the  child's  main- 
tenance is  only  a  portion  of  the  whole,  the  chief 
burden  being  thrown  on  the  mother,  who  is  assumed 
to  be  the  more  blameable  party.  Though  she  is  not 
bound  by  the  common  law  to  maintain  her  child, 
yet  the  Poor- Laws  make  her  liable  to  maintain  the 
child  till  it  attains  sixteen ;  and  not  only  is  she 
bound,  but  any  man  who  marries  her  is  also  by 
statute  bound  to  support  all  her  illegitimate  (and 
also  legitimate)  children  till  they  attain  sixteen. 
The  result  is,  that  illegitimate  children  under  sixteen 
are  better  provided  for  by  the  present  state  of  the 
law  than  legitimate  children,  inasmuch  as  the  mother 
is  positively  bound  to  support  her  illegitimate  child, 
though  not  bound  to  support  her  legitimate  child. 
As  regards  the  custody  of  ^legitimate  children,  the 
mother  is  the  party  exclusively  entitled,  for  the 
father  is  not  deemed,  in  point  of  law,  to  be  related 
to  such  child.  Yet  if  the  father  has,  in  point  of 
fact,  obtained  the  custody  of  such  child,  and  the 
child  is  taken  away  by  fraud,  the  courts  will  restore 
the  child  to  his  custody,  so  as  to  put  him  in 
the  same  position  as  before.  Though  illegitimate 
children  will  not  succeed  to  the  father's  property  in 
the  event  of  his  dying  without  a  will,  there  is 
nothing  to  prevent  him  making  his  will  in  their 
favour,  provided  he   expressly  name  and  identify 


them,  and  not  leave  it  to  them  by  the  description 
of  'his  children,'  which  in  point  of  law  they  are 
not. 

Srntland. — The  law  of  parent  and  child  in  Scot- 
land differs  materially  from  the  law  of  England  and 
Ireland.  In  Scotland,  a  child  may  be  born  a 
bastard,  and  yet  if  the  parents  afterwards  marry, 
this  will  legitimise  the  child,  and  give  the  child 
the  right  to  succeed  to  the  father's  property.  A 
difficulty  sometimes  arises  where,  before  the  father 
and  mother  of  a  bastard  marry,  the  father  has  had 
a  legitimate  family  by  another  woman,  in  which  case 
it  is  held  that  the  bastard,  though  oldest  in  point 
of  age,  does  not  take  precedence  of  the  legitimate 
children.  The  law  of  Scotland  also  differs  from 
that  of  England  as  regards  the  obligation  of  parent 
and  child  to  maintain  each  other.  There  is  a  legal 
obligation  on  both  parties  to  maintain  each  other  if 
able  to  do  so,  and  either  may  sue  the  other  for  ali- 
ment at  common  law ;  but  this  obligation  extends 
only  to  what  may  be  called  subsistence  money,  and 
does  not  vary  according  to  the  rank  of  the  party. 
Thus  an  eari  i3  bound  to  pay  no  more  for  the  ali- 
ment of  his  son  than  any  other  father.  As  regards 
all  maintenance  beyond  mere  subsistence,  the  law 
does  not  materially  differ  from  that  of  England,  and 
a  contract  must  be  proved  against  the  father  before 
he  can  be  held  liable  to  pay.  The  legal  liability  as 
between  parent  and  child  is  qualified  in  this  way  by 
the  common  law,  that  if  a  person  has  both  a  father 
and  a  child  living  and  able  to  siipport  him,  then  the 
child  is  primarily  liable,  and  next  the  grandchild, 
after  whom  comes  the  father,  and  next  the  grand- 
father. Not  only  are  parent  and  child  liable  to 
support  each  other  while  the  party  supporting  is 
alive,  but  if  he  die,  his  executors  are  also  liable ; 
and  this  liability  is  not  limited  by  the  age  of 
majority,  but  continues  during  the  life  of  the  party 
supported.  Such  being  the  common  law  of  Scotland, 
it  was  scarcely  necessary,  as  in  England,  for  the 
Poor-Law  to  supply  any  defect ;  but  the  Scotch  Poor- 
Law  supplements  the  common  law,  by  imposing  a 
penalty  on  a  father  or  mother  (though  not  vice 
versd)  who  neglects  to  support  a  child.  Another 
advantage  which  a  Scotch  child  has  over  an  English 
child  is,  that  the  father  cannot  disinherit  it— at 
least  so  far  as  concerns  his  movable  property  ;  and 
even  in  case  of  heritable  property,  the  rights  of 
the  child  are  so  far  protected,  that  unless  the  father 
makes  away  with  his  heritable  property  sixty  days 
before  his  death,  or  at  least  when  he  is  in  a  sound 
state  of  health,  he  cannot  do  so  on  his  death-bed, 
and  when  seized  with  his  last  illness,  to  the  preju- 
dice of  his  heir-at-law.  This  is  called  the  Law 
of  Death-bed  (q.  v.) ;  but  as  regards  the  father's 
movable  property,  he  cannot  by  any  will  he  can  make 
at  any  time  of  his  life  deprive  the  children  of  one- 
third,  or,  if  their  mother  is  dead,  of  one-half  of  such 
property.  This  is  called  the  children's  right  to 
Legitim  (q.  v.),  a  right  which  they  can  vindicate, 
whatever  may  be  their  age  when  the  father  dies. 
With  regard  to  the  custody  of  children  in  Scotland, 
the  rule  is,  that  the  father  is  entitled  to  the  custody 
as  between  him  and  the  mother ;  but  the  Court  of 
Session  has  power  to  regulate  the  custody  in  case 
the  children  are  entitled  to  property,  and  the  father 
is  of  an  immoral  or  cruel  character ;  and  the  court 
will  also  interfere  to  allow  to  the  mother  access  to 
the  chddren  at  certain  times  and  seasons.  Another 
important  difference  between  a  Scotch  and  English 
child  is  this,  that  whereas  in  England  the  father  or 
guardian,  or  the  Court  of  Chancery,  has  power  to 
control  the  custody  of  the  person  of  the  child  to 
a  certain  extent,  until  the  child  attains  the  age  of 
21,  in  Scotland  such  powsr  entirely  ceases  when 
the  child  attains  the  age  of  14  or  12,  according  aa 

369 


PA  RENTHE8IS— PARIS. 


such  child  is  mam  or  female.  At  the  age  of  14,  a 
boy,  and  at  12,  a  girl,  in  Scotland,  is  entire  master 
or  mistress  of  his>  or  her  movements,  and  can  live 
where  he  or  she  pleases,  regardless  of  any  parent  or 
court.  They  cau  marry  at  that  age  at  their  own 
uncontrolled  discretion,  and  act  in  all  respects  with 
the  same  freedom  as  adults.  As  regards  the  dis- 
position of  their  property  there  are  some  restrictions, 
but  as  regards  the  disposal  of  their  persons  there 
are  none,  after  the  ages  of  14  and  12  respectively. 

2.  Illegitimate  Children. — The  law  of  Scotland  as 
to  illegitimate  children  also  differs  in  some  respects 
from  that  of  England.  Both  the  father  and  mother 
of  a  bastard  are  bound  by  law  to  support  such 
chdd,  and  the  obligation  transmits  to  the  personrl 
representatives  of  the  father  or  mother.  Moreover, 
by  the  Poor- Law  statute  both  are  liable  to  a  penalty 
for  neglecting  to  support  the  child.  The  mother  of 
illegitimate  children  is  entitled  to  their  custody  till 
the  age  of  ten,  if  daughters,  and  if  sons,  till  the  age 
of  seven ;  but  the  limit  is  not  clearly  denned.  If 
the  father  support  the  child  after  the  above  age,  he 
is  entitled  to  the  custody.  The  mother  does  not 
apply  to  a  magistrate  for  a  summons  of  affiliation  in 
order  to  fix  the  paternity ;  but  she  may  bring  an 
action  of  filiation  and  aliment,  in  which  the  question 
of  paternity  is  settled.  The  father  may  be  judicially 
examined,  and  is  a  competent  witness  ;  and  it  is 
usual  for  the  court  to  decree  an  aliment,  varying 
from  £4  per  annum  against  labourers,  up  to  £10 
against  persons  in  better  circumstances.  In  Scot- 
land, as  in  England,  the  father  of  a  bastard  child 
is  not  deemed  related,  in  point  of  law,  to  such 
child ;  and  if  he  desires  to  provide  for  such  child, 
it  must  be  done  by  deed  or  will,  in  which  the  child 
is  identified,  and  not  merely  described  under  the 
general  designation  of  '  child,'  which  he  is  not. 

PARENTHESIS,  a  term  originally  Greek,  and 
signifying  insertion  or  intercalation,  is  in  composition 
a  clause,  or  part  of  a  sentence  or  argument,  not 
absolutely  essential  to  the  sense,  but  generally 
serving  either  for  explanation  or  confirmation, 
sometimes  chiefly  for  rhetorical  effect.  A  paren- 
thesis is  usually  included  between  the  marks  (  ), 
instead  of  which  the  dash  ( — )  at  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  parenthesis  is  frequently  but 
improperly  employed. 

PARIAH  DOG.     See  Cur. 

PARIAN.    See  Pottery. 

PARIAN    CHRONICLE. 

Marbles. 

PA'RIAS  is  the  name  given  to  the  lowest  class  of 
the  population  of  India, — to  that  class  which,  not 
belonging  to  any  of  the  castes  of  the  Brahminical 
system,  is  shunned  even  by  the  lowest  Hindu  pro- 
fessing the  Brahminical  religion,  as  touching  a  Paria 
would  render  him  impure.  The  P.  seem  to  belong 
to  a  negro  race,  as  appears  from  their  short  woolly 
hair,  flat  nose,  and  thick  lips  ;  they  are,  besides,  of 
short  stature,  and  their  propensities  are  of  the 
coarsest  kind.  Despised  by  the  Hindus,  and  ill  used 
by  the  conquerors  of  India,  they  have,  in  some 
parts  of  India,  gradually  sunk  so  low  that,  to  judge 
from  the  description  which  is  given  of  their  mode 
of  living  by  different  writers,  it  is  scarcely  possible 
to  imagine  a  more  degraded  position  than  that  which 
is  occupied  by  these  miserable  beings. 

PA'RID^E  and  PARUS.     See  Tit. 

PARING  and  BURNING  consists  in  cutting 
off  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  thin  slices,  which  are 
then  dried  and  burned  This  is  the  most  effectual 
way  of  reclaiming  peat  and  other  waste  land,  the 
surface  of  which  is  matted  with  coarse  plants, 
difficult  of  decay.  It  is  aho  applied  advantageously 
270 


See   Arundel 


to  cold  clay  soils,  apt  to  produce  rank  weeds  and 
coarse  grasses,  which  are  to  be  broken  up  after  lying 
for  some  time  in  grass.  The  ashes  of  the  plants, 
consisting  of  potash  and  other  salts,  act  as  a  power- 
ful manure  ;  while  the  clay  being  reduced  to  the 
state  of  brick-dust,  both  improves  the  texture  of 
the  soil,  and  acts  as  an  absorbent  for  retaining 
moisture  and  nutritive  gases,  and  giving  them  out 
to  the  roots  of  growing  plants.  On  thin  light  soils 
the  operation  is  rarely  advisable,  for  much  of  the 
scanty  volatile  vegetable  matter  is  dissipated  ;  how- 
ever  if  care  is  taken  to  make  the  turfs  merely 
smoulder  without  flame,  so  that  the  plants  are 
rather  charred  than  burned,  it  is  doubtful  whethee 
more  dissipation  takes  place  than  if  the  plants  were 
ploughed  down,  and  allowed  slowly  to  decay.  The 
plot  to  be  reclaimed  should,  if  necessary,  be  dried  by 
stone  or  tile  drains  ;  and  all  large  stones  grubbed 
up,  and  carted  or  conveyed  off  upon  sledges.  The 
paring  is  to  be  done,  if  possible,  in  the  months  of 
April  and  May,  in  order  to  have  the  most  favourable 
part  of  the  year  for  drying  the  parings  well  before 
burning.  There  are  ploughs  specially  made  for  paring, 
with  a  very  flat  share ;  but  the  best  method  is  to 
employ  the  breast-plotigh  or  paring-spade,  as  the 
surface  is  in  most  cases  very  irregular,  and  it  is 
desirable  to  have  the  slices  very  thin.  The  parings 
shoidd  be  burned  directly  they  are  sufficiently  dry,  as, 
after  lying  a  month  or  six  weeks,  they  begin  to  unite 
with  the  ground,  and  imbibe  moisture  from  the  young 
grass  vegetating  beneath  them.  Sometimes  they  can 
be  burned  as  they  lie,  without  being  collected  into 
heaps  ;  and  in  this  way,  the  fire,  in  consuming  the 
lingy  side,  which  is  undermost,  chars  the  surface  of 
the  sod  at  the  same  time.  If  burned  in  heaps,  the 
heaps  shoidd  be  very  small,  in  order  to  secure  a  good 
black  ash,  instead  of  the  hard  lumps  of  red  ash 
produced  by  large  fires.  The  weeds  or  refuse 
organic  matters  are  thus  only  charred,  instead  of 
being  entirely  burned  away ;  whilst  the  mineral 
matters  are  left  in  a  soluble  state  instead  of  being 
reduced,  as  is  too  apt  to  be  the  case  where  the 
operation  is  carelessly  conducted,  into  an  insoluble 
semi-vitrified  slag.  To  attain  these  desirable 
results  a  smouldering  fire  must  be  maintained,  by 
keeping  the  outside  layer  of  sods  so  close  as  to 
prevent  the  fire  from  kindling  into  flame.  The 
ashes  should  be  spread,  care  being  taken  to  clear 
the  bottoms  of  the  heaps  well  out,  so  that  the  first 
crop  may  be  free  from  patches.  The  cost  of  thus 
paring,  burning,  and  spreading  is  about  £1  per  acre. 

PA'RIS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  small  endogenous 
or  dictyogenous  natural  order  Trilliaceee,  of  which 
one  species,  P.  quadri/olia,  called  Herb  Paris,  is 
not  uncommon  in  moist  shady  woods  in  some  parts 
of  Britain.  It  is  rarely  more  than  a  foot  high, 
with  one  whorl  of  generally  four  leaves,  and  a 
solitary  flower  on  the  top  of  the  stem,  followed  by 
a  berry.  The  berry  is  reputed  narcotic  and  poison- 
ous, but  its  juice  has  been  employed  to  cure 
inflammation  of  the  eyes.  The  root  has  been  used 
as  an  emetic. 

PARIS,  also  called  Alexander,  was,  according 
to  Homer,  the  second  son  of  Priam  and  Hecabe, 
sovereigns  of  Troy.  His  mother  dreamed  during 
her  pregnancy  that  she  gave  birth  to  a  firebrand, 
which  set  the  whole  city  on  fire,  a  dream  interpreted 
by  ^Esacus  or  Cassandra  to  signify  that  P.  should 
originate  a  war  which  should  end  in  the  destruction 
of  his  native  city.  To  prevent  its  realisation,  Priam 
caused  the  infant  to  be  exposed  upon  Mount  Ida 
by  a  shepherd  named  Agelaus,  who  found  him, 
five  days  after,  alive  and  well,  a  she-bear  having 
given  him  suck.  Agelaus  brought  him  up  as  his 
own  son,  and  he  became  a  shepherd  on  Mount  Ida, 


PARIS. 


distinguishing  himself  by  his  valour  in  protecting 
her  shepherds  from  their  enemies— whence 
his  name,  Alexander,  'the  defender  of  men.'  An 
accident  having  revealed  his  parentage,  old  Priam 
became  reconciled  to  his  son,  who  married  QSnone, 
daughter  of  the  river-god  Cehren.  But  his  mother's 
dream  was  to  come  true  for  all  that.  He  was 
appealed  to,  as  umpire,  in  a  strife  which  had  arisen 
■inong  the  three  goddesses,  Hera  (Juno),  Athene 
(Minerva),  and  Aphrodite  (Venus),  as  to  which 
of  them  was  the  most  beautiful,  the  goddess  Eris 
(Strife)  having  revengefully  Hung  among  them,  at 
a  feast  to  which  she  had  not  been  invited,  a  golden 
apple  (of  discord)  insoribed  To  tlw.  Most  Beautiful. 
Each  of  the  three  endeavoured  to  bribe  him.  Hera 
promised  him  dominion  over  Asia  and  wealth ; 
Athene,  military  renown  and  wisdom ;  Aphrodite, 
the  fairest  of  women  for  his  wife — to  wit,  Helene, 
the  wife  of  the  Lacedaemonian  king,  Menelaus. 
P.  decided  in  favour  of  Aphrodite,  hence  the 
animosity  which  the  other  two  goddesses  displayed 
against  the  Trojans  in  the  war  that  followed.  P.  now 
proceeded  to  seek  Helene,  whom  he  carried  away 
from  Lacedremon  in  her  husband's  absence.  '  The  rape 
of  Helen'  is  the  legendary  cause  of  the  Trojan  war, 
on  account  of  which  P.  incurred  the  hatred  of  his 
countrymen.  He  deceitfully  slew  Achilles  in  the 
temple  of  Apollo.     He  was  himself  wounded  by  a 

Eoisoned  arrow,  and  went  to  Mount  Ida  to  be  cured 
y  CEnone,  who  possessed  great  powers  of  healing ; 
but  she  avenged  herself  for  his  unfaithfulness  to 
her  by  refusing  to  assist  him,  and  he  returned  to 
Troy,  and  died.  He  was  often  represented  in 
ancient  works  of  art  generally  as  a  beardless 
youth,  of  somewhat  effeminate  beauty. 

PARIS  (the  ancient  Lutetia  Parislorum),  the 
metropolis  of  France,  is  situated  in  48°  50'  N.  lat., 
and  2°  20'  E.  long.,  in  the  valley  of  the  Seine,  about 
110  miles  from  its  mouth.  Population  of  the  city, 
in  1872,  1,851,792,  and  its  circumference  upwards 
of  25  miles.  It  lies  in  a  hollow,  about  200  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is  surrounded  by 
low  hills,  which  in  their  highest  ranges  to  the 
north  only  attain  an  elevation  of  290  or  300 
feet,  as  at  Montmartre  and  Belleville.  These 
hills,  which  are  separated  by  narrow  valleys,  or 
plateaux,  as  those  of  St  Denis  to  the  north,  Ivry 
to  the  east,  Montrouge  to  the  south,  and  Grenelle 
to  the  soiith-west,  are  encircled  at  a  distance  of 
from  two  to  five  miles  by  an  outer  range  of 
heights,  including  Villejuif,  Meudon,  St  Cloud, 
and  Mont-Valerien,  the  highest  point  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  the  city.  The  southern  parts  of 
the  city  are  built  over  beds  of  limestone  rich  in 
fossds,  which  have  been  so  extensively  quarried  as 
to  have  become  a  mere  network  of  vast  caverns, 
which  in  some  cases  scarcely  afford  sufficient  sup- 
port to  the  houses  above.  These  quarries  were 
first  converted  in  1784  into  catacombs,  in  which 
are  deposited  the  bones  of  the  dead,  collected  from 
the  ancient  cemeteries  of  Paris.  The  Seine,  which 
enters  Paris  in  the  south-east  at  Bercy,  and  leaves 
it  at  Passy  in  the  west,  divides  the  city  into  two 
parts,  and  forms  the  two  islands  of  La  Cite  and 
St  Louis,  which  are  both  covered  with  buildings ; 
the  former,  the  nucleus  of  ancient  P.,  containing 
the  cathedral  of  Notre- Dame,  the  Palais  de  Justice, 
and  the  Saint  Chapelle ;  and  the  latter  the  HStel 
Lambert  and  the  Church  of  St  Louis. 

The  earliest  notice  of  P.  occurs  in  Julius  Caesar's 
Commentaries,  in  which  it  is  described  under  the 
name  of  Lutetia,  as  a  collection  of  mud  huts,  com- 
posing the  chief  settlement  of  the  Parisii,  a  Gallic 
tribe,  conquered  by  the  Romans.  The  ruins  of 
the  Palatium  Thermarum  (Palais  des  Thermes), 
ascribed  to  Constantine  Chlorus,  is  the  only  evidence 


of  the  presence  of  the  early  Roman  settlers  in 
ancient  Lutetia,  which  began  in  the  4th  c.  to  be 
known  as   I'ansia.      In   the  6th  c.  it  was  chosen  by 

Clovis  as  the  seat  of  government;  and  after  having 
fallen  into  decay  under  the  Carlovingian  kings,  in 
whose  time  it  suffered  severely  from  frequent 
invasions  of  the  Northmen,  it  was  formally  recog- 
nised in  the  10th  c.  as  the  capital  of  the  Prankish 
monarchy,  being  especially  favoured  by  Hugh 
Capet,  who  granted  it  a  municipal  government,  and 
by  his  encouragement  of  learning  laid  the  foun  la- 
tion  of  the  reputation  of  the  P.  schools.     Prom  this 

1>eriod,  P.  continued  rapidly  to  increase,  until  it 
tad  doubled  in  size  and  population  within  two 
centuries.  In  the  middle  ages,  P.  was  divided  into 
three  distinct  parts — La  Citfj,  on  the  island  ;  the 
Ville,  on  the  right  bank  ;  and  the  Quartier  I^atin, 
or  University,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  Louis 
XI.  did  much  to  enlarge  the  city,  and  to  efface  the 
disastrous  results  of  its  hostile  occupation  by  the 
English  during  the  wars  under  Henry  V.  and 
Henry  VI.  of  England,  but  its  progress  was  again 
checked  during  the  wars  of  the  last  of  the  Valois, 
when  the  city  had  to  sustain  several  sieges.  On 
the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  of  Navarre,  in  1589,  a 
new  era  was  opened  to  Paris.  The  improve- 
ments commenced  under  his  reign  were  conti- 
nued under  the  minority  of  his  son,  Louis  XIII. ; 
and  on  the  accession  of  Louis  XIV.,  the  completion 
of  several  bridges,  roads,  and  quays,  and  the 
erection  of  various  public  and  private  palaces,  had 
put  a  new  face  on  the  old  city.  To  the  Grand 
Monarque,  P.  owed  a  still  greater  debt,  for  in 
addition  to  the  opening  of  80  new  streets,  and  the 
conversion  of  the  old  ramparts  into  public  walks,  or 
boulevards,  he  organised  a  regular  system  of  police, 
established  drainage  and  sewerage  works,  founded 
hospitals,  alms-houses,  public  schools,  scientific 
societies,  dramatic  institutions,  and  learned  estab- 
lishments of  various  kinds,  and  thus  gave  to  P.  the 
indisputable  right  of  being  regarded  as  the  focus 
of  European  civilisation,  learning,  and  elegance. 
The  terrible  days  of  the  Revolution  caused  a 
temporary  reaction ;  the  Parisian  mob  of  that 
period  of  anarchy  were  more  intent  on  destroying 
historical  records  of  the  past  than  in  erecting 
monuments  for  the  future.  It  needed  all  the  genius 
of  Napoleon  to  obliterate  the  damage  done  to  the 
French  metropolis  during  the  reign  of  the  people. 
With  a  strong  hand  he  arrested  the  further  demoli- 
tion of  the  old  city,  and  with  extraordinary  rapidity 
P.  was  remodelled  on  a  new  and  grander  scale.  New 
quays,  bridges,  markets,  streets,  squares,  and  public 
gardens  were  created.  All  the  treasures  of  arts 
and  science  which  his  conquests  in  other  lands 
placed  in  his  power  were  appropriated  and  applied 
to  the  embellishment  of  the  capital,  in  the  restora- 
tion of  which  he  spent  more  than  £4,000,000 
sterling  in  twelve  years.  The  downfall  of  the 
emperor  arrested  all  further  progress,  and  deprived 
P.  of  many  of  her  ill-gotten  treasures. 

Under  Louis  XVIII.  and  Charles  X.  little  was 
done  towards  the  improvement  of  Paris.  Renova- 
tion of  various  sorts  commenced  under  Louis- 
Philippe  ;  but  as  lately  as  1834,  much  of  the  old 
style  of  things  remained  ;  the  gutters  ran  down  the 
middle  of  the  streets,  there  was  little  underground 
drainage  from  the  houses,  oil-lamps  were  suspended 
on  cords  over  the  middle  of  the  thoroughfares,  and, 
except  in  one  or  two  streets,  there  were  no  side- 
pavements.  Old  fantastic  costumes  were  also  still 
seen,  and  the  harness  employed  for  carriage  horses 
was  stiH  chiefly  of  rope.  The  introduction  of  a 
copious  supply  of  water  to  public  fountains,  of  gas- 
hghting,  and  a  better  kind  of  street  paving,  are  due 
to  the  reign  of  Louis-Philippe.      It  was  reserved, 

in 


PARTS. 


however,  for  Napoleon  III.  to  render  P.  a  thoroughly 
modern  city.  Under  his  rule,  P.  may  be  said  to 
have  heen  almost  rebuilt,  and  to  surpass  in  beauty 
all  other  cities  of  Europe.  Streets  were  widened 
and  beautified,  and  new  and  spacious  thoroughfares 
were  opened  up  through  old  and  densely-built  dis- 
tricts; by  which,  and  numerous  other  undertakings, 
sustained  by  reckless  expenditure  of  the  money  of 
an  unwilling  people,  he  aspired  to  imitate  Augustus 
Caesar,  when  he  said,  'I  found  Koine  brick  and  left 
it  marble.' 

Before  going  into  details,  it  is  proper  to  mention 
that  P.  is  a  city  built  of  a  light-coloured  kind  of 
limestone,  easily  wrought  and  carved  ornamentally. 
With  this  material,  the  houses  are  reared  in 
huge  blocks,  rising  to  a  height  of  six  or  seven 
stories ;  each  floor  constituting  a  distinct  dwell- 
ing ;  access  to  all  the  floors  in  a  tenement  being 
gained  by  a  common  stair,  which  is  usually  placed 
under  the  charge  of  a  porter  at  the  entrance.  Very 
frequently,  the  tenements  surround  an  open  quad- 
rangle, to  which  there  is  a  spacious  entry,  the 
gate  of  which  is  kept  by  a  porter  for  the  whole 
inhabitants  of  the  several  stairs.  In  these  respects, 
therefore,  P.  differs  entirely  from  London ;  for 
instead  of  extending  rows  of  small  brick  buildings 
of  a  temporary  kind  over  vast  spaces,  the  plan  con- 
sists of  piling  durable  houses  on  the  top  of  each 
other,  and  confining  the  population  to  a  compara- 
tively limited  area.  Whether  this  device,  which  is 
adapted  to  the  gregarious  character  of  the  French, 
could  be  successfully  applied  in  London,  remains 
uncertain. 

Of  the  bridges  (about  30  in  number)  which  now 
span  the  river,  8  have  been  constructed  since 
1852,  and  several  of  the  others  were  rebuilt  or  re- 
paired during  the  reign  of  Napoleon  III.  The 
most  celebrated  and  ancient  are  the  Pont  Notre- 
Dame,  erected  in  1500,  and  the  Pont-Neuf,  begun 
in  1578,  completed  by  Henri  IV.  in  1604,  and 
thoroughly  renovated  in  1852.  This  bridge,  which 
crosses  the  Seine  at  the  north  of  the  Ile-de- 
la-Cit§,  is  built  on  12  arches,  and  abuts  near  the 
middle  on  a  small  peninsula,  jutting  out  into  the 
river,  and  planted  with  trees,  which  form  a  back- 
ground to  the  statue  of  Henri  IV.  on  horseback, 
which  stands  in  the  central  open  space  on  the 
bridge.  Among  the  other  bridges,  the  handsomest 
are,  the  Pont  de  la  Concorde,  160  yards  long,  built 
in  1787 — 1790;  the  Pont  du  Carrousel,  with  its 
colossal  allegorical  figures  at  each  end ;  Pont 
d'Austerlitz  and  Pont  d'Jena,  both  of  the  time  of 
the  First  Empire ;  and  the  Pont  des  Invalides, 
Pont  de  l'Alma,  and  Pont  de  Solferino — all  hand- 
some structures,  adorned  with  military  and  naval 
trophies,  commemorative  of  events  and  victories 
connected  with  the  present  dynasty.  These  bridges 
all  communicate  directly  with  the  spacious  quays, 
planted  with  trees,  which  line  both  banks  of 
the  Seine,  and  which,  together  with  the  Boule- 
vards, give  special  characteristic  beauty  to  the 
city.  Although  the  most  ancient  quays — as  those 
des  Augustins  and  de  la  Megisserie — date  from  the 
14th  c,  the  greater  part  of  these  magnificent  em- 
bankments, measuring  12  miles  in  extent,  is  due  to 
the  first  Napoleon  and  the  present  emperor.  The 
Boulevards,  of  which  there  are  22,  and  which  extend 
in  a  semicircular  fine  on  the  right  side  of  the  Seine, 
between  the  nucleus  of  the  city  and  its  surrounding 
quarters,  present  the  most  striking  feature  of  Paris 
life.  In  all  the  better  parts  of  the  city  they  are 
lined  with  trees,  seats,  and  little  towers  called 
V espasie.ines,  covered  with  advertisements.  Res- 
taurants, cafes,  shops,  and  various  places  of  amuse- 
ment succeed  one  another  for  mdes,  their  character 
varying  from  the  height  of  luxury  and  elegance  in 


the  western  Boulevard  des  Italiens,  to  the  homely 
simplicity  of  the  eastern  Boulevards  Beaumarchais 
and  St  Denis,  where,  however,  the  old  character  of 
squalor  and  villany,  for  which  the  streets  and 
inhabitants  were  noted,  has  nearly  disappeared 
under  the  thorough  renovation  of  the  reign  of  Napo- 
leon III.  The  Porte  St  Martin  and  Porte  St  Denis, 
which  were  erected  by  Louis  XIV".  to  commemorate 
his  victories  in  the  Low  Countries,  and  are  adorned 
with  bas-reliefs  representing  events  of  these 
campaigns,  mark  the  ancient  limits  of  the  most 
turbulent  quarters  of  the  Paris  of  the  past,  while  the 
Arc  de  l'Etoile,  begun  by  Napoleon  in  1806,  and 
completed  in  1836  at  a  cost  of  more  than  £400,000, 
may  be  said  to  form  the  extreme  western  boundary 
of  the  aristocratic  quarters.  This  arch,  which  bounds 
the  Champs-Elysees,  and  has  the  reputation  of  being 
the  largest  in  the  world,  has  a  total  height  of  152 
feet  and  a  breadth  of  137.  It  is  profusely  adorned 
with  bas-  and  alto-reliefs,  representing  the  careei 
and  victories  of  Napoleon  ;  and  from  its  position, 
at  the  end  of  the  noble  avenue  of  the  Champs- 
Elysees,  forms  a  grand  terminal  vista  to  the 
Tuileries.  P.  has  1300  streets,  many  of  which,  in 
the  central  parts,  are  narrow  and  crooked,  without 
side-pavements,  and  often  dark  from  the  height 
of  the  houses,  which  have  from  four  to  seven 
stories.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  the  eastern 
quarters  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seiue,  where  there 
are  labyrinths  of  dirty,  winding  streets.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  plan  of  the  improvements  designed 
during  the  reign  of  the  late  emperor,  wide,  long  streets, 
however,  everywhere  gradually  penetrate  through 
the  intricate  network  of  narrow  passages  which, 
until  recently,  were  to  be  met  with  in  the  north  and 
east  parts  of  the  city,  and  thus  open  direct  com- 
munication between  the  centre  and  extremities  of 
Paris.  The  finest  streets  are  the  Rue  de  Rivoli, 
two  miles  in  length,  Rue  tie  la  Paix,  Rue  du  Fau- 
bourg St  Honore,  Rue  Royale,  &c.  Among  the  publio 
squares,  or  places,  of  which  there  are  upwards  of  100, 
the  most  noteworthy  is  the  Place  de  la  Concorde, 
one  of  the  finest  squares  in  Europe,  which  connects 
the  Gardens  of  the  Tuileries  with  the  Champs- 
Elysees,  and  embraces  a  magnificent  view  of  some 
of  the  finest  buildings  and  gardens  of  Paris.  In  the 
centre  is  the  famous  obelisk  of  Luxor,  covered  over 
its  entire  height  of  73  feet  with  hieroglyphics.  On 
the  site  of  this  obelisk  stood  the  revolutionary 
gudlotine,  at  which  perished  Louis  XVI.,  Marie 
Antoinette,  Philippe  Egalite,  Danton,  Robespierre, 
and  a  host  of  other  victims.  Of  the  other  squares, 
the  following  are  some  of  the  most  handsome  :  the 
Place  du  Carrousel,  between  the  Tuileries  and 
Louvre ;  Place  Vend6me,  with  Napoleon's  Column 
of  Victory ;  Place  de  la  Bastille,  where  once  stood 
that  famous  prison  and  fortress;  Place  Royale, 
with  its  two  fountains  and  a  statue  of  Louis 
XIII. ;  Place  de  l'Hotel  de  Ville,  formerly  Place  de 
la  Greve,  for  many  ages  the  scene  of  public  execu- 
tions, and  the  spot  at  which  some  of  the  bloodiest 
deeds  of  the  Revolution  were  perpetrated. 

Among  the  parish  churches  of  P.  (upwards  of 
60  in  number),  the  grandest  and  most  interesting, 
in  an  historical  point  of  view,  is  the  cathedral 
of  Notre-Dame,  which  stands  on  a  site  succes- 
sively occupied  by  a  pagan  temple  and  a  Christian 
basilica  of  the  *ime  ?f  the  Merovingian  kings. 
The  present  building  was  constructed  between 
the  12th  and  15th  centuries,  and  in  its  present 
state  of  restored  magnificence  it  may  rank  as 
one  of  the  noblest  specimens  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture. It  is  of  a  regular  cruciform  shape,  with 
an  octagonal  east  end,  two  flanking  towers  with 
flying  buttresses,  and  a  new  central  spire,  remark- 
able,  like  every   other    part,   for    its    delicate    and 


PARIS. 


elaborate  tracery.  It  is  300  feet  lone,  102  feet 
high,  with  transepts  144  feet  wi.le.  Although  most 
of  the  painted  windows  are  modern,  the  grand 
rose-windows,  which  give  a  characteristic  beauty 
to  the  whole  building,  are  of  ancient  date.  St  Ger- 
main-dea-Pres,  which  is  probably  the  most  ancient 
church  in  P.,  was  completed  in  1163;  St  Etienne  I 
du  Mont  and  St  Germain  I'Auxerrois,  both  ancient, 
are  interesting  — the  former  for  its  picturesque  and 
quaint  decorations,  and  for  containing  the  tomb  of 
St  Genevieve,  the  patron  saint  of  P.  ;  and  the 
latter  for  its  rich  decorations  and  the  frescoed  portal, 
restored  at  the  wish  of  Margaret  of  Valois.  The 
Sainte  Chapelle,  built  by  St  Louis  in  1245—1248, 
foi  the  reception  of  the  various  relics  which  he  had 
brought  from  the  Holy  Land,  is  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  buildings  in  Paris.  Surmounted  by  an 
elaborately-carved  golden  spire,  114  feet  high,  and 
blazing  with  a  star-bespangled  azure  ceiling,  and 
walls  glittering  with  golden  Heurs-de-lis,  and  pro- 
fusely decorated  in  all  parts  with  brilliantly-coloured 
materials,  it  corresponds  well  with  the  purpose  for 
which  it  was  often  employed,  as  the  scene  of  royal 
christenings,  marriages,  and  coronations.  During 
the  Revolution  it  was  put  to  various  ignoble  uses  ; 
and  its  present  beauty  is  entirely  due  to  the 
restorations,  recently  completed  at  a  cost  of  £50,000. 
Among  modern  churches,  we  may  instance  the 
Madeleine,  built  in  imitation  of  a  Greek  temple, 
and  gorgeous  with  gddings,  frescoes,  carvings,  j 
marbles,  and  statues  ;  the  Pantheon,  which  was 
begun  as  a  church,  but  converted  by  the  Constituent 
Assembly  of  republican  France  into  a  temple,  dedi- 
cated to  the  great  men  of  the  nation — it  was  re- 
stored to  the  church  by  Napoleon  III.,  and  dedi- 
cated to  St  Genevieve;  NOtrc-Dame  de  Lorette, 
erected  in  1823,  u  flagrant  specimen  of  the  mere- 
tricious taste  of  the  day ;  and  St  Vincent  de  Paul, 
completed  in  1844,  somewha.t  less  gaudy  and  more 
imposing  in  style.  Sec.  Among  the  few  Protestant 
churches,  l'Oratoire  is  the  largest  and  the  best 
known. 

Of  the  many  palaces  and  public  buildings 
with  which  P.  abounds,  the  following  are  some 
of  the  most  noted ;  the  Tuileries,  with  its  fine 
Gardens ;  the  Louvre,  with  its  noble  galleries  of 
paintings  and  sculpture;  the  Palais  Royal  (q.  v.); 
the  Luxembourg,  with  its  picturesque  gardens,  where 
the  imperial  senate  held  their  meetings,  and  where  the 
works  of  modern  artists  are  exhibited,  built  in  1620 
for  the  Regent  Marie  de  Medici,  in  imitation  of  the 
palaces  of  her  native  city,  Florence;  the  palace  of 
the  Corps  Legislatif,  known  as  Palais- Bourbon ; 
the  Elysce  Napoleon,  the  residence  of  Louis 
Napoleon,  when  President  of  the  Republic;  the 
Hotel  de  Villa,  or  municipal  palace,  a  handsome 
building  repaired  and  enlarged  in  1837,  containing 
magnificent  suites  of  apartments  for  the  celebration 
of  civic  and  other  public  festivals;  the  Palais  de 
Justice,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  of  which  some 
parts  date  from  the  14th  c.  and  others  are  modern, 
and  the  seat  of  some  of  the  courts  of  law,  as  the 
Court  of  Cassation,  the  Imperial  Court,  the  Tribu- 
nals of  the  First  Appeal  and  of  Police.  "Within  the 
precincts  of  this  palace  are  the  Saint  Chapelle,  and 
the  noted  old  prison  of  the  Conciergerie,  in  which 
Marie  Antoinette,  Danton,  and  Robespierre  were  suc- 
cessively confined,  and  where  Louis  Napoleon  was 
for  a  time  kept  in  custody  after  his  enterprise  at 
Boulogne.  The  Conciergerie,  in  which  prisoners 
are  lodged  pending  their  trial,  constitutes  one  of  the 
eigi  t  prisons  of  P.,  of  which  the  principal  is  La 
Force.  The  Nouveau  Bicetre  is  designed  for 
convicts  sentenced  to  penal  servitude  for  life; 
St  Pelagie  receives  political  offenders,  St  Lazare  is 
exclusively  for  females,  the  Madelonnettes  for 
330 


juvenile  criminals,  and  Clichy  for  debtors.  The 
number  of  the  institutions  of  benevolence  is  enor- 
mous; and  according  to  statistical  tables,  from  0000 
to  12,000  persons  are  wholly  maintained  by  their 
means,  while  00,11110  receive  partial  aid.  The  charity 
of  P.  is  administered  by  the  department  of  Assist- 
ance PnbliqUB,  whose  revenues  are  obtained  by 
a  tax  on  the  receipts  of  theatres  and  other  places 
of  amusement,  on  burials,  and  on  the  Monts  de 
Piete,  or  government  pawning-otfices,  of  which 
there  are  25.  The  largest  of  the  numerous  hospices 
or  alms-houses  is  La  SalpGtriere,  probably  the 
largest  asylum  in  the  world,  extending  over 
78  acres  of  land,  and  appropriated  solely  to 
old  women,  1300  of  its  4500  inmates  being 
insane  patients  ;  Bicetre,  with  nearly  3600  beds, 
receives  only  men.  The  Hospice  des  Enfans 
Trouves,  or  Foundling  Hospital,  provides  for  the 
infants  brought  to  it  till  they  reach  the  age  of 
maturity,  and  only  demands  payment  in  the  event 
of  a  child  being  reclaimed.  The  Creches,  or  publio 
nurseries,  first  established  in  1844,  of  which  there 
are  now  18,  receive  the  infants  of  poor  women  for 
the  day  at  the  cost  of  20  centimes.  Besides  institu- 
tions for  the  blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  convalescents, 
sick  children,  &c,  P.  has  17  general  and  special 
hospitals.  Of  these  the  oldest  and  most  noted  is 
the  Hotel  Lieu,  receiving  annually  13,000  patients  ; 
La  Charite,  La  Pitie,  the  recently-founded  Lari- 
boisiere,  l'Hopital  Clinique,  and  others  equally 
worthy  of  notice,  contributing  by  the  excellent 
medical  staff  attached  to  each  to  the  high  repute 
of  P.  as  a  school  of  medicine.  P.  has  one  university, 
which  was  founded  in  1253  by  Robert  Sorbonne ; 
its  head-quarters  are  at  the  Sorbonne,  where  degrees 
are  granted  in  the  faculties  of  sciences,  letters, 
and  theology,  and  where  gratuitous  public  lectures, 
delivered  by  11  professors,  are  attended  by  nearly 
2000  students  ;  it  has  a  library  of  80,000  volumes, 
schools  of  medicine  and  law,  and  museums,  &c. 
There  are  five  lyceums,  several  municipal  colleges, 
419  free  public  elementary  schools,  giving  educa- 
tion to  44,800  boys  and  27,000  girls;  an  Ecole 
Polytechnique,  trade  and  normal  schools,  an 
Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts,  Conservatoire  of 
Music,  &c.  The  Jardin  des  Plantes,  a  school  of 
natural  history,  enjoys  a  world-wide  renown. 
(The  Institute  of  France  is  noticed  in  a  separate 
article.)  The  Observatory,  founded  in  1667,  has 
a  magnificent  set  of  instruments  and  a  library 
of  40,000  volumes.  The  principal  of  the  publio 
libraries  are  l'Imperiale  (see  Libraries),  which 
originated  in  a  small  collection  of  books  placed 
by  Louis  XI.  in  the  Louvre  ;  St  Genevieve,  founded 
in  1610,  containing  110,000  volumes;  Hotel  de 
Ville,  with  45,000  volumes.  The  Hotel  des  Archives, 
in  which  the  national  records  are  deposited,  contains 
a  unique  collection  of  valuable  curiosities,  including 
a  deed  of  gift  by  Childebert  I.,  in  528,  of  two 
villages  to  the  church  of  Paris ;  the  state  seals 
of  France  during  1300  years,  &c.  No  city  on  this 
side  of  the  Alps  is  richer  than  P.  in  fine-art 
collections,  and  among  these  the  15  museums  at 
the  Louvre  stand  pre-eminent,  and  would  require 
volumes  for  their  illustration.  The  H6tel  Cluuy,  in 
addition  to  its  being  in  itself  a  most  interesting 
monument  of  medieval  art,  contains  curious  relics  of 
the  arts  and  usages  of  the  French  people,  from  the 
;  earliest  ages  of  their  history  to  the  renaissance 
I  period.  The  Mint  deserves  notice  for  the  perfection 
!  of  its  machinery,  the  ingenuity  of  the  processes 
1  employed  in  coining,  and  the  museum  attached  to 
!  the  establishment.  The  Gobelins,  or  tapestry 
!  manufactory,  may  be  included  under  the  fine  arts, 
i  as  the  productions  of  its  looms  are  all  manual,  and 
demand  great  artistic  skill,  the  larger  specimens 

273 


PARIS— PARIS  BASIN. 


requiring  f rem  eight  to  ten  years  for  tlieir  completion. 

The  tapestries  are  retained  by  the  government  for  the 
decoration  of  palaces  at  home,  or  are  presented  to 
foreign  sovereigns.  The  Bourse  or  Exchange,  built  in 
!808,  and  the  Bank  of  France,  once  a  private  palace, 
are  both  fine  buildings.  P.  abounds  in  theatres  and 
places  of  amusement  suited  to  the  tastes  anil  means  of 
every  class.  The  leading  houses,  as  the  Opera,  Thea- 
tre Francais,  chiefly  devoted  to  classical  French 
drama,  Odeon,  Theatre  Italien,  &c,  receive  a  subven- 
tion from  government,  and  are  all  under  strict  police 
supervision.  Cheap  concerts,  equestrian  performances, 
and  public  halls,  held  in  the  open  air  in  summer,  sup- 
ply a  constant  round  of  gaiety  to  the  burgher  and 
working-classes  at  a  moderate  cost,  and  form  a  charac- 
teristic feature  of  P.  life ;  while  in  addition  to  the 
noble  gardens  of  the  various  imperial  palaces,  the  most 
densely-crowiid  parts  of  the  city  have  public  gardens, 
shaded  by  trees,  and  adorned  with  fountains  and 
statues,  which  afford  the  means  of  health  and  recrea- 
tion to  the  poor. 

Vast  improvements,  as  already  stated,  have  been 
made  in  the  city  from  1853  to  the  present  time. 
Within  these  recent  years,  the  Boulevard  de  Sevasto- 
pol—  opening  up  the  most  populous  and  most  un- 
healthy district  of  P.,  a  district  formerly  the  hotbed 
of  disturbance — has  been  erected  at  the  cost  of  about 
£3,000,000.  Several  central  markets  have  also  been 
constructed;  the  Rue  Rivoli  has  been  prolonged,  and 
a  boulevard  in  commemoration  of  the  visit  of  Queen 
Victoria  has  been  erected  between  the  Hotel  de  Ville 
and  the  Place  du  Chatelet.  While  the  sums  spent  in 
the  improvement  and  ornamentation  of  the  city  have 
largely  increased,  the  municipal  revenues  have  also 
been  rapidly  enlai'ged. 

P.  has  three  large  and  twelve  lesser  cemeteries,  of 
which  the  principal  one  is  Pere-la-Chaise,  extending 
over  200  acres,  and  filled  in  every  part  with  monu- 
ments erected  to  the  memory  of  the  countless  number 
of  celebrated  persons  who  have  been  buried  here.  The 
Morgue  is  a  building  in  which  the  bodies  of  unknown 
persons  who  have  met  with  a  violent  death  are  placed, 
and  which,  if  not  claimed  within  three  days,  are  buried 
at  the  public  expense. 

P.  was  surrounded  under  Louis-Philippe  with  for- 
tifications, extending  30  miles  round,  and  costing 
£5,500,000  sterling,  and  in  addition  to  these,  16  de- 
tached forts  have  been  erected  at  definite  distances 
from  one  another.  About  50,000  men  are  usually 
garrisoned  within  and  around  P.,  quartered  in  30  bar- 
racks, within  the  line  of  fortifications.  Besides  these 
troops,  the  city  has  a  national  guard,  numbering 
about  40.000  men,  in  which  all  citizens  between  25 
and  50  are  liable  to  be  called  into  service^  The  Arsenal 
is  situated  near  the  site  of  the  old  Bastile.  The 
Champ-de-Mars  is  a  vast  sandy  plain,  near  the  Quai 
d'Orsay,  on  which  reviews  and  other  military  displays 
and  national  festivals  are  held.  Close  to  it  stands  the 
Ecole  Militaire,  founded  in  1752,  and  now  used  as  a 
military  training-school  for  infantry  and  cavalry,  of 
which  it  can  accommodate  10,000  men,  with  space 
for  S00  horses.  The  Hotel  des  Invalides,  founded  in 
1670,  foi  disabled  soldiers,  is  an  admirable  institution, 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  It  can  receive 
8000  men,  but  the  number  of  the  inmates  is  generally 
much  less,  and  consists  both  of  officers  and  non-com- 
missioned officers ;  all  soldiers  who  have  been  seriously 
wounded,  or  who  have  served  30  years,  being  entitled 
to  admission.  The  library,  museum,  and  ehapel  are 
full  of  objects  of  interest,  and  every  part  of  the  build- 
in"  is  filled  with  mementoes  of  the  wars  and  victories 
of  France.  The  crypt  of  the  church  contains  the  sar- 
cophagus, hewn  from  a  huge  block  of  Russian  granite, 
in  which  lie  the  remains  of  Napoleon,  deposited  here 
In  1840. 

P.  is  divided  into  20  arrondissements.     The  prefect 


of  the  Seine  is  the  chief  of  the  municipal  government, 
aided  by  a  council  of  36  members,  appointed,  as  he  is 
himself,  by  the  government.  Each  arrondissement 
has  a  maire  and  two  assistant  councillors.  The  prefect 
of  police  is  at  the  head  of  the  civic  guard  or  i^ens- 
darmes,  of  4400  men;  the  fire-brigade,  of  1800  men  ; 
and  the  sergents  de  ville,  or  city  police,  numbering 
3570  men,  who  are  armed  with  a  sword.  F.  is  now 
abundantly  supplied  with  pure  and  wholesome  wi  ter; 
the  drainage  is  also  much  improved,  and  the  street- 
lighting  is  now  adequately  effected  by  means  of  some 
15,000  gas-lights.  In  1818  public  slaughter-houses, 
or  abattoirs,  were  established  at  different  suburbs, 
where  alone  animals  are  allowed  to  be  slaughtered. 
Large  cattle-markets  are  held  near  the  licensed  Abat- 
toirs (q.  v.).  There  are  in  the  heart  of  the  city  numer- 
ous Indies,  or  wholesale,  and  marches,  or  retail  markets. 
The  principal  of  these  is  the  Halles  Centrales,  near  the 
Church  of  St.  Eustache,  covering  nearly  20  acres. 
Among  the  older  markets  are  the  Halle  aux  Vins,  in 
which  500,000  casks  of  wine  can  be  stowed,  and  the 
March6  aux  Fleurs. 

In  the  late  war  with  Prussia  the  armies  of  France 
having  been  defeated  by  the  Germans,  on  August  7, 
1870,  P.  was  declared  in  a  state  of  siege.  On  Sept. 
4,  a  republic  was  proclaimed  and  a  '  Provisional  gov- 
ernment of  national  defence'  instituted  under  the 
presidency  of  Gen.  Trochu.  On  the  same  day,  the 
Empress  Regent  fled  from  the  Tuileries.  On  Sept. 
20,  P.  was  invested  by  the  Germans,  and  communi- 
cation was  kept  up  with  the  outer  world  by  means  of 
pigeons  and  balloon-mails.  On  Oct.  11,  the  seat  of 
government  was  removed  to  Tours,  and  on  Dec.  9,  to 
Bordeaux.  .On  the  30th  of  Oct.,  riot  reigned  in  P., 
and  the  members  of  the  provisional  government  were 
arrested  and  held  prisoners  for  several  hours,  but  on 
Nov.  1,  the  people  declared  their  confidence  in  the 
government  by  a  vote  of  557,976  ayes,  against  62,63S 
nays.  On  the  28th,  300,000  troops,  supported  by 
700  field-pieces,  divided  into  three  corps,  were  con- 
centrated at  points  around  the  city  under  Gen.  Tro- 
chu as  commander-in-chief.  Early  in  January 
the  bombardment  was  begun,  and  continued  most  of 
the  month  without  serious  injury.  The  city,  nearly 
reduced  to  starvation  and  threatened  with  intestine 
commotion,  surrendered  on  Jan.  28th,  with  1900 
pieces  of  artillery,  180,000  prisoners,  a  forced  con- 
tribution of  200,000,000  francs  having  been  levied  by 
the  enemy.  During  the  siege,  the  prices  of  articles  of 
food  were  greatly  enhanced,  though  horses  to  the 
number  of  66,000  were  consumed.  Butcher's  m^at 
was  distributed  in  miniature  rations,  and  the  price  of 
bread  and  wine  was  maintained  at  former  rates  by  the 
intervention  of  the  government.  The  animals  in  the 
Jardin  des  Plantes  were  doomed  to  increase  the  variety 
hitherto  deemed  requisite  by  Parisian  gourmets.  The 
National  Assembly  having  ratified  the  preliminaries  of 
peace  on  Feb.  28th,  the  German  troops,  who,  to  tho 
number  of  30,000,  had  occupied  a  quarter  of  P., 
quietly  withdrew.  The  terms  of  peace  proving  dis- 
tasteful to  the  populace,  P.  was  soon  plunged  into 
political  chaos,  and  sanguinary  conflicts  followed  be- 
tween the  government  of  the  Commune,  or  Red 
Republicans,  and  the  Versailles  government  under 
the  presidency  of  Thiers. 

PARIS  BASIN,  the  collective  name  of  the  beds 
of  Eocene  age,  which  rest  in  a  hollow  of  the  chalk 
in  the  district  around  Paris,  where  they  occupy  an 
oblong  area  measuring  180  miles  in  greatest  length 
from  north  to  south,  and  90  miles  in  breadth  from 
east  to  west.  The  different  sections  into  which  the 
series  has  been  divided  are  given  under  Eocene  (q.  v.). 
The  beds  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  rich  harvest 
of  organic  remains  which  they  supplied  to  Cuvier, 
and  which  led  to  the  foundation  of  the  modern 
science   of   Palaeontology.      The   strata  from    which 


PARIS,  MATTHEW— PARISH. 


these  were  principally  obtained  consist  of  a  series 
of  white  and  preen  marls  with  subordinate  beds  of 
gypsum  ;  they  are  largely  developed  at  Montmartre, 
where  the  gypsum  haa  been  extensively  quarried  for 

the  manufacture  of  plaster  of  Paris.  The  fossils 
consist  "t"  l.md  and  (inviatile  shells,  fresh-water  lish 
and  crocodiles,  and  the  hones  of  birds  and  quad- 
rupeds, besides  a  few  land-plants,  among  which  are 
some  palms.  The  mammals,  of  which  about  f)l) 
species  have  been  described,  belong  to  the  order 
Pachydermata.  The  Paris  Basin  has  for  some  time 
almost  ceased  to  supply  the  remains  of  vertebrate 
animals. 

PARIS,  Matthew,  the  best  Latin  chronicler  of 
the  13th  c,  was  born  about  1195,  and  in  1217 
entered  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  St  Albans. 
After  the  departure  of  Roger  of  Wendover,  in  1235, 
P.  was  chosen  to  succeed  him  as  annalist  of  the 
monastery.  He  discharged  his  functions  with 
veracity  and  boldness,  in  consequence  of  which  he 
greatly  displeased  some  of  his  contemporaries.  The 
principal  external  incident  of  his  life  was  his  voyage 
to  Norway,  whither  he  was  invited  by  King  Hakon, 
to  repair  the  financial  disorders  in  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  Holm.  P.  landed  at  Bergen,  10th 
July  1248,  was  courteously  received  by  the  Nor- 
wegian monarch,  and  settled  the  business  about 
which  he  came  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  After 
his  return  to  England,  he  stood  high  in  the  favour 
of  Henry  III.,  who  used  to  converse  with  him  in 
the  most  familiar  manner,  and  from  whose  lips  he 
derived  not  a  little  of  the  information  that  makes 
his  Chronicle  so  valuable.  He  had  also  a  wide  circle 
of  influential  friends  and  acquaintances  among  the 
clergy,  from  whom  he  obtained  materials  for  his 
work.  His  death  occurred  in  1259.  P.  had  a  great 
reputation  in  his  day  for  his  virtues  and  abilities. 
He  was  considered  a  universal  scholar,  and  is  said 
by  his  laudatory  biographers  to  have  been  versed 
in  mathematics,  poetry,  oratory,  divinity,  history, 
painting,  and  architecture.  One  thing  about  him 
long  kept  his  memory  green  in  the  hearts  of  his 
countrymen — he  was  a  patriotic  Englishman,  and 
though  a  sincere  Catholic  (like  all  good  men  of  his 
age),  yet  he  loved  his  country  better  than  the  pope, 
and  wrote  so  fiercely  agaiust  the  encroachments 
of  the  court  of  Rome  in  ecclesiastical  matters,  that 
his  Chronicle  became,  in  after  times,  a  great 
favourite  with  the  Reformers.  P.'s  principal  work 
is  his  Historia  Major,  which  begins  with  the 
Norman  Conquest,  and  extends  to  the  year  of  the 
author's  death.  It  was  continued  by  William 
Rishanger,  also  a  monk  of  St  Albans,  till  the  death 
of  Henry  III.  in  1272.  The  first  edition  was  pub- 
lished at  London  by  Archbishop  Parker,  in  1571, 
aud  was  reproduced  at  Zurich  in  1606  ;  later  and 
more  complete  editions  are  those  of  London  in 
1640—1641,  and  in  1684.  The  only  portion  of  the 
Historia  Major,  however,  which  is  properly  the 
work  of  P.,  is  that  extending  from  1235  to  1259 ; 
the  previous  part  being  nearly  a  transcription  from 
the  Flores  Historiarum,  attributed  to  Roger  of 
Wendover,  whence  some  critics  have  supposed  that 
P.  is  really  the  author  of  that  work  too.  But  this 
opinion  is  strenuously  contested  by  the  most  recent 
editor  of  the  Fibres  Historiarum,  the  Rev.  H.  0. 
Coxe  (4  vols.  1841—1842).  Translations  both  of 
P.'s  Chronicle  and  that  of  Roger  of  Wendover  have 
been  published  by  Bohn  in  his  Antiquarian  Library. 
The  British  Museum,  and  the  library  of  Corpus 
Christi  College  at  Cambridge,  contain  manuscript 
abridgments  of  the  Historia  Major,  made  by  P. 
limself,  and  entitled  Chronica  Majorat,  Sancte 
4.lhani ;  a  second  abridgment  is  known  as  the 
fistoria  Minor.  Other  works  of  P.'s  are  Duorum 
farum  Merciorum  Begum,    Vitce;    Viginti   trium 


Abbatum,  8.  Albani  Vita;  and  Addtiamenta,  being 
explanatory  additions  to  his  Historia  Major. 

PARISH  (dr.  varoikia,  habitation,  from  para, 
near,  and  oikeomat,  1  dwell;  Put.  parochia),  the 
district  assigned  to  a  particular  church,  where  the 
inhabitants  <>f  the  district  may  attend  at  publio 
worship,  and  receive  the  sacramental  or  other 
ministrations  of  the  clergy.  The  name  originally 
seems  to  have  been  interchangeable  with  dtcecesie, 
'diocese,'  and  to  have  been  applied  to  the  district 
subject  to  the  spiritual  jurisdiction  of  a  bishop;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  at  a  later  peril  id,  diaecesiswaM 
sometimes  used  to  signify  a  parochial  church  or 
district.  The  distribution  into  parishes  appears 
to  be  comparatively  modern.  Originally,  all  the 
clergy  were  (in  the  opinion  of  the  Episcopalian 
churches)  but  coadjutors  of  the  bishop,  and  served  in 
his  church,  at  which  all  the  faithful  assembled.  At 
Alexandria,  and  afterwards  at  Rome,  a  number  of 
minor  churches  were  opened  (called  at  Rome  tituli), 
which  were  served  by  clergy,  originally  not  perma- 
nently attached  to  them,  but  sent  from  the  principal 
or  bishop's  church,  but  in  progress  of  time  lixed 
permanently  in  the  charge.  This,  however,  was  not 
common  ;  and  we  find  churches,  with  clergy  per- 
manently attached,  much  earlier  in  rural  districts 
than  in  cities.  The  institution  does  not  appear  to 
have  become  general  till  the  9th  or  10th  century. 
In  England,  the  first  legislation  on  the  subject  occurs 
in  the  laws  of  Edgar,  about  970.  The  parochial 
division  of  districts  seems  in  great  measure  to  have 
followed  the  civil  distribution  into  manors,  or  other 
feudal  divisions  of  territory  ;  and  it  is  probable  that 
it  is  to  the  same  state  of  things  we  owe  the  practice 
of  lay  patronage,  the  priest  officiating  in  a  manorial 
church  being  chosen,  with  the  bishop's  consent,  by 
the  lord  of  the  manor.  The  parochial  revenue, 
however,  by  no  means  followed  the  same  rules 
which  now  prevail.  At  first,  all  ecclesiastical 
income,  from  whatever  district,  was  carried  into  a 
common  fund,  which  was  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
the  bishop,  and  was  generally  divided  into  four 
parts — for  the  bishop,  for  the  clergy,  for  the  poor, 
and  for  the  church.  By  degrees,  however,  begin- 
ning first  with  the  rural  parishes,  and  ultimately 
extending  to  those  of  the  cities,  the  parochial 
revenues  were  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  parish 
clergy  (subject  to  the  same  general  threefold 
division,  for  the  clergy,  for  the  poor,  and  for 
the  church)  ;  and  in  some  places  an  abusive 
claim,  which  was  early  reprobated,  arose  upon  the 
part  of  the  lord  of  the  manor  to  a  portion  of  the 
revenue.  Properly,  a  parish  has  but  one  church ; 
but  when  the  district  is  extensive,  one  or  more 
minor  (succursat)  churches,  sometimes  called 'chapels 
of  ease,'  are  permitted. 

In  the  law  of  England,  a  parish  is  an  import- 
ant subdivision  of  the  country,  for  purposes  of 
local  self-government,  most  of  the  local  rates  and 
taxes  being  confined  within  that  area,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  self-imposed  by  the  parties  who  pay 
them.  The  origin  of  the  division  of  England  into 
parishes  is  not  very  clearly  ascertained  by  the 
authorities.  Some  have  asserted  that  the  division 
had  an  ecclesiastical  origin,  and  that  a  parish  wae 
me-ely  a  district  sufficient  for  one  priest  to  attend 
to.  But  others  have  asserted  that  parishes  had  a 
civil  origin  long  anterior  to  ecclesiastical  disti  ac- 
tions, advantage  being  merely  taken  to  ingraft  these 
on  so  convenient  an  existing  subdivision  of  the 
country  ;  and  that  a  parish  was  a  subdivison  of  the 
ancient  hundred,  known  as  a  vill  or  town,  and 
through  its  machinery  the  public  taxes  were 
anciently  collected.  Hobart  fixes  the  date  of  the 
institution  of  civil  parishes  in  1179,  and  hi» 
account    has    been     generally    followed.       Muck 


PARISH. 


difficulty  has  occasionally  arisen  in  fixing  the  bound- 
aries of  parishes.  Blackstone  says  the  boundaries 
of  parishes  were  originally  ascertained  by  those 
of  manors,  and  that  it  very  seldom  happened 
that  a  manor  extended  itself  over  more  parishes 
than  one,  though  there  were  often  many  manors 
in  one  parish.  Nevertheless,  the  boundaries  of 
parishes  are  often  intermixed,  which  Blackstone 
accounts  for  by  the  practice  of  the  lords  of  adjoin- 
ing manors  obliging  their  tenants  to  appropriate 
their  tithes  towards  the  officiating  minister  of  the 
«hurch,  which  was  built  for  the  whole.  Even  in 
the  present  day,  these  boundaries  often  give  rise  to 
litigation,  and  the  courts  have  always  decided  the 
question  according  to  the  proof  of  custom.  This 
custom  is  chiefly  established  by  the  ancient  practice 
of  perambulating  the  parish  in  Rogation-week  in 
each  year.  SeePERAMBULATiON.  There  are  some 
places  as  to  which  it  is  uncertain  whether  they  are 
parishes  or  not,  and  hence  it  has  been  usual  to  call 
them  reputed  parishes.  There  are  also  places 
called  extra-parochial  places,  which  do  not  belong 
to  any  2>arish,  such  as  forest  and  abbey  lands.  In 
these  cases,  the  persons  inhabiting  were  not  subject 
to  the  usual  parochial  rates  and  taxes,  and  other 
incidents  of  parochial  life.  But  in  1857,  a  statute 
was  passed  which  put  extra-parochial  places  upon  a 
similar  footing  to  parishes,  by  giving  power  to 
justices,  and  in  some  cases  to  the  Poor-law  Board,  to 
annex  them  to  adjoining  parishes,  after  which  they 
are  dealt  with  in  much  the  same  way  as  other 
places.  One  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  a  parish 
is,  that  there  is  a  parish  church,  and  an  incumbent 
and  churchwardens  attached  to  it,  and  by  this 
machinery  the  spiritual  wants  of  the  parishioners 
are  attended  to.  These  several  parish  churches,  and 
the  endowments  connected  therewith,  belong  in  a 
certain  sense  to  the  nation,  and  the  incumbents  are 
members  of  the  Established  Church  of  England,  and 
amenable  to  the  discipline  of  the  bishops  and  the 
spiritual  courts.  The  private  patronage,  or  right  of 
presenting  a  clergyman  to  an  incumbency,  is  tech- 
nically called  an  adyowson,  and  is  generally  held  by 
an  individual  as  a  salable  property,  having  a  market 
value.  The  patron  has  an  absolute  right  (quite 
irrespective  of  the  wishes  of  the  parishioners)  to 
present  a  clerk  or  ordained  priest  of  the  church  of 
England  to  a  vacant  benefice,  and  it  is  for  the 
bishop  to  see  to  his  qualifications.  The  bishop  is 
the  sole  judge  of  these  qualifications,  and  if  he 
approves  of  them,  the  clerk  or  priest  is  instituted 
and  inducted  into  the  benefice,  which  ceremony 
completes  his  legal  title  to  the  fruits  of  the  benefice. 
The  incumbents  of  parish  churches  are  called  rec- 
tors, or  vicars,  or  perpetual  curates,  the  distinction 
being  chiefly  founded  on  the  state  of  the  tithes. 
When  the  benefice  is  full,  then  the  freehold  of 
the  church  vests  in  the  rector  or  parson,  and  so 
does  the  churchyard ;  but  he  holds  these  only  as  a 
trustee  for  the  use  of  the  parishioners.  There  are 
certain  duties  which  the  incumbent  of  the  parish 
church  is  bound  by  law  to  perform  for  the  benefit 
of  the  parishioners.  He  is  bound,  as  a  general 
pule,  to  reside  in  the  parish,  so  as  to  be  ready  to 
administer  the  rites  of  the  church  to  them.  See 
Non-residence.  The  first  duty  of  the  incumbent 
is  to  perform  public  worship  in  the  parish  church 
every  Sunday,  according  to  the  form  prescribed 
by  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  which  is  part 
of  the  statute-law  of  England.  He  must  adhere 
strictly  to  the  forms  and  ceremonies,  and  even 
to  the  dress  prescribed  by  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  and  Canons.  The  incumbent  is  also  bound 
to  baptise  the  children  of  all  the  parishioners,  and 
to  administer  the  rite  of  the  Lord's  Supper  to 
the  parishioners  not  less  than  three  times  each 
276 


year.  The  incumbent  is  also  bound  to  allow  the 
parishioners  to  be  buried  in  the  churchyard  of 
the  parish,  if  there  is  accommodation,  and  to  read 
the  burial-service  at  each  interment.  He  is  also 
bound  to  marry  the  parishioners  on  their  tendering 
themselves,  and  complying  with  the  marriage  acts, 
within  the  parish  church  and  during  canonical 
hours,  and  it  is  said  he  is  liable  to  an  action  of 
damages  if  he  refuse.  In  respect  of  burials  and 
marriages,  certain  fees  are  frequently  payable  by 
custom ;  but  unless  such  a  custom  exists,  no  fee  is 
exigible  for  performance  of  these  duties.  In  many 
cases,  where  one  church  had  become  insufficient  for 
the  increased  population,  the  old  pariah  has  been 
subdivided  under  the  Church  Building  Acts,  the 
first  of  which  was  passed  in  1818,  into  two  or 
more  ecclesiastical  districts  or  parishes,  for  each  of 
which  a  new  church  was  built,  and  an  incumbent 
appointed.  The  incumbents  in  these  ecclesi- 
astical parishes  have  generally  been  provided  for 
by  the  incumbent  of  the  mother-parish  or  by 
voluntary  benefactors,  and  by  the  aid  of  pew-rents. 
But  these  ecclesiastical  parishes,  so  far  as  the  poor 
and  other  secular  purposes  are  concerned,  make  no 
change  on  the  old  law.  Another  incident  of  the 
parish  church  is,  that  there  must  be  churchwardens 
appointed  annually,  who  are  accordingly  leading 
parochial  officers,  and  whose  duty  is  partly  eccle- 
siastical and  partly  civil.  Their  civil  duties  consist 
chiefly  in  this,  that  they  must  join  the  overseers  in 
many  of  the  duties  arising  out  of  the  management 
of  the  poor,  and  incidental  duties  imposed  by 
statute.  But  their  primary  duty  is  to  attend  to  the 
repair  and  good  order  of  the  fabric  of  the  church. 
The  common  law  requires  that  there  shoidd  be  two 
churchwardens,  one  of  whom  is  appointed  by 
the  incumbent,  and  the  other  is  chosen  by  the 
parishioners  in  vestry  assembled,  but  sometimes 
this  rule  is  varied  by  a  local  custom.  This  appoint- 
ment and  election  take  place  in  Easter-week  of  each 
year.  In  electing  the  people's  churchwarden,  there 
is  often  much  local  excitement,  and  it  is  common  to 
poll  the  parish,  all  those  who  pay  poor-rates  being 
entitled  to  vote,  the  number  of  votes  varying 
according  to  the  rent,  but  no  person  having  more 
than  six  votes.  See  Churchwardens;  Church 
Rates. 

The  next  most  important  business  connected  with 
the  parish  is  that  which  concerns  the  poor,  the 
leading  principle  being,  that  each  parish  is  bound  to 
pay  the  expense  of  relieving  its  own  poor.  See 
Overseers  ;  Guardian  ;  Poor. 

Another  important  feature  of  the  parish  is,  that 
all  the  highways  within  the  parish  must  be  kept 
in  repair  by  the  parish,  i.  e.,  by  the  inhabitants 
who  are  rated  to  the  poor.  For  this  puqiose,  the 
inhabitants  of  each  parish,  in  vestry  assembled, 
appoint  each  year  a  surveyor  of  highways,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  see  that  the  highways  are  kept  in  good 
repair  ;  and  he  is  authorised,  by  the  General  High- 
way Act,  to  levy  a  rate  on  all  the  property  within 
the  parish.  The  office  of  a  surveyor  of  highways  is, 
like  those  of  churchwarden,  overseer,  and  guardian, 
a  compulsory  and  gratuitous  office.  When  a  high- 
way is  out  of  repair,  the  mode  of  enforcing  the  repair 
is  by  summoning  the  surveyor  of  highways  before 
justices,  to  shew  cause  why  he  has  not  repaired  the 
road ;  and  if  the  facts  are  not  disputed,  the  justices 
either  fine  him,  or  order  an  indictment  to  be  laid 
against  the  inhabitants  of  the  parish.  This  indict- 
ment is  tried,  and  the  expense  of  it  is  defrayed  out 
of  the  highway-rate,  which  is  subsequently  made. 
The  highways  of  each  parish  being  thus  exclusively 
under  the  control  of  the  ratepayers  and  their  officers, 
it  happened  that  great  inequality  prevaded  in  the 
standard  of  repairs  which  each  parish  set  up  for 


PARISH-PARISH  SCHOOL. 


itself.  This  led  to  th<'  late  Highway  District  Act, 
2o  and  2U  Vict.  c.  01,  the  object  of  which  is 
to  enable  the  justices  of  the  peace  of  the  dis- 
trict to  combine  several  parishes  into  one  district, 
ami  thus  secure  more  uniformity  in  the  repairs  of 
the  highwayi.  A  way- warden  is  now  appointed 
to  represent  each  parish  at  the  Highway  Board, 
instead  of  the  old  highway  surveyor;  hut  the 
expenses  of  maintaining  the  highways  is  stdl 
ultimately  paid  hy  the  parish  in  which  they  are 
situated,  the  only  change  bring,  that  the  expenses 
are  ordered  to  be  incurred  by  the  Highway  Board, 
instead  of  the  parochial  officer. 

The  above  duties  in  reference  to  the  parish 
church,  the  poor,  and  the  highways,  are  the  leading 
duties  attaching  to  the  parish  as  a  parish  ;  but 
over  and  above  these,  many  miscellaneous  duties 
have  been  imposed  on  the  parish  officers,  particularly 
on  the  overseers  and  churchwardens,  which  will 
be  found  specified  under  the  head  of  Overseers. 
In  nearly  all  cases  where  the  parish,  as  a  parish,  is 
required  to  act,  the  mode  in  which  it  does  so  is  by 
the  machinery  of  a  vestry.  A  vestry  is  a  meeting 
of  all  the  inhabitant  householders  rated  to  the 
poor.  It  is  called  by  the  churchwardens,  and  all 
questions  are  put  to  the  vote.  Any  ratepayer 
who  thinks  the  majority  of  those  present  do  not 
represent  the  majority  of  the  whole  parishioners, 
is  entitled  to  demand  a  polL  At  these  meetings, 
great  excitement  often  prevails,  especially  in  meet- 
ings respecting  church-rates.  Wherever  a  parish 
improvement  is  fouud  to  be  desirable,  the  vestry 
may  meet  and  decide  whether  it  is  to  be  pro- 
ceeded with,  in  which  case  they  have  powers  of 
rating  themselves  for  the  expense.  Such  is  the  case 
OS  to  the  establishment  of  baths  and  wash-houses, 
watching,  and  lighting.  Returns  are  made  of  all 
parish  and  local  rates  to  parliament  every  year. 
The  parish  property,  except  the  goods  of  the  parish 
church,  which  are  vested  in  the  churchwardens,  is 
vested  in  the  overseers,  who  hold  and  manage  the 
same,  requiring  the  consent  of  the  Poor-law  Board 
in  order  to  sell  it.  Of  late,  a  statute  has  authorised 
benefactors  to  dedicate  greens  or  playgrounds  to  the 
inhabitants  of  parishes,  through  the  intervention  of 
trustees. 

In  Scotland,  the  division  into  parishes  has  existed 
from  the  most  ancient  times,  and  is  recognised  for 
certain  civil  purposes  relative  to  taxation  and  other- 
wise, as  well  as  for  purposes  purely  ecclesiastical. 
The  Court  of  Session,  acting  as  the  Commission  of 
Teinds,  may  unite  two  or  more  parishes  into  one ; 
or  may  divide  a  parish,  or  disjoin  part  of  it,  with 
consent  of  the  heritors  (or  landholders)  of  a  major 
part  of  the  valuation  ;  or  apart  from  their  consent, 
if  it  be  shewn  that  there  is  within  the  disjoined  part 
a  sufficient  place  of  worship,  and  if  the  Titulars  of 
Teinds  (q.  v.),  or  others  who  have  to  pay  no  less 
than  three-fourths  of  the  additional  stipend,  do  not 
object.  By  Act  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  44,  any  district  where 
there  is  an  endowed  church  may  be  erected  into  a 
parish  quoad  sacra,  for  such  purposes  as  are  purely 
ecclesiastical.  Endowed  Gaelic  congregations  in  the 
large  towns  of  the  Lowlands  may  similarly  be 
erected  into  parishes  quoad  sacra. 

The  principal  application  of  the  parochial  division 
for  civd  purposes  relates  to  the  administration  of 
the  poor-law.  Under  the  old  system  the  adminis- 
trators of  the  poor-law  were  the  kirk-session  in 
county  parishes,  and  the  magistrates,  or  certain 
managers  selected  by  them,  in  burghal  parishes. 
The  Act  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  83,  which  remodelled  the 
poor-law  of  Scotland,  retained  the  old  administrative 
body  so  long  as  there  was  no  assessment;  but,  on  a 
parish  being  assessed,  substituted  for  it  a  new  one, 
consisting    in    rural    parishes    of   the    owners    of 


heritable  property  of  £20  yearly  valne,  of  the  magiv 
tratee  of  any  royal  burgh  within  the  bounds,  of  the 
kirk-session,  a  certain  number  of  members  chosen 
by  the  persons  assessed;  and  in  burghal  parishes  of 
members,  not  exceeding  30,  chosen  by  the  persons 

assessed,  four  members  na 1  by  the  magistrates, 

and  not  above  four  by  tin  kirk-session  or  se 
The  Board  of  Supervision  may  unite  two  or  more 
parishes  into  a  combination  for  poor-law  purposes. 
There  is  not  the  same  extensive  machinery  for 
parochial  self-government  that  exists  in  Englai  d. 
The  burden  of  supporting  the  fabric  of  the  church 
falls  on  the  heritors,  and  there  are  no  church* 
wardens.  Highways  are  not  repairable  by  the 
parish,  and  there  are  no  elections  of  surveyors  or 
way-wardens.  The  meeting  of  the  inhabitants  in 
vestry,  which  so  often  takes  place  in  England,  is 
unknown  in  Scotland,  and  hence  the  ratepayers  do 
not  interest  themselves  so  much  in  local  affairs. 
Many  of  the  duties  which  in  England  are  discharged 
by  parochial  officers,  are  in  Scotland  discharged  by 
the  sheriff-clerk,  a  county-officer.  In  Scotland, 
there  exists  in  every  parish  a  Parish  School  (q.  v.), 
which  is  unknown  in  England,  except  as  a  voluntary 
institution. 

PARISH  CLERK,  in  England,  is  an  officer  of 
the  parish  of  some  importance,  his  duty  being  to 
lead  the  responses  during  the  reading  of  the  service 
in  the  parish  church.  He  is  appointed  by  the 
parson,  unless  some  other  custom  of  a  peculiar  kind 
exists  in  the  parish.  He  must  be  20  years  of  age, 
and  has  his  office  for  life,  but  is  removable  by  the 
parson  for  sufficient  cause.  By  the  statute  7  and  8 
Vict.  c.  59,  a  person  in  holy  orders  may  be  elected 
a  pai'ish  clerk.  Under  some  of  the  Church  Building 
Acts  governing  the  new  churches  built  in  populous 
parishes,  he  is  annually  appointed  by  the  minister. 
The  salary  of  the  parish  clerk  is  paid  out  of  the 
church-rate. 

PARISH  SCHOOL.  In  England,  there  is  no 
such  thing  as  a  parish  school — that  is,  a  school 
existing  for  the  benefit  of  the  parishioners,  endowed 
by  the  state,  or  supported  by  taxes  on  the 
parishioners.  Every  school  beyond  charity  schools 
is  more  or  less  voluntary  in  its  character,  and 
endowed,  if  at  all,  by  private  benefactors.  In 
Scotland,  however,  it  is  essential  that  in  every 
parish  there  shall  be  a  parish  school,  for  a  statute 
of  1090  made  it  compulsory  on  the  heritors — i.  e.,' 
the  chief  proprietors — to  provide  a  school-house,  and 
to  fix  a  salary  for  the  teacher.  If  the  heritors 
neglected  to  supply  a  school-house,  the  presbytery 
was  empowered  to  order  one  at  the  expense  of 
the  heritors.  The  schoolmaster's  salary  was 
fixed  according  to  a  certain  proportion,  half  of 
the  rate  or  cess  being  paid  by  the  landlord,  and 
half  by  the  tenant.  In  1803,  a  statute  passed 
to  regulate  the  salaries,  and  to  give  a  right  to  the 
schoolmaster  to  have  a  house  and  garden.  The 
modern  statute  now  regulating  the  office  is  24  and 
25  Vict.  c.  107.  The  salary  is  fixed  to  be  from 
£35  to  £70  per  annum,  to  be  varied  and  fixed  by 
the  heritors  and  minister  of  the  parish,  in  the  case 
of  future  vacancies.  The  qualification  of  the  school- 
master consists  in  passing  an  examination  conducted 
by  the  examiners  of  parochial  schoolmasters,  who 
are  professors  of  the  universities,  who  make  regu- 
lations as  to  the  time  and  mode  of  examination. 
For  this  purpose,  Scotland  is  divided  into  four 
districts,  each  in  connection  with  one  of  the  Scotch 
universities.  When  examined,  the  person  obtains  a 
certificate  of  fitness  from  these  examiners.  The 
schoolmaster  is  not  now  required,  previous  to  being 
admitted  to  his  office,  to  sign  the  Confession  of 
Faith,  or  the  formula  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  or 

277 


PARK— PARKER. 


to  profess  that  he  will  submit  to  the  government 
and  discipline  thereof.  But  he  is  required  merely  to 
make  a  declaration  that  he  will  not,  in  his  said  oliice, 
endeavour  directly  or  indirectly  to  teach  or  inculcate 
opinions  opposed  to  the  divine  authority  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  or  to  the  doctrines  contained  in 
the  Shorter  Catechism,  agreed  upon  by  the  Assem- 
bly of  Divines  at  Westminster,  and  approved  by 
the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
and  that  he  will  not  exercise  the  functions  of  his 
office  to  the  prejudice  or  subversion  of  the  Church 
of  Scot]  Hid  as  by  law  established.  In  case  of  mis- 
conduct, the  Presbytery  may  complain  to  the 
Secretary  of  State,  who  will  institute  a  commission 
to  imuire  and  report,  and  to  censure,  suspend,  or 
deprive  such  schoolmaster  accordingly.  Formerly, 
the  Presbytery  of  the  Established  Church  bad  jur- 
isdiction to  prosecute  and  try  the  schoolmaster  for 
immoral  conduct,  or  cruel  or  improper  treatment 
of  the  scholars,  but  now  the  sheriff  of  the  county  is 
the  sole  judge  of  the  charge,  full  opportunity  being 
given  ■  to  the  schoolmaster  to  prepare  his  defence. 
In  case  of  sentence  of  suspension,  the  salary  is  to 
cease  to  be  payable.  The  schoolmaster's  house  is 
now  to  consist  of  at  least  four  apartments ;  and 
the  heritors  and  minister  may  permit  or  require 
him  to  resign,  and  allow  him  a  retiring  allowance. 
With  these  improvements,  it  needs  to  be  added, 
that  the  system  of  parish  schools  has  fallen  greatly 
short  of  the  general  requirements  of  the  country — 
what  was  well  adapted  to  a  state  of  things  at  the 
Revolution,  when  there  was  a  meagrely-scattered 
population,  being  out  of  date  when  the  population  is 
about  three  times  greater.  The  deficiency  is  chiefly 
felt  where  populous  manufacturing  villages  aud 
towns  have  sprung  up  in  rural  districts.  On  this 
account,  the  much-boasted  parochial  school  system 
of  Scotland  is  in  various  quarters  far  behind 
the  requirements  of  modern  society,  and  but  for 
denominational  and  other  schools,  vast  numbers  of 
children  would  be  left  without  the  rudiments  of 
education. 

PARK  (Fr.  pare),  a  term  still  employed  in  some 
parts  of  Britain,  in  its  original  sense,  to  denote  a 
field  or  enclosure,  but  more  generally  applied  to  the 
enclosed  grounds  around  a  mansion,  designated  in 
Scotland  by  another  term  of  French  origin,  policy. 
The  park,  in  this  sense,  includes  not  only  the  lawn, 
but  all  that  is  devoted  to  the  growth  of  timber, 
pasturage  for  deer,  sheep,  cattle,  &c,  in  connection 
with  the  mansion,  wherever  pleasure- walks  or  drives 
«xtend,  or  the  purpose  of  enjoyment  prevails  over 
that  of  economical  use.  Public  parks  are  those  in  the 
vicinity  of  towns  and  cities,  open  to  the  public,  and 
intended  for  their  benefit.  An  increase  of  public 
parks  is  a  pleasing  feature  of  the  present  age,  and 
not  a  few  towns  enjoy  parks  recently  bestowed  by 
wealthy  persons  somehow  connected  with  them. 

PARK,  Mungo,  a  celebrated  African  traveller, 
was  tho  son  of  a  Scottish  farmer,  and  was  born  10th 
September  1771  at  Fowlshiels  near  Selkirk.  He 
studied  medicine  in  Edinburgh,  and  afterwards 
went  to  London,  where  he  obtained  the  situation 
of  assistant-surgeon  in  a  vessel  bound  for  the 
East  Indies.  When  he  returned  in  1793,  the 
African  Association  of  London  had  received  in- 
telligence of  the  death  of  Major  Houghton,  who 
had  undertaken  a  journey  to  Africa  at  their 
expense.  P.  offered  himself  for  a  similar  under- 
taking, was  accepted,  and  sailed  from  England 
2'2d  May  1795.  He  spent  some  months  at  the 
English  factory  of  Pisania  on  the  Gambia  in  making 
preparations  for  his  further  travels,  and  in  learning 
the  Mandingo  language.  Leaving  Pisania  on  the 
2d  of  December,  he  travelled  eastward ;  but  when 
378 


he  had  nearly  reached  the  place  where  Houghton 
lost  his  life,  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  Moorish 
king,  who  imprisoned  him,  and  treated  him  so 
roughly,  that  P.  seized  an  opportunity  of  escaping 
(1st  July  1796).  In  the  third  week  of  his  flight, 
he  reached  the  Niger,  the  great  object  of  his  search, 
at  Sego  (in  the  kingdom  of  Bambarra),  and  followed 
its  course  downward  as  far  as  Silla ;  but  meeting 
with  hindrances  that  compelled  him  to  retrace  his 
steps,  he  pursued  his  way  westwards  along  its  banks 
to  Bammakoe,  and  then  crossed  a  mountainous 
country  till  he  came  to  Kamalia,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Mandingo  (14th  September),  where  he  was  taken 
ill,  and  lay  for  seven  months.  A  slave-trader  at 
last  conveyed  him  again  to  the  English  factory  on 
the  Gambia,  where  he  arrived  10th  June  1797,  after 
an  absence  of  nineteen  months.  He  published  an 
account  of  his  travels  after  his  return  to  Britain, 
under  the  title  of  Travels  in  the  Interior  of  Africa 
(Lond  1799),  a  work  which  at  once  acquired  a 
high  popularity.  He  now  married  aud  settled 
as  a  surgeon  at  Peebles,  where,  however,  he 
did  not  acquire  an  extensive  practice ;  so  that,  in 
1S05,  he  undertook  another  journey  to  Africa,  at 
the  expense  of  the  government.  When  he  started 
from  Pisania,  he  had  a  company  of  45,  of  whom  36 
were  European  soldiers  ;  but  when  he  reached  the 
Niger  in  August,  his  attendants  were  reduced  to 
seven,  so  fatal  is  the  rainy  season  in  those  regions 
to  Europeans.  From  Sansanding  on  the  Niger,  in 
the  kingdom  of  Bambarra,  he  sent  back  his 
journals  and  letters  in  November  1S05  to  Gambia; 
and  built  a  boat,  in  which  he  embarked  with 
four  European  companions,  and  reached  the  king- 
dom of  Houssa,  where  he  aud  they  are  believed 
to  have  been  murdered  by  the  natives,  or  drowned 
as  they  attempted  to  sail  through  a  narrow 
channel  of  the  river.  The  fragments  of  infor- 
mation and  other  evidence  picked  up  among  the 
natives  by  Clapperton  and  Lander  (q.  v.),  strongly 
confirm  this  view  of  the  fate  of  P.  and  his  com- 
panions. An  account  of  P.'s  second  journey  was 
published  at  London  in  1815.  P.'s  narratives 
are  of  no  inconsiderable  value,  particularly  for 
the  light  which  they  throw  upon  the  social  and 
domestic  life  of  the  negroes,  and  on  the  botany  a^d 
meteorology  of  the  regions  through  which  he  passed  ; 
but  he  was  unfortunately  cut  off  before  he  had 
determined  the  grand  object  of  his  explorations — 
the  discovery  of  the  course  of  the  Niger. 

PARK  OF  ARTILLERY  is  the  whole  train  of 
great  guns  with  equipment,  ammunition,  horses,  and 
gunners  for  an  army  in  the  field.  It  is  placed  in  a 
situation  whence  rapid  access  can  be  had  to  the 
line  of  the  army  in  any  part ;  and  at  the  same  time 
where  the  divisions  of  the  force  can  easily  mass  for 
its  protection.  The  horses  of  the  park  are  picketed 
in  lines  in  its  rear. 

PA'RKA,  the  name  given  by  Fleming  to  a  fossil 
from  the  Old  Red  Sandstone,  about  which  there 
has  been  considerable  difference  of  opinion.  The 
quarrymen  call  them  'berries,'  from  thfdi*  resem- 
blance to  a  compressed  raspberry.  They  were 
compared  by  Fleming  to  the  panicles  of  a  Juncus, 
or  the  globose  head  of  a  Sparganium.  Lyell  thiukb 
they  resemble  the  egg-cases  of  a  Natica,  while 
Mantell  suggested  that  they  were  the  eggs  of  a 
hatrnchian.  The  opinion  now  most  generally  enter- 
tained is  that  they  are  the  eggs  of  the  Pterygotus. 

PARKER,  a  family  of  distinction  in  the  annals 
of  the  British  navy.  The  founder  of  the  family 
was  Sir  Hugh  Parker,  an  alderman  of  London,  who 
received  a  baronetcy  in  1681.  —  His  grand-nephew. 
Sir  Hyde  Parker,  commanded  the  British  fleet  in 
the  nction  off  the  Dogger  Bank.  6th  August,  "i7«l. 


PARKER. 


in  which  three  Dutch  ships  were  destroyed,  and  the 
rest  of  the  Dutch  Heet  compelled  t<>  retreat  into 
harbour.    In  1783,  lie  was  appointed  to  the  command 

of  tin"  British  fleet  in  the  East  Indies;  hut  the  ship 
in  which  he  sailed  thither  was  lost,  with  all  on 
board.  His  second  son,  Sir  Hvdk  PARKER,  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  American  war;  blockaded 
the  Dutch  harbours  with  a  small  squadron  in  1782  ; 
commanded  the  British  fleet  in  the  West  Indies 
in  1795;  ar.d  in  18(11  was  appointed  to  the  chief 
command  of  the  fleet  which  was  sent  to  the  Baltic 
to  act  against  the  armed  coalition  of  the  three 
northern  states  of  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Denmark. 
He  had  no  share  in  the  battle  of  Copenhagen,  in 
which  Nelson  engaged  contrary  to  his  orders  ;  but 
by  his  appearance  before  Carlscrona,  he  compelled 
the  neutrality  of  Sweden  ;  and  he  was  on  the  point 
of  sailing  for  Cronstadt,  when  the  news  of  Paul's 
death  put  an  end  to  hostilities.— His  kinsman,  Sir 
William  Parker,  was  also  a  British  admiral  of 
high  repute  for  his  skill  and  bravery,  and  contri- 
buted to  some  of  the  great  victories  of  the  close  of 
last  century. — Sir  Peter  Parker,  who  was  born  in 
1710,  and  died  in  1811,  with  the  rank  of  admiral  of 
the  fleet,  served  with  distinction  during  the  Seven 
Years' and  the  American  wars;  and  in  1782  brought 
the  French  admiral,  De  Grasse,  a  prisoner  to 
England,  for  which  be  received  a  baronetcy.— Sir 
William  Parker,  born  in  1780,  commanded  the 
frigate  Amazon  in  1S06,  and  took,  after  a  hard  battle, 
the  French  frigate  La  Belle  Poule,  belonging  to  the 
squadron  of  Admiral  Linois ;  and  in  1S09  captured 
the  citadel  of  Ferrol.  In  1841,  he  succeeded  to 
Admiral  Elliot  in  the  command  of  the  fleet  in  the 
Chinese  seas  during  the  first  Chinese  war.  He  took 
possession  of  Chusan,  Ningpo,  and  Shapu ;  forced 
the  entrance  of  the  Yang-tse-kiang ;  and  arrived 
under  the  walls  of  Nanking,  where  the  treaty  of 
peace  was  agreed  upon.  For  these  services,  he 
received  a  baronetcy  in  1844.  He  was  afterwards 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  fleet  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  exerted  himself,  although  in  vain,  to 
mediate  between  the  Neapolitan  government  and 
the  insurgent  Sicilians.  In  autumn  1849,  he  sailed 
to  the  Dardanelles,  at  the  request  of  Sir  Stratford 
Canning  (now  Lord  Stratford  de  Redcliffe),  to  support 
the  Porte  against  the  threatening  demands  of  Austria 
and  Russia  concerning  political  fugitives  ;  and  in 
January  1S50  he  compelled  the  Greek  government, 
by  a  blockade  of  their  ports,  to  comply  with  the 
demands  of  Britain.  Named  in  1S51  Admiral  of 
the  Blue,  he  resigned  the  command  of  the  Medi- 
terranean fleet  to  Admiral  Dundas,  was  created 
Admiral  of  the  White  in  1853,  Admiral  of  the  Red 
in  1S58,  and  Rear-admiral  of  the  United  Kingdom 
in  1862.     He  died  in  1866. 

PARKER,    Matthew,    the    second    Protestant 
Archbishop   of   Canterbury,  was  born  at  Norwich, 
August  6,  1504,  studied  at  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Cambridge,  and  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1527.     At 
the    university,   he   was    a   distinguished    student,  i 
especially  of  the  Scriptures  and  of  the  history  of  the 
oburch,   even  to  antiquarian    minuteness ;    yet,   in 
spite  of  his  strong  leaning  to  the  past,  he  was  from  , 
ai>   early  period  favourably  disposed  towards  the 
doctrines   of   the   Reformation,  and   lived  in  close  J 
intimacy  with  some  of  the  more  ardent  reformers.  J 
In  1533,  he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Queen  Anne  j 
Boleyn,    who   thought    very    highly   of    him,    and 
not  long  before  her  death,  exhorted  her  daughter  \ 
Elizabeth  to  avail  herself  of  P.'s  wise  and  pious  ] 
counsel.     In  1535,  he  obtained  the  deanery  of  the 
monastic  college  of  Stoke-Clare  in  Suffolk — Roman  \ 
Catholicism,  it  must  not   be    forgotten,  being  still 
the  professed  religion  of  the  land,  for  Henry  had  not  ' 
yet  formally  broken  with  the  pope — and  here  the  i 


studious  clerk  continued  his  pursuit  of  classical  ^-ad 
istical  literature,  and  at  the  same  time  .«>t 

himself  to  correct  the  prevailing  decay  of  moral* 
and  learning  in  the  church,  by  founding  a  school  in 
the  locality  for  the  purpose  of  instructing  the  youth 

in  the  study  of  grammar  and  humanity.  Here,  too, 
he  appears  for  the  first  time  to  have  definitely 
sided  with  the  reforming  party  in  the  church  and 
state,  the  sermons   which   he  preached  containing 

bold  attacks  un  different  Catholic  tenets  and  prac- 
tices. In  1538,  P.  took  the  degree  of  D.D. ;  and  in 
1514,  after  some  minor  changes,  became  master  of 
Bene't  College,  Cambridge,  which  he  ruled  admir- 
ably. Three  years  later,  he  married  Margaret 
Harlstone,  the  daughter  of  a  Norfolkshire  gentle* 
man.  It  was  probably  about  this  time  that  he  drew 
up  his  defence  of  the  marriage  of  priests,  entitled 
De  Couj ugio  Sacerdotum,  In  1552,  he  was  pre- 
sented  by  King  Edward  VI.  to  the  car.onry  and 
prebend  of  Covingham,  in  the  church  of  L  acorn. 
On  the  accessiou  of  Queen  Mary,  he  refused  to  con- 
form to  the  re-established  order  of  things,  and  was 
(like  many  others  of  the  new  school  of  divines) 
deprived  of  his  preferments,  and  even  obliged  to 
conceal  himself.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that 
he  was  eagerly  sought  after  by  the  emissaries  of 
Mary ;  for  he  was  no  fanatic  or  iconoclast,  but,  on 
the  contrary,  though  sincerely  attached  to  the  com- 
mon Protestant  doctrines,  very  unwilling  to  disturb 
the  framework  of  the  church.  P.  spent  at  least 
some  portion  of  his  compulsory  seclusion  from 
public  life  in  the  enlargement  of  his  De  Conjugio 
Sacerdotum,  and  in  translating  the  Psalms  into 
English  metre.  The  death  of  Mary,  and  the  acces- 
sion of  Elizabeth,  called  him  from  that  learned 
retirement  of  which  he  seems  to  have  been  sin- 
cerely fond.  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  now  Lord-keeper 
of  the  Great  Seal,  and  Sir  William  Cecil,  Secre- 
tary of  State,  both  old  Cambridge  friends,  knew 
what  a  solid  and  sure  judgment,  what  a  moderate 
and  equable  spirit,  and  above  all,  what  a  thorough 
faculty  for  business,  ecclesiastical  and  secular,  P. 
had,  and  by  their  recommendation  he  was  appointed, 
by  the  queen,  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The 
consecration  took  place  in  Lambeth  chapel,  Decem- 
ber 17,  1559. 

•  The  subsequent  history  of  Archbishop  Parker,' 
it  has  been  justly  remarked,  '  is  that  of  the  Church 
of  England.'  The  difficulties  that  beset  him  were 
very  great.  Elizabeth  herself  was  much  addicted  to 
various  'popish'  practices,  such  as  the  idolatrous 
use  of  images,  and  was  strongly,  we  might  even 
say,  violently,  in  favour  of  the  celibacy  of  the 
clergy.  She  went  so  far  as  to  insult  P.'s  wife  on 
one  occasion.  But  his  greatest  anxiety  was  in 
regard  to  the  spirit  of  sectarian  dissension  within 
the  bosom  of  the  church  itself.  Already  the 
germs  of  puritanism  were  beginning  to  spring  up, 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  their  growth  was 
fostered  by  the  despotic  caprices  of  the  queen. 
P.  himself  was  manifestly  convinced  that  if  ever 
Protestantism  was  to  be  firmly  established  in 
the  land  at  all,  some  definite  ecclesiastical  forms 
and  methods  must  be  sanctioned,  to  secure  the 
triumph  of  order  over  anarchy,  and  so  he  vigorously 
set  about  the  repression  of  what  he  thought  a 
mutinous  individualism  incompatible  with  a  catholic 
spirit.  That  he  always  acted  wisely  or  well,  cannot 
be  affirmed ;  he  was  forced,  by  virtue  of  his  very 
attitude,  into  intolerant  and  inquisitorial  courses, 
and  as  he  grew  older,  he  grew  harsher,  the  con- 
servative spirit  increasing  with  his  years.  To 
forbid  '  prophesyings,'  or  meetings  for  religious  dis- 
course, was  something  very  like  persecution,  though 
probably  enough  something  very  like  treason  to 
the  church  was  talked  in  these  pious  conventicles. 


PARKER— PARLIAMENT. 


Fuller  (who  must  have  his  pun,  however  bad)  says 
of  him:  'He  was  a  Parker  indeed,  careful  to  keep 
the  fences.'  Yet  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  it 
is  to  P.  we  owe  the  Bishops'  Bible,  undertaken 
at  his  request,  carried  on  under  his  inspection, 
and  published  at  his  expense  in  1568.  He  had  also 
the  principal  share  in  drawing  up  the  Bonk  of  Com- 
mon Prayer,  for  which  his  skill  in  ancient  liturgies 
peculiarly  fitted  him,  and  which  strikingly  hears  the 
impress  "of  his  broad,  moderate,  and  unsectarian 
intellect.  It  was  under  his  presidency,  too,  that 
the  Thirty-nine  Articles  were  finally  reviewed  and 
subscribed  by  the  clergy  (1562).  P.  died  May  17, 
1575. 

Among  other  literary  performances,  P.  published 
an  old  Saxon  Homily  on  the  Sacrament,  by  iElfric  of 
St  Albans,  to  prove  that  Transubstantiation  was  not 
the  doctrine  of  the  ancient  English  church ;  edited 
the  histories  of  Matthew  of  Westminster  and 
Matthew  Paris  (q.  v.) ;  and  superintended  the  pub- 
lication of  a  most  valuable  work,  De  Antiquitate 
Britannicce  Ecclesioz,  probably  printed  at  Lambeth 
in  1572,  where  the  archbishop,  we  are  told,  had  an 
establishment  of  printers,  engravers,  and  illumin- 
ators. He  also  founded  the  '  Society  of  Antiquaries,' 
and  was  its  first  president ;  endowed  the  university 
of  Cambridge,  and  particularly  his  own  college, 
with  many  fellowships  and  scholarships,  and  with 
a  magnificent  collection  of  MSS.  relating  to  the 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  condition  of  England,  and 
belonging  to  nine  different  centuries  (from  the  8th 
to  the  16th).  Of  this  collection,  Fuller  said  that 
it  was  '  the  sun  of  English  antiquity  before  it  was 
eclij«ed  by  that  of  Sir  Robert  Cotton.' 

PARKER,  Theodore,  an  American  clergyman 
and  scholar,  was  born  at  Lexington,  Massachusetts, 
August  24,  1810.  His  grandfather  was  captain  of  a 
militia  company  at  the  battle  of  Lexington,  his 
father  a  farmer  and  mechanic,  and  his  own  boyhood 
was  spent  at  the  district  school,  on  the  farm,  and 
in  the  workshop.  At  the  age  of  17,  he  taught  a 
school,  and  earned  money  to  enter  Harvard  College 
in  1830.  During  his  collegiate  course,  he  sup- 
ported himself  by  teaching  private  classes  and 
schools,  and  studied  metaphysics,  theology,  Anglo- 
Saxon,  Syriac,  Arabic,  Danish,  Swedish,  German, 
French,  Spanish,  and  modern  Greek.  Entering 
the  divinity  class,  at  the  end  of  his  collegiate 
course,  he  commenced  to  preach  in  1836,  was  an 
editor  of  the  Scriptural  Interpreter,  and  settled 
as  Unitarian  minister  at  West  Roxbury  in  1837. 
The  naturalistic  or  rationalistic  views  which 
separated  him  from  the  more  conservative  portion 
of  the  Unitarians,  first  attracted  wide  notice,  in 
consequence  of  an  ordination  sermon,  in  1841,  on 
The  Transient  and  Permanent  in  Christianity.  The 
contest  which  arose  on  the  anti-supernaturalism 
of  this  discourse,  led  him  to  further  develop  his 
theological  views  in  five  lectures,  delivered  in 
Boston,  and  published  (1841)  under  the  title  of  A 
Discourse  of  Matters  Pertaining  tc  Religion,  which 
was  followed  by  Sermons  for  the  Timet,.  Failing 
health  induced  him  to  make  an  extended  tour  in 
Europe.  In  1845,  he  returned  to  Boston,  preached 
to  lartie  audiences  at  the  Melodeon,  and  wrote  for 
the  Dial,  Christian  Register,  Christian  Examiner, 
and  Massac) 'in setts  Quarterly.  He  became  also 
a  popular  lecturer,  and  was  active  and  earnest  in 
opposition  to  slavery,  the  Mexican  war,  and  the 
Fugitive  Slave  Law,  for  resisting  which,  by  more 
than  words,  he  was  indicted.  In  the  midst  of  hiB 
work,  he  was  attacked,  in  1859,  with  bleeding  from 
the  lungs,  and  made  a  voyage  to  the  W.  Indies,  where 
he  wrote  his  Experience  as  a  Minister,  whence  he 
Bailed  to  Italy,  where  he  died  at  Florence,  May  10, 
I860.  His  works,  consisting  chiefly  of  miscellanies, 
2S0 


lectures  and  sermons,  have  been  collected  and  pub* 
lished  in  America  and  England,  in  which  his  peculiai 
views  in  theology  and  politics  are  sustained  with 
great  force  of  logic  and  felicity  of  illustration.  Hia 
Teaming  was  as  remarkable  as  his  energy  and  philan- 
thropy. His  library  of  13,000  volumes  he  bequeathed 
to  the  Boston  Free  Library.  Few  men  of  his  time 
exerted  a  more  powerful  influence. 

PARKHURST,  John,  an  English  biblical 
scholar,  the  second  son  of  John  Parkhurst,  Esq.  of 
Catesby,  in  Northamptonshire,  was  born  in  June 
1728,  educated  at  Rugby  and  at  Clare  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  took  his  degree  of  M.A.  in  1752, 
and  in  1753  published  A  Serious  and  Friendly 
Address  to  the  Rev.  John  Wesley,  in  Relation  to  a 
Principal  Doctrine  advanced  and  maintained  by 
him  and  his  Assistants.  The  doctrine  assailed  in 
P.'s  pamphlet  was  the  favourite  Wesleyan  doctrine 
of  'Assurance.'  In  1762  appeared  his  principal 
work — indeed  the  only  thing  that  has  preserved  his 
name — A  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon,  without 
Points,  adapted  to  the  Use  of  Learners.  P.  kept 
mending  this  Hebrew  lexicon  all  his  life.  It  was 
a  very  creditable  performance  for  its  time,  and  long 
continued  to  be  the  standard  work  on  the  subject 
among  biblical  students  in  this  country;  but  it  is 
disfigured  by  its  fanciful  etymologies,  partly  the 
result  of  his  having  (like  many  other  divines  of  his 
time)  adopted  the  irrational  and  presumptuous 
theories  of  Hutchinson  (q.  v.),  and  is  now  entirely 
superseded  by  the  works  of  Gesenius,  Ewald,  and 
other  critical  scholars.  P.  also  wrote  a  treatise 
(17S7)  against  Dr  Priestley,  to  prove  the  divinity 
and  pre-existence  of  Jesus  Christ.  He  died  at 
Epsom,  in  Surrey,  March  21,  1797. 

PARKINSO'NIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Leguminosw,  suborder  Ccesalpinieai. — 
P.  aculeata  is  a  West  Indiau  shrub  or  small  tree, 
which,  when  in  flower,  is  one  of  the  most  splendid 
objects  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  has  pinnated 
leaves,  with  winged  leaf-stalk,  and  large  yellow 
flowers  spotted  with  red.  It  is  furnished  with 
strong  spines,  and  is  often  used  for  hedges,  whence 
it  is  called  the  Barbadoes  Flower  Fence.  It  is 
now  common  in  India.  The  bark  yields  a  beauti- 
ful white  fibre,  which,  however,  is  not  very  strong ; 
but  it  has  been  suggested  that  it  might  be  found 
suitable  for  paper-making. 

PA'RLEY,  in  Military  Language,  is  an  oral  con- 
ference with  the  enemy.  It  takes  place  under  a  flag 
of  truce,  and  usually  at  some  spot — for  the  time 
neutral — between  the  lines  of  the  two  armies. 

PA'RLIAMENT  (Fr.  parlement,  from  parler,  to 
talk),  the  supreme  legislature  of  the  United  Kingdom 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  word  was  first 
applied,  according  to  Blackstone,  to  general  assem- 
blies of  the  states  under  Louis  VII.  in  France  about 
the  middle  of  the  12th  c. ;  but  in  that  country  it 
came  eventually  to  be  the  designation  of  a  body 
which  performed  certain  administrative  functions, 
but  whose  principal  duties  were  those  of' a  court  of 
justice. 

The  origin  of  the  Parliament  of  England  has  been 
traced  to  the  Saxon  great  councils  of  the  nation, 
called  '  Wittena-gemote,'  or  meeting  of  wise  men. 
These  had,  however,  little  in  common  with  the 
parliaments  of  a  later  date  :  among  other  points  of 
difference,  they  had  a  right  to  assemble  when  they 
pleased  without  royal  warrant.  Even  under  the 
Norman  kings,  the  Great  Council  formed  a  judicial 
and  ministerial  as  well  as  a  legislative  body,  and 
it  was  only  gradually  that  the  judicial  functions 
were  transferred  to  courts  of  justice,  and  the 
ministerial  to  the  privy  council-  a  remnant  of  the 
judicial  powers  of  parliament  being  still  p'eberved 


PARMA  MK  NT. 


in  the  appellate  jurisdiction  of  the  House  of  Lords. 
Under  the  Norman  kind's,  the  conned  of  the  sove- 
reign consisted  of  the  tenants-in-chief  of  the  crown, 
who  held  their  lands  per  baron iam,  lay  and  eccles- 
iastic. It  was  the  principle  of  the  feudal  system 
that  every  tenant  should  attend  the  court  of  his 
immediate  superior  ;  and  he  who  held  per  baroniam, 
having  no  superior  hut  the  crown,  was  hound  to 
attend  his  sovereign  in  the  Great  Council  or  Parlia- 
ment. In  the  charter  of  King  John,  we  for  the 
first  time  trace  the  perm  of  a  distinction  between 
the  p>vrage  and  the  lesser  nobility,  the  archbishops, 
bishops,  abbots,  earls,  and  greater  barons  being 
required  to  attend  by  a  writ  addressed  to  each,  and 
the  other  tenants-in-ehief  by  i  general  summons  by 
the  sheriffs  and  bailiffs,  Baronial  tenure  origin- 
ally made  a  man  a  baron  or  lord  of  parliament. 
Whtn  the  offices  or  titles  of  Earl,  Marquis,  or 
Duke  were  bestowed  on  a  baron,  they  were  con- 
ferred by  royal  writ  or  patent,  and  at  length  barony 
came  also  to  be  conferred  by  writ  instead  of  by 
tenure.  During  the  13th  o»,  the  smaller  barons  were 
allowed,  instead  of  personally  attending  the  national 
council,  to  appear  by  representatives  ;  but  the  prin- 
ciple of  representation  seems  first  to  have  been 
reduced  to  a  system  when  permission  was  also 
given  to  the  municipalities,  which,  as  corporations, 
were  chief  tenants  of  the  crown,  to  appear  by  repre- 
sentatives. It  is  not  quite  clear  when  the  division 
of  parliament  into  two  Houses  took  place  ;  but  when 
the  representatives  of  the  minor  barons  were  joined 
by  those  of  the  municipalities,  the  term  Commons 
Was  applied  to  both.  The  Lower  House  was  early 
allowed  to  deal  exclusively  with  questions  of  supply ; 
and  seems,  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.,  to  have 
established  the  right  to  assign  the  supplies  to  their 
proper  uses.  As  the  Commons  became  more  power- 
ful, they  came  to  insist  on  the  crown  redressing 
their  grievances  before  they  would  vote  the  supplies. 
The  iuriuence  of  parliament  was  on  the  increase 
during  the  Tudor  period,  while  the  reign  of  the 
Stewarts  was  characterised  by  a  struggle  for  supre- 
macy between  the  parliament  and  the  crown,  each 
striving  to  acquire  the  control  of  the  military  force 
of  the  country.  The  powers  of  the  different  estates 
came  to  be  more  sharply  defined  at  the  Revolution 
of  1688.  Nineteen  years  later,  on  the  Union  with 
Scotland,  the  Parliament  of  England  was  merged 
into  that  of  Great  Britain. 

In  its  early  history,  prior  to  the  "War  of  Inde- 
pendence, the  Parliament  of  Scotland  had  probably 
not  been  very  unlike  that  of  England  ;  it  assembled 
without  warrant,  and  consisted  of  bishops,  earls, 
priors,  abbots,  and  barons.  At  the  close  of  the  13th  c, 
the  constitutional  history  of  Scotland  diverges  from 
that  of  England.  The  addition  of  the  burghs  to  the 
national  council  seems  to  date  from  the  beginning 
of  the  14th  c,,  but  it  was  not  till  much  later  that 
the  lesser  barons  began  to  be  exempted  from  attend- 
ance. The  first  act  excusing  them  belongs  to  the 
reign  of  James  L,  and  allows  them  to  choose 
representatives  calted  Speakers,  two  for  each  conty, 
excepting  some  small  counties,  which  were  to  have 
but  one,  the  expenses  of  the  representatives  being 
defrayed  by  the  constituency.  The  Scottish  Par- 
liament was  never,  like  the  English,  divided  into 
two  Houses  ;  all  sat  in  one  hall,  and  though  it  con- 
sisted of  three  estates,  a  general  numerical  majority 
of  members  was  considered  sufficient  to  carry  a 
measure.  The  greater  part  of  the  business  was 
transacted  by  the  Lords  of  the  Articles,  a  committee 
named  by  the  parliament  at  the  beginning  of  each 
session,  to  consider  what  Measures  should  be  passed; 
and  whatever  they  recommended  was  generally 
passed  without  discussion.  It  was  never  held  indis- 
pensable  that  the  parliament    sh  uld  be   summoned 


by  the  crown,  and  it  has  even  been  thought  that 
the  royal  assent  to  the  measures  carried  was  no) 
absolutely  essential.  The  parliament  which  carried 
the  Reformation  had  no  royal  sanction.  The  Union 
was  adjusted  by  commissioners  for  each  country 
selected  by  the  crown,  and  passed  lirst,  after  strong 
and  protracted  opposition,  in  Scotland,  and  after- 
wards more  easily  in  England. 

By  the  act  of  union  with  Ireland  in  1800  (Act 
30  and  40  Geo.  111.  c.  07),  the  Irish  Parliament  was 
united  with  that  of  Great  Britain  as  the  Parliament 
of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
The  Parliament  of  Ireland  had  been  originally 
formed  on  the  model  of  that  of  England  about  th< 
close  of  the  13th  c,  but  it  was  merely  the  ven 
small  portion  of  Ireland  occupied  by  the  English 
settlers  that  was  represented,  which,  as  late  as  the 
time  of  Henry  VII.,  hardly  extended  beyond  the 
counties  of  Dublin,  Louth,  Kildare,  and  Meath, 
and  constituted  what  was  called  the  Pale.  It  was 
only  for  the  last  few  years  of  its  existence  that  the 
Irish  Parliament  was  a  supreme  legislature ;  the 
English  Parliament  having,  down  to  1783,  had 
power  to  legislate  for  Ireland.  By  one  of  the 
provisions  of  Poyning's  Act,  passed  in  1495,  no 
legislative  proposals  could  be  made  to  the  Irish 
Parliament  until  they  had  received  the  sanction  of 
the  king  and  council  in  England.  Act  23  Geo.  III. 
c.  28  gave  the  Irish  Parliament  exclusive  authority 
to  legislate  for  Ireland,  and  the  .abuse  of  this  power 
so  obstructed  the  machinery  of  government,  as  to 
render  the  Union  of  1S00  matter  of  necessity. 

The  power  of  parliament  is,  according  to  Sir 
Edward  Coke,  so  transcendent  and  absolute,  that 
it  cannot  be  confined  either  for  persons  or  causes 
within  any  bounds.  All  remedies  which  transcend 
the  ordinary  courts  of  law  are  within  its  reach.  It 
can  alter  the  succession  to  the  throne,  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  kingdom,  and  the  constitution  of  parlia- 
ment itself.  It  has  its  own  law,  to  be  learned  from 
the  rolls  and  records  of  parliament,  and  by  prece- 
dents and  experience.  One  of  the  most  thoroughly 
established  maxims  of  this  law  is,  that  whatever 
question  arises  concerning  either  House  of  Parlia- 
ment ought  to  be  discussed  and  adjudged  there, 
and  not  elsewhere.  The  House  of  Lords  will  not 
allow  the  Commons  to  interfere  in  a  question 
regarding  an  election  of  a  Scotch  or  Irish  peer ; 
the  Commons  will  not  allow  the  Lords  to  judge  of 
the  validity  of  the  election  of  a  member  of  their 
House,  nor  will  either  House  permit  courts  of  law 
to  examine  such  cases.  The  authority  of  parlia- 
ment extends  to  British  colonies  and  foreign  pos- 
sessions. In  the  ordinary  course  of  government, 
however,  parliament  does  not  make  laws  for  the 
colonies.  Eor  some  the  Queen  in  Council  legislates ; 
others  have  legislatures  of  their  own,  which  pro- 
pound laws  for  their  internal  government,  subject 
to  the  approbation  of  the  Queen  in  Council ;  but 
these  may  be  repealed  and  amended  by  parliament. 

The  constituent  parts  of  parliament  are  the 
sovereign,  the  House  of  Lords,  and  the  House  of 
Commons.  In  the  sovereign  is  vested  the  wh>)e 
executive  power;  the  crown  is  also  the  f<  untaic.  of 
justice,  from  whence  the  whole  judicial  authority 
flows.  To  the  crown  is  entrusted  the  j  ermanent 
duty  of  government,  to  be  fulfilled  in  accordance 
with  the  law  of  the  realm,  and  by  the  advice  of 
ministers  responsible  to  parliament.  The  sovereign 
is  also  invested  with  the  character  of  the  represen- 
tation of  the  majesty  of  the  state.  The  sovereign's 
share  in  the  legislature  includes  the  summoning, 
proroguing,  and  dissolving  of  parliament.  Parlia- 
ment can  only  assemble  by  act  of  the  sovereign ; 
in  but  two  instances  have  the  Lords  and  Commons 
na  :t  of  their  own  authority — viz.,  previously  to  the 

381 


PARLIAMENT. 


Restoration  of  Charles  II.,  and  at  the  Convention 
Parliament  summoned  at  the  Revolution  of  1688 ; 
and  in  both  instances  it  was  considered  necessary 
afterwards  to  pass  an  act  declaring  the  parliament 
to  be  a  legal  one.  Though  the  queen  may  deter- 
mine the  period  for  assembling  parliament,  her  pre- 
rogative is  restrained  within  certain  limits.  She  is 
bound  by  statute  (16  Chas.  II.  c.  1  ;  and  6  and  7  Will, 
and  Mary  c.  2)  to  issue  writs  within  three  years 
after  the  determination  of  a  parliament ;  and  the 
practice  of  voting  money  for  the  public  service  by 
annual  enactments,  renders  it  compulsory  for  the 
sovereign  to  meet  parliament  every  year.  Act  43 
Geo.  III.  c.  90  provides  that  the  sovereign  shall 
assemble  parliament  within  fourteen  days,  whenever 
the  mditia  shall  be  drawn  out  and  embodied  in  case 
of  apprehended  invasion  and  rebellion ;  and  a  similar 
proviso  is  inserted  in  Act  15  and  16  Vict.  c.  50,  in 
case  the  present  militia  force  should  be  raised  to 
120,000  men,  and  embodied.  The  royal  assent  is 
necessary  before  any  measure  can  pass  into  law. 
The  crown,  as  the  executive  power,  is  charged  with 
the  management  of  the  revenues  of  the  state,  and 
with  all  payments  for  the  public  service  ;  it  is  there- 
fore the  crown  that  makes  known  to  the  Commons 
the  pecuniary  necessities  of  the  government,  without 
which  no  supplies  can  be  granted.  The  sovereign's 
prerogative  also  includes  the  sending  and  receiving 
of  ambassadors,  entering  into  treaty  with  foreign 
powers,  and  declaring  war  or  peace.  All  the  kings 
and  queens  since  the  Revolution  have  taken  an  oath 
at  their  coronation  '  to  govern  according  to  the 
statutes  in  parliament  agreed  on,  and  the  laws  and 
customs  of  the  same.'  The  sovereign  is  further 
bound  to  an  adherence  to  the  Protestant  faith,  and 
the  maintenance  of  the  Protestant  religion  as  estab- 
lished by  law.  By  the  Bill  of  Rights  (1  Will. 
and  Mary  c.  2,  s.  6),  and  the  Act  of  Settlement  (12 
and  13  Will  III.  c.  2,  s.  2)  a  person  professing 
the  popish  religion,  or  marrying  a  papist,  is  incap- 
able of  inheriting  the  crown,  and  the  people  are 
absolved  from  their  allegiance.  This  exclusion  is 
further  confirmed  by  the  Act  of  Union  with  Scot- 
land ;  and  in  addition  to  the  coronation  oath,  every 
king  or  queen  is  required  to  take  the  declaration 
against  the  doctrines  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
prescribed  by  30  Chas.  II.  c.  2,  either  on  the 
throne  in  the  House  of  Lords  in  the  presence  of 
both  Houses,  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  first  parlia- 
ment after  the  accession,  or  at  the  coronation,  which- 
ever event  shall  first  happen.  The  sovereign  is 
bound  by  similar  sanctions  to  maintain  the  Pro- 
testant religion  and  Presbyterian  church  government 
in  Scotland. 

The  province  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament  is  to 
legislate  with  the  crown,  to  provide  supplies,  to 
exercise  a  supervision  over  the  ministers  of  the 
crown  and  all  other  functionaries,  and  to  advise 
the  sovereign  on  matters  of  public  moment.  The 
Upper  House,  from  its  hereditary  and  aristocratic 
character,  is  a  check  on  the  popular  branch  of  the 
legisture  and  on  hasty  legislation. 

The  Honse  of  Lords  may  originate  legislative 
measu  res  of  all  kinds,  except  money-bills.  Acts  of 
grace  and  all  bills  affecting  the  rights  of  the  peers 
necessarily  originate  in  this  House.  In  its  judicial 
capacity,  it  forms  a  court  for  the  trial  of  causes  on 
appeal  from  the  Court  of  Chancery,  on  writs  of 
error  to  review  judgments  in  the  Queen's  Bench, 
and  on  appeal  from  the  Court  of  Session.  It  has  a 
judicature  in  claims  of  peerage  and  offices  of  honour 
under  reference  from  the  crown.  Since  the  union 
with  Scotland  and  Ireland,  it  has  had  the  power  of 
deciding  controverted  elections  of  representative 
peers.  It  tries  such  offenders  as  are  impeached  by 
the  House  of  Commons,  and  members  of  its  own 

283 


body  on  indictment  found  by  a  grand  jury.  The 
House  of  Lords  is  composed  of  loids  spiritual 
and  temporal.  According  to  a  declaration  of  the 
House  in  1672,  the  lords  spiritual  are  only  lords  of 
parliament  and  not  peers,  a  distinction  which  seema 
not  to  have  been  known  in  ancient  times.  They 
consist  of  2  archbishops  and  2-4  bishops  for  England, 
who  are  said  to  have  seats  in  virtue  of  their  tem- 
poral baronies ;  and  4  Irish  bishops,  who  represent 
the  clergy  of  Ireland,  according  to  a  rotation  estab- 
lished at  the  Union  of  1S0O.  The  Bishop  of  Sudor 
and  Man  has  no  seat  in  parliament,  and  on  Man- 
chester being  made  a  see  in  1847,  it  was  arranged 
that  one  other  bishop  should  be  in  the  same  posi* 
tion,  according  to  a  rotation  not  including  tha 
bishops  of  London,  Durham,  and  Winchester,  so  as 
not  to  increase  the  number  of  the  lords  spiritual. 
The  lords  temporal  consist  of — 1.  The  peers  of 
England,  of  Great  Britain,  and  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  of  whom  there  are  at  present  23  dukes 
(3  of  whom  are  royal  dukes),  19  marquises,  1 10 
earls,  22  viscounts,  and  209  barons.  The  number 
of  the  peers  of  the  United  Kingdom  may  be 
increased  without  limit  by  new  creations  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  sovereign.  2.  Sixteen  representa- 
tives chosen  from  their  own  body  by  the  peers  of 
Scotland  for  each  parliament.  As  no  provision  was 
made  at  the  Union  for  any  subsequent  creation  of 
Scottish  peers,  the  peerage  of  Scotland  consists 
exclusively  of  the  descendants  of  peers  existing 
before  the  Union.  By  order  of  the  House  of  Lords, 
an  authentic  list  of  the  Scottish  peers  was  entered 
on  the  roll  of  peers  on  12th  February  1708,  to  which 
all  claims  since  established  have  been  added ;  and  in 
order  to  prevent  the  assumption  of  dormant  and 
extinct  peerages  by  persons  not  having  right  to 
them,  statute  10  and  11  Vict.  c.  52,  provides  that  no 
title  standing  in  the  roll,  in  right  of  which  no  vote 
has  been  given  since  1800,  shall  be  called  over  at  an 
election  without  an  order  of  the  House  of  Lords. 
A  representative  peer  ceases  to  be  one  of  the  repre- 
sentatives on  being  created  a  peer  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  3.  Twenty-eight  representatives  of  the 
Irish  peerage,  elected  for  life.  For  an  account  of 
the  different  degrees  of  the  peerage,  and  of  those 
privileges  of  the  peers  that  are  unconnected 
with  their  position  as  members  of  parliament,  see 
Nobility.  All  peerages  are  now  hereditary.  Life 
peerages  were  in  early  times  not  unknown  to  the 
constitution ;  but  in  1S56,  her  Majesty  having  created 
Sir  James  Parke,  Baron  Wensleydale  for  and  during 
the  term  of  his  natural  life,  the  House  of  Lords,  on 
the  report  of  a  Committee  of  Privileges,  decided  that 
the  grantee  could  not  sit  or  vote  in  parliament. 
Lord  Wensleydale  therefore  did  not  offer  to  take  the 
oaths,  and  was  soon  afterwards  created  a  hereditary 
baron.  The  lords  are  entitled  to  have  the  attend- 
ance in  their  House  of  the  judges  of  the  Courts  of 
Queen's  Bench  and  Common  Pleas,  and  such  of  the 
Barons  of  Exchequer  as  are  of  the  degree  of  the 
coif,  or  have  been  made  serjeants-at-law  ;  as  also 
of  the  Queen's  Counsel  being  Serjeants.  The  votes 
of  spiritual  and  temporal  lords  are  intermixed,  and 
the  joint  majority  determine  every  question  ;  but 
they  sit  apart  on  separate  benches — the  place 
assigned  to  the  lords  spiritual  being  the  upper  part 
of  the  House  on  the  right  hand  of  the  throne.  A 
lord  may,  by  license  from  the  sovereign,  appoint 
another  lord  as  his  proxy  to  vote  for  him  in  his 
absence ;  but  a  lord  spiritual  can  only  be  proxy 
for  a  lord  spiritual,  and  a  lord  temporal  for  a  lord 
temporal,  and  no  member  of  the  House  can  hold 
more  than  two  proxies  at  the  same  time.  Proxies 
cannot  vote  in  judicial  questions.  Peerages  are  lost 
by  attainder  for  high  treason.  Neither  the  issue  of 
the  body  of  the  person  attainted,  nor,  on  their  failure. 


PARLIAMENT. 


the  descendants  of  the  person  drat  called  to  the 
diLciiit;. ,  will  be  admitted  to  it  without  a  removal  of 
the  attainder.  Hut  where  the  attainted  person  is 
tenant  in  tail-male  with  a  remainder  in  tail-male  to 
another,  the  dignity  becomes  vested  in  the  remainder 
man  on  failure  of  the  issue  of  the  person  attainted. 
A  peerage,  whether  l>y  patent  or  writ,  is  forfeited 
\<\  attainder  for  high  treason;  attainder  for  felony 
forfeits  a  peerage  l>y  writ,  not  one  l>y  patent.  An 
attainted  peerage  cannot  he  restored  by  the  crown, 
Only  by  an  act  of  parliament. 

The  House  of  Commons,  besides  its  general  power 
to  introduce  legislative  measures,  has  the  sole  right 
to  originate  hills  levying  taxes,  or  affecting  the 
public  income  and  expenditure,  and  to  examine  into 
the  vididity  of  elections  to  its  own  body.  The 
question  whether  it  has  any  control  over  the  rights 
of  electors  was  the  Bubject  of  a  memorable  contest 
between  the  Lords  and  Commons  in  1704,  in  the 
cases  of  Ash  by  and  White,  and  of  the  'Aylesbury 
men'  (IfattselCa  Precedents,  vol.  iii.),  a  contest  ended 
by  the  queen  proroguing  parliament.  When  inquir- 
ing into  the  conflicting  claims  of  candidates  for  seats 
in  parliament,  the  Commons  have  an  undoubted 
power  to  determine  whether  electors  have  the  right 
to  vote.  The  House  of  Commons  has  the  right  to 
expel  or  commit  to  prison  its  own  members,  and 
to  commit  other  persona  who  offend  by  breach  of 
its  privileges,  contempt  of  its  authority,  disobedience 
of  its  orders,  or  invasion  of  its  rights  ;  but  this 
power  is  limited  to  the  duration  of  the  session. 
Expulsion  does  not,  however,  create  any  disability 
to  serve  again  in  parliament :  a  resolution  passed 
in  17(39,  to  exclude  Mr  Wilkes,  duly  elected  for 
Middlesex,  on  the  ground  of  his  having  been  pre- 
viously expelled  for  a  seditious  libel,  was  proved  to 
be  illegal  and  expunged  from  the  Journals  of  the 
House  in  1782.  The  House  of  Commons  has  also 
the  power  of  impeaching  offenders,  who,  however, 
are  tried  at  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lords. 

The  number  of  members  of  the  House  of  Commons 
Las  varied  greatly  at  different  times.  In  the  reign 
of  Edward  I.,  it  seems  to  have  been  275  ;  in  that  of 
Edward  III.,  250  ;  and  of  Henry  VI.,  300.  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIIL,  27  members  were  added  for 
Wales,  and  4  for  the  county  and  city  of  Chester  ;  4 
were  added  for  the  county  and  city  of  Durham  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  Between  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIIL  and  that  of  Charles  II.,  ISO  new 
members  were  added  by  the  granting  of  royal 
charters  to  boroughs  which  had  not  previously 
returned  representatives.  Forty-five  members  were 
assigned  as  her  proportion  to  Scotland  at  the  Union, 
and  100  to  Ireland,  making  the  whole  number  of 
members  of  the  Parliament  of  the  United  Kingdom 
658 — a  number  which  was  retained  unaltered  amid 
the  changes  effected  by  the  reform  of  1832.  Two 
towns  in  England,  Sudbury  and  St  Albans,  have 
since  been  disfranchised  for  bribery,  and  the  4 
vacant  seats  bestowed,  two  on  Yorkshire,  one  on 
Lancashire,  and  the  third  on  the  new  borough  of 
Birkenhead.  The  Reform  Acts,  2  Will.  IV.  c.  45 
for  England,  2  and  3  Will.  IV.  c.  65  (amended 
by  4  and  5  WilL  IV.  c  88,  and  5  and  6  Will. 
IV.  c  78)  for  Scotland,  and  2  and  3  Will.  IV. 
C  88  for  Ireland,  remodelled  the  whole  electoral 
system  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Fifty-six  boroughs 
in  England  and  Wales  were  entirely  disfran- 
chised ;  30  which  had  previously  returned  two 
members  were  restricted  to  one ;  while  42  new 
boroughs  were  created,  of  which  22  were  each  to 
return  two  members,  and  20  a  single  member. 
Several  small  burghs  in  Wales  were  united  to 
elect  on*  member.  Four  members  were  assigned 
to  the  city  of  London,  2  to  each  of  the  universities 
c£  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  one   to  133  cities 


and  boroughs.  Of  counties,  one,  Lancaster,  lias  s 
members;  25  counties,  and  the  West  Riding  of  York, 
4;  7  counties  have  ■')  members  each:  9  counties,  and 
the  East  Biding  and  North  Riding  of  York.  2  mem- 
bers; and  ]o  counties  have  l  member  each.  The 
Scotch  Reform  Act  increased  the  number  of  members 
for  Scotland  from  45  to  53,  30  being  county  and  2.'i 
burgh  members,  Borne  of  the  latter  representing  several 
combined  burghs.  By  the  Irish  Reform  Act  the  num- 
ber of  members  for  Ireland  was  increased  from  100  to 
105,  64  representing  counties,  34  cities  and  boroughs, 
and  2  the  University  of  Dublin.  At  present  (1871) 
the  number  of  members  of  the  House  is  652,  who  are 
thus  distributed : 


Counties. 

Boroughs. 

Unlver-iiies. 

Total. 

England  and  Wales, 

.    187 

297 

s 

4*9 

Scotland,. 

32 

26 

•> 

60 

Ireland, 

.       61 

37 

2 

103 

283  300  9  652 

By  the  Reform  Bill  of  1867—68,  a  great  change  wan 
made  in  the  constituency  of  the  House  of  Commons 
The  most  important  provisions  of  this  act,  as  regards 
England,  are  the  clauses  establishing  household  suf- 
frage in  boroughs,  and  occupation  franchise  in  conn- 
ties  By  the  first,  'Every  man  shall  be  entitled  to  l>o 
registered  as  a  voter,  and,  when  registered,  to  vote  for 
a  member  or  members  to  serve  in  Parliament  for  a 
borough,  who  d)  is  of  full  age  and  not  subject  to  any 
legal  incapacity;  (2)  was  on  the  last  day  of  July  in 
any  year,  and  during  the  preceding  12  calendar  months 
has  been,  an  inhabitant  or  occupier,  as  owner  or  ten- 
ant, of  any  dwelling-house  within  the  borough;  (3) 
has  been  rated  for  the  relief  of  the  poor,  &c. ;  (4)  has, 
before  the  20th  of  July  of  the  same  year,  paid  a  poor 
rate  equal  to  that  paid  by  ordinary  occupiers  in 
respect  to  said  premises,  &c. ;  (5)  if  a  lodger,  has  been 
the  sole  tenant  for  the  twelve  months  referred  to  in 
any  year  of  the  same  lodgings,  part  of  one  and  the 
same  dwelling-house,  paying,  unfurnished,  £10  or 
upwards  annually,' &c.  By  another  clause,  'Every 
man  shall  be  entitled  to  be  registered  as  a  voter,  and, 
when  registered,  to  vote  for  a  member  or  members  of 
Parliament  for  a  county,  who  is  qualified  as  follows: 
(1)  Is  of  full  age,  not  subject  to  any  legal  incapacity, 
and  who  is  seised  at  law  or  in  equity  of  any  lands  or 
tenements  of  copyhold  or  any  other  tenure,  except 
freehold,  for  his  own  life  or  for  the  life  of  another,  or 
for  any  lives  whatsoever,  or  for  any  larger  estate  of  the 
clear  yearly  value  of  not  less  than  five  pounds  over 
and  above  all  rents  and  charges  payable  out  of  it,  &c, 
or  who  may  be  entitled  either  as  lessee  or  assignee  to 
any  lands  or  tenements  of  freehold,  or  of  any  other 
tenure,  for  the  unexpired  residue,  &c.  of  any  term 
originally  created  for  a  period  of  not  less  than  60 
years,  of  the  clear  yearly  value  of  not  less  than  five 
pounds  over  and  above  all  rents  and  charges  payable 
thereout,  &c. ;  (2)  he  must,  on  the  last  clay  of  July 
in  any  year  during  the  12  months  immediately  pre- 
ceding, have  been  the  occupier,  as  owner  or  tenant, 
of  lands  or  tenements  within  the  county,  of  the  rate- 
able value  of  twelve  pounds  or  upwards;  (3)  he  must 
have  been  rated  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  during  the 
time  of  his  occupancy  of  the  premises,  and  (4)  he  must, 
before  the  20th  of  July  in  the  same  year,  have  paid  all 
poor  rates  payable  by  him  up  to  the  preceding  5th  day 
of  January.'  The  Reform  Act  of  1 868  enlarges  the  con- 
stituents of  the  boroughs  in  England  and  Wales  from 
514,026  in  1866,  to  1^220,715  in  1868,  an  increase  of 
706,689.  That  of  the  counties,  from  542,633,  in  1866,  to 
791,916  in  1868,  an  increase  of  249,283,  and  a  total  in- 
crease of  955,972,  or  90^  per  cent.  The  electors  in  the 
boroughs  increased  137  per  cent. ;  in  the  counties  but  46 
per  cent.  The  Reform  Acts  of  Sec  1  land  and  Ireland, 
passed  in  the  session  of  1868,  diffei  in  some  important 
respects  from  that  of  England.  By  the  act  for  Scot- 
land, the  franchise  is  conlerred  (1)  upon  even-  mal* 

283 


PARLIAMENT. 


aerscn  of  full  agr  subject  to  no  legal  incapacity, 
who  hf.s  been  12  months  an  occupier,  as  owner  or 
tenant,  of  any  dwelling;,  unless  he  shall  have  been 
exempted  from  payment  of  poor  rates  on  the  ground 
of  poverty,  or  shall  have  failed  to  pay  his  poor  rates, 
or  shall  have  been  in  receipt  of  parochial  relief;  (2) 
if  i  lodger,  who  has  occupied  in  the  same  burgh  sep- 
arately and  as  sole  tenant  for  12  months  an  un- 
furnished lodging,  of  the  clear  annual  value  of  ten 
pounds  and  upwards,  and  claimed  to  be  registered  as  a 
voter;  (3)  in  Scottish  counties,  the  ownership  fran- 
chise is  five  pounds,  clear  of  any  deduction  in  the 
shape  of  burdens,  with  a  residential  qualification  of 
not  less  than  six  months.  The  Reform  Act  of  Ireland 
reduced  the  borough  franchise  to  a  four  pounds'  rating 
occupation,  qualified  as  in  England. 

Certain  disqualifications  exist  from  exercising  the 
franchise,  on  the  grounds  of  infamy,  alienage,  convic- 
tion of  felony,  and  the  holding  of  government  offices. 
Peers  cannot  vote.  In  the  universities  of  Cambridge 
and  Oxford,  the  constituency  consists  of  the  doctors 
and  masters  of  arts;  and  in  Dublin,  of  the  fellows, 
scholars,  and  graduates  of  Trinity  College. 

The  several  Reform  Acts  introduced  a  system  of 
registration  of  voters  for  the  three  divisions  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  In  England,  lists  of  voters  are 
prepared  by  the  overseers  of  each  parish,  and  on 
certain  days  courts  are  held  by  barristers  appointed 
by  the  chief  justice  and  the  senior  judge  of  each 
Bummer  circuit  to  revise  these  lists,  when  claims 
may  be  made  for  persons  omitted,  and  objections 
offered  to  names  standing  on  the  list.  If  an  objec- 
tion be  sustained,  the  name  is  struck  off  the  list, 
there  being  an  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the 
revising  barrister  to  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas. 
In  Scotland,  a  register  of  persons  entitled  to  vote 
is  made  up  annually  in  counties  and  boroughs  in 
terms  of  the  Registration  of  Voters  (Scotland)  Act, 
24  and  25  Vict.  c.  23,  which  register  is  printed,  and 
may  be  had  for  a  small  price  from  the  officers 
charged  with  making  up  the  rolL  By  this  arrange- 
ment, persons  eligible  as  voters  are  put  on  the  roll 
without  trouble  to  themselves,  and,  in  point  of  fact, 
without  their  consent.  Enrolment,  however,  may 
be  challenged,  in  which  case  objections  are  heard 
and  determined  by  the  sheriffs.  The  registration 
Bystem  of  Ireland  introduced  by  the  Reform  Act 
resembles  that  of  England ;  and  by  16  and  17  Vict. 
c.  58,  provision  is  made  for  the  annual  revision  of 
the  list  of  voters  for  the  city  of  Dublin. 

A  property  qualification,  of  £600  a  year  in 
candidates  for  counties,  and  £300  in  candidates  for 
boroughs,  which  had  previously  existed  in  England 
and  Ireland,  was  left  untouched  in  1831,  but  has 
been  abolished  by  21  and  22  Vict.  c.  26.  Scotch  peers, 
though  not  representative  peers,  are  disqualified 
from  sitting  in  the  House  of  Commons.  Irish  peers 
may  represent  any  constituency  in  Great  Britain, 
but  not  in  Ireland.  A  disqualification  is  also 
attached  to  judges  (except  the  Master  of  the  Rolls), 
clergymen  of  the  Established  Church  of  any  of 
the  three  kingdoms,  Roman  Catholic  priests,  revenue 
officers,  persons  convicted  of  treason  and  felony, 
and  aliens  even  when  naturalised,  unless  the  right 
have  been  conceded  in  express  terms.  Sheriffs 
cannot  sit  for  their  own  counties,  and  government 
contractors  are  disqualified  by  22  Geo.  III.  c.  45, 
and  41  Geo.  III.  c.  52,  a  disqualification  which  does 
not  extend  to  contractors  for  government  loans. 
A  member  becoming  bankrupt  is  incapacitated  from 
eitting  or  voting. 

When  a  new  parliament  has  to  be  assembled,  the 
Lord  Chancellor,  by  order  of  the  sovereign,  directs 
the  Clerk  of  the  Crown  to  prepare  and  issue,  under 
the  Great  Seal,  writs  to  the  sheriffs  of  counties,  both 
for  the  counties  and  the  boroughs.  A  sheriff,  on 
881 


receiving  the  writ  for  a  county,  appoints  a  day  for 
the  election,  and  on  the  day  fixed  proclaims  the 
writ.  If  no  more  candidates  are  then  proposed  than 
are  to  be  elected,  he  declares  them  duly  elected ; 
if  there  is  opposition,  a  show  of  hands  is  asked, 
and  the  sheriff  declares  who  has  the  majority.  If 
a  poll  is  demanded  by  the  opposite  party,  the 
election  is  adjourned.  Each  county  is  divided  into 
districts,  with  a  polling-place  in  each,  at  which  the 
electors  vote;  and  at  the  termination  of  the  poll, 
the  return  is  transmitted  to  the  sheriff,  who  pro- 
claims the  successful  candidate.  In  borough 
elections  in  England  and  Ireland,  the  sheriff,  on 
receiving  the  writ,  issues  his  precept  to  the  return- 
ing officer  of  the  municipality,  who  superintends 
the  election  ;  in  Scotland,  the  sheriff  himself  super- 
intends the  borough  as  well  as  the  county  elections. 
The  names  of  the  persons  elected  both  in  counties 
and  boroughs  are  returned  by  the  sheriff  to  the 
Clerk  of  the  Crown.  Vacancies  occurring  after  a 
general  election  are  supplied  by  new  writs  issued 
by  authority  of  the  House.  When  it  is  determined 
that  a  writ  should  be  amended,  the  Clerk  of  the 
Crown  is  ordered  to  attend  the  House,  and  amend 
it  accordingly. 

A  member  of  the  House  of  Commons  cannot,  in 
theory,  resign  his  seat ;  but  on  the  acceptance  of  any 
office  of  profit  under  the  crown,  his  election  is,  by 
an  act  of  Queen  Anne,  declared  void,  and  a  new 
writ  issues,  he  being,  however,  eligible  for  re- 
election. See  Chiltern  Hundreds.  The  resigna- 
tion of  office  is  held  not  to  be  complete  until  the 
appointment  of  a  successor ;  and  on  the  resumption 
of  office,  the  seat  is  held  not  to  have  been  vacated. 
A  first  commission  in  the  army  or  navy  vacates  a 
seat  ;  subsequent  commissions  do  not  do  so. 

Privilege. — Both  Houses  of  Parliament  possess 
extensive  privileges  for  the  maintenance  of  their 
authority  and  the  protection  of  individual  members. 
Some  of  these  privileges  have  well-defined  limits ; 
others  are  so  vague  in  their  extent  as  occasionally 
to  lead  to  conflicts  between  parliament  and  the 
courts  of  law.  The  privilege  of  speech  is  claimed 
of  the  sovereign  by  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons  at  the  opening  of  every  new  parliament. 
At  the  same  time,  any  member  using  offensive 
expressions  may  be  called  to  the  bar  to  receive  a 
reprimand  from  the  Speaker ;  or,  if  the  offence  be 
grave,  may  be  committed  for  contempt,  in  which 
case  he  is  sent  either  to  the  Tower  or  to  Newgate. 
Persons  not  members  of  the  House  may  also  be 
committed  for  breach  of  privilege,  and  no  one  com- 
mitted for  contempt  can  be  admitted  to  bail,  nor 
can  the  cause  of  commitment  be  inquired  into  by 
the  courts  of  law.  The  publication  of  the  debates 
of  either  House  has  repeatedly  been  declared  a 
breach  of  privilege ;  but  for  a  long  time  back  this 
privilege  has  been  practically  waived,  except  where 
the  reports  are  false  and  perverted.  Publication  of 
the  evidence  before  a  select  committee  previously  to 
its  being  reported  is  punished  as  a  breach  of  privi- 
lege. Libellous  reflections  on  the  character  and 
proceedings  of  parliament  or  of  members  of  the 
House  come  under  the  same  category,  as  also  does 
assaulting  or  threatening  a  member.  Wilful  dis- 
obedience to  the  orders  of  the  House  is  punishable 
as  a  breach  of  privilege ;  but  if  orders  be  given 
beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  the  House,  their  enforce- 
ment may  be  questioned  in  a  court  of  law.  The 
offer  of  a  bribe  to,  or  its  acceptance  by  a  member  is 
a  breach  of  privilege ;  so  also  is  any  interference 
with  the  officers  of  the  House  in  the  execution  at 
their  duty,  or  tampering  with  witnesses  who  are  to 
be  examined  before  the  House  or  a  committee  of  the 
House.  Members  of  both  Houses  are  free  from 
arrest  or  imprisonment  in  civil  matters,  a  privilege 


PARLIAMENT. 


which  is  permanent  in  the  case  of  peers,  extend- 
ing  also    to    peeresses,    whether    by    creation    or 

marriage  (though  the  latter  lose  it  by  subsequently 
marrying  a  oommoner),  and  to  peera  and  peeresses 
of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  whether  representative  or 
not.  It  continues  in  the  case  of  members  of  the 
House  of  Commons  daring  the  sitting  of  parliament, 
for  40  days  after  each  prorogation,  for  4u  days  prior 
to  the  day  to  which  parliament  is  prorogued,  and 
for  a  reasonable  time  after  a  dissolution.  Wit- 
nesses summoned  to  attend  before  parliament  or 
parliamentary  committees,  and  other  persons  in 
attendance  on  the  business  of  parliament,  are  also 
protected  from  arrest.  Protection  is  not  claimable 
from  arrest  for  any  indictable  offence.  Counsel  are 
protected  for  any  statements  that  they  may  make 
professionally. 

Meeting  of  a  New  Parliament. — On  the  day 
appointed  for  the  meeting  of  a  new  parliament,  the 
members  of  the  two  Houses  assemble  in  their 
respective  chambers.  In  the  Lords,  the  Lord  Chan- 
cellor acquaints  the  House  that  'her  Majesty,  not 
thinking  it  fit  to  be  personally  present  here  this 
day,  had  been  pleased  to  cause  a  Commission  to  be 
issued  under  the  Great  Seal,  in  order  to  the  opening 
and  holding  of  the  parliament.'  The  Lords  Com- 
missioners, being  in  their  robes,  and  seated  between 
the  throne  and  woolsack,  then  command  the  Gentle- 
man Usher  of  the  Black  Rod  to  let  the  Commons 
know  that  the  '  Lords  Commissioners  desire  their 
immediate  attendance  in  this  House  to  hear  the 
Commission  read'  Meantime,  in  the  Lower  House, 
the  Clerk  of  the  Crown  in  Chancery  has  delivered 
to  the  Clerk  of  the  House  a  list  of  the  members 
returned  to  serve ;  and  on  receiving  the  message 
from  Black  Rod,  the  Commons  go  up  to  the  House 
of  Lords.  The  commission  having  been  read  in 
presence  of  the  members  of  both  Houses,  the  Lord 
Chancellor  opens  the  parliament  by  stating  '  that 
her  Majesty  will,  as  soon  as  the  members  of  both 
Houses  shall  be  sworn,  declare  the  causes  of  her 
calling  this  parliament ;  and  it  being  necessary  that 
a  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  shoidd  first  be 
chosen,  that  you,  gentlemen  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, repair  to  the  place  where  you  are  to  sit,  and 
there  proceed  to  the  appointment  of  some  proper 
person  as  your  Speaker,  and  that  you  present  such 
person  whom  you  shall  so  choose  here  to-morrow 
at  o'clock,  for  her  Majesty's  royal  approbation.' 

The  Commons  immediately  withdraw,  and,  returning 
to  their  own  House,  proceed  to  elect  a  Speaker. 

Till  a  Speaker  be  elected,  the  clerk  acts  as  Speaker, 
standing  and  pointing  to  members  as  they  rise  to 
speak,  and  then  sitting  down.  If  only  one  candi- 
date be  proposed  for  the  office,  the  motion,  after 
being  seconded,  is  supported  by  an  influential 
member,  generally  the  leader  of  the  House  of 
Commons ;  and  the  member  proposed,  having 
expressed  his  sense  of  the  honour  meant  to  be 
conferred  on  him,  is  called  by  the  House  to  the 
chair,  to  which  he  is  led  by  his  proposer  and 
Deconder.  If  another  member  be  proposed  and 
Seconded,  a  debate  ensues ;  and  at  its  close,  the 
clerk  puts  the  question,  that  the  member  first 
proposed  •  do  take  the  chair  of  the  House  as 
Speaker.'  If  the  House  divide,  he  directs  one 
party  to  go  into  the  right  lobby,  and  the  other  into 
the  left,  and  appoints  two  tellers  for  each.  If  the 
majority  be  in  favour  of  the  member  first  proposed, 
he  is  led  to  the  chair ;  if  not,  a  similar  question 
being  put  regarding  the  other  member  and  answered 
in  the  affirmative,  he  is  conducted  to  the  chair. 
The  Speaker- elect  expresses  his  thanks  for  the 
honour  conferred  on  him,  and  takes  his  seat ;  on 
which,  the  mace  is  laid  on  the  table,  where  it  is 
always  placed  during  the  sitting  of  the  House  with 


the  speaker  in  the  chair.  He  is  then  congratnlated 
by  some  Leading  member,  ami  the  House  adjournal 

The   next  day,    the   Speaker-elect,    on    the    urrhal    of 

Black  Bod,  proceeds  with  the  Commons  to  the 
House  <■('  Lords,  where  bis  election  is  approved  by 
the  Lord  Chancellor,  lb-  then  lays  claim,  on  behalf 
of  the  Commons,  to  their  ancient  rights  ami  privi- 
lege-, which,  being  confirmed,  he  retires  with  the 
Commons  from  the  bar.  Nearly  the  same  forma 
are  observed  on  the  election  of  a  new  Speaker,  when 
a  vacancy  occurs  by  death  or  resignation  in  the 
course  of  the  session. 

The  members  of  both  Houses  then  take  the  oath 
prescribed  by  law,  a  proceeding  which  occupies 
several  days.  See  Oath  ;  ABJURATION.  In  the 
Upper  House,  the  Lord  Chancellor  first  takes 
the  oath  singly  at  the  table.  The  Clerk  of  the 
Crown  delivers  a  certificate  of  the  return  of  the 
Scottish  representative  peers,  and  Garter  King- 
at-arms  the  roll  of  the  lords  temporal,  after 
which  the  lords  present  take  and  subscribe  the 
oath.  Peers  who  have  been  newly  created  by 
letters-patent  present  their  patents  to  the  Lord 
Chancellor,  are  introduced  in  their  robes  between 
two  other  peers  of  their  own  dignity,  preceded 
by  Black  Rod  and  Garter,  and  conducted  to 
their  places.  The  same  ceremony  is  observed  in 
the  case  of  peers  who  have  received  a  writ  of 
summons — a  formality  necessary  when  a  member  of 
the  Lower  House  succeeds  to  a  peerage  ;  otherwise, 
his  seat  does  not  become  vacant.  A  bishop  is  intro- 
duced by  two  other  bishops,  without  the  formalities 
observed  with  temporal  lords.  Representative 
bishops  of  Ireland  take  their  seats  without  any 
particular  ceremony.  Peers  by  descent  have  a 
right  to  take  their  seats  without  introduction ; 
peers  by  special  limitation  in  remainder  have  to 
be  introduced.  In  the  Commons,  the  Speaker  first 
subscribes  the  oath,  standing  on  the  upper  step  of 
the  chair,  and  is  followed  by  the  other  members. 
Members  on  taking  the  oath  are  introduced  by  the 
Clerk  of  the  House  to  the  Speaker.  Members 
returned  on  new  writs  in  the  course  of  the  session, 
after  taking  the  oath,  are  introduced  between  two 
members.  They  must  bring  a  certificate  of  their 
return  from  the  Clerk  of  the  Crown.  The  oaths  are 
required  to  be  taken  in  a  full  House,  with  the 
Speaker  in  the  chair — in  the  Commons,  between  the 
hours  of  nine  and  four.  The  presence  of  a  Commis- 
sion constitutes  a  full  House.  In  the  Upper  House, 
the  oaths  may,  by  6  and  7  Vict.  c.  6,  be  takon  till 
5  o'clock.  On  the  demise  of  the  crown,  the  oaths 
must  be  taken  anew  in  both  Houses. 

When  the  greater  part  of  the  members  of  both 
Houses  have  been  sworn,  the  causes  of  calling  the 
parliament  are  declared  by  the  sovereign  either  in 
person  or  by  commission.  In  the  former  case,  the 
Queen  proceeds  in  state  to  the  House  ot  Lords,  and 
commands  Black  Rod  to  let  the  Commons  know 
'  that  it  is  her  Majesty's  pleasure  that  they  attend 
her  immediately  in  thi3  House.'  Black  Rod  proceeds 
to  the  House  of  Commons,  and  formally  commands 
their  attendance,  on  which  the  Speaker  and  the 
Commons  go  up  to  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lords, 
and  the  queen  reads  her  speech,  which  is  delivered 
to  her  by  the  Lord  Chancellor  kneeling  on  one  knee. 
When  parliament  is  opened  by  commission,  the 
sovereiiin  not  being  personally  present,  the  Lord 
Chancellor  reads  the  royal  speech  to  both  Houses. 
Immediately  after  the  royal  speech  is  read,  the 
House  is  adjourned  during  pleasure ;  but  both 
Houses  are  resumed  in  the  afternoon,  for  the  purpose 
of  voting  an  address  in  answer  to  the  speech  from 
the  throne.  In  each  House,  it  is  common  to 
begin  business  by  reading  some  bill  pro  forma,  i^ 
order  to  assert  the   right  of   deliberating  without 


PARLIAMENT. 


i-eference  to  the  immediate  cause  of  summons."  The 
royal  speech  is  then  read,  and  an  address  moved  in- 
answer  to  it.  Two  members  in  each  House  are 
chosen  by  the  ministry  to  move  and  second  the 
address.  The  preparation  of  the  address  is  referred 
to  a  select  committee ;  it  is  twice  read,  may  be 
amended,  and  when  finally  agreed  on,  it  is  ordered 
to  be  presented  to  her  Majesty. 

Adjournment,  Prorogation,  and  Dissolution. — 
Adjournment  of  parliament  is  but  the  continuance 
of  the  session  from  one  day  to  another.  Either 
House  may  adjourn  separately  on  its  own  autho- 
rity, with  this  restriction,  introduced  by  Act  39  and 
40  Geo.  HI.  c.  14,  that  the  sovereign,  with  advice  of 
the  privy  council,  may  issue  a  proclamation  appoint- 
ing parliament  to  meet  within  not  less  than  14  days, 
notwithstanding  an  adjournment  beyond  that  period. 
On  reassembling,  the  House  can  again  take  up  busi- 
ness which  was  left  unfinished.  A  prorogation 
differs  from  an  adjournment  in  this  respect,  that  it 
not  merely  suspends  all  business,  but  quashes  all 
proceedings  pending  at  the  time,  except  impeach- 
ments by  the  Commons,  and  Appeals  and  Writs  of 
Error  in  the  Lords.  William  III.  prorogued  parlia- 
ment from  21st  October  to  23d  October  1089,  in 
order  to  renew  the  Bill  of  Eights,  regarding  which 
a  difference  had  arisen  between  the  two,  Houses 
that  was  fatal  to  its  progress.  It  being  a  rule  that 
a  bill  of  the  same  substance  cannot  be  introduced 
twice  in  the  same  session,  a  prorogation  has  some- 
times been  resorted  to,  to  enable  a  second  bill  to  be 
brought  in.  Parliament  can  only  be  prorogued,  as 
already  mentioned,  by  the  sovereign ;  the  royal 
authority  is  signified  either  by  the  Lord  Chancellor, 
or  by  writ  under  the  great  seal,  or  by  a  com- 
mission from  the  crown.  When  parliament  stands 
prorogued  to  a  certain  day,  the  sovereign  is 
empowered  by  37  Geo.  III.  c.  127  to  issue  a  pro- 
clamation, giving  notice  that  parliament  is  to  meet 
on  some  other  day,  not  less  than  14  days  distant,  to 
which  day  parliament  then  stands  prorogued.  At 
the  beginning  of  a  new  parliament,  when  it  is  not 
intended  that  it  should  meet  for  the  despatch  of 
business,  it  is  usually  prorogued  by  a  writ  of  proro- 
gation read  by  the  Lord  Chancellor  in  the  House  of 
Lords.  A  proclamation  is  issued  prior  to  the  proro- 
gation ;  and  when  it  is  intended  that  parliament 
shall  meet  on  the  day  to  which  it  is  prorogued  for 
the  despatch  of  business,  the  proclamation  states 
that  parliament  will  then  '  assemble  and  be  holden 
for  the  despatch  of  divers  urgent  and  important 
affairs.' 

Parliament  comes  to  an  end  by  Dissolution,  which 
is  its  civil  death.  This  dissolution  may  be  by  the 
will  of  the  sovereign,  expressed  in  person  or  by  her 
representatives.  Having  been  first  prorogued,  it  is 
dissolved  by  a  royal  proclamation  under  the  great 
seal,  and  by  the  same  instrument  it  is  declared  that 
the  chancellor  of  Great  Britain  and  chancellor  of 
Ireland  have  been  respectively  ordered  to  issue  out 
writs  for  calling  a  new  parliament.  These  writs  are 
immediately  issued,  and  the  period  to  be  fixed  by 
the  crown  for  the  assembling  of  the  new  parliament, 
formerly  40  days,  was  by  7  and  8  William  IV. 
reduced  to  35  days.  At  common  law,  parliament  is 
ipso  facto  dissolved  by  the  demise  of  the  crown ;  but, 
by  Act  6  Anne,  c.  7,  it  is  continued  for  six  months 
after  the  demise,  unless  sooner  dissolved  by  the  suc- 
cessor. The  same  act  requires  parliament  to  assemble 
Immediately  on  the  demise  of  the  crown,  notwith- 
standing adjournment  or  prorogation ;  and  it  is  pro- 
vided that  in  case  no  parliament  is  in  being  at  that 
time,  the  last  preceding  parliament  shall  meet  and 
be  a  parliament.  By  Act  37  Geo.  III.  c.  127,  a  par- 
liament so  revived  continues  in  existence  only  for  six 
months,  if  noi  sooner  dissolved.  Were  the  power  of 
886 


dissolving  the  parliament  not  vested  in  the  execu- 
tive, there  would  be  a  danger  cf  its  becoming 
permanent,  and  encroaching  on  the  royal  authority, 
so  as  to  destroy  the  balance  of  the  constitution. 
An  example  of  this  danger  is  shewn  in  the  Long 
Parliament,  to  which  Charles  I.  conceded  that  it 
should  not  be  dissolved  till  such  time  as  it  dissolved 
itself.  If  the  Houses  of  Parliament  encroach  on  the 
executive,  or  act  factiously  or  injudiciously,  the 
crown  may,  by  a  dissolution,  bring  their  proceeding3 
to  an  end,  and  appeal  to  the  people  by  sending  the 
members  of  the  House  of  Commons  to  give  fin 
account  of  their  conduct  to  their  constituents. 

There  was  originally  no  limit  to  the  duration  of  a 
parliament  except  the  will  of  the  sovereign.  By 
6  Will,  and  Mary,  c.  2,  the  continuance  of  a  parlia- 
ment was  limited  to  three  years,  a  term  afterwards 
extended  by  1  Geo.  I.  c.  38,  to  seven  years.  The 
same  act  of  William  and  Mary  enacts  that  parlia- 
ment shall  assemble  once  in  three  years  at  the  least; 
but  the  practice  of  granting  the  Mutiny  Act  and  the 
Budget  for  a  year  only,  makes  it  necessary  that  it 
should  assemble  annually. 

Conduct  of  Business. — Each  House  is  presided 
over  by  its  Speaker.  The  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons  does  not  take  part  in  a  debate,  offer  his 
opinion,  or  vote  on  ordinary  occasions  ;  but,  in  case 
of  equality,  he  has  a  casting  vote :  his  duty  is  to 
decide  all  questions  which  relate  to  order,  putting 
the  matter  at  issue  in  a  substantive  form  for  the 
decision  of  the  House,  if  his  own  decision  is  not 
assented  to.  He  explains  any  doubts  that  may  arise 
on  bills.  He  determines  the  precedence  of  members 
rising  to  address  the  House.  He  examines  witnesses 
at  the  bar.  At  the  close  of  the  session,  he  addresses 
the  sovereign  on  presenting  the  money-bills  passed 
during  the  session  for  the  royal  assent.  He  nomi- 
nates the  tellers  on  a  division,  and  makes  known 
the  votes  to  the  House.  He  may  commit  members 
to  custody  during  the  pleasure  of  the  House,  a  con- 
finement which  terminates  with  the  close  of  the 
session.  When  a  vacancy  occurs  by  death,  he  signs 
the  warrant  to  the  Clerk  of  the  Crown  to  make  out 
the  writ  for  the  election  of  a  new  member.  He  audits 
the  accounts  of  the  receiver  of  fees,  and  directs  the 
printing  of  the  votes  and  proceedings  of  the  House. 
The  Lord  Chancellor,  or  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Great 
Seal,  is  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Lords ;  in  his 
absence,  the  Chairman  of  the  Committee  of  Ways 
and  Means  takes  the  chair.  The  Speaker  is  not,  as 
in  the  Lower  House,  charged  with  the  maintenance 
of  order,  or  the  decision  who  is  to  be  heard,  which 
rest  with  the  House  itself.  The  Chairman  of  the 
Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  of  the  House  of 
Commons  as  Deputy-speaker,  performs  the  Speaker's 
duties  in  his  absence.  The  chief  officers  of  the  House 
of  Lords  are  the  Clerk  of  the  Parliaments,  who  takes 
minutes  of  the  proceedings  of  the  House  ;  the  Gentle- 
man Usher  of  the  Black^Rod,  who,  with  his  deputy, 
the  Yeoman  Usher,  is  sent  to  desire  the  attendance 
of  the  Commons,  executes  orders  for  committal,  and 
assists  in  various  ceremonies  ;  the  Clerk-assistant ; 
and  the  Sergeant-at-arms,  who  attends  the  Lord 
Chancellor  with  the  mace,  and  executes  the  orders 
of  the  House  for  the  attachment  of  delinquents. 
The  chief  officers  of  the  Commons  are  the  Clerk  of 
the  House,  the  Sergeant-at-arms,  the  Clerk-assistant, 
and  Second  Clerk-assistant. 

Each  House  has  its  Standing  Orders,  or  regula- 
tions, adopted  at  different  periods,  relating  partly 
to  internal  order,  partly  to  certain  preliminaries 
required  in  the  introduction  of  bills  and  promul- 
gation of  statutes.  A  standing  order  endures  till 
repealed  (or  'vacated,'  as  it  is  called  in  the  Upper 
House) ;  but  each  House  is  also  in  the  practice  of 
agreeing  to  certain  orders  or  resolutions  of  uncertain 


PARLIAMENT. 


duration  declaratory  of  its  practice,  which  arc  con- 
sidered less  formally  binding  than  standing  orders. 

The  House  of  Lords  usually  meets  at  5  p.m.  ;  the 
Commons  at  a  quarter  before  4,  except  on  Wednes- 
days and  some  other  days  specially  appointed,  when 
the  hours  of  sitting  are  from  12  to  6.  In  the  Lords, 
the  Chancellor,  as  Speaker,  sits  on  tlie  woolsack. 
A  standing  order,  which  is  never  enforced,  requires 
the  Lords  to  take  place  according  to  precedence. 
Practically,  the  bishops  sit  together  on  the  right 
hand  of  the  throne  ;  the  members  of  the  adminis- 
tration on  the  front  bench  on  the  right  hand  of  the 
Woolsack  adjoining  the  bishops,  and  the  peers  who 
usually  vote  with  them  occupy  the  other  benches 
on  that  side.  The  peers  in  opposition  are  ranged 
on  the  opposite  side,  and  those  considered  politi- 
cally neutral  occupy  the  cross  benches  between  the 
table  and  the  bar.  In  the  House  of  Commons,  the 
front  bench  on  the  right  hand  of  the  chair  is 
reserved  for  the  ministry,  and  called  the  Treasury 
Bench,  the  front  bench  on  the  opposite  side  being 
occupied  by  the  leaders  of  the  opposition.  By 
ancient  custom  and  orders  of  both  Houses,  rarely 
enforced,  strangers  are  excluded  while  the  Houses 
are  sitting. 

Prayers  are  read  before  business  is  begun — in  the 
House  of  Lords  by  a  bishop ;  in  the  House  of 
Commons  by  the  chaplain.  Every  member  is  bound 
to  attend  the  House — in  the  Lower  House,  person- 
ally ;  in  the  Upper  personally,  or  by  proxy ;  but 
in  ordinary  circumstances,  this  obligation  is  not 
enforced.  The  House  of  Lords  may  proceed  to 
business  when  three  peers  are  present  ;  in  the 
Commons,  forty  members  are  required  to  constitute 
a  House  for  the  despatch  of  business.  The  Speaker 
counts  the  House  at  four ;  and  if  that  number  be 
not  then  present,  or  if  it  be  noticed,  or  appear  on  a 
division,  that  fewer  than  forty  members  are  present, 
the  House  is  adjourned.  A  call  of  the  House  is 
an  expedient  to  secure  attendance  on  important 
occasions  ;  when  it  is  made,  members  absent  without 
leave  may  be  ordered  to  be  taken  into  custody. 
When  matters  of  great  interest  are  to  be  debated  in 
the  Upper  House,  the  Lords  are  '  summoned.' 

To  make  a  motion,  or,  more  properly,  to  move 
the  House,  is  to  propose  a  question,  and  notices  of 
motions  should  be  given  on  a  previous  day.  The 
Commons  are  in  the  practice  of  setting  apart  Mon- 
days, Wednesdays,  Thursdays,  and  Fridays  for 
considering  orders  of  t/ie  day,  or  matters  which  the 
Hi  >use  had  already  agreed  to  consider  on  a  particular 
day,  and  to  reserve  Tuesdays  for  motions.  Govern- 
ment orders  take  precedence  of  others  on  all  order 
days  except  Wednesdays,  which  are  generally 
reserved  for  the  orders  of  independent  members. 
Notices  of  motions  are  by  a  standing  order  not 
allowed  to  be  given  for  any  period  beyond  the  four 
days  next  following  on  which  motions  are  entitled 
to  precedence.  Questions  of  privilege  may  be  consi- 
dered without  previous  notices,  and  take  precedence 
both  of  other  motions  and  orders  of  the  day.  A 
motion  may  be  accompanied  by  a  speech,  and  must 
in  the  Lower  House  be  seconded,  otherwise  there 
is  no  question  before  the  House.  In  purely  formal 
motions  this  rule  is  not  observed,  and  an  order  of  the 
day  may  be  moved  without  a  seconder.  A  seconder 
is  not  required  in  the  House  of  Lords.  A  motion 
in  the  Commons  must  be  reduced  to  writing  by  the 
mover,  and  delivered  to  the  Speaker,  who,  when  it 
has  been  seconded,  puts  it  to  the  House  ;  it  cannot 
then  be  withdrawn  without  leave  of  the  House.  In 
the  Lords,  when  a  motion  has  been  made,  a  question 
is  proposed  '  that  the  motion  be  agreed  to.'  When 
an  amendment  is  proposed  to  a  question,  the  origi- 
nal motion  cannot  be  withdrawn  till  the  amend- 
ment   has    been   either   withdrawn   or    negatived. 


An  amendment  is  properly  such  an  alteration  on 
•  a  motion  by  striking  out  or  adding  words,  or  both. 
as  may  enable  members  to  vote  for  it  who  woulti 
not  have  done  so  otherwise. 

A  question  may  be  evaded  or  superseded  in  four 
ways  :  1.  By  adjournment.  Any  member  in  [k)S- 
session  of  the  House  may  move  '  that  the  Hjuso  do 
now  adjourn.'  The  House  may  also  be  adjourned, 
even  while  a  member  is  speaking,  on  its  being 
noticed  that  there  are  fewer  than  forty  niembem 
present.  The  motion,  'that  the  debate  be  now 
adjourned,'  does  not  supersede  the  question,  but 
merely  defers  the  decision  of  the  House.  2.  By 
a  motion,  that  the  orders  of  the  day  be  now  read, 
which  may  be  put  and  carried  on  days  on  which 
notices  of  motion  have  precedence.  3.  By  what  is 
called  mooing  the  previous  question.  The  act  of 
the  Speaker  in  putting  the  question  is  intercepted 
by  a  motion,  '  that  the  question  be  now  put.'  The 
mover  and  seconder  of  this  motion  vote  against  it ; 
and  if  it  be  resolved  in  the  negative,  the  Speaker  is 
prevented  from  putting  the  main  question,  which, 
however,  may  be  brought  forward  on  another  day. 
4.  By  an  amendment  substituting  words  of  an 
entirely  different  import  for  those  of  the  motion, 
so  that  the  sense  of  the  House  is  taken  on  a  totally 
different  question. 

When  the  question  is  put  by  the  Speaker  in  the 
Lords,  the  respective  parties  exclaim  'consent'  or 
'  non-content ;  in  the  Commons,  the  expression 
used  is  '  aye'  or  '  no.'  The  Speaker  signifies  his 
opinion  which  party  have  the  majority,  and  if  the 
House  acquiesce,  the  question  is  said  to  be  resolved 
in  the  affirmative  or  negative ;  when  his  decision 
is  disputed,  the  numbers  must  be  counted  by  a 
division.  Both  Houses  now  divide  by  the  content 
or  ayes  going  into  the  right  lobby,  and  the  non- 
contents  or  noes  into  the  left,  each  being  counted 
by  tellers  appointed  by  the  Speaker.  In  the  House  of 
Commons,  two  clerks  with  printed  lists  of  the  mem- 
bers put  a  mark  to  the  name  of  each  as  he  re-enters 
the  House,  so  as  to  secure  accuracy  in  the  division  ■ 
lists.  The  Speaker  of  the  Commons,  who  does  not 
otherwise  vote  or  take  purt  in  a  debate,  has  a 
casting-vote  in  case  of  equabty.  In  the  House  of 
Lords,  the  Speaker  is,  on  the  other  hand,  not  dis- 
qualified from  taking  part  in  a  debate ;  he  votes 
on  divisions,  but  has  no  casting  vote ;  and  on  an 
equality,  the  non-contents  prevail.  The  system  of 
pairing  commonly  practised,  though  never  directly 
recognised  by  the  House,  enables  members  on 
opposite  sides  to  absent  themselves  for  a  time  agreed 
on,  each  neutralising  the  votes  of  the  other.  A 
member  of  the  Upper  House  may,  with  leave  of 
the  House,  by  a  protest  enter  his  dissent  from  a  vote 
of  the  House,  and  its  grounds.  Every  protest  is 
entered  on  the  Journals  of  the  House,  together  with 
the  names  of  all  the  lords  who  concur  in  it. 

No  question  or  bill  is  allowed  to  be  offered  in 
either  House  substantially  the  same  with  one  on 
which  the  judgment  of  that  House  has  already 
been  expressed  in  the  current  session.  A  resolution 
of  the  House,  however,  may  be  rescinded,  and  an 
order  discharged ;  and  by  13  and  14  Vict  c.  21,  it 
is  provided  that  every  act  may  be  altc  red,  amended, 
or  repealed  in  the  same  session  of  parliament. 

In  debate,  a  member  of  the  Commons  addresses 
the  Speaker ;  a  member  of  the  Upper  House  the 
lords  generally,  in  both  cases  standing  and  uncovered. 
No  member  may  speak  except  when  there  is  a 
question  before  the  House,  or  with  the  view  to 
propose  a  motion  or  amendment,  the  only  admitted 
exceptions  being  in  putting  questions  to  ministers 
of  the  crown,  or  to  members  concerned  in  some 
business  which  is  before  the  House,  and  in 
explaining   personal  matters.      A  member  is  not 


PARLIAMENT. 


allowed  to  speak  twice  to  the  same  question  except 
in  explanation,  and  the  proposer,  in  some  cases,  in 
reply — a  restriction  which  does  not  apply  in  com- 
mittee. By  the  rides  adopted  by  both  Houses  for 
preserving  order  in  debate,  no  allusion  is  allowed 
to  debates  of  the  same  session  on  a  question  not 
under  discussion,  or  to  debates  in  the  other  House  of 
Parliament.  All  reflections  on  any  determination 
of  the  House  are  prohibited,  except  when  made 
with  a  view  of  moving  that  the  determination  be 
rescinded ;  so  is  the  mention  by  a  member  of  her 
Majesty's  name  either  irreverently,  or  to  influence 
the  debat(,  and  the  use  of  offensive  and  insulting 
words  against  parliament  or  either  House,  or  a 
member  of  the  House  in  which  he  is  speaking.  No 
member  is  allowed  to  refer  to  another  by  name, 
or  otherwise  than  by  the  rank  or  office  which  he 
enjoys,  or  place  which  he  represents.  The  Speaker 
naming  a  member  to  the  House,  is  an  old  estab- 
lished form  of  censure,  which  was  last  used  when 
Mr  Feargua  O'Connor  struck  the  member  beside 
him. 

Messages. — It  is  often  found  necessary  for  the 
Houses  to  communicate  with  each  other  regarding 
matters  occurring  in  the  course  of  business.  Mes- 
sages from  the  Lords  were  formerly  sent  by  Masters 
in  Chancery  or  judges,  while  the  Commons  sent  a 
deputation  of  their  own  members.  According  to  a 
new  arrangement  adopted  in  1855,  one  of  the  clerks 
of  either  House  may  be  the  bearer  of  a  message. 

Committees. — Parliamentary  committees  are  either 
'  of  the  whole  House,'  or  '  select.'  A  committee  of 
the  whole  House  is  the  House  itself,  with  a  chair- 
man instead  of  the  Speaker  presiding.  The  chair  is 
taken  in  the  Lords  by  the  chairman  of  committees 
appointed  at  the  beginning  of  each  session,  in  the 
Commons  by  the  chairman  of  the  Committee  of 
Ways  and  Means.  Matters  relating  to  religion, 
trade,  the  imposition  of  taxes,  or  the  granting  of 
public  money,  are  generally  considered  in  committee 
before  legislation,  as  also  are  the  provisions  of  any 
public  bilL  Proceedings  are  conducted  nearly  as 
when  the  House  is  sitting,  the  Lords  being  addressed 
in  the  Upper  House,  and  in  the  Lower  the  chair- 
man, who  has  the  same  powers  to  maintain  order  as 
the  Speaker,  and  a  casting  vote  in  case  of  equality. 
In  committees  of  the  Commons,  as  in  the  House 
itself,  a  quorum  of  forty  members  is  required ;  but 
if  that  number  are  not  present,  the  Speaker  must 
resume  the  chair  to  adjourn  the  House.  A  motion 
in  committee  need  not  be  seconded,  and  there  is  a 
more  unlimited  power  of  debate  than  in  the  House, 
members  being  at  liberty  to  speak  any  number  of 
times  on  the  same  question.  A  motion  for  '  the 
previous  question'  is  not  allowed  When  the  busi- 
ness of  the  committee  is  not  concluded  on  the  day 
of  sitting,  the  House  is  resumed,  and  the  chairman 
moves  '  that  the  House  be  again  put  into  committee 
on  a  future  day,'  in  the  Lords,  and  in  the  Commons 
reports  progress,  and  asks  leave  to  sit  again. 

Select  committees  are  composed  of  a  limited 
number  of  members  appointed  to  inquire  into  any 
matter,  and  report.  In  the  Commons,  it  is  usual  to 
give  select  committees  power  to  send  for  persons, 
papers,  and  records ;  in  the  Lords,  they  may,  with- 
out any  special  authority,  summon  witnesses.  In 
neither  House  can  a  committee  enforce  the  attend- 
ance of  a  witness ;  this  must  be  done,  when  neces- 
sary, by  the  House  itself.  The  Commons  have 
certain  standing  orders  for  insuring  the  efficiency 
of  committees,  and  impartiality  in  their  appoint- 
ment. No  committee  is  to  consist  of  more  than 
fifteen.  Members  moving  for  a  committee  must 
ascertain  whether  the  members  whom  they  propose 
to  name,  wili  attend.  Lists  of  the  members  serving 
on  each  committee  are  to  be  affixed  in  the  committee 
388 


clerk's  office  and  the  lobby.  To  every  question 
asked  of  a  witness,  the  name  of  the  member  who 
asks  it  is  to  be  prefixed  in  the  minutes  of  evidence 
laid  before  the  House  ;  and  the  names  of  the  mem- 
bers present  at  each  sitting,  and,  in  the  event  of  a 
division,  the  question  proposed,  the  name  of  the 
proposer,  and  the  votes  of  each  member,  are  to  be 
entered  on  the  minutes,  and  reported  to  the  House. 
In  the  Lords  there  are  no  special  rules  regarding 
the  appointment  and  constitution  of  committees ; 
but  resolutions  containing  arrangements  similar 
to  those  of  the  Commons  regarding  questions  to 
witnesses,  minutes  of  proceedings,  and  divisions, 
have  been  adopted  since  1852.  Select  committees 
have  the  power  of  adjournment  from  time  to 
time,  and  sometimes  from  place  to  place.  By  an 
anomaly  not  easily  explained,  the  Commons  have 
always  been  considered  not  to  have  the  power 
of  administering  oaths ;  a  power  of  examining  on 
oath  has,  however,  by  statute  been  granted  to 
election  committees,  and  committees  on  private 
bills.  In  the  House  of  Lords,  witnesses  had  for- 
merly to  be  sworn  at  the  bar  of  the  House  ;  but 
the  oath  may,  in  terms  of  a  recent  act  (21  and  22 
Vict.  c.  78),  be  administered  by  any  committee  of 
the  House.  Except  where  leave  of  absence  has 
been  obtained,  no  member  can  excuse  himself  from 
serving  on  committees  to  which  he  may  have  been 
appointed,  or  for  not  attending  when  his  attendance 
has  been  made  compulsory  by  order  of  the  House. 
In  committees  on  private  bills  in  the  Commons,  the 
chairman  has  a  deliberative  as  well  as  a  casting 
vote. 

Bills. — The  principal  business  which  occupies  both 
Houses  is  the  passing  of  bdls.  In  early  times, 
laws  were  enacted  in  the  form  of  petitions  from  the 
Commons,  which  were  entered  on  the  Rolls  of 
Parliament,  with  the  king's  answers  subjoined ;  and 
at  the  close  of  the  session,  these  imperfect  records 
were  drawn  up  in  the  form  of  a  statute,  which  was 
entered  on  the  Statute  Rolls.  It  was  found  that,  on 
undergoing  this  process,  the  acts  passed  by  the 
parliament  were  often  both  added  to  and  mutilated, 
and  much  of  the  legislative  power  practically  came 
into  the  hands  of  the  judges.  Bills  in  the  form 
of  complete  statutes  were  first  introduced  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VI.  Bills  are  either  public  or 
private ;  the  former  affect  the  general  interests  of 
the  community,  the  latter  relate  to  local  matters. 
Public  bdls  are  introduced  directly  by  members ; 
private  bills  by  petitions  from  the  parties  interested, 
presented  by  members.  Bills  may  originate  in  either 
House ;  but  the  exclusive  right  of  the  Commons  to 
deal  with  all  legislation  regarding  taxes  or  supplies, 
makes  it  necessary  and  expedient  that  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  both  public  and  private  bills,  except 
such  as  are  of  a  purely  personal  nature,  should 
originate  in  the  Lower  House.  Bills  regarding 
restitution  of  honours  originate  in  the  House  of 
Lords.  One  description  of  act  alone  originates  with 
the  crown — an  act  of  grace  or  pardon.  It  is  read 
only  once  in  each  House,  and  cannot  be  amended, 
but  must  be  accepted  in  the  form  in  which  it  is 
received  from  the  crown,  or  rejected 

Public  Bills. — In  the  House  of  Lords,  any  member 
may  present  a  bdL  In  the  Commons,  any  member 
may  move  for  leave  to  bring  in  a  bill,  except  it  be 
for  imposing  a  tax,  when  an  order  of  the  House  is 
required  When  the  motion  is  seconded,  and  leave 
given,  the  mover  and  seconder  are  ordered  to 
prepare  and  bring  in  the  bill.  Such  bills,  however, 
as  relate  to  religion,  trade,  grants  of  public  money, 
or  taxation,  are  required  to  be  introduced  by  the 
House  itself,  on  the  report  of  a  committee  of  tLe 
whole  House.  A  bill  is  drawn  out  on  paper,  with 
blanks  or  italics  where   any  part  is  doubtful,  ur 


PARLIAMENT. 


where  sums  have  to  lie  inserted.  It  is  road  a  first 
time,  and  a  day  fixed  for  a  second  reading,  allowing 
a  sufficient  interval  to  I  if  it  be  printed  and  circu- 
lated, W'lu'ii  ready,  which  is  often  as  soon  as  the 
motion  tor  leave  to  bring  it  in  lias  been  agreed 
to,  it  is  presented  at  the  bar  by  one  of  the 
members  who  were  ordered  to  prepare  and  bring 
it  in,  and  afterwards,  on  an  intimation  from  the 
Speaker,  brought  up  to  the  table.  The  question 
is  put,  '  That  the  bill  he  now  read  a  first  time,'  which 
is  rarely  objected  to  ;  and  in  the  Commons  can 
Only  be  opposed  by  a  division.  The  short  title  of 
the  bill,  as  entered  in  the  orders  of  the  day  and 
endorsed  on  the  bill,  is  then  read  aloud,  which 
is  accounted  sufficient  compliance  with  the  order 
of  the  House.  A  day  is  then  appointed  for  con- 
sidering the  question,  '  that  the  bill  be  read  a 
secoud  time,'  allowing  a  sufficient  interval  to  elapse 
to  let  it  be  printed  and  circulated.  At  the  second 
reading,  the  member  in  charge  of  the  bill  moves 
'  that  the  bill  be  now  read  a  second  time.'  This 
is  the  usual  time  for  opposing  a  bill  whose  general 
principle  is  disapproved.  This  is  done  by  an 
amendment  to  the  question,  by  leaving  out  the 
word  '  now,'  and  adding  '  this  day  three  months,' 
'this  da}r  six  months,'  or  some  other  time  beyond 
the  probable  duration  of  the  session.  Counsel 
are  sometimes  allowed  to  plead  at  the  secoud 
reading  or  other  stages.  If  the  bill  be  approved 
on  the  second  reading,  it  is  committed,  either  to  a 
select  committee,  or  to  a  committee  of  the  whole 
House,  to  consider  its  provisions  in  detail.  When 
the  proceedings  in  committee  are  terminated,  the 
bill  is  reported  to  the  House  with  amendments, 
which  may  be  agreed  to,  amended,  or  disagreed  to. 
It  is  then  ordered  to  be  read  a  third  time,  when 
the  entire  measure  is  reviewed.  No  amendments, 
except  what  are  verbal,  can  then  be  made,  and  the 
question  is  put  to  the  House,  'That  this  bill  do 
now  pass.'  The  title  of  the  bill  is  last  settled.  The 
bill,  Avhcn  passed  by  the  Commons,  is  sent  to  the 
Lords,  where  it  goes  through  the  same  forms :  if 
rejected,  no  further  notice  is  taken  of  it ;  if  passed, 
a  message  is  sent  to  the  Commons  that  the  bill  is 
agreed  to.  If  amendments  have  been  made,  they 
are  sent  down  along  with  the  bill  to  be  discussed  by 
the  Commons ;  aud  if  they  are  not  agreed  to,  a 
conference  is  demanded  by  the  Commons,  to  offer 
reasons  for  disagreeing  to  the  amendments.  A 
conference  is  a  mode  of  communicating  on  important 
matters  between  the  Houses,  in  which  each  House 
is  brought  into  direct  contact  with  the  other  by 
a  deputation  of  its  own  members — the  time  and 
place  of  meeting  being  always  fixed  by  the  Lords. 
A  conference  is  conducted,  for  both  Houses,  by 
managers,  who,  on  the  part  of  the  House  desiring 
the  conference  (in  the  case  supposed,  the  Commons), 
consist  of  the  members  who  have  drawn  up  the 
reasons,  with  others  sometimes  added.  If  the  Lords 
be  not  satisfied  with  the  reasons  offered,  a  second 
conference  is  desired,  after  which  what  is  called  a 
'free  conference'  may  be  demanded,  in  which  the 
managers  have  more  discretion  vested  in  them  to 
advance  what  arguments  they  please.  No  free 
conference  has  been  held  since  17-10.  By  resolutions 
of  both  Houses,  agreed  to  in  1851,  reasons  for  dis- 
agreement from  amendments  may  be  communicated 
by  messages  without  a  conference,  unless  the  other 
House  should  desire  a  conference;  and  since  that 
time,  there  has  been  but  one  instance  of  a  conference 
where  a  message  would  have  been  available.  If  the 
Commons  eventually  agree  to  the  amendments,  the 
bill  is  sent  back  to  the  Lords  ;  if  not,  it  is  dropped. 
The  same  forms  are  gone  through  when  a  bill 
originates  in  the  House  of  Lords.  The  official 
record  of  the  assent  of  one  House  to  the  bills  passed, 
331 


or  amendments  made  by  the  other,  is  an  i 
ment  on  the  hill  in  Norman  French.  Thus,  when 
a  bill  is  passed  by  the  Commons,  the  Clerk  of  the 
House  writes  on  the  top  of  it,  '  Soit  bailie'  uux 
seignieurs.'  When  the  bonis  make  amendment  to 
a  bill,  it  is  returned  with  the  endorsement,  '  A 
ceste  biHe  avesque  des  amendments  lea  seignieun 
sont  assentus.'     When  it  is  sent  back  with  these 

amendments  agreed  to,  the  Clerk  of  the  II ■  of 

Commons  writes, '  A  ces  amendment    les  ( 'ommune* 
sont   assentus.'     When  both   Houses    have   agreed 
to  a  bill,  it  is  deposited  in  the  House  of  Loi 
await  the  royal  assent,  unless  it  be  a  money  i^ilh 
which  is  sent  back  to  the  Commons. 

Private  Bills.— -In  private  bills,  the  functions  of 

ftarliament  partake  of  the  judicial  as  well  as  the 
egislative  character,  and  the  difficulties  in  recon- 
ciling the  interests  of  the  public  and  of  individuals, 
often  give  rise  to  inquiries  too  extensive  for  the 
House  to  undertake,  which  therefore  delegates  them 
to  committees.  The  standing  orders  require  certain 
notices  to  be  given  to  parties  interested  by  pt 
service,  and  to  the  pubbc  by  advertisement.  The 
practice  in  both  Houses  now  is  for  all  petitions  for 
private  bills  to  be  referred  to  four  '  examiners,'  two 
from  the  Lords  and  two  from  the  Commons,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  examine  whether  certain  notices  and 
other  forms  required  by  the  standing  orders  of 
the  House  have  been  complied  with.  If  the  report 
be  favourable,  leave  is  given  to  bring  in  the  bill  ;  if 
unfavourable,  it  is  referred  to  a  committee,  called 
the  Committee  on  Standing  Orders,  who  report 
on  the  propriety  of  relaxing  the  standing  orders 
in  this  individual  case — should  they  report  un- 
favourably, it  is  still  in  the  power  of  the  House  to 
relax  the  standing  orders,  though  this  is  rarely 
done.  Three  days  must  elapse  between  the  first  and 
second  reading.  At  the  second  reading,  the  principle 
is  considered,  as  in  the  case  of  public  bills ;  and  if 
the  bill  be  carried,  it  is  referred,  if  not  a  railway, 
canal,  or  divorce  bill,  to  the  '  Committee  of  Selec- 
tion,' consisting  of  the  chairman  of  the  Standing 
Orders  Committee,  and  five  other  members  nomin- 
ated at  the  beginning  of  the  session,  whose  functions 
are  to  classify  the  bills,  to  nominate  the  Committees 
on  them,  and  to  arrange  their  time  of  sitting.  A 
railway  or  canal  bill  is  referred  to  the  'General 
Committee  of  Railway  and  Canal  Bills.'  This  com- 
mittee forms  bills  of  this  class  into  groups,  and 
appoints  the  chairman  of  the  committee  which  is 
to  sit  on  each  bill  from  its  own  body,  the  remaining 
members,  four  in  number,  being  chosen  from  the 
Committee  of  Selection.  Before  the  sitting  of  the 
committee,  every  private  bill,  whether  opposed  or 
unopposed,  must  be  examined  bj>-  the  chairman  of 
the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  and  his  council. 
It  is  also  laid  before  the  chairman  of  the  Lords' 
Committee  and  his  council,  and  effect  is  given  to 
their  observations,  a  proceeding  which  greatly 
facilitates  the  after- progress  of  the  bill  in  the  House 
of  Lords.  The  Board  of  Trade,  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  the  Home  Department,  the  Lords  Com- 
missioners of  the  Admiralty,  and  the  Commissioners 
of  Woods  and  Forests,  also  exercise  a  supervision 
over  private  bills  of  various  kinds,  by  which  the 
respective  rights  of  their  departments  may  be  sup- 
posed to  be  encroached  on.  In  the  House  of  Lords, 
estate  bills  are  referred  to  the  judges.  Every  bill, 
at  the  first  reading,  is  referred  to  the  Examiners, 
before  whom  compliance  with  such  standing  orders 
as  have  not  been  previously  inqiiired  into  must  be 
proved.  The  Standing  Orders  Committee  of  the 
Lords  is  now  assimilated  in  functions  to  that  of  the 
Commons.  The  bill  is  returned  to  the  Commons 
either  with  amendments,  or  with  a  message  that  it 
is   agreed  to  without   amendments.      In   case    of 

289 


PARLIAMENT. 


disagreement  between  the  Houses,  the  same  forms 
are  observed  as  in  public  bills. 

In  recent  times,  the  necessity  for  obtaining 
private  acts  has  been,  in  many  cases,  obviated  by 
general  laws  adapted  to  different  classes  of  objects, 
of  which  parties  are  enabled  to  avail  themselves, 
instead  of  applying  to  parliament  for  special  powers. 

Royal  Assent. — A  bill  becomes  a  statute  or  act  of 
parliament  on  receiving  the  royal  assent,  which  is 
given  in  the  House  of  Lords,  the  Commons  being 
also  present  at  the  bar.  It  is  given  in  either  of 
two  ways  :  by  letters-patent  under  the  Great  Seal, 
Bigned  by  the  sovereign's  own  hand,  and  com- 
municated to  the  two  Houses  by  commissioners  ;  or 
by  the  sovereign  present  in  person  in  the  House  of 
Lords.  When  the  royal  assent  is  given  by  commis- 
sion, three  or  more  of  the  Lords  Commissioners 
command  Black  Rod  to  signify  to  the  Commons 
that  their  attendance  is  desired,  on  which  the  Com- 
mons, with  the  Speaker,  immediately  come  to  the 
bar.  The  commission  is  then  read  at  length  ;  and 
the  titles  of  all  the  bills  being  read  by  the  Clerk  of 
the  Crown,  the  royal  assent  to  each  is  signified  by 
the  Clerk  of  the  Parliaments  in  Norman-French,  and 
so  entered  on  the  Lords'  Journals.  In  assenting  to 
a  public  bill,  the  words  used  are  :  '  Le  roy  [la 
reyne]  le  veult ; '  to  a  private  bill :  '  Soit  fait 
comme  il  est  desirS  ; '  and  to  a  bill  of  supply  (which 
is  presented  by  the  Speaker,  and  receives  the  royal 
assent  before  all  other  bills)  :  '  Le  roy  remercie  ses 
bons  sujets,  accepte  leur  benevolence,  efc  ainsi  le 
veult.'  In  the  case  of  an  act  of  grace,  which  has 
originated  with  the  crown,  there  was,  till  lately,  no 
further  expression  of  the  royal  assent ;  but  the 
Clerk  of  the  Parliaments,  having  read  its  title,  said  : 
4  Les  prelats,  seigneurs,  et  communes,  en  ce  present 
parliament  assembles,  au  nom  de  tous  vos  auctres 
sujets,  remercient  tres-humblement  vostre  Majeste, 
et  prient  a  Dieii  vous  donner  en  sante  bonne  vie  et 
longue : '  the  royal  assent,  however,  has  been 
latterly  given  to  acts  of  grace  in  the  usual  form. 
The  refusal  of  the  royal  assent  is  announced  by  the 
words,  '  Le  roy  s'avisera.'  But  the  necessity  for 
such  refusal  is  generally  removed  by  the  observance 
of  the  constitutional  principle,  that  the  queen  has 
no  will  but  that  of  her  ministers,  who  only  continue 
in  office  so  long  as  they  have  the  confidence  of 
parliament.  The  last  instance  in  which  the  royal 
assent  was  refused  was  by  Queen  Anne  in  1707, 
regarding  a  bill  for  settling  the  militia  in  Scotland. 

The  royal  assent  is  seldom  given  in  person,  except 
at  the  close  of  a  session,  when  the  queen  attends  to 
prorogue  parliament,  and  then  signifies  her  assent 
to  such  bills  as  have  been  passed  since  the  last  com- 
mission was  issued  ;  but  bill3  providing  for  the 
honour  and  dignity  of  the  crown,  and  bills  for 
settling  the  civil  lists,  have  generally  been  assented 
to  by  the  sovereign  in  person,  immediately  after 
they  have  passed  both  houses.  When  the  royal 
assent  is  given  in  person,  the  Clerk  of  the  Crown 
reads  the  titles  of  the  bdls ;  and  the  Clerk  of  the 
Parliaments,  who  has  previously  received  her 
Majesty's  commands  in  the  robing  room,  makes  an 
obeisance  to  the  throne,  and  signifies  her  Majesty's 
assent,  as  already  described,  the  queen  giving  a 
gentle  inclination. 

Supplies. — Prior  to  16S8,  in  addition  to  parlia- 
mentary taxation,  imposts  were  sometimes  levied 
by  an  exercise  of  the  royal  prerogative.  Since  the 
Revolution,  no  taxes  have  been  raised  otherwise 
than  by  parliamentary  authority.  The  Commons 
have  the  exclusive  right  to  impose  taxes  and  vote 
money  for  the  public  sendee.  The  Lords  cannot 
even  make  an  alteration  in  a  bill  of  supply,  except 
to  correct  a  clerical  error.  The  Lords  are  not  even 
entitled  to  insert  in  a  bill  any  pecuniary  penalties, 
290 


or  to  alter  the  amount  or  application  of  any  penalty 
imposed  by  the  Commons ;  a  ride  whose  rigid 
assertion  has  been  found  to  be  attended  with  so 
much  inconvenience  that  there  has  latterly  been 
a  disposition  to  relax  it.  If  a  bill  containing 
provisions  which  make  a  pecuniary  charge  on  the 
public  originate  in  the  Lords,  any  such  provisions  are 
struck  out  in  the  bill  as  sent  to  the  Commons.  In 
the  Commons,  these  provisions  are  printed  in 
red  ink,  and  supposed  to  be  blank,  and  may  be 
agreed  to  in  committee.  But  though  the  Commons 
has  the  exclusive  right  to  grant  supplies,  a  grant 
requires  the  idtimate  assent  of  the  queen  and  the 
House  of  Lords. 

The  public  revenue  of  the  crown  is  derived  in 
part  from  permanent  charges  on  the  consolidated 
fund,  and  in  part  from  actual  grants  for  specific 
public  services,  which  require  the  yearly  sanction 
of  parliament.  On  the  opening  of  parliament,  the 
queen  demands  from  the  Commons  the  annual  pro- 
vision for  the  public  services,  and  directs  estimates 
to  be  laid  before  them.  On  agreeing  to  the  address 
in  answer  to  the  royal  speech,  the  Commons  order 
the  speech  to  be  taken  into  consideration  on 
another  day.  On  the  arrival  of  that  day,  a  motion 
is  made :  '  That  a  supply  be  granted  to  her  Majesty,' 
and  the  House  resolves  into  a  committee  to  consider 
that  motion.  On  the  day  appointed,  the  committee 
sits  and  agrees  that  a  supply  be  granted,  which,  being 
reported,  is  agreed  to  by  the  House.  The  House 
then  appoints  another  day  on  which  it  resolves  itself 
into  a  '  Committee  of  Supply.'  The  estimates  for 
the  army,  navy,  and  ordnance  departments,  are  first 
laid  before  the  committee ;  then  the  estimates  for 
civil  services,  known  as  the  miscellaneous  estimates. 
The  first  business  of  the  Committee  of  Supply  is  to 
elect  a  chairman,  who  is  known  as  the  Chairman 
of  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means,  over  which 
he  also  presides.  When  the  first  report  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Supply  has  been  received  and  agreed  to,  a 
day  is  appointed  for  the  House  to  resolve  itself  into 
a  '  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means.'  This  committee 
is  not  appointed  till  a  sum  has  been  voted  by 
the  House,  nor  is  it  afterwards  allowed  to  vote 
in  excess  of  the  expenditure  voted  by  the  Committee 
of  Supply.  It  is  the  function  of  the  Committee  of 
Supply  to  consider  what  specific  grants  are  to  be 
voted,  and  of  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  to 
determine  how  the  funds  shall  be  raised  which  are 
voted  by  the  Committee  of  Supply.  Without 
special  parliamentary  authority,  the  consolidated 
fund  could  not  be  applied  to  meet  the  supplies 
voted  for  the  service  of  the  year  ;  but  to  make  it  so 
available,  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  votes 
general  grants  from  time  to  time  out  of  the  con- 
solidated fund  '  towards  making  good  the  supply 
granted  to  her  Majesty;'  and  bills  are  founded 
on  the  resolutions  of  the  committee,  by  which  the 
treasury  receives  authority  to  issue  the  requisite 
amount  from  the  consolidated  fund  for  the  service 
of  the  year.  It  belongs  to  the  Committee  of  Ways 
and  Means  to  determine  what  sums  shall  be  raised 
by  exchequer  bills  in  anticipation  of  the  annual 
revenue,  to  make  up  the  supply  granted  to  her 
Majesty.  When  the  Committee  of  Supply  has 
determined  the  number  of  men  that  shall  be  main- 
tained during  the  year  for  the  army  and  sea-service, 
and  its  resolutions  have  been  agreed  to,  the 
Mutiny  Bill  and  Marine  Mutiny  BUI  are  brought 
in,  providing  respectively  for  the  discipline  of  the 
troops  and  marines  when  on  shore.  Apart  from 
this  annual  sanction,  the  maintenance  of  a  standing 
army  in  time  of  peace  would  be  illegal,  and  the 
army  and  marines  would  be  relieved  from  all  mar- 
tial discipline.  The  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means 
receives  the  annual  financial    statement  from  the 


PARLIAMENT. 


Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  popularly  called  the 
Budget.  That  minister  gives  B  general  view  of  the 
resources  of  the  country,  and  of  the  financial  policy 
of  the  government,  and  presents  a  probable  esti- 
mate of  income  and  expenditure  for  the  twelve 
months  ending  on  the  12th  of  April  of  the  following 
year.  He  states  what  taxes  he  intends  to  reduce, 
and  what  new  ones  he  means  to  impose,  and  ends  by 
proposing  resolutions  for  the  adoption  of  the  com- 
mittee, which,  when  reported  to  the  House,  form  the 
groundwork  of  bills  for  accomplishing  the  financial 
objects  proposed.  The  charges  for  collecting  the 
revenue,  have,  since  1S54,  been  brought  under  the 
supervision  of  the  House  of  Commons ;  and  esti- 
mates are  voted  for  the  revenue  departments.  A 
new  tax  cannot  be  proposed  except  by  a  minister  of 
the  crown.  The  resolutions  of  Committees  of 
Supply  and  of  Ways  and  Means  are  reported  on  a 
day  appointed  by  the  House,  and  read  a  first  time 
■without  a  question,  and  a  second  time  on  a  question 
put  from  the  chair,  and  are  agreed  to  by  the  House, 
or  may  be  disagreed  to,  amended,  postponed,  or 
recommitted.  When  the  Committee  of  Supply  is 
closed,  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  autho- 
rises the  application  of  money  from  the  consolidated 
fund,  the  surplus  of  ways  and  means,  and  sums  in 
the  Exchequer,  to  meet  the  grant  and  services  of  the 
year,  and  the  resolutions  of  the  committee  are 
carried  into  effect  by  the  Consolidated  Fund  Bill,  or 
as  it  is  often  called,  the  Appropriation  BilL  By  a 
standing  order  of  April  3,  1SG2,  a  standing  Com- 
mittee of  Public  Accounts  is  appointed  at  the 
beginning  of  each  session  to  examine  into  the  appro- 
priation of  the  sums  granted  by  parliament  to  meet 
the  public  expenditure.  Taxes  of  a  permanent  and 
general  character  are  not  now  considered  in  the 
Committee  of  Ways  and  Means. 

Petitions. — Among  the  duties  of  parliament  is 
the  receiving  of  petitions.  A  petition  must  be 
presented  by  a  member  of  the  House  to  which  it 
is  addressed.  Petitions  from  the  corporation  of 
London  are,  however,  presented  to  the  House  of 
Commons  by  the  sheriffs  at  the  bar,  or  by  one 
sheriff,  if  the  other  be  a  member  of  the  House,  or 
unavoidably  absent.  In  1S-40,  a  petition  was 
allowed  to  be  presented  by  the  Lord  Mayor  and 
Aldermen,  when  the  sheriffs  were  in  custody  of  the 
serjeant-at-arms.  The  Lord  Mayor  of  Dublin  has 
been  allowed  to  present  a  petition  at  the  bar  of  the 
House,  and  the  same  privilege  would  probably  be 
conceded  to  the  Lord  Provost  of  Edinburgh.  Peti- 
tions which  violate  any  of  the  rules  of  the  House,  are 
not  brought  up,  but  returned  to  the  petitioners ;  and 
if  an  irregularity  be  discovered  after  a  petition  is 
brought  up,  its  presentation  is  not  recorded  in  the 
votes.  In  the  House  of  Lords,  when  a  petition  is 
laid  on  the  table,  an  entry  is  made  in  the  Lords' 
minutes,  and  afterwards  in  the  Journals  of  the 
House,  which,  however,  does  not  describe  its  nature 
and  substance.  A  petition  may,  on  presentation,  be 
made  a  subject  of  debate,  but  unless  this  is  done, 
there  remains  no  public  record  of  its  import,  or  of 
the  parties  by  whom  it  was  signed.  In  the  House 
of  Commons,  according  to  standing  orders  adopted 
in  1842,  the  member  presenting  a  petition  is  to  con- 
fine himself  to  a  statement  of  who  the  petitioners 
are,  the  number  of  signatures,  the  material  allega- 
tions of  the  petition  and  its  prayer.  In  case  of 
urgency,  or  where  questions  of  privilege  are  involved, 
the  matter  of  the  petition  may  be  discussed ;  but  in 
ordinary  cases  no  debate  is  allowed,  and  it  is  referred 
to  the  Committee  on  Public  Petitions,  and  if  relating 
to  a  subject  with  regard  to  which  the  member 
presenting  it  has  given  notice  of  a  motion,  it  may  be 
ordered  to  be  printed  with  the  votes.  The  reports 
s»f  the  Committee  on  Public  Petitions  are  printed 


twice  a  week,  and  point  out  the  name,  the  subject, 
and  the  number  of  signatures  of  each  petition,  and 
the  total  number  of  signatures,  and  petitions  relating 
to  each  subject ;  and,  in  some  cases,  the  petition 
itself  is  printed  at  full  length  in  the  appendix. 

Communications  with,  the  Crown. —  Besides  at  the 
opening  and  proroguing  of  parliament,  and  giving  of 
the  royal  assent,  there  are  other  occasions  on  which 
the  crown  communicates  with  parliament  by  a 
message,  under  the  sign-manual,  to  either  House 
singly,  or  both  Houses  separately.  Messages  are 
brought  by  a  member  of  the  House,  being  a  minister 
of  the  crown,  or  one  of  the  royal  household,  and 
may  relate  to  important  public  events,  the  pre- 
rogatives or  property  of  the  crown,  provision  for  fhe 
royal  family,  &c.  An  address  is  the  mode  in  which 
the  resolutions  of  parliament  are  communicated  to 
the  crown.  Addresses  may  be  joint,  of  both  Houses, 
or  separate,  of  either  House. 

Returns. — Each  House  has  the  power  of  ordering 
returns  from  all  those  public  departments  which  are 
connected  with  the  revenue,  under  control  of  the 
Treasury,  or  regulated  by  statute ;  but  returns  of 
matters  connected  with  the  exercise  of  royal  pre- 
rogative, as  from  public  departments  subject  to  her 
Majesty's  secretaries  of  state,  are  obtained  by  means 
of  addresses  to  the  crown.  A  return  is  not  allowed 
to  be  ordered  in  one  House  regarding  the  proceedings 
of  the  other ;  when  such  return  is  wished,  it  is  usual 
to  make  an  arrangement  by  which  it  is  moved  in 
the  House  to  whose  proceedings  it  relates,  and  after 
it  has  been  presented,  a  message  is  sent  to  request 
that  it  may  be  communicated.  Returns  cannot  be 
moved  from  private  associations,  or  persons  not 
exercising  public  functions ;  and  the  papers  and 
correspondence  sought  from  government  depart- 
ments must  be  of  an  official,  not  a  private  or  confi- 
dential description.  This  rule  was,  under  special 
circumstances,  departed  from  in  1S.58,  in  regard  to 
the  opinion  of  the  law-officers  of  the  crown  in  the 
case  of  the  Cagliari.  Accounts  and  papers  presented 
are  ordered  to  lie  on  the  table,  and  when  necessary, 
ordered  to  be  printed,  or  in  the  Commons  referred 
to  the  Printing  Committee  appointed  at  the  beginning 
of  each  session. 

Election  Committees.  —  The  trial  of  election 
petitions  is  one  of  the  duties  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  Until  1770  all  questions  regarding  con- 
troverted elections  were  decided  by  the  whole 
House ;  the  Grenville  Act  of  that  year  introduced 
the  practice  of  appointing  committees  for  their  trial. 
The  Act  11  and  12  Vict.  c.  9S,  now  regulates  the 
trial  of  controverted  elections.  An  election  petition 
is  defined  to  be  a  complaint,  either  (1)  of  an  undue 
election  ;  (2)  that  no  return  has  been  made  accord- 
ing to  the  requisition  of  the  writ ;  or  (3)  of  the 
special  matters  contained  in  the  return.  It  must 
be  signed  by  some  person  who  voted,  or  had  a  right 
to  vote  at  the  election,  or  by  some  person  who 
claims  to  be  returned,  or  alleges  himself  to  have 
been  a  candidate.  The  petition  must  be  lodged 
within  fourteen  days  after  the  return  objected  to. 
Recognisances  must  be  entered  into,  according  to  a 
form  prescribed,  by  sureties  to  the  extent  of  £1000, 
in  portions  not  less  than  £250  for  each  individual* 
surety — the  petitioner  having  it  in  his  option  to  pay 
the  money,  or  part  of  it,  into  the  bank  instead  of 
finding  security.  Six  members  selected  from  those 
who  are  not  themselves  parties  in  controverted 
elections,  are  appointed  at  the  beginning  of  every 
session  by  the  Speaker's  warrant  as  the  '  General 
Committee  of  Elections.'  To  this  committee  all 
election-petitions  are  referred ;  and  it  is  their  duty 
to  choose  the  select  committee  which  is  to  try  each 
petition.  From  a  list  of  the  members  of  the  House, 
who  are  not  excused  or  disqualified  from  acting  on 

291 


PARLIAMENT. 


election  committees,  they  select  six,  eight,  ten,  or 
twelve  members  who  are  called  the  chairmen's  panel, 
and  are  liable  throughout  the  session  to  serve  as 
chairmen  of  select  committees,  but  are  exempted 
from  serving  on  select  committees  in  any  other 
capacity.  The  remaining  members  on  the  list  are 
then  divided  into  five  panels,  which  being  ranged  in 
order  by  lot,  are  to  take  their  turn  successively  in 
furnishing  members  for  election  committees.  Each 
select  committee  consists  of  four  members,  chosen 
by  the  general  committee  from  the  panel  in  service, 
and  a  chairman  appointed  by  the  chairmen's  panel. 
The  members  are  sworn  at  the  table  by  the  clerk, 
'  well  and  truly  to  try  the  matter  of  the  petition, 
and  a  true  judgment  to  give,  according  to  the 
evidence.'  Evidence  may  be  taken  on  oath,  and  it 
is  enacted  by  the  Corrupt  Practices  Act,  1S63,  that 
no  witness  is  excused  from  answering  a  question  on 
the  ground  that  his  answer  may  criminate  himself  ; 
but  a  witness,  making  an  answer  which  tends  to 
criminate  him,  may  demand  a  certificate  which  shall 
be  a  protection  to  him  from  prosecution  for  such 
answer.  The  decision  lies  with  the  majority  of  the 
committee,  the  chairman  having  both  a  deliberative 
and  a  casting  vote.  The  committee  are  required  to 
determine  whether  the  sitting  member,  or  any  other 
person,  be  duly  returned,  or  whether  the  election 
be  void,  or  whether  a  new  writ  ought  to  issue  ;  and 
their  determination  is  final,  and  is  carried  into 
execution  by  the  House.  They  may  also  make  a 
special  report  on  some  other  point,  which  is  not 
final.  The  most  frequent  subjects  of  special  reports 
are  bribery,  treating,  and  the  use  of  undue  influence, 
matters  regarding  which  various  acts  have  been 
passed,  the  most  important  beino;  17  and  18  Vict.  c. 
102  (1854),  21  and  22  Vict.  c.  87  (1858),  and  26  Vict. 
c.  29  (1863),  three  statutes  known  as  the  '  Corrupt 
Practices  Prevention  Acts.'  It  was  formerly 
required  to  prove  agency,  before  evidence  was 
allowed  to  be  given  of  the  facts  on  which  a  charge 
of  bribery  rested,  but  A  ct  4  and  5  Vict.  c.  57,  dis- 
pensed with  this  necessity.  By  the  Corrupt 
Practices  Prevention  Act,  1S63,  when  an  election 
petition  complains  of  bribery,  treating,  or  undue 
influence,  the  committee  is  required  to  report 
whether  they  had  been  extensively  practised.  The 
candidate  declared  by  an  election  committee  guilty 
of  bribery,  treating,  or  undue  influence  by  himself 
or  his  agents,  is  declared  by  the  Corrupt  Practices 
Act,  1854,  to  be  incapable  of  representing  the  same 
constituency  in  the  then  existing  parliament.  The 
new  law  of  evidence  affords  further  facilities  for  the 
detection  of  bribery,  in  so  far  as  it  allows  the 
personal  examination  of  the  sitting  members  and 
candidates. 

By  the  Act  of  1854,  the  offering  of  money,  office, 
employment,  &c,  to  a  voter  to  induce  him  to  vote 
or  abstain  from  voting,  or  the  offering  of  a  similar 
consideration  to  any  person  to  induce  him  to  pro- 
cure the  return  of  a  candidate  or  the  vote  of  an 
elector,  the  acceptance  of  such  consideration,  and 
the  payment  of  money  in  the  knowledge  that  it  is 
to  be  expended  in  bribery,  or  the  repayment  of 
money  which  has  been  spent  in  bribery,  are  all 
declared  to  be  acts  of  bribery  punishable  by  fine  and 
imprisonment,  as  well  as  by  the  forfeiture  of  £100 
with  costs  to  any  person  who  will  sue  for  the  same. 
Any  voter  who  agrees  to  receive  money,  office,  or 
employment  for  voting  or  abstaining  from  voting, 
and  any  person  who,  after  an  election,  receives 
money  or  other  consideration  on  account  of  any 
person  having  voted  or  refrained  from  voting,  is 
also  guilty  of  bribery,  and  liable  to  forfeit  £10 
with  costs  to  any  one  who  will  sue  for  the  same. 
Treating,  which  is  defined  as  the  providing  of 
meat,  drink,  or  other  entertainment  to  any  person 
293 


in  order  to  be  elected,  or  in  consideration  for  any 
person  voting  or  abstaining  from  voting,  involves 
a  penalty  of  £50  similarly  recoverable,  as  also 
does  undue  influence,  or  interference  by  intimi- 
dation, abduction,  or  otherwise,  with  the  freedom 
of  electors.  Persons  guilty  of  any  of  these  offencea 
are,  by  the  provisions  of  the  same  acts,  to  be  struck 
off  the  register,  and  their  names  inserted  in  a  separ- 
ate '  list  of  persons  disqualified  for  bribery,  treat- 
ment, and  undue  influence,'  which  is  to  be  appended 
to  the  register  of  voters.  Cockades  are  prohibited, 
a3  is  the  furnishing  of  refreshment  on  the  day  of 
election  to  a  voter  in  consideration  of  his  being 
about  to  vote.  By  the  Corrupt  Practices  Act,  1854, 
it  is  however  declared  lawful  to  provide  a  convey- 
ance for  a  voter,  though  not  to  pay  him  a  sum  of 
money  for  travelling  expenses.  By  the  Act  of  1863, 
no  payment  is  allowed  to  be  made  on  behalf  of  a 
candidate  except  through  his  authorised  agent,  and 
all  claims  against  a  candidate  in  respect  of  an 
election  must  be  settled  within  a  month,  otherwise 
the  right  to  recover  them  is  barred.  A  detailed 
account  of  election  expenses  with  vouchers  is  required 
to  be  delivered  within  two  months  of  the  election 
to  the  returning  officers,  by  whom  it  is  published  in 
a  local  newspaper,  and  the  vouchers  are  to  be  open 
for  a  month  to  the  inspection  of  voters. 

Act  15  and  16  Vict.  c.  57  enacts  that  upon  the 
joint  address  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament  repre- 
senting to  her  Majesty  that  a  committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons  has  reported  that  corrupt 
practices  have  prevailed  extensively  at  any  election, 
her  Majesty  may  appoint  commissioners  to  make 
inquiry.  The  Corrupt  Practices  Prevention  Act, 
1S63,  provides  that  when  an  election  committee  ha3 
reported  that  certain  persons  named  have  been 
guilty  of  bribery  or  treating,  and  their  report  ia 
confirmed  by  a  commission  of  inqiiiry,  such  report, 
with  the  evidence  taken  by  the  commission,  is  to  be 
laid  before  the  attorney-general  with  the  view  of 
instituting  a  prosecution. 

Impeachment. — In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  an 
act  of  attainder  was  the  usual  mode  of  proceeding 
against  state  offences.  A  bill  of  attainder  some- 
times followed  a  regular  trial  and  conviction,  as  in 
the  case  of  Enipson  and  Dudley,  but  was  sometimea 
passed  without  trial,  examination  of  witnesses,  or 
hearing  the  accused  party,  as  in  the  attainder  of 
Fisher  and  Sir  Thomas  More.  The  practice  of 
impeachment  of  extraordinary  offenders  before  the 
Lords  by  the  Commons,  which  had  been  frequent 
during  the  14th  and  15th  centuries,  was  revived  in 
the  reign  of  James  I.  This  proceeding  is  not  like 
bills  of  attainder  or  pains  and  penalties,  the  making 
of  a  new  law  pro  re  nata,  but  a  carrying  out  of  the 
already  known  and  established  law.  The  great 
representative  inquest  of  the  nation  first  find  the 
crime,  and  then  as  prosecutors  support  the  charge 
before  the  highest  court  of  criminal  jurisdiction. 
It  has  always  been  allowed  that  a  peer  may  be 
impeached  for  any  crime  whether  cognizable  by  the 
ordinary  courts  or  not.  The  right  of  the  Commons 
to  impeach  a  commoner  of  a  capital  offence,  which 
was  at  one  time  doubted,  has  been  solemnly  affirmed 
by  the  House  of  Lords.  The  trial  is  conducted 
by  managers  for  the  Commons.  Witnesses  are 
summoned  by  the  Lords  at  the  desire  of  the 
Commons,  and  Westminster  Hall  has  usually  been 
the  place  of  trial,  the  Lord  High  Steward  pre- 
siding. The  managers  make  their  charges  and 
adduce  evidence ;  the  accused  answers,  and  may 
defend  himself  by  counsel ;  and  the  managers  have 
a  right  to  reply.  In  giving  judgment,  the  question 
is  put  by  the  Lord  High  Steward  to  each  peer, 
beginning  with  the  junior  baron,  on  each  article 
separately,  whether   the  accused  be  guilty.     The 


PARLIAMENTARY  CHURCH-PARMA. 


answer  is,  'Guilty,  on  my  honour,'  or  'Not  Guilty, 
on  my  honour.'  the  Lord  High  Steward  giving  his 
opinion  the  last,  and  the  numbers  being  cast  up, 
the  accused  is  acquainted  with  the  result.  Impeach- 
ments have  not  been  common  in  later  times ;  the 
latest  memorable  cases  are  those  of  Warren  Hastings 
in  1788,  and  Lord  Melville  in  180.1 

Trial  of  Peers. — Peers  are,  in  all  cases,  tried  by 
their  peers  for  treason,  misprision  of  treason,  felony, 
or  misprision  of  felony.  During  the  sitting  of 
parliament,  the  trial  proceeds  before  the  Hon  e  of 
Lords,  or  more  properly  before  the  Court  of  Parlia- 
ment presided  over  by  the  Lord  High  Steward. 
When  parliament  is  not  sitting,  the  trial  takes 
place  before  the  Court  of  the  Lord  High  Steward — a 
tribunal  whose  constitution  was  at  one  time  very 
objectionable,  that  othcer  being  allowed  to  summon 
what  peers  he  pleased,  only  with  the  proviso  that 
the  number  should  amount  in  all  to  23.  Act  7 
Will.  III.  c.  3  requires  that  all  the  peers  who  have 
a  right  to  sit  and  vote  in  parliament  be  summoned. 
Peers  of  Scotland  and  Ireland  are,  in  terms  of  the 
Acts  of  Union,  tried  in  the  same  way.  By  4  and  5 
Vict.  c.  22,  a  peer  is  liable  on  conviction  to  the 
Bame  punishment  as  any  other  of  the  lieges. 

The  annual  expenses  of  parliament  are  about 
j£15S,3G9,  of  which  £72,6S4  is  expended  in  printing, 
and  the  remainder  in  salaries  and  emoluments, 
including  £5000  salary  to  the  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons.  See  T.  Erskine  May's  Laics,  Privileges, 
Proceedings,  and  Usage  of  Parliament,  5th  edition, 
1S63;   6th  edition,  1868. 

PARLIAMENTARY   CHURCH  is  a  church 

erected  under  the  authority  of  an  act  of  parliament. 
In  England  such  a  church  is  generally  called  a 
district  church;  and  the  acts  of  parliament  author- 
ising such  churches,  are  known  as  the  Church 
Building  Acts.  See  Parish.  In  Scotland  similar 
churches  are  called  Quoad  Sacra  (q.  v.)  churches. 

PA'RMA,  a  former  sovereignty  of  Upper  Italy, 
having  the  rank  of  a  duchy,  and  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  Lombardy  and  Venice,  E.  by  Modena,  S.  by 
Genoa  and  Tuscany,  and  W.  by  Piedmont,  consisted 
of  the  duchies  of  Parma  and  Piacenza,  which  were 
subdivided  into  5  districts,  and  contained  in  all 
2268  English  square  miles,  with  a  popidation  of  about 
475,000.  The  Apennines,  which  cross  the  southern 
division  of  the  duchies,  send  off  spurs  northwards, 
and  give  to  the  northern  part  of  the  country  the 
character  of  a  plain,  gently  undulating,  but  sloping 
uniformly  to  the  Po,  which  is  the  recipient  of  all 
the  rivers  of  the  country.  The  highest  peaks  of 
the  Apennines  in  P.  are,  Monte  Alpe  di  Succisio, 
about  7000  feet ;  and  Monte  Parma  and  Monte 
Orsajo,  both  more  than  5250.  The  mountain-range 
is  richly  clad  with  oak  and  chestnut  forests.  The 
plain,  which  is  very  fertile,  produces  rich  crops  of 

train  (including  rice),  leguminous  plants,  fruits  of  all 
inds,  olives,  and  grapes  ;  while  marble,  alabaster, 
salt,  and  petroleum  are  the  chief  mineral  products. 
Next  to  agriculture,  the  production  and  manufacture 
of  silk,  the  rearing  of  cattle  and  poultry,  cheese- 
making,  and  the  extraction  of  the  mineral  products 
afford  the  chief  employment.  Silk  and  cheese  are 
the  chief  exports.  The  cheese,  however,  known  as 
Parmesan,  is  not  made  here,  but  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Lodi  (q.  v.). 

The  form  of  government  was  monarchical,  and 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion  the  only  one  tolerated, 
though  a  few  Jews  are  found  here  and  there  through 
the  country.  The  condition  of  education,  though 
improved  of  late,  is  still  very  defective.  The  ad- 
ministrative power  was  in  the  hands  of  a  council 
of  state,  which  was  divided  into  two  sections — one 
for  internal    administration,  which  acted  as  a  court 


of  final  appeal  in  matters  of  justice,  the  other  for 
Snance  and  military  and  foreign  affairs.  The 
revenue  of  ! \  in  L859  was  estimated  at  11,566,618 
liras  (£458,085),  and  the  expenditure  at  11,273,883 
liras  (£410,400).  The  total  debt,  funded  and 
redeemable,  amounted  to  15,558,218  liras  (£010,107). 
The  army  (1859)  before  the  annexation,  according 
to  the  statistics  of  1863,  consisted  of  3290  soldiers ; 
the  duke  had  also  the  occasional  loan  of  an 
Austrian  regiment,  and  the  fortress  of  Piacenza 
was  garrisoned  by  the  troops  of  that  power. 

History. — I',  and  Piacenza  belonged  in  the 
time  of  the  Roman  Empire  to  Cisalpine  Gaul,  and 
after  its  fall  came  under  the  rule  of  the  Lombards, 
to  whose  rule  succeeded  that  of  the  kings  of  Italy 
and  the  German  emperors.  In  the  12th  and  follow- 
ing centuries,  they  joined  the  other  territories  of 
Northern  Italy  which  were  struggling  for  liberty  and 
independence,  and  consequently  became  involved  in 
the  Guelph  and  Ghibelline  contests.  Weakened  by 
these  strifes,  they  fell  under  the  domination  of  the 
powerful  houses  of  Este,  Visconti,  and  Sforza ;  but  in 
1499  they  passed  under  the  yoke  of  the  French 
monarch,  Louis  XII.,  from  whom  they  were  soon 
recovered  by  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  and  handed 
over  to  Pope  Leo  X.  in  1513.  They  continued 
under  the  sovereignty  of  the  popes  till  1543,  when 
they  were  alienated  by  Pope  Paul  III.,  and  with 
the  surrounding  territory  were  erected  into  a  duchy 
for  his  natural  son  Pier-Luigi  Farnese,  the  grand- 
father of  Alessandro  Farnese,  the  celebrated  regent 
of  the  Low  Countries.  On  the  extinction  of  the 
male  line  of  Farnese,  in  1731,  by  the  death  of  the 
eighth  duke,  Antonio,  his  niece  Elizabeth,  the  queen 
of  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  obtained  the  duchies  for  her 
son  Don  Carlos,  who,  however,  exchanged  them  in 
1735  with  Austria  for  the  throne  of  the  Two 
Sicilies.  In  1748  they  were  restored  along  with 
Guastalla  to  Spain,  and  became  a  duchy  for  the 
Infante  Don  Philip,  with  a  reversion  to  Austria  in 
case  of  the  failure  of  his  male  descendants,  or  of  any 
of  them  ascending  the  Spanish  or  Neapolitan  throne. 
Philip  was  succeeded  in  1765  by  his  son  Ferdinand, 
who  was  an  able  and  enlightened  rider,  and  expelled 
the  Jesuits  in  1768.  He  died  in  1802,  and  his 
dominions  were  immediately  taken  possession  of  by 
the  French,  and  were  incorporated  with  France 
under  the  designation  of  the  department  of  Taro  in 
1805.  In  1814,  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  P.,  Piacenza, 
and  Guastalla  were  presented  as  a  sovereign  duchy  to 
the  ex-empress  Maria  Louisa,  a  proceeding  strongly 
opposed  by  the  king  of  Spain,  who  demanded  them 
for  his  sister,  Maria  Louisa,  the  widow  of  Louis, 
king  of  Etruria,  the  son  of  Duke  Ferdinand. 
However,  in  1817,  it  was  settled  that  Maria  Louisa 
of  Austria  should  possess  the  duchies,  and  that  on 
her  death  they  shoidd  descend  to  Ferdinand 
Charles,  Duke  of  Lucca,  the  son  of  Maria  Louisa  of 
Spain,  and  the  rightful  heir;  and  on  failure  of  his 
heirs,  P.  should  revert  to  Austria,  and  Piacenza  to 
Sardinia.  The  empress  governed  very  much  after 
the  Austrian  fashion,  but  with  gentleness,  though 
liberal  sentiments  wrere  looked  upon  by  her  with 
little  favour.  On  her  death,  in  1 847,  the  Duke  of 
Lucca  succeeded  as  Charles  II.,  and  certain  exchanges 
of  territory,  previously  settled  by  the  great  powers, 
took  place  with  Tuscany  and  Modena — the  chief  of 
which  being  the  transfer  of  Guastalla  to  Modena 
in  exchange  for  the  districts  of  Villa-franca,  Tres- 
chietto,  C'astevoli,  and  Melazzo,  all  in  Massa-Carrara. 
resulting  in  a  loss  to  P.  of  about  77  English  square 
miles  of  territory,  and  a  gain  of  193  English  square 
miles.  This  transfer  was  not  made  without  great 
discontent  on  the  part  of  the  inhabitants.  The 
duke's  ride  was  severe  and  tyrannical,  and  on  an 
address    being  presented    to  him    with  a  view  of 

293 


PARMA— PARMIGIANO. 


obtaining  a  reform  of  certain  abuses,  and  a  more 
liberal  political  constitution,  similar  to  what 
Tuscany  had  (February  1S48)  obtained  from  its 
grand-duke,  he  threw  himself  into  the  arms  of 
Austria,  and  consented  to  the  occupation  of  his 
territory  by  Austrian  troops.  In  March  1848  a 
revolution  broke  out,  and  the  duke  was  compelled 
to  grant  the  popidar  demands,  but  he  almost  imme- 
diately after  retired  from  the  country.  P.  joined 
with  Sardinia  in  the  war  of  1848—1849  against 
Austria,  but  on  the  triumph  of  the  latter  power 
was  compelled  to  receive  Charles  III.  (his  father, 
Charles  II.,  having  resigned  his  throne,  March 
1849)  as  its  ruler.  The  new  duke  recalled  the 
constitution  which  his  father  had  been  compelled 
to  grant,  and  punished  with  great  severity  the 
active  agents  of  the  revolutionary  movements 
in  his  dominions.  His  arbitrary  measures  were 
effectively  seconded  by  his  chief  minister,  an 
Englishman  named  Ward,  who  shared  the  public 
obloquy  with  his  master.  After  Charles  Ill's 
assassination  in  March  1S54,  his  widow  Louise- 
Marie-Therese  de  Bourbon,  daughter  of  the  last 
Duke  of  Berry  (q.  v.),  assumed  the  government  for 
the  behoof  of  her  son  Robert  I.,  and  made  some 
attempts  at  political  reform  ;  but  owing  to  the 
excited  state  of  the  people  they  were  little  effec- 
tive, and  she  and  her  son  were  compelled  to  leave 
the  country  in  1859,  on  the  outbreak  of  a  new 
war  between  Sardinia  and  Austria.  In  March  ISth 
of  the  following  year  the  country  was  annexed  to 
Sardinia,  and  now  forms  a  part  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Italy,  constituting  the  two  provinces  of  Parma 
(area  1251  English  square  miles;  pop.  in  1871,264,- 
331),  and  Piacenza  (area  965  square  miles;  pop. 
225.775),  a  few  of  the  outlying  districts,  amounting 
to  about  150  square  miles,  being  incorporated  with 
other  provinces. — Official  Statistics  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Italy  (Turin,  1SG1) ;  Budget  of  the  JZmilias;  Report 
of  the  Marquis  Pepoli  to  the  Minister  of  Finances 
(Turin,  I860)  ;  idem.  Report  of  General  Tozze  to  the 
Minister  of  War  (1863). 

PARMA,  the  chief  town  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name  in  Italy,  and  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
duchy  of  Parma,  is  sitiiated  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  Parma,  12  miles  south  from  the  Po,  75  miles 
south-east  from  Milan,  and  about  the  same  distance 
east  north-east  from  Genoa,  with  a  population  (1871) 
of  45,511. 

The  town  is  of  a  circular  form,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  walls  and  ditches  flanked  by  bas- 
tions ;  the  streets  are  straight  aud  wide,  and  meet 
at  right  angles,  the  chief  of  them,  a  part  of  the 
Roman  Via  ^Emilia,  crossing  the  city  from  east  to 
west,  and  dividing  it  into  two  nearly  equal  parts. 
P.  is  celebrated  for  its  churches,  10  in  number,  the 
chief  of  which  are  the  Duomo,  or  Cathedral  (conse- 
crated 1106  A.D.),  built  chiefly  in  the  Lombard 
style,  having  the  interior  adorned  with  magni- 
ficent frescoes  by  Correggio,  and  paintings  by  other 
artists,  and  surmounted  by  a  beautiful  dome  ;  the 
BatUsterh\,  or  Baptistery,  one  of  the  most  splendid 
in  Italy,  begun  in  1196  and  completed  in  1281  ;  the 
church  of  the  Madonna  della  Steccata,  containing 
the  famous  painting  of  '  Moses  breaking  the  Tables 
of  the  Law'  by  Parmigianino.  The  other  cele- 
brated buildings  are,  the  Farnese  Palace,  a 
gloomy  and  ill-constructed  edifice ;  the  Farnese 
Theatre,  built  (1618 — 162S)  of  wood,  and  now  in  a 
most  dilapidated  condition.  P.  has  also  a  library 
containing  140,000  volumes,  mostly  well  selected, 
and  many  of  them  rare  and  valuable  works  ;  a 
museum  of  antiquities  ;  a  botanic  garden ;  a  theatre 
(Teatro  Nuovo) ;  an  academy  of  fine  arts,  founded  in 
1752.  possessing  a  collection  of  600  pictures,  many 
of  which  are  exceedingly  valuable.  The  pictures 
291 


most  highly  esteemed  are  the  '  Madonnas '  of  Cor- 
reggio and  Francia,  the  '  St  Jerome '  of  Correggift, 
and  the  'Jesus  Glorified'  of  Raphael 

The  manufactures  of  P.  are  stockings,  porcelain, 
sugar,  wax-candles,  aud  vessels  of  crystal,  also  silk, 
cotton,  and  fustian  stuffs.  The  chief  exports  are 
cheese  and  silk  goods ;  and  in  June  there  is  an 
annual  silk  fair. 

PARMA,  Battles  of.  An  indecisive  engage- 
ment took  place  here  June  29,  1734,  between  the 
confederated  armies  of  England,  France,  and  Spain, 
and  the  Austrians ;  and  on  June  19,  1799,  the 
French  under  Macdonald  were  routed  by  the 
Russians  under  Suwarof,  with  a  loss  of  10,000  men 
and  4  generals. 

PARME'LIA,  a  genua  of  Lichens,  with  a  leafy 
horizontal  thallus  which  is  lobed  and  cut  ;  and 
orbicular  shields  (apothecia)  fixed  by  a  central  point, 
concave,  and  bordered  by  the  inflexed  thallus.  The 
species  are  numerous,  and  many  are  found  in 
Britain.  Some  of  them  are  occasionally  employed 
in  dyeing.  Various  chemical  principles  have  been 
discovered  in  lichens  of  this  genus,  as  Usnine  or 
Usnic  Acid  (also  found  in  species  of  the  genua 
Usnea),  and  Parietin.  Valuable  mediciual  propertiea 
— tonic  and  febrifugal — have  been  ascribed  to  P. 
parietina,  the  Common  Yellow  Wall  Lichen,  or 
Common  Yellow  Wall  Moss  of  the  herb  shops,  a 
bright  yellow  species  with  deep  orange  shields, 
plentiful  on  walls  and  trees  in  Britain  and  most 
parts  of  Europe. 

PARME  NIDlSS,  a  Greek  philosopher  of  Elea, 
in  Lower  Ttaly,  and  in  the  opinion  of  the  ancients 
the  greatest  member  of  the  Eleatic  school,  flourished 
about  the  middle  of  the  5th  c.  E.  c.  Nothing  ia 
known  with  certainty  regarding  his  life,  but  he  ia 
said  to  have  visited  Athens  in  his  old  age,  and  to 
have  conversed  with  Socrates,  then  quite  a  youth. 
The  story,  though  it  rests  on  the  authority  of  Plato, 
has  a  suspicious  air,  and  seems  as  if  it  were  intended 
to  account  for  the  influence  which  the  philosophy 
of  P.  undoubtedly  exercised  on  that  of  Socrates  and 
Plato  themselves.  P.,  like  Xenophanes  of  Colo- 
phon, sometimes  regarded  as  the  first  of  the  Eleatics, 
expounded  his  philosophy  in  verse — his  only  work 
being  a  didactic  poem  On  Nature.  The  leading 
design  of  this  poem  is  to  demonstrate  the  reality  of 
Absolute  Being,  the  non-existence  of  which  P. 
declares  to  be  inconceivable,  but  the  nature  of 
which,  on  the  other  hand,  he  admits  to  be  equally 
inconceivable,  inasmuch  as  it  is  dissociated  from 
every  limitation  under  which  man  thinks.  P.  is 
not  a  theologist  in  speculation,  seeking  rather  to 
identify  his  '  Absolute  Being  '  with  '  Thought '  than 
with  a  '  Deity.'  Only  fragments  of  his  poem  remain, 
which  have  been  separately  edited  by  Fiilleborn 
(Zullichau,  1795)  ;  another  collection  is  that  by 
Brandis,  in  his  Commentationes  Eleatkce  (Altona, 
1815)  ;  but  the  best  is  to  be  found  in  Karsten'a 
Philosophorum  Grcccorum  veterum  Seliquioi  (Am- 
stelod,  1835). 

PARMIGIANO,  Girolamo  Francesco  Maria 
Mazzola,  called  Parmigiano  or  Parmigianino,  born 
at  Parma  in  1503,  an  able  painter  of  the  Lombard 
school,  and  the  most  distinguished  of  those  who 
followed  the  style  of  Correggio.  His  pictures 
attracted  much  attention  when  he  was  little  more 
than  fourteen  years  of  age.  In  1523  he  went  to 
Rome  to  follow  out  his  studies,  and  was  soon 
favourably  noticed  and  employed  by  Clement  VII. 
He  was  in  that  city  when  it  was  stormed  by  the 
imperialists  under  Bourbon  in  1527,  and,  it  is  said, 
was  calmly  at  work  on  his  picture  of  '  The  Vision 
of  St  Jerome'  (now  in  the  National  Gallery, 
London)  when   soldiers,  bent  on  pillage,  burst  iato 


PARNAHIBA— PAROS. 


his  studio.  He  was,  however,  protected  by  their 
leader.  After  this  event  he  left  Pome  for  Bologna, 
where  he  painted  various  important  works,  and 
returned  to  Parma  in  1531.  Having  engaged  to 
execute  several  extensive  frescoes  in  the  church 
of  S.  -Maria  Steccata,  after  repeated  delays,  he  was 
thrown  into  prison  for  breach  of  contract,  and  on 
being  released,  in  place  of  carrying  out  his  under- 
taking, he  lied  to  Casal  Maggiore,  in  the  territory 
of  Cremona,  where  he  died  .soon  afterwards  in 
1540.  Vasari,  in  his  notice  of  P.,  attributes  his 
misfortunes  and  premature  death  to  his  passion  for 
alchemy ;  but  this  oft-repeated  story  has  been 
disproved  by  the  researches  of  late  biographers. 
He  executed  several  etchings,  and  some  wood-cuts 
are  attributed  to  him. 

PARNAHI'BA,  or  PARANAHYBA,  a  river  of 
Brazil,  rises  in  the  Sierra  dos  Coroados,  between  the 

Erovinces  of  Goyas  and  Piauhi,  about  11°  S.  It 
ows  north-east  and  north,  and  enters  the  Atlantic 
in  long,  about  41°  40'  W.  by  five  mouths,  which 
enclose  a  delta  about  30  miles  wide  along  the  shore. 
These  mouths,  however,  are  only  from  two  to  four 
fathoms  deep.  It  drains  the  province  of  Piauhi, 
and  forms  the  boundary-line  between  it  and  the 
province  of  Maranhao.  Total  length  estimated  at 
750  miles. — A  chief  tributary  of  the  Parana  also 
bears  the  name  of  Parnahiba. 

PARNA'SSUS,  a  mountain  greatly  celebrated 
among  the  ancients,  and  regarded  by  the  Greeks 
as  the  central  point  of  their  country.  It  was  in 
Phocis.  It  has  three  steep  peaks,  almost  always 
covered  with  snow,  and  seen  from  a  great  distance, 
the  highest  being  fully  8000  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea  ;  but  as  ouly  two  of  them  are  visible  from 
Delphi,  it  was  customary  among  the  Greeks  to 
speak  of  the  two-peaked  Parnassus.  On  its  southern 
slope  lay  Delphi  (q.  v.),  the  seat  of  the  famous 
oracle,  and  the  fountain  of  Castalia  (q.  v.).  The 
highest  peak  was  the  scene  of  the  orgies  of  the 
worship  of  Dionysus  (Bacchus) ;  all  the  rest  of  the 
mountain  was  sacred  to  Apollo  and  the  Muses, 
whence  poets  were  said  to  '  climb  Parnassus,'  a 
phrase  still  thus  employed. 

PARO'CHIAL  BOARD,  in  Scotland,  is  the 
board  in  each  parish  which  manages  the  relief  of 
the  poor.  In  England,  the  same  duty  is  performed 
by  overseers,  and  in  some  cases  by  guardians  of  the 
poor. 

PAROCHIAL  RELIEF  is  the  relief  given  to 
paupers  by  the  parish  authorities.     See  Poor. 

PA'RODY  (Gr.  para,  beside,  and  ode,  a  song), 
the  name  given  to  a  burlesque  imitation  of  a 
serious  poem.  Its  peculiarity  is  that  it  pre- 
serves the  form,  and  as  far  as  possible  the  words 
of  the  original,  and  thereby  differs  from  a  Travesty, 
which  is  a  looser  and  less  literal  kind  of  burlesque. 
The  invention  of  parodies  is  commonly  ascribed  to 
the  Greeks  (from  whom,  at  least,  we  have  derived 
the  name) ;  the  first  parodist,  according  to  Aristotle, 
being  Hegemon  of  Thasos,  who  flourished  during 
the  Peloponnesian  aar ;  according  to  others,  Hip- 
ponax.  From  the  fragments  that  are  extaut  of 
ancient  parody,  we  infer  that  Homer  was  the 
favourite  subject  of  comic  imitation.  Thus  Hip- 
ponax,  in  his  picture  of  a  glutton,  ludicrously 
insinuates  a  comparison  between  the  feats  of  his 
hero  in  eating  and  those  of  Achilles  in  fighting,  by 
commencing  as  follows : 

Sing,  O  celestial  goddess,  Eurymedon,  foremost  of 
gluttons, 

•WTiose  stomach  devours  like  Charybdis,  eater  un- 
matched among  mortals. 

The  Bo  trachomyomachia  (Battle  of  the  Frogs  and 


Mice),  erroneously  ascribed  to  Homer,  is  also  a 
happy  and  harmless  specimen  of  the  parody,  which, 
however,  soon  began  to  exchange  its  jocose  and 
inoffensive  raillery  for  a  biting  and  sarcastic  banter, 
of  which  numerous  specimens  may  be  seen  in  the 
comedies  of  Aristophanes;  while  the  philosopher 
Timon  of  J'hlius  invented,  under  the  name  of  8 ilia, 
a  new  species  of  satirical  paroily.  Among  the 
Romans  we  first  meet  with  this  form  of  literature 
in  the  period  of  the  decline.  All  the  power  of 
Nero  could  not  prevent  his  verses  from  being 
parodied  by  Persius.  Among  modern  nations  tho 
French — as  might  naturally  be  expected  from  their 
character — have  been  most  addicted  to  this  literary 
mimicry.  Corneille  parodied  Chapelain  in  his 
C'id,  and  Racine  parodied  Corneille.  The  pot- 
pourris of  Desangiers  are  considered  by  his  country- 
men models  of  this  ungracious  kind  of  literature, 
Schiller's  famous  poem  of  the  Bell  has  been  often 
parodied  by  German  wits.  In  England,  perhaps* 
the  best  compositions  of  this  nature  are  the 
Rejected  Addresses  of  the  brothers  James  and 
Horace  Smith.  Many  will  remember,  in  particular, 
the  parody  on  Scott's  •  Battle  of  Flodden '  in 
Mart/lion,  ending — 

'od  rot  'em 
"Were  the  last  words  of  Higginbothi.ni. 

Barham'a  Ingoldsby  Legends  contains  a  felicitous 
parody  on  Wolfe's  Lines  on  the  Burial  of  Sir  John 
Moore.     We  quote  the  first  stanza  as  a  specimen  : 

Not  a  sou  had  he  got,  not  a  guinea  or  note, 
And  he  looked  most  confoundedly  flurried 

As  he  bolted  away  without  paying  his  shot, 
And  his  landlady  after  him  hurried. 

Thackeray's  Miscellanies  also  contain  some  very 
clever  and  satirical  prose  parodies  upon  certain  ol 
his  brother  novelists. 

The  historical  development  of  the  parody  baa 
been  treated  by  Moser  in  Daub's  and  Creuzer's 
Studien  (Gth  vol.).  See  also  Moser's  Parodiarum 
Exempkt  (Ulm.  1819),  and  Weland's  Be  Pnecipuis 
Parodiarum  Homericarum  Scriploribus  (Gott.  1833). 

PARO'LE  (literally,  a  word)  is  the  declaration 
made  on  honour  by  an  officer,  in  a  case  in  which 
there  is  no  more  than  his  sense  of  honour  to  restrain 
him  from  breaking  his  word.  Thus  a  prisoner  of 
war  may  be  released  from  actual  prison  on  his 
parole  that  he  will  not  go  beyond  certain  designated 
limits  ;  or  he  may  even  be  allowed  to  return  to  his 
own  country  on  his  parole  not  to  fight  again,  during 
the  existing  war,  against  his  captors.  To  break 
parole  is  accounted  infamous  in  all  civilised  nations, 
and  an  officer  who  has  so  far  forgotten  hi3  position 
as  a  gentleman  ceases  to  have  any  claim  to  the 
treatment  of  an  honourable  man,  nor  can  he  expect 
quarter  should  he  again  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy  he  has  deceived. 

PAROLE  EVIDENCE,  in  Law,  means  such 
evidence  as  is  given  by  witnesses  by  word  of  mouth 
at  a  trial  or  hearing  of  a  cause.  Parole  Agreement, 
in  English  Law,  means  any  agreement  made  either 
by  word  of  mouth  or  by  writing  not  under  seal.  B: 
the  agreement  is  made  by  writing  imder  seal,  it  is 
called°  a  deed,  or  indenture,  or  covenant,  according 
to  the  nature  of  its  contents. 

PAROPAMISA'N  MOUNTAINS.  Se« 
Afghanistan. 

PA'ROS,  one  of  the  larger  islands  of  the  Grecian 
Archipelago,  is  situated  west  of  Naxos,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  a  channel  from  four  to  six  miles 
wide.  Greatest  length,  15  miles ;  greatest  breadth, 
9  miles ;  area,  about  77  square  miles ;  pop.  7200. 
The  surface  is  hilly,  the  scenery  picturesque,  and 


PAROTID  GLAND— PARRAKEET. 


the  soil  naturally  fertile,  but  imperfectly  cultivated. 
The  island  is  especially  productive  in  cotton,  wax, 
honey,  partridges,  and  wild  pigeons.  Near  the 
middle  of  the  island,  the  mountain  Capresso  (ancient 
Afarpensa),  abounds  in  the  famous  Parian  marble, 
which  was  used  by  many  of  the  greatest  sculptors  of 
antiquity.  Parekhia,  on  the  west  coast,  is  the  princi- 
pal town,  and  Naussa,  on  the  north  coast,  is  the  chief 
port. 

In  ancient  times,  P.,  which  is  said  to  have  been 
colonised  by  Cretans,  attained  great  maritime  pros- 
perity, and  became  wealthy  and  powerful.  It  sub- 
mitted to  the  Persians;  and  after  the  battle  of 
Marathon  was  assailed  ineffectually  by  Miltiades, 
who  received  here  the  wound  of  which  he  soon  after 
died.  After  the  death  of  Xerxes,  P.  came  under  the 
supremacy  of  Athens,  and  shared  the  fate  of  the  other 
Cyclades.  Archilochus,  the  inventor  of  Iambic  verse, 
was  born  here. 

PARO'TID  GLAND.     See  Salivaey  Glands. 

PA'RQUETRY,  a  kind  of  wood  mosaic  used 
only  for  flooring.  The  art  of  making  iulaid  wood 
floors  has  until  lately  much  declined  in  this  country, 
but  on  the  continent  it  has  been  much  in  use,  and 
has  been  carried  to  great  perfection.  Parquetry 
floors  are  usually  of  oak,  but  other  and  more  orna- 
mental woods  have  also  been  much  used  for  giving 
variety  and  beauty  to  the  pattern.  In  the  more 
elaborate  kinds  of  parquetry,  veneers  are  used,  but 
it  is  muck  more  generally  composed  of  blocks  of 
wood  squared  at  the  sides,  and  laid  down  so  as  to 
combine  and  form  a  geometric  pattern.  Of  late,  the 
taste  for  this  work  has  revived  in  Britain,  and  it  is 
beginning  to  be  extensively  employed  in  the  better 
class  of  buildings. 

PARR,  Samuel,  LL.D.,  a  once  notable  scholar, 
was  born  January  15,  1747,  at  Harrow-on-the-HilL 
He  entered  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  in  1765; 
but  the  death  of  his  father,  two  years  afterwards, 
necessitated  his  doing  something  for  himself,  and  he 
was,  in  consequence,  induced  to  accept  an  assistant- 
mastership  at  Harrow,  where  he  remained  five  years. 
The  head-mastership  then  becoming  vacant,  P. 
applied  for  it,  but  was  rejected,  whereupon  he  left, 
and  started  as  an  independent  schoolmaster.  In  1777, 
he  was  appointed  Master  of  Colchester  School,  where 
he  was  ordained  priest,  and  obtained  the  curacies 
of  Hythe  and  Trinity  Church.  Next  year,  he 
became  Master  of  Norwich  School ;  but  in  1786, 
settled  at  Hatton  in  Warwickshire,  where  he  spent 
the  rest  of  his  life.  In  1787,  he  published  an  edition 
of  Bellenden,  to  which  he  prefixed  his  celebrated 
preface,  which  is  as  remarkable  for  its  uncom- 
promising advocacy  of  Whig  principles  as  for  the 
ecrupulous  Ciceronianism  of  its  Latinity.  He  died 
March  6,  1825. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  understand  the  reputa- 
tion which  P.  once  had.  None  of  his  voluminous 
writings  justify  it.  That  he  was  in  some  respects 
an  accomplished,  and  even  a  great  scholar,  is 
undoubted,  for  he  could  write  Latin  of  Ciceronian 
purity  and  finish  ;  but  it  is  equally  undoubted  that 
he  never  did  anything  with  his  boasted  scholarship. 
P.  has  left  the  world  absolutely  nothing  to  keep  it 
in  remembrance  of  him,  yet  his  complete  works 
(edited  by  Dr  J.  Johnstone  in  1828) — exclusive  of 
his  contributions  to  periodicals— form  eight  enor- 
mous tomes,  and  contain  5734  octavo  pages,  many  of 
them  printed  in  small  type.  They  relate  to  matters 
historical,  critical,  and  metaphysical,  but  in  all  of 
them  '  the  thread  of  Parr's  verbosity  is  finer  than 
the  staple  of  his  argument.'  What,  then,  gave  him 
the  fame  that  he  certainly  enjoyed  during  his  life  ? 
Beyond  all  question,  it  was  his  conversational 
powers.      He  was  an  amazing,  an   overwhelming 

296 


talker.  Bold,  dogmatic,  arrogant,  with  a  memory 
profoundly  and  minutely  retentive,  and  with  a 
genuine  gift  of  ephemeral  epigram,  he  seemed,  at 
the  tables  of  statesmen,  and  wits,  and  divines,  to  be 
a  man  of  tremendous  talent,  capable  of  any  literary 
feat;  but  the  learning  and  the  repartee  have  left 
little  trace  of  their  existence,  and  posterity  declines 
to  admire  the  wonders  that  it  has  neither  seen 
nor  heard.  See  De  Quincey's  famous  essay  on  '  Dr 
Samuel  Parr  on  Whiggism  in  its  Relations  to 
Literature'  (Author's  edition,  voL  5.  Edin.  Adam 
and  Charles  Black,  1862). 

PA'RRA.    See  Jacana. 

PARRAKEE'T,  or  PARROQUET,  a  name  very 

commonly  given  to  many  of  the  smaller  species  of 
the  parrot  family  ;  generally  to  species  having  long 
tails,  and  natives  of  the  East  Indies,  Africa,  and 
Australia,  not  so  frequently  to  American  species ; 
although  it  is  sometimes  also  applied  to  some  of 
these,  indifferently  with  the  name  Parrot. — One  of 
the  most  beautiful  groups  of  the  Psittacklce,  combin- 
ing gracefulness  of  form  with  splendour  of  plumage, 
is  that  to  which  the  Alexandrina  P.  or  Ring  P. 
(Palceomia  Alexandri)  belongs.  It  is  about  the 
size  of  a  common  pigeon,  green,  with  a  red  collar, 
whence  its  name  Ring  P.,  and  is  a  native  of  the 


Warbling  Grass  or  Zebra  Parrakeet  [Melopsittacua 
undulatm). 

East  Indies.  It  is  said  to  have  been  brought  to 
Europe  by  some  of  the  members  of  Alexander  the 
Great's  expedition  to  India,  and  to  have  been  the 
first  of  the  parrot  tribe  known  to  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  by  whom  it  was  highly  prized,  as  it  still  is, 
not  only  for  its  beauty,  but  for  its  docility  and  its 
power  of  imitating  human  speech.  Like  many 
of  its  tribe,  it  is  gregarious,  and  immense  flocks 
make  their  abode  in  some  of  the  cocoa-nut  groves  of 
the  western  parts  of  Ceylon,  filling  the  air  with  the 
most  deafening  screams.  The  Ring  P.  has  many 
congeners,  natives  chiefly  of  the  East  Indies,  exhibit- 
ing much  variety  of  splendid  plumage. — Somewhat 
like  them  in  length  and  form  of  tail,  but  with  longer 
and  stronger  legs,  is  the  Ground  P.,  or  Ground 
PARROT  {Pezoporas  formosus),  of  Australia,  a  bird 


PARRHASIUS— PARROT. 


very  common  in  all  the  southern  parts  of  New 
Holland  and  in  Van  I'm  nun's  Land,  inhabiting 
tenths  or  ground  covered  with  very  low  onderwootL 
Its  babita  are  very  unlike  those  of  parrots  in  general; 
it  runs  along  the  ground,  and  even  seeks  to  escape 
from  enemies  by  running,  unwillingly  takes  wing, 
and  then  only  for  a  short  low  flight.  It  makes  no 
nest,  but  lays  its  egga  in  a  hole  in  the  ground.  It 
is  a  small  bird,  not  much  more  than  12  inches  in 
entire  length,  one  halt  of  which  is  occupied  by  the 
tail ;  its  colour,  dark  green  above,  yellowish  below, 
less  brilliant  than  in  many  of  the  parrot  tribe,  but 
finely  marked  and  mottled.  Its  flesh  has  a  very 
strong  game  flavour.  There  are  numerous  other 
Australian  species,  distributed  in  several  genera, 
some  of  which,  although  Less  exclusively  than  that 
just  noticed,  live  and  seek  their  food  on  the  ground. 
Some  of  them  exhibit  the  greatest  splendour  of 
plumage.  The  only  one  we  shall  notice  is  the 
Zeuka  P.  (Melopsittacua  undulatue),  a  very  beauti- 
ful little  species,  which  has  often  been  brought  to 
England,  and  has  sometimes  bred  in  it.  In  the 
vast  inland  plains  of  Australia,  this  P.  is  to  be  seen 
in  flocks  of  many  hundreds  feeding  on  the  seeds  of 
the  grasses,  which  afford  food  also  to  many  other 
small  species. 

PARRHA'SIUS,  one  of  the  greatest  painters  of 
ancient  Greece,  was  the  son  of  Evenor,  himself  an 
artist,  and  was  born  at  Ephesus  in  the  5th  c. 
B.C.  He  practised  his  profession,  however,  at 
Athens,  the  inhabitants  of  which  held  him  in  high 
estimation,  and  conferred  on  him  the  rights  of 
citizenship.  He  was  already  celebrated  in  the  time 
of  Socrates,  with  whom,  according  to  Xenophon,  he 
held  a  conversation  (Mem.  3,  10),  and  Avas  also  a 
younger  contemporary  of  Zeuxis.  The  date  of  his 
death  is  unknown.  Seneca,  who  lived  several 
hundred  years  after,  tells  a  monstrous  story  about 
him.  He  Bays  that  when  P.  was  painting  his 
'  Prometheus  Vinctus,'  he  got  hold  of  one  of  the 
prisoners  taken  at  the  capture  of  Olynthus  by 
Philip  of  Maccdon  (317  B.C.),  and  crucified  him  in 
his  studio  that  he  might  copy  from  life  the  expres- 
sion of  agony.  Fortunately  for  P.'s  memory,  the 
anecdote  is  almost  certainly  untrue,  as  it  would 
require  us  to  suppose  that  he  was  still  alive  And 
painting  when  upwards  of  100  years  old.  P.  appears 
to  have  surpassed  all  his  predecessors  in  purity  of 
design,  accuracy  of  drawing,  force  of  expression,  and 
what  is  technically  called  '  fiuish.'  According  to 
Pliny,  he  was  the  first  who  established  a  true  pro- 
portion between  the  different  parts  of  a  picture,  and 
delineated  with  elegance  and  precision  all  the 
minutia?  of  the  features,  even  to  those  evanescent 
motions  that  betray  the  most  delicate  sentiments  of 
the  soul.  He  painted  the  extremities,  such  as  the 
hands  and  fingers,  in  so  exquisite  a  style,  that  the 
intermediate  parts  seemed  relatively — but  only 
relatively — inferior.  Quinctilian  calls  him  the 
legislator  of  his  art,  because  his  canon  of  proportion 
for  gods  and  heroes  was  followed  by  all  contem- 
porary and  subsequent  painters.  Among  his  works 
were  an  apparently  symbolical  picture  of  the 
Athenian  Demos  ('  People  '),  a  '  Theseus,'  '  Naval 
Commander  in  fnll  Armour,'  'Ulysses  feigning 
Madness,'  'Castor  and  Pollux,'  'Bacchus  and  Virtue, 
a  '  Meleager,  Hercules,  and  Perseus '  on  one  canvas, 
a  '  Cretan  Nurse  with  a  Child  in  her  Arms,'  a 
'  Priest  officiating  with  a  Child  bearing  Incense,' 
'Two  Young  Children,'  an  'Achilles,'  an  'Agamem- 
non,' &c.  But  his  subjects  were  not  always  of  a 
pure  or  lofty  character.  His  '  Archigallus '  (high- 
priest  of  Cybele)  and  his  'Meleager  and  Atalanta' 
were  most  licentious  representations,  and  gave  such 
pleasure  to  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  a  man  of  un- 
bounded   sensuality,    that    he    kept    them    in     his 


bedroom,   and  valued  the  second  in  particular  at 
more  than  a  million  Best 

P.  was  of  an  excessively  proud  and  arrogant  dis- 
position. He  called  himself  the  prince  of  painters, 
and  claimed  to  be  descended  from  Apollo;  he 
also  painted  himself  as  the  god  Mercury,  and  then 
exposed  his  own  portrait  for  the  adoration  of  the 
crowd.  His  vanity  was  equal  to  his  pride,  and 
shewed  itself  even  in  his  apparel,  which  was  of  the 
kind  called  •gorgeous.'  He  generally  dress  d  in  a 
purple  robe  with  a  golden  fringe,  Bported  n  gold- 
headed  cane,  and  wore  boots  tied  with  golden 
clasps. 

PA'RRICIDE  (Lat.  par'ulla)  is  rather  a  popular 
than  a  legal  term.  In  the  I  toman  law  it  compre- 
hended every  one  who  murdered  a  near  rdative; 
but  in  English  the  term  is  usually  confined  to  the 
murderer  of  oue's  father,  or  of  one  who  is  in  loco 
parentis.  The  parricide  does  not,  in  any  respect, 
differ  in  Britain  from  the  murderer  of  a  stranger; 
in  both  cases,  the  punishment  is  death  by  hanging. 
In  the  Roman  law,  a  parricide  was  punished  in 
a  much  more  severe  manner,  being  sewed  up  in 
a  leather  sack,  along  with  a  five  cock,  viper,  dog, 
and  ape,  and  cast  into  the  sea  to  take  his  fate  with 
these  companions. 

PA'RROT  (Psittacua),  a  Linna^an  genus  of  birds, 
now  the  family  Psitlucidn;  of  the  order  Scansores,  or 
Climbers  (q.  v.),  comprehending  a  vast  number  of 
species,  natives  of  almost  all  tropical  and  subtropical 
regions ;  a  few  species  extending  further  north  and 
south,  in  America,  in  New  Zealand,  and  in  Van 
Diemen's  Land,  even  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Lake 
Michigan  in  North  America,  and  to  Terra  del  Fuego 
in  South  America.  They  are  mostly  birds  of 
splendid  plumage ;  they  vary  very  much  in  size,  from 
the  Great  Macaw,  more  than  three  feet  in  length, 
tail  included,  to  the  little  Love-birds,  not  larger  than 
sparrows.  They  are  mostly  gregarious,  and  are 
often  seen  in  vast  flocks,  generally  inhabiting  forests, 
and  making  their  nest3  in  trees,  feeding  chiefly  on 
fruits  and  seeds,  partly  also  on  leaves  and  buds ; 
but  some  of  them  dwelling  in  open  plains,  feeding 
on  the  seeds  of  grasses  and  other  plants  of  humble 
growth,  bulbs  and  succulent  parts  of  vegetables,  and 
living  mostly  on  the  ground.  The  voices  of  the  P. 
tribe  are  generally  harsh  and  discordant,  although 
some  of  the  smaller  kinds  have  not  unpleasant 
voices ;  but  many  of  the  larger  have  a  remarkable 
power  of  imitating  human  speech,  and  in  domestica- 
tion become  capable  of  articulating  not  only  words 
but  sentences.  They  exhibit  a  greater  degree  of 
intelligence  than  is  usual  in  birds,  with  a  monkey  dike 
restlessness  and  love  of  trick  ;  and  although  docile 
and  affectionate,  are  generally  of  capricious  irritable 
temper.  They  have  a  short,  stout,  hard  beak, 
rounded  on  all  sides,  and  enveloped  at  the  base  in  a 
membrane  in  which  the  nostrils  are  pierced  ;  the 
upper  mandible  generally  much  longer  than  the 
lower,  much  curved,  and  sharp  pointed.  The 
tongue  is  almost  always  very  large,  thick,  round, 
and  fleshy ;  the  muscles  which  move  the  mandibles 
are  more  numerous  and  powerful  than  in  most  other 
birds.  They  make  use  of  the  pr  v  erful  hooked  bill 
as  well  as  of  the  feet  in  climbing  tiees ;  and  employ 
their  feet  as  hands  for  holding  their  food,  and 
bringing  it  up  to  the  mouth  Their  feet  differ  from 
those  of  all  the  other  climLvJrs,  in  being  covered 
with  small  tubercle-like  scales  instead  of  plates. 
Some  have  short  and  some  have  long  tails.  Most 
of  them  have  short  wings.  Their  intestines  aro 
very  long  and  slender,  and  without  coeca. 

The  Psi'.tacidce  are  easily  distinguished  from  all 
other  birds ;  but  their  division  into  distinct  sub- 
ordinate  groups    has    not    been    found    so    easy, 

297 


PARROT-FISH— PARRY. 


Whilst  the  name  P.  popularly  includes  all,  except 
that  it  's  seldom  given  to  some  of  the  smallest 
species,  some  are  known  by  the  names  Macaw, 
Cockatoo,  Parrakeet,  Lory,  Love-bird,  &c.  See 
these  heads.  But  some  of  these  names  are  very 
vaguely  applied.  And  although  the  P.  family  is 
regarded  as  consisting  of  a  number  of  very  natural 
croups,  the  characters  and  limits  of  these  groups 
nave  not  yet  been  very  well  defined. 

The  name  P.,  in  its  most  restricted  sense,  is 
sometimes  applied  only  to  those  sj)ccics  which  have 
the  upper  mandible  very  distinctly  toothed,  the  lower 
mandible  longer  than  it  is  high  ;  and  the  tad  short, 
and  square  or  rounded ;  but  this  use  is  rather 
ornithological  than  popular,  the  most  restricted 
popular  use  equally  including  long-tailed  species, 
such  as  the  Caroline  P.,  which  are  ornithologically 
ranked  with  the  macaws. — The  Caeoline  P. 
(Conurus  GaroHnetms)  is  the  species  of  which  the 
northern  range  extends  far  beyond  all  others  of  its 
tribe  to  the  shores  of  Lake  Michigan ;  although  by 
the  increase  of  cultivation,  and  the  war  waged 
against  these  birds  for  their  depredations  on  orchards 
and  corn-ricks,  their  numbers  have  been  greatly 
diminished  in  regions  where  they  were  once  plenti- 
ful. Its  whole  length  is  about  14  inches,  of  which 
about  one  half  is  occupied  by  the  tail ;  the  general 
colour  is  green,  shaded  with  blue,  and  diversified 
with  orange,  the  wing  primaries  almost  black.  It 
is  gregarious,  prefers  to  roost  in  the  holes  of  hollow 
trees,  aud  in  such  situations  also  the  females  lay 
their  eggs.  It  seems  to  love  salt,  frequenting  salt 
licks  like  pigeons.  It  is  easily  tamed,  but  does  not 
acquire  the  power  of  articulation. — Of  the  short- 
tailed  parrots,  one  of  the  best  known  is  the  Gray  P. 
(Psittacus  erythacus),  a  West  African  species,  about 
the  size  of  a  small  pigeon,  of  an  ash-gray  colour, 
with  a  crimson  tail.  It  is  famous  for  its  docility, 
its  power  of  articulation  and  of  imitating  noises  of 
all  kinds,  its  loquacity,  and  its  mischievousness.  It 
is  very  often  brought  to  Europe,  and  often  lives  to 
a  great  age  in  continement.  Individuals  have  been 
known  to  attain  the  age  of  nearly  100  years.— The 
Greex  Parkots  {Chrysotis),  natives  of  the  tropical 
parts  of  South  America,  are  also  among  the  short- 
tailed  parrots  most  frequently  seen  in  Britain. 

PARROT-FISH  (Scaridce),  a  family  of  fishes 
near  the  family  Labi' idee  (q.  v.)  or  Cyclo-Labridw, 
of  oblong  and  massive  form,  with  large  scales  and 
remarkable   for  the    structure    of    their    jaws    and 


Parrot-fish  (Scarus  harid). 

teeth,  the  jaws  being  divided  into  halves  by  a 
median  suture,  the  teeth  incorporated  with  the 
bone  in  crowded  quincuncial  order,  the  surface  even 
and  polished  in  some  species  and  rough  in  others, 
the  oldest  teeth  forming  the  trenchaut  border  of 
the  jaw,  and  being  succeeded  by  others  as  they  are 
worn  away,  whilst  new  ones  are  formed  behind. 
298 


The  species  are  numerous.  Some  of  them  feed  on 
fuci,  and  some  on  corals,  the  younger  branches  of 
which  they  crush,  so  that  the  animal  part  affords 
them  nourishment,  whilst  the  calcareous  part  is 
rejected.  They  are  fishes  generally  of  brilliant 
colours,  some  of  them  of  wonderful  splendour,  and 
have  received  the  name  parrot-fish  partly  on  this 
account,  and  partly  on  account  of  a  fancied  resem- 
blance in  their  jaws  to  a  parrot's  bill.  Most  of  them 
are  natives  of  tropical  seas.  One  species  is  found  in 
the  Mediterranean  (S.  Creticus),  the  Scarus  of  the 
ancients,  of  which  many  wonderful  stories  were 
told,  as  to  its  love,  its  wisdom,  its  ruminating,  its 
emitting  of  sounds,  &c,  and  which  was  esteemed 
the  most  savoury  and  delicate  of  all  fishes.  It  is 
still  held  in  high  esteem  for  the  table.  The  Greeks 
cook  it  with  a  sauce  made  of  its  own  liver  and 
intestines. 

PARRY,  Sir  William  Edward,  commonly 
known  as  Sir  Edward  Parry,  a  celebrated  English 
navigator,  was  born  at  Bath,  19th  December  1790. 
His  father,  who  was  a  physician  of  some  eminence, 
destined  him  for  the  medical  profession  ;  but  acting 
on  the  advice  of  a  friend,  entered  him  as  a  first- 
class  volunteer  on  board  the  Ville-de- Paris,  the 
flag-ship  of  the  Channel  fleet,  in  1S03.  After 
several  years'  service,  he  received  his  commission  as 
lieutenant,  January  6,  1810.  Though  thus  early 
engaged  in  active  service,  his  education  had  not 
been  neglected ;  he  had  attained  at  school  to 
considerable  eminence  in  classical  knowledge ; 
and  for  the  first  five  years  after  entering  the 
navy,  he  had  particularly  studied  French  and 
mathematics  under  the  chaplain's  superintendence, 
after  which  he  constantly  employed  his  leisure 
time  in  nautical  and  astronomical  studies.  In 
February  1810,  he  was  sent  to  the  Arctic  regions 
in  command  of  a  ship,  for  the  purpose  of  protecting 
the  British  whale  fisheries  and  improving  the  admir- 
alty charts  of  those  regions;  but  in  1813,  he  was 
recalled  and  despatched  to  join  the  fleet  then 
blockading  the  coast  of  the  United  States.  He 
remained  on  the  North  American  station  till  the 
spring  of  1S17,  and  during  this  time  he  wrote  and 
distributed  MS.  copies  of  a  work  entitled  Nautical 
Astronomy  by  Niyht,  in  which  rules  were  given 
for  determining  accurately  the  altitude  of  the  pole 
by  observations  of  the  fixed  stars.  This  work  he 
subsequently  published  in  London.  Having  returned 
to  England  too  late  to  take  part  in  the  African 
exploring  expedition,  he  was,  at  his  urgent  request, 
backed  by  the  recommendations  of  Mi'  Barrow,  secre- 
tary to  the  Admiralty,  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  Alexander,  under  the  orders  of  Captain  John 
Ross  in  the  Isabella,  and  despatched  in  search  of 
the  'North- West  Passage'  (q.  v.)  in  April  IS  18. 
The  expedition  returned  to  England,  having  made 
no  important  discoveries.  The  admiralty  were  dis- 
satisfied with  the  report  of  Captain  Ross  ;  aud  P.'s 
opinion,  though  only  communicated  to  his  private 
friends,  having  become  known  to  them,  he  was 
again  sent  out  (May  1819),  and  this  time  com- 
menced that  career  of  discovery  (see  North- West 
Passage)  which  has  immortalised  him  as  the 
greatest  of  all  Arctic  explorers.  P.  on  his  return 
to  Britain  was  hailed  with  the  utmost  enthusi- 
asm, and  was  made  commander  (4th  November 
1820)  and  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society.  He 
subsequently  made  a  second  and  a  third  voyage  to 
the  same  regions,  but  effected  nothing  further 
of  importance.  P.  now  devoted  himself  to  the 
discharge  of  his  duties  as  hydrographer,  but  such 
labours  were  too  monotonous  for  one  of  his  tem- 
perament, and  he  accordingly  prepared  a  plan 
of  an  expedition  for  reaching  the  north  pole,  which 
being  submitted  to  the  admiralty  and  approved  of 


PARSEES. 


by  them,  bis  old  ship  the  Hecla  was  fitted  out  for  a 

Eolar  expedition,  and  P.  set  sail  iu  her,  accompanied 
y  Lieutenant  J.  C.  Ross,  4th  April  1827.  See 
Polar  Voyages.  The  Journals  of  these  voyages 
were  published  l»y  order  of  the  admiralty. 

P.'s  career  as  an  explorer  was  now  closed,  and 
he  again  returned  to  his  duties  as  hydrographer, 
but  his  health  now  gave  way  under  this  sedentary 
mode  of  life,  and  he  exchanged  his  office  for  that  of 
commissioner  to  the  Agricultural  Company  of 
Australia,  for  which  country  he  sailed  20th  July 
1829.  He  returned  to  England  in  November  1S3-4, 
and  filled  in  succession  various  government  appoint- 
ments up  till  December  1S40,  when  he  retired  from 
active  service,  receiving  a  sinecure  office.  On  4th 
June  1852  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  Rear- 
admiral  of  the  White,  and  in  the  followiug  year 
was  appointed  lieutenant-governor  of  Greenwich 
Hospital — an  office  which  he  held  till  his  death,  7th 
July  1855,  at  Ems  iu  Germany,  whither  he  had 
gone  for  the  benefit  of  his  health.  A  complete 
edition  of  his  voyages  was  published  in  1S33  (Lond. 
5  vols.).  His  hie  has  been  written  by  his  son,  the 
Rev.  Edward  Parry,  M.A.  of  Baliiol  College, 
Oxford,  1857). 

PxV'RSEES  (People  of  Pars  or  Fars,  L  e.,  ancient 
Persia)  is  the  name  of  the  small  remnant  of  the 
followers  of  the  ancient  Persian  religion,  as  reformed 
by  Zerdusht,  or  Zoroaster,  as  he  is  commonly  called. 
They  are  also  known  under  the  denomination  of 
Guebres,  under  which  head  some  account  will  be 
found  respecting  their  recent  history  and  present 
numbers.  The  pre-Zoroastrian  phase  or  phases  of 
their  primeval  religion  will  probably  for  ever  remain 
shrouded  in  deep  obscurity ;  so  much,  however,  is 
fully  established  by  recent  investigations,  that  this, 
and  what  afterwards  became  the  Brahmanic  reli- 
gion, were  originally  identical ;  that  in  consequence 
of  certain  social  and  political  conflicts  between  the 
Iranians  and  the  Aryans,  who  afterwards  peopled 
Hindustan  Proper,  an  undying  feud  arose,  in  the 
course  of  which  the  former  forswore  even  the 
hitherto  common  faith,  and  established  a  counter 
faith  (Ahura),  a  principal  dogma  of  which  was  the 
transformation  of  the  ancient,  now  hostile,  gods 
into  demons,  and  the  branding  of  the  entire  Deva 
religion  as  the  source  of  all  mischief  and  wickedness. 
Zerdusht,  the  prophet,  whose  era  is  given  very 
differently  by  ancient  writers  and  by  modern  inves- 
tigators, placed  variously  between  500  or  600  B.  c. 
(Roth)  and  1200  B.C.  (Haug),  had,  like  all  prophet* 
and  reformers,  many  predecessors,  chiefly  among 
the  Soshyantos  or  Fire-priests  (Atharvans) ;  yet  to 
him  belongs  the  decisive  act  of  separating  for  ever 
the  contending  parties,  and  of  establishing  a  new 
community  with  a  new  faith — the  Mazdayasna 
or  Parsee  religion  proper,  which  absorbed  the  old 
Ahura  religion  of  the  fire-priests.  Referring  for  a 
summary  of  what  is  known  and  speculated  about 
the  person  of  the  great  reformer  to  the  article  under 
his  name,  we  shall  here  confine  ourselves  to  pointing 
out,  as  the  characteristics  of  his  leading  doctrines, 
that  the  principle  of  his  theology  was  as  pure  a  Mono- 
theism as  ever  the  followers  of  the  Jehovistic  faith 
were  enjoined.  He  taught  the  existence  of  bub  one 
deity,  the  Ahura,  who  is  called  MazdaS  (see 
Oemuzd),  the  creator  of  all  things,  to  whom  all 
good  things,  spiritual  and  worldly,  belong.  The 
principle  of  his  speculative  philosophy  is  dualism, 
i.  e.,  the  supposition  of  two  primeval  causes  of  the 
real  and  intellectual  world ;  the  Vohu  Mand,  the 
Good  Mind  or  Reality  (Gaya),  and  the  Akem  Mand, 
or  the  Naught  Mind,  or  Non-reality  (Ajyaiti) ;  while 
the  principle  of  his  moral  philosophy  is  the  triad  of 
Thought,  Word,  and  Deed.  Not  long,  however,  did 
the  pure  idea  of  Monotheism  prevail    The  two  sides 


of  Ahura  Mazdao's  being  were  taken  to  be  two 
distinct  personages— God  and  Devil — and  they 
each  took  their  due  places  in  the  Parsee  pantheon 
in  the  course  of  time  : — chiefly  througD  the  influence 
of  the  sect  of  the  Zendiks,  or  followers  of  the  Zend, 
i.  e.,  Interpretation.  According  to  Zerdusht,  there 
are  two  intellects,  as  there  are  two  fives — one  mental 
and  one  bodily ;  and,  again,  there  must  be  distin- 
guished an  earthly  and  a,  future  life.  The  immortality 
of  souls  was  taught  long  before  the  Semites  had 
adopted  this  belief.  There  are  two  abodes  fur  the 
departed — Heaven  (Gar6-Demana,  the  House  of  the 
Angels'  Hymns,  Yazna,  xxviil  In  ;  xxxiv.  2;  cf.  Is. 
vi.,  Revelat.,  &c.)  and  Hell  (Drajo-Demaua,  the 
residence  of  devils  and  the  priests  of  the  Deva 
religion).  Between  the  two  there  is  the  Bridge  of 
the  Gatherer  or  Judge,  which  the  souls  of  the  pious 
alone  can  pass.  There  wdl  be  a  general  resurrection, 
which  is  to  precede  the  last  judgment,  to  foretell 
which  Sosiosh  (Soskyans),  the  son  of  Zerdusht, 
spiritually  begotten  (by  later  priests  divided  into 
three  persons),  will  be  sent  by  Ahuramazdao.  The 
world,  which  by  that  time  will  be  utterly  steeped 
in  wretchedness,  darkness,  and  sin,  will  then  be 
renewed ;  death,  the  archfiend  of  creation,  will  be 
slain,  and  fife  will  be  everlasting  and  holy.  These 
are  the  outlines  of  the  Zoroastrian  creed,  as  it 
flourished  up  to  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
throughout  ancient  Irania,  including  Upper  Tibet, 
Cabulistan,  Sogdiana,  Bactriana,  Media,  Persis, 
&c. ;  and  it  is  curious  to  specidate  on  the  conse- 
quences which  might  have  followed  Marathon  and 
Salamis  had  the  Persians  been  victorious.  The 
religion  of  Ormuzd  woidd  have  dethroned  the 
Otyrnpians,  as  it  dethroned  the  gods  of  the  Assyrians 
and  Babylonians;  and  it  would  certainly  have  left  its 
traces  upon  the  whole  civilised  world  unto  this  day 
in  a  much  more  direct  and  palpable  shape  than  it 
now  does.  From  the  death  of  Alexander,  however, 
it  gradually  lost  ground,  and  rapidly  declined  under 
his  successors,  until,  in  the  time  of  Alexander  Seve- 
rus,  Ardshir  'Arianos'  (cf.  Mirkhond  ap.  de  Sacy, 
Memoires  sur  div.  Aut.  de  la  Perse,  &c,  p.  59),  the 
son  of  Babegan,  called  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
Artaxerxes  or  Artaxares,  who  claimed  descent  from 
the  ancient  royal  lineage  of  Persia,  took  the  field 
against  Artabanus,  and  slew  him  (225),  thus  put- 
ting an  end  to  the  four  hundred  years'  ride  of  the 
Parthians,  and  founded  the  Sassanide  dynasty.  This 
he  effected  in  conjunction  with  the  national  Per- 
sians, who  hated  the  'semi-Greek'  dynasty  of  the 
Arsacida?,  their  leaning  to  the  foreign,  and  contempt 
for  the  Zend  religion,  and  finally  for  their  power- 
lessness  against  the  spreading  conquests  of  the 
Romans.  The  first  act  of  the  new  king  was  the 
general  and  complete  restoration  of  the  partly  lost, 
partly  forgotten  books  of  Zerdusht,  which  he 
effected,  it  is  related,  chiefly  through  the  inspi- 
ration of  a  Magian  Sage,  chosen  out  of  40,000 
Magians.  The  sacred  volumes  were  translated  out 
of  the  original  Zend  into  the  vernacular,  and  dis- 
seminated among  the  people  at  large,  and  fire 
temples  were  reared  throughout  the  length  and 
the  breadth  of  the  land.  The  Magi  or  priests  were 
all-powerful,  and  their  hatred  was  directed  prin- 
cipally against  the  Greeks.  'Far  too  long,'  wrote 
Ardshir,  the  king,  to  all  the  provinces  of  the 
Persian  empire,  '  for  more  than  five  hundred  years, 
has  the  poison  of  Aristotle  spread.'  The  fanaticism 
of  the  priests  often  also  found  vent  against  Chris- 
tians and  Jews.  The  latter  have  left  us  some  account 
of  the  tyranny  and  oppression  to  which  they  as 
unbelievers  were  exposed— such  as  the  piohibition 
of  fire  and  light  in  their  houses  on  Persian  fast- 
days,  of  the  slaughter  of  animals,  the  baths  of 
purification,  and  the  burial  of  the  dead  according 

299 


PARSEES. 


to  the  Jewish  rites — prohibitions  only  to  be  bought 
off  by  heavy  bribes.  In  return,  the  Magi  were 
cordially  hated  by  the  Jews,  and  remain  branded  in 
their  writings  by  the  title  of  demons  of  hell 
(Kidushin,  12  a.).  To  accept  the  instruction  of  a 
Magian  is  pronounced  by  a  Jewish  sage  to  be  an 
offence  worthy  of  death  (Shabb,  75  a.;  156  b.). 
This  mutual  animosity  does  not,  however,  appear  to 
have  long  continued,  since  in  subsequent  times  we 
frequently  find  Jewish  sages  (Samuel  the  Arian,  &c.) 
on  terms  of  friendship  and  confidence  with  the  later 
Sassanide  kings  (cf.  Moed  Katan,  26  a.  &c).  From 
the  period  of  its  re-establishment,  the  Zoroastrian 
religion  flourished  uninterruptedly  for  about  401) 
years,  till,  in  651  A.  D.,  at  the  great  battle  of 
Kahavand  (near  Ecbatana),  the  Persian  army, 
under  Yezdezird,  was  routed  by  the  Calif  Omar. 
The  subsequent  fate  of  those  that  remained  faithful 
to  the  creed  of  their  fathers  has  been  described,  as 
we  said  before,  under  Guebres.  At  present,  some 
remnants  inhabit  Yezd  and  Kirman,  on  the  ancient 
soil  of  their  race  ;  others,  who  preferred  emigration 
to  the  endless  tribulations  inflicted  upon  them  by 
the  conquering  race,  found  a  resting-place  along  the 
western  coast  of  India,  chiefly  at  Bombay,  Surat, 
Nawsari,  Achmedabad,  and  the  vicinity,  where 
they  now  live  under  English  rule,  and  are  recog- 
nised as  one  'of  the  most  respectable  and  thriving 
sections  of  the  community,  being  for  the  most  part 
merchants  and  landed  proprietors.  They  bear, 
equally  with  their  poorer  brethren  in  Pei'sia,  with 
whom  they  have  of  late  renewed  some  slight  inter- 
course for  religious  and  other  purposes  — such  as 
their  Rivayets  or  correspondences  on  important  and 
obscure  doctrinal  points— the  very  highest  charac- 
ter for  honesty,  industry,  and  peacefulness,  while 
their  benevolence,  iutelligence,  and  magnificence 
outvies  that  of  most  of  their  European  fellow- 
subjects.  Their  general  appearance  is  to  a  certain 
degree  prepossessing,  and  many  of  their  women 
are  strikingly  beautiful.  In  all  civil  matters  they 
are  subject  to  the  laws  of  the  coimtry  they 
inhabit ;  and  its  language  is  also  theirs,  except  in 
the  ritual  of  their  religion,  when  the  holy  language 
of  Zend  is  iised  by  the  priests,  who,  as  a  rule,  have 
no  more  knowledge  of  it  than  the  laity. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  leading  fundamental  doc- 
trines as  laid  down  by  their  prophet.  Respecting  the 
practical  side  of  their  religion,  we  cannot  here  enter 
into  a  detailed  description  of  their  very  copious 
rituals,  which  have  partly  found  their  way  into  other 
creeds.  Suffice  it  to  mention  the  following  few 
points.  They  do  not  eat  anything  cooked  by  a 
person  of  another  religion ;  they  also  object  to  beef, 
pork,  especially  to  ham.  Marriages  can  only  be 
contracted  with  persons  of  their  own  caste  and  creed. 
Polygamy,  except  after  nine  years  of  sterility  and 
divorce,  is  forbidden.  Fornication  and  adultery 
are  punishable  with  death.  Their  dead  are  not 
buried,  but  exposed  on  an  iron  grating  in  the 
Dokhma,  or  Tower  of  Silence,  to  the  fowls  of  the 
air,  to  the  dew,  and  to  the  sun,  until  the  flesh  has 
disappeared,  and  the  bleaching  bones  fall  through 
into  a  pit  beneath,  from  which  they  are  afterwards 
removed  to  a  subterranean  cavern. 

Ahuramazdao  being  the  origin  of  light,  his 
symbol  is  the  sun,  with  the  moon  and  the  planets, 
and  in  default  of  them  the  fire,  and  the  believer  is 
enjoined  to  face  a  luminous  object  during  his 
prayers.  Hence,  also,  the  temples  and  altars 
must  for  ever  be  fed  with  the  holy  fire,  brought 
uown,  according  to  tradition,  from  heaven,  and  the 
sullying  of  whose  flame  is  punishable  with  death 
The  priests  themselves  approach  it  only  with  a 
half-mask  (Peuom)  over  the  face,  lest  their  breath 
should  defile  it,  and  never  touch  it  with  their 
800 


hands,  but  with  holy  instruments.  The  fires  are 
of  five  kinds ;  but  however  groat  the  awe  felt  by 
Parsees  with  respect  to  fire  and  light  (they  are  the 
only  eastern  nation  who  abstain  from  smoking), 
yet  they  never  consider  these,  as  we  said  before, 
as  anything  but  emblems  of  Divinity.  There  are 
also  five  kinds  of  '  Sacrifice,'  which  term,  however, 
is  rather  to  be  understood  in  the  sense  of  a  sacred 
action.  These  are — the  slaughtering  of  animals  for 
public  or  private  solemnities ;  prayer ;  the  Daruna 
sacrament,  which,  with  its  consecrated  bread  and 
wine  in  honour  of  the  primeval  founder  of  the  law 
Horn  or  Heomoh  (the  Sanscr.  Soma),  and  Dalman, 
the  personified  blessing,  bears  a  striking  outward 
resemblance  to  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper; 
the  sacrifice  of  Expiation,  consisting  either  in  fla- 
gellation, or  in  gifts  to  the  priest ;  and,  lastly,  the 
sacrifice  for  the  souls  of  the  dead.  The  purification 
of  physical  and  moral  impurities  is  effected,  in  the 
first  place,  by  cleansing  with  holy  water  (Nirang), 
earth,  &c. ;  next,  by  prayers  (of  which  sixteen,  at 
least,  are  to  be  recited  every  day)  and  the  recitation 
of  the  divine  word  ;  but  other  self-castigations, 
fasting,  celibacy,  &c,  are  considered  hateful  to  the 
Divinity.  The  ethical  code  may  be  summed  up  in 
the  three  words — purity  of  thought,  of  word,  and 
of  deed  :  a  religion  '  that  is  for  all,  and  not  for  any 
particular  nation,'  as  the  Zoroastrian  s  say.  It 
need  hardly  be  added,  that  superstitions  of  all 
kinds  have,  in  the  course  of  the  tribulations  of 
ages,  and  the  intimacy  with  neighbouring  countries, 
greatly  defiled  the  original  purity  of  this  creed,  and 
that  its  forms  now  vary  much  among  the  different 
communities  of  the  present  time. 

Something  like  a  very  serious  schism,  however, 
has  lately  broken  out  in  the  Parsee  commun- 
ities, and  the  modern  terms  of  Conservative  and 
Liberal,  or  rather  bigot  and  infidel,  are  almost  as 
freely  used  with  them  as  in  Europe.  The  sum 
and  -substance  of  these  innovations,  stoutly  advo- 
cated by  one  side,  and  as  stoutly  resisted  by  the 
other,  is  the  desire  to  abolish  the  purification  by 
the  Nirang — a  filthy  substance  iu  itself — to  reduce 
the  large  number  of  obligatory  prayers,  to  stop 
early  betrothal  and  marriage,  to  suppress  the  extra- 
vagance in  funerals  and  weddings,  to  educate 
women,  and  to  admit  them  into  society.  Two 
counter  alliances  or  societies,  the  '  Guides  of  the 
Worshippers  of  God'  and  'the  True  Guides'  respec- 
tively, are  trying  to  carry  out  at  this  moment,  by 
means  of  meetings,  speeches,  tracts,  &c,  the  objects 
of  their  different  parties. 

The  literature  of  the  Parsees  will  be  found  noticed 
under  Persian  Language  and  Literature,  and 
Zend-Avesta.  Besides  the  latter,  which  is  written 
in  ancient  Zend,  and  its  Gujarati  translation 
and  commentaries,  there  are  to  be  mentioned,  as 
works  specially  treating  of  religious  matters,  the 
Zardusht-Nameh,  or  Legendary  History  of  Zer- 
dusht ;  the  Sadder,  or  Summary  of  Parsee  Doc- 
trines ;  the  Dabistan,  or  School  of  Manners ;  the 
Desatir,  or  Sacred  Writings,  &c.  All  these  have 
been  translated  into  English  and  other  European 
languages. 

On  the  influence  Parsism  has  had  upon  Judaism 
and  its  later  doctrines  and  ceremonial,  and,  through 
it,  upon  Christianity  and  Mohammedanism— which 
besides  drew  from  it  directly — we  cannot  dwell  here 
at  any  length.  So  much,  however,  may  be  stated, 
that  the  most  cursory  reading  of  the  sacred  Parsee 
books  will  shew,  in  a  variety  of  points,  their  direct 
influence  upon  the  three  Semitic  creeds.  Of  works 
treating  on  the  subject  of  this  article,  we  mention 
principally,  Hyde,  Vet.  Rel.  Pers.  Hist.  (Oxon.  1760, 
4to) ;  Ousel y,  Travels  in  the  East  (Lond.  1819) ; 
Anquetil   du    Perron,   Exposition    dea    Usages    de» 


rARSLEY-rARSOXSToWN-. 


Parses;  Rhode,  Dusheil  btrier,  Meier 

u.  Perser,  fcc.  (Frank.-a-M.,  1820,  8vo)j  Dosabhoy 
Framjee,  The  Partus,  ftc.  (Lond  I858J;  Dadabhai 
Naoroji,  The  Manners  and  Customs  ofihtPa 
ami  The  Parsee  Religion  (Liverpool,  1861,  8vo) ;  and 
lastly,  Hang's  Essays  on  the  Parsee  Religion  (Bom- 
bay,  1862),  and  Spiegel's  Er&n  (BerL  1803). 

PARSLEY  [Petroselinum),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the   natural    order    Uml  The   species   are 

annual  or.  biennial,  branching,  smooth,  herbaceous 
plants,  with  variously  pinnated  leaves. — Common 
P.  (P.  sativum),  which  has  tripinnate  shining  leaves, 
one  of  our  best  known  culinary  plants,  is  a  native 
of  the  south  of  Europe,  growing  chiefly  on  rocks 
and  old  walls,  and  naturalised  in  some  parts  cf 
England.  The  cultivation  of  P.  is  extremely  simple, 
and  an  annual  sowing  is  generally  made,  although 
when  cut  over  and  prevented  from  flowering,  the 

{tlant  lives  for  several  years.  A  variety  with  curled 
eaflets  is  generally  preferred  to  the  common  kind 
with  plain  leaflets,  as  liner  and  more  beautiful, 
being  often  used  as  a  garnish ;  it  is  also  safer,  as 
the  poisonous  Fool's  P.  (q.  v.)  is  sometimes  gathered 
by  mistake  instead  of  the  other. — Hamburg  P. 
is  a  variety  with  a  large  white  carrot-like  root, 
cultivated  for  the  sake  of  its  root,  and  much  in  the 
same  way  as  the  carrot  or  parsnip.  To  produce 
large  roots  and  of  delicate  flavour,  a  very  rich  soil 
is  required.  The  foliage  of  P.  is  not  merely  of  use 
for  flavouring  soups,  &c,  but  is  nutritious,  at  the 
game  time  that  it  is  stimulating,  a  quality  which  it 
seems  to  derive  from  an  essential  oil  present  in 
every  part  of  the  plant.  P.  contains  also  a  peculiar 
gelatinous  substance  called  Apiine.  The  bruised 
leaves  of  P.  are  sometimes  employed  as  a  stimulating 
poultice.  The  seeds  are  a  deadly  poison  to  many 
birds,  and  when  powdered,  they  are  sometimes  used 
for  killing  lice. 

PA'RSNTP  (Pastinaca),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Umbelliferce,  having  compound  umbels 
with  neither  general  nor  partial  involucres  ;  yellow 
flowers  with  roundish,  involute,  sharp-pointed 
petals  ;.  calyx  almost  without  teeth  ;  fruit  dorsally 
compressed  and  flat,  with  a  broad  border,  the  ridges 
very  flue.  The  species  are  annual,  biennial,  or 
perennial  herbaceous  plants,  with  carrot-like,  often 
fleshy  roots,  and  pinnate  leaves. — The  Common  P. 
(P.  sativa)  is  a  native  of  England,  although  not  of 
Scotland,  and  is  abundant  in  some  districts,  particu- 
larly in  chalky  and  gravelly  sods.  It  is  also  found 
in  many  parts  of  Europe,  and  of  the  north  of  Asia. 
It  is  a  biennial,  with  angular  furrowed  stem,  2 — 3 
feet  high,  pinnate  leaves  with  ovate  leaflets,  rather 
shining,  cut  and  serrated,  and  a  three-lobed  terminal 
leaflet.  The  root  of  the  wild  plant  is  white, 
aromatic,  mucilaginous,  sweet,  but  with  some 
acridness;  and  injurious  effects  have  followed  from 
its  use.  Cultivation  has  greatly  modified  the 
qualities  both  of  the  root  and  foliage,  rendering 
them  much  more  bland.  The  P.  has  long  been 
cultivated  for  the  sake  of  its  root,  which  in  culti- 
vation has  greatly  increased  in  size,  and  become 
Bore  flashy.  The  flavour  is  disliked  by  some,  as 
Well  as  the  too  great  sweetness,  but  highly  relished 
by  others  ;  and  the  root  of  the  P.  is  more  nutritious 
than  that  of  the  carrot.  The  produce  is  also,  on 
many  soils,  of  larger  quantity ;  and  although  the 
P.  delights  in  a  very  open  rich  soil,  it  wrill  succeed 
in.  clayey  soils  far  too  stiff  for  the  carrot.  It  is 
rather  remarkable  that  it  has  not  been  extensively 
cultivated  as  a  field-crop,  and  for  the  feeding  of 
cattle,  except  in  the  Channel  Islands  and  in 
Umited  districts  of  continental  Europe  ;  more 
particularly  as  cattle  are  very  fond  of  it,  and  not 
only  the  flesh  of  cattle  fed  on  it  is  of  excellent 
quality,  but  the  butter  of  dairy-cows  fed  on  parsnips 


in  winter  is  far  superior  to  that  produced  by  almost, 
any  other  kind  of  winter-feeding.  The  mode  of 
cultivation  of  the  P.  ircely  differs  from  that  of 
the  carrot.    Th(  eral  varieties  in  cultivation 

A  very  large  variety,  cultivated  iu  the  Channel 
Islands  on  deep  sandy  soils,  has  roots  sometimes 
three  or  four  feet  lorn,' ;  but  this  is  fully  twice  the 
ordinary  length,  and  there  is  a  smaller  turnip 
variety  sometimes  cultivated  in  gardens  wnere  the 
soil  is  very  shallow.  The  P.  is  used  chiefly  in 
winter,  whether  for  the  table  or  for  feeding  cattle. 
It  is  improved  rather  than  injured  by  frost ;  but  is 
apt  to  become  rutty,  if  allowed  to  remain  too 
long  in  the  ground ;  and  exhibits  acrid  qualities 
after  it  has  begun  to  grow  again  in  spring.  The 
root  of  the  P.  is  much  used  in  the  north  of  Ireland 
for  making  a  fermented  liquor,  with  yeast  and  hops ; 
and  both  in  England  and  Ireland,  for  making  P. 
wine,  which  has  some  resemblance  to  Malmsey 
wine, — Another  species,  the  Cut-leaved  P.  or 
Sekakul  (P.  &kakul),  having  pinnatirid  cut  leaflets, 
a  native  of  India,  Syria,  and  Egypt,  is  cultivated  in 
the  Levant,  and  is  very  similar  in  its  uses  to  the 
common  parsnip. 

PARSON,  in  English  Ecclesiastical  Law,  means 
the  incumbent  of  a  benefice  in  a  parish.  He  is  called 
parson  (Lat.  persona)  because  he  represents  the 
church  for  several  purposes.  He  requires  to  be  a 
member  of  the  Established  Church  of  England,  and 
to  be  duly  admitted  to  holy  orders,  presented, 
instituted,  and  inducted  ;  and  requires  to  be  23 
years  of  age.  When  he  is  inducted,  and  not  before, 
he  is  said  to  be  in  full  and  complete  possession  of 
the  incumbency.  The  theory  is,  that  the  freehold 
of  the  parish  church  is  vested  in  him,  and  as  the 
legal  owner,  he  has  various  rights  of  control  over  the 
chanceL  He  is  also  the  owner  of  the  churchyard, 
and  as  such  is  entitled  to  the  grass.  As  owner  of 
the  body  of  the  church,  he  has  a  right  to  control  of 
the  church  bells,  and  is  entitled  to  prevent  the 
churchwardens  from  ringing  them  against  his  wilL 
The  distinction  between  a  parson  and  vicar  is,  that 
the  parson  has  generally  the  whole  right  to  the 
ecclesiastical  dues  in  the  parish,  whereas  the  vicar 
has  an  appropriator  over  him,  who  is  the  real  owner 
of  the  dues  and  tithes,  and  the  vicar  has  only  an 
inferior  portion.  The  duty  of  the  parson  is  to 
perform  divine  service  in  the  parish  church  under 
the  control  of  the  bishop,  to  administer  the  sacra- 
ments to  parishioners,  to  read  the  burial-service  on 
request  of  the  parishioners,  to  marry  them  in  the 
parish  church  when  they  tender  themselves.  He  is 
bound  to  reside  in  the  parish,  and  is  subject  to 
penalties  and  forfeiture,  if  he  without  cause  absent 
himself  from  the  parish.  He  is  subject  *o  the  Clergy 
Discipline  Act,  in  case  of  misconduct. 

PAR'SONSTOWN  (anciently  called  Blrr),  a 
considerable  inland  town  on  the  river  Brosna,  in 
King's  County,  Ireland,  69  miles  west-south- 
west from  Dublin,  with  which  city  it  is  connected 
by  a  branch-line  issuing  from  the  Great  Southern 
and  Western  Railway  at  Ballyhrophy.  Pop.  in 
1871,  4939  ;  of  whom  4049  were  Roman  Catholics, 
725  Protestants  of  Established  Church,  and  the  rest 
Protestants  of  other  denominations.  Birr  had  its 
origin  at  an  early  period  in  a  monastery  founded  by 
St  Brendan,  and  was  the  scene  of  many  important 
events,  both  in  the  Irish  and  in  the  post-Invasion 
periods.  The  castle,  which  was  anciently  the  seat 
of  the  O'Carrols,  was  granted  by  Henry  II.  to 
Philip  de  Worcester;  but  it  frequently  changed 
masters,  and  even  alternated  between  English  and 
Irish  hands.  By  James  I.  it  was  granted  to  Law- 
rence Parsons,  ancestor  of  the  present  proprietor, 
the  Earl  of  Rosse ;  but  through  the  entire  period  oi 

301 


pArswanatha— participle. 


the  civil  wars,  its  possession  was  constantly  disputed, 
until  after  1690,  when  the  Parsons  family  was  finally 
established  in  possession  of  the  castle  and  adjoin- 
ing lands.  About  this  time,  Birr  returned  two 
members  to  parliament,  but  the  privilege  was  a 
temporary  one.  The  castle  has  been  rebuilt.  The 
modern  P.  is  one  of  the  handsomest  and  best  built 
and  appointed  inland  towns  in  Ireland,  with  two 
handsome  churches,  and  several  meeting-houses,  a 
nunnery,  a  handsome  pillar  with  a  statue  of  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland,  a  town-hall,  a  library,  literary 
institute,  a  model  and  other  schools.  But  the 
great  attractions  of  P.  are  the  castle,  the  observatory, 
and  the  laboratory  of  the  Earl  of  Rosse  (q.  v.).  P. 
is  an  important  corn-market,  a  considerable  centre 
of  inland  commerce ;  but  with  the  exception  of  a 
distillery  and  brewery,  it  is  almost  entirely  without 
manufactures.  It  is  a  large  military  station,  and  is 
also  the  seat  of  a  Union  workhouse. 

PARSWANATHA,  the  twenty-third  of  the 
deified  saints  of  the  Jainas,  in  the  present  era.  He 
and  Mahavira,  the  twenty- fourth,  are  held  in  highest 
esteem,  especially  in  Hindustan.  In  a  suburb  of 
Benares,  called  Belupura,  there  is  a  temple  honoured 
as  the  birthplace  of  Pars'wanatha.     See  Jainas. 

PART,  in  Music.  When  a  piece  of  music  consists 
of  several  series  of  sounds  performed  simultaneously, 
each  series  is  called  a  part. 

PARTERRE,  in  gardens  laid  out  in  the  old 
French  style,  the  open  part  in  front  of  the  house, 
in  which  flower-beds  and  closely-cut  lawn  were 
intermingled  according  to  a  regular  plan. 

PA'RTHENOGE'NESIS  (from  iheGr.parthenos, 
a  virgin,  and  genesis,  the  act  of  production)  is  a  term 
invented  by  Professor  Owen  to  indicate  propagation 
by  self-splitting  or  self-dividing,  by  budding  from 
without  or  within,  and  by  any  mode  save  by  the  act 
of  impregnation ;  the  parthenogenetic  individuals 
being  sexless  or  virgin  females.  See  the  article 
Generations,  Alternation  of.  For  many  remark- 
able facts  in  relation  to  parthenogenesis  in  insects, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Professor  Owen's  eighteenth 
lecture,  On  the  Comparative  Anatomy  and  Physiology 
of  Invertebrate  Animals ;  and  to  Siebold,  On 
Parthenogenesis,  translated  by  Dallas. 

PA'RTHENON,  the  temple  of  Minerva  at 
Athens ;  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Greek 
temples,  and  usually  regarded  as  the  most  perfect 
specimen  of  Greek  architecture.  Many  of  the 
sculptures  have  been  brought  to  England,  and  are 
now  in  the  British  Museum.  See  Grecian  Archi- 
tecture. 

PARTHENOPE AN  REPUBLIC  (from  Parth- 
enope,  the  oldest  name  of  the  city  of  Naples)  was 
the  name  given  to  the  state  into  which  the  kingdom 
of  Naples  was  transformed  by  the  French  Republi- 
cans, 23d  January  1799,  and  which  only  lasted  till 
the  following  June,  when  the  invading  army  was 
forced  to  retreat. 

PATtTHIA,  anciently  a  country  of  Western  Asia, 
lying  at  the  south-east  end  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
from  which  it  was  separated  by  a  narrow  strip,  known 
as  Hyrcania,  now  forms  the  northern  portion  of  the 
province  of  Khorassan,  and  is  an  almost  wholly 
mountainous  region.  Its  rivers  are  merely  mountain 
torrents,  which  are  supplied  by  the  melting  snow  on 
the  Elburz  range  during  winter  and  spring,  but  are 
mostly  dry  in  summer  and  autumn. 

The  original  inhabitants  are  believed  to  have  been 
of  Scythian  race,  as  shewn  by  their  language  as  well 
as  by  their  manners,  and  to  belong  to  the  great 
Indo-Germanic  family.  If  this  be  the  case,  as  is 
veiy  probable,  the  term  Parthian,  from  its  analogy 
802 


to  the  Scythian  word  parlhe,  banished,  seems  to 
indicate  that  they  were  a  tribe  who  had  been  driven 
to  P.  out  of  Scythia  (i.  e.,  Central  Asia).  The 
Parthians,  during  the  time  of  the  Roman  Republic, 
were  distinguished  by  primitive  simplicity  of  life 
and  extreme  bravery,  though  at  the  same  time  much 
given  to  bacchanalian  and  voluptuous  pleasures. 
They  neglected  agriculture  and  commerce,  devoting 
their  whole  time  to  predatory  expeditions  and 
warfare.  They  fought  on  horseback,  and  after  a 
peculiar  fashion.  Being  armed  solely  with  bows 
and  arrows,  they  were  rendered  defenceless  after  the 
first  discharge ;  and,  to  gain  time  for  adjusting 
a  second  arrow  to  the  bow,  turned  their  horses,  ana 
retired,  as  if  in  full  flight,  but  an  enemy  incautiously 
pursuing,  was  immediately  assailed  by  a  second 
flight  of  arrows  ;  a  second  pretended  flight  followed, 
and  the  conflict  was  thus  carried  on  till  the  Parthi- 
ans gained  the  victory,  or  exhausted  their  quivers. 
They  generally  discharged  their  arrows  backwards, 
holding  the  bow  behind  the  shoulder;  a  mode  of 
attack  more  dangerous  to  a  pursuing  enemy 
than  to  one  in  order  of  battle.  The  Parthians 
first  appear  in  history  as  subject  to  the  great 
Persian  Empire.  After  the  death  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  P.  formed  part  of  the  Syrian  kingdom, 
but  revolted  under  Autiochus  II.,  and  constituted 
itself  into  an  independent  kingdom  under  the 
Arsacidce  (see  Arsaces),  250  B.C.,  a  race  of  kings  who 
exercised  the  most  completely  despotic  authority 
ever  known,  treating  their  subjects  as  if  the  vilest 
of  slaves;  yet  so  accustomed  did  the  Parthians 
become  to  this  odious  rule,  that  some  of  the  later 
monarchs,  who  had  received  a  Roman  education, 
and  after  their  accession  treated  their  subjects  with 
ordinary  justice  and  humanity,  were  completely 
despised.  The  capital  of  the  Parthian  monarchy 
was  Hecatompylos  ('  the  city  of  the  hundred  gates  '), 
now  Damgan.  The  Parthian  dominion  rapidly  ex- 
tended to  the  Euphrates  on  the  west  and  the  Indus 
on  the  east,  and  became  a  most  powerfid  and 
flourishing  empire ;  Seleucia,  Ctesiphon — the  capital 
of  the  Persian  emperors  of  the  Sassanidaa — and  other 
celebrated  cities  date  their  rise  from  this  period, 
and  soon  eclipsed,  in  size  and  splendour,  the  ancient 
Hecatompylos.  In  spite  of  repeated  attacks  on  the 
part  of  the  Romans,  the  Parthians  maintained  their 
independence  (see  Crassus,  Surena)  ;  and  though 
Trajan,  in  115 — 116  A.  D.,  seized  certain  portions  of 
the  country,  the  Romans  were  soon  compelled  to 
abandon  them.  In  214  A.D.,  during  the  reign  of 
Artabanus  IV.,  the  last  of  the  Arsacidse,  a  revolt, 
headed  by  Ardshir,  son  of  Babegan,  broke  out  in 
Persia,  and  the  Parthian  monarch,  beaten  in  three 
engagements,  lost  his  throne  and  life,  whfle  the 
victor  substituted  the  Persian  dynasty  of  the  Sas- 
sanid^;  (q.  v.)  for  that  of  the  Arsacidae.  Some  " 
scions  of  the  Parthian  royal  family  continued  for 
several  centuries  to  rule  over  the  mountainous  dis- 
trict of  Armenia,  under  the  protection  of  the 
Romans,  and  made  frequent  descents  upon  Assyria 
and  Babylonia  ;  but  their  history  is  obscure  and  of 
little  importance. 

PARTIAL  LOSS,  in  the  law  of  Marine  Insur- 
ance,  is  a  loss  which  is  not  total ;  and  therefore  the 
insurer  is  not  entitled  to  abandon  or  give  up  the 
remains  of  the  ship  or  cargo,  and  claim  the  entire 
insurance  money  ;  but  he  is  bound  to  keep  his  ship 
or  goods,  and  claim  only  in  proportion  to  his  actual 
loss  or  damage. 

PA'RTICIPLE  (Lat.  participi?im,  part-taking), 
the  name  of  a  class  of  words  which  have  the  mean- 
ing of  a  verb  with  the  form  of  an  adjective.  The 
name  is  said  to  have  been  given  from  their  partaking 
of   the  nature  both  of  a  verb  and  of   an  adjective. 


PARTICK— PARTNERSHIP. 


Some  grammarians  make  the  participle  a  distinct 
part  of  speech,  but  it  is  more  commonly  classed  as  a 
part  df  the  conjugation  of  the  verb.  There  are  in 
English  two  participles,  one  in  ing,  usually  called 
the  present,  but  properly  the  imperfect,  because  it 
expresses  continued,  unhnished  action,  e.g.,  lotting, 
writing;  and  the  other  expressing  past  action,  and 
ending  either  in  ed  (t)  or  in  en,  e.  g.,  loved,  written. 
In  Ang.-Sax.  and  Old  Eng.,  the  imperfect  parti- 
ciple ended  in  and,  e.  g.,  haband  (having),  corre- 
sponding to  the  modern  Ger.  habend,  Gr.  echont(os), 
Lat.  ha£enl{\B).  In  the  sentence,  'He  is  writing  a 
letter,'  writing  is  the  imperfect  participle  ;  in  'the 
writing  of  the  letter  occupies  him,'  or  'writing  is 
a  diflieult  art,'  it  is  a  substantive,  and  had  a  different 
origin.  In  the  latter  case,  -ing  corresponds  to  the 
Ang.-Sax.  termination  -ung,  xised  in  forming  sub- 
stantives from  a  large  class  of  verbs;  thus,  Ang.-Sax. 
hatgung  (hallowing)  is  equivalent  in  meaning  and 
in  etymology  to  Lat.  consecratio  ;  similarly,  modern 
Ger.  Vernkhlung,  annihilation,  from  twrnichten,  to 
annihilate.  Such  a  phrase  as,  '  while  the  letter  is 
writing,'  seems  to  be  a  shortened  form  of  the  now 
antiquated,  '  is  a- writing,'  which  was  originally, 
•is  in  writing.'  Although  this  mode  of  expression 
is  liable  in  some  cases  to  ambiguity,  it  is  terser  and 
more  idiomatic  than  the  circumlocution  of,  'is  being 
written,'  which  is  often  substituted  for  it.  The 
verbal  substantive  in  -ing  is  often  exactly  equivalent 
to  the  infinitive ;  thus,  '  standing  long  in  one 
position  is  painful '  =  ' to  stand,'  &c.  It  has  this 
advantage,  that  whde  it  can  be  construed  as  a  noun 
(e.  g.,  with  a  possessive  case),  it  can  retain  at  the 
same  time  the  usual  adjuncts  of  a  verb  ;  as,  'What 
are  we  to  infer  from  the  king's  dismissing  his 
minister?'  The  use  of  this  form  contributes  not  a 
little  to  the  pecidiar  brevity  and  strength  of  the 
English  language. 

PA'RTICK,  a  town  of  Scotland,  in  the  county 
of  Lanark,  prettily  situated,  chiefly  on  a  rising  ground 
on  the  Kelvin,  immediately  above  its  junction  with 
the  Clyde,  and  about  three  miles  west-north-west 
of  the  Cross  of  Glasgow,  of  which  city  it  now  forms 
a  suburb.  Nine-tenths  of  the  workmen  of  P.  are 
engaged  in  ship-building,  and  there  are  numerous 
ship-budding  yards,  flour-mills,  cotton  factories,  and 
bleach-fields.  A  large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants 
are  engaged  in  business  in  Glasgow,  and  for  their 
accommodation  extensive  ranges  of  handsome  villas 
have  been  built  here.  Pop.  1851,  3131 ;  1861,  8183; 
1871,  17,691. 

PARTTNICO,  Sala  di,  a  post-town  of  Sicily,  in 
the  province  of  Palermo,  and  19  miles  south-west  of 
the  city  of  that  name,  at  the  foot  of  a  grand  preci- 
pice of  red  limestone.  The  plain  in  the  vicinity  is 
of  surpassing  fertility ;  corn,  wine,  oil,  fruit,  and 
sumach  are  produced  in  rich  abundance  ;  and  linen 
and  woollen  goods  are  manufactured.  Pop.  15,658. 
Scattered  vestiges  of  ancient  habitations  are  still  to 
be  seen  on  the  summit  of  the  height  above  the 
town,  and  are  said  to  be  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
Partkenicum  mentioned  in  the  Itinerary  of  Anton- 
inus and  there  only. 

PA'RTISAN  is  a  name  for  a  halberd  or  pike,  or 
for  a  marshal's  baton.  The  name  is  also  given  to 
the  leader  of  a  detached  body  of  light  troops,  who 
make  war  by  harassing  the  enemy,  rather  than 
coming  to  direct  fighting,  by  cutting  off  stragglers, 
interrupting  his  supplies,  and  confusing  him  by 
rapid  strategy.  The  action  of  such  a  corps  is 
known  as  Partisan  warfare.. 

PARTITION,  a  thin  interior  wall  dividing  one 
apartment  from  another.  It  is  usually  of  brick- 
work, 44  or  9  inches  thick,  or  of  timber  with 
standards  about  4£  inches  thick  covered  with  lath 


and  plaster.  Wooden  partitions  are  used  when 
there  is  no  sufficient  support  for  brick.  When  these 
have  to  carry  joists  or  any  other  weight,  they  ought 
to  be  constructed  in  the  form  of  a  truss  (q.  v.). 

PARTITION,  or  PAUT1TURA,  in  Music.  See 
Score. 

PARTITION  LINES,  in  Heraldry,  lines 
dividing  the  shield  in  directions  corresponding  to 
the  ordinaries.  According  to  the  direction  of  the 
partition  lines,  a  shield  is  said  to  be  party  or  parted 
per  fess,  per  pale,  per  bend,  per  cheveron,  per  salfcre  j 


Partition  Lines  in  Heraldry. 

a  shield  divided  by  lines  in  the  direction  of  a  cross, 
is  said  to  be  quartered  ;  and  a  shield  parted  at 
once  per  cross  and  per  saltire,  is  said  to  Gironne 
(q.  v.)  of  eight.  The  partition  lines  are  not  always 
plain;  they  may  be  engrailed,  invected,  embattled, 
wavy,  nebuly,  indented,  dancette  or  raguly — forms 
which  will  be  found  explained  under  separate 
articles. 

PA'RTNERSHIP,  in  the  law  of  England,  is  the 
union  of  two  or  more  individuals  acting  under  a 
contract,  whereby  they  mutually  contribute  their 
property  or  labour  for  the  purpose  of  making  profits 
jointly.  When  a  partnership  is  confined  to  a 
particular  transaction  or  speculation,  it  is  usually 
called  a  joint-adventure,  and  the  parties  are  joint- 
adventurers.  The  usual  criterion  by  which  a  partner- 
ship is  ascertained  to  exist,  as  distinguished  from 
other  arrangements,  is  that  there  is  a  community 
of  profit ;  it  is  not  essential  that  both  should  suffer 
losses  equally  or  proportionably,  for  one  partner 
may  stipulate  that  he  shall  not  be  liable  to  loss. 
This  stipulation  is  binding  between  the  partners, 
but  of  course  is  insufficient  to  prevent  the  partners 
from  being  all  liable  to  third  parties.  So  one  part- 
ner may  contribute  all  the  capital  or  all  the  labour. 
A  dormant  partner  is  one  whose  name  do^s  not 
generally  appear  to  the  world  as  a  partner,  but  who 
nevertheless  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  partner, 
with  equal  rights  and  liabilities  to  the  rest.  In 
order  to  constitute  that  kind  of  community  of  profit 
which  is  the  chief  ingredient  in  a  partnership,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  partner  share  in  the  profits  as  a 
partner ;  for  in  many  cases,  clerks,  servants,  or 
agents  receive  a  commission  or  remuneration  pro- 
portioned to  profits,  and  yet  are  not  partners,  for 
this  is  merely  one  mode  of  ascertaining  the  salary 
which  they  are  to  receive.  In  all  such  cases,  there- 
fore, the  distinction  as  to  whether  there  is  a  partner- 
ship or  not  turns  on  the  consideration  whether  the 
alleged  partner  receives  a  share  of  the  profits,  as 
such,  or  merely  receives  a  salary  proportioned  to 
profits,  without  having  a  specific  interest  in  the  firm. 
The  contract  of  partnership  may  be  entered  into 
either  by  word  of  mouth  or  in  writing.  If  no 
specified  term  be  agreed  upon,  it  is  a  partnership  at 
will,  and  may  be  dissolved  by  either  of  the  parties 
at  pleasure.  Sometimes,  also,  the  Court  of  Chancery 
will  interfere  to  dissolve  the  partnership  before  the 

303 


PARTNERSHIP— PARTRIDGE. 


time  appointed ;  but  thi3  only  happens  when  some 
unforeseen  and  urgent  reason  exists,  as  that  one 
of  the  partners  has  become  a  lunatic,  or  has  proved 
grossly  dishonest,  or  the  object  of  the  partnership 
cannot  be  carried  out.  Mere  differences  of  opinion 
on  minor  matters  are  no  ground  for  seeking  a 
dissolution.  The  partners  may  make  any  kind  of 
arrangement  between  themselves  that  they  think 

{>roper ;  but  if  these  are  unusual  and  special  stipu- 
ations,  there  is  no  certainty  of  securing  the  same 
being  adhered  to,  without  a  formal  deed  or  indenture 
of  partnership  being  executed.  Thus,  it  is  common  to 
stipulate  as  to  the  capital  each  is  to  contribute,  and 
as  to  the  proportion  of  profits  he  is  to  receive,  as  to 
what  is  to  be  done  in  case  of  the  death  of  a  partner, 
&c.  Unless  a  stipulation  is  made  to  the  contrary, 
the  rule  is,  that  the  death  of  one  of  the  partners 
dissolves  the  partnership.  So  does  his  bankruptcy. 
It  is  also  a  rule  that  no  new  partner  can  be  intro- 
duced without  the  consent  of  the  rest.  There  is 
also  a  peculiarity  in  the  law  of  England  as  to  the 
form  of  remedy — the  rule  being,  that  partners  cannot 
sue  each  other  in  a  court  of  law  in  respect  of 
partnership  transactions,  but  the  only  remedy  is  by 
a  bill  in  Chancery.  As  against  third  parties,  what- 
ever may  be  the  secret  arrangements  between 
themselves,  the  rule  is,  that  any  partner  can  bind 
the  firm  in  all  matters  which  are  within  the  scope 
of  the  partnership,  each  being  by  the  nature  of  the 
contract  made  the  agent  of  all  the  rest  for  business 
purposes.  Thus,  any  one  may  accept  a  bill  in  the 
name  of  the  firm,  provided  such  be  one  of  the  modes 
of  doing  business.  It  is,  however,  to  be  borne  in 
mind,  that  the  firm  is  only  bound  by  one  of  the 
partners  in  those  matters  which  are  strictly  within 
the  proper  business  of  the  firm,  which  is  an  import- 
ant qualification  of  the  general  power.  Within  the 
above  limits,  each  partner  can  bind  the  rest  of  his 
copartners,  however  imprudent  or  foolish  may  be 
his  act,  for  it  is  one  of  the  implied  conditions,  that 
all  have  full  confidence  in  each  other.  It  follows 
from  this  principle,  that  the  firm  is  liable  for  the 
dealings  of  each  partner  on  its  behalf  within  the 
scope  of  the  partnership,  that  each  is  liable  to  the 
full  extent  for  all  the  debts  of  the  firm  ;  in  short, 
each  is  liable  to  his  last  shilling  for  the  solvency 
of  the  firm.  Hence,  it  is  often  of  importance  for 
a  partner,  on  leaving  the  firm,  to  know  how  to 
terminate  this  liability.  The  rule  is,  that  as  regards 
all  strangers,  a  notice  in  the  Gazette  13  good  notice  : 
but  as  between  the  firm  and  those  who  have  had 
dealings  with  it,  the  Gazette  notice  is  of  no  use, 
unless  it  can  be  proved  that  the  party  had  actual 
notice  given  to  him — and  hence  a  circular  notice 
sent  to  customers  announcing  the  fact  of  retirement, 
is  the  only  course  effectual. 

The  practice  of  individuals  entering  into  large 
associations,  now  called  joint-stock  companies, 
which  were  originally  only  extended  partnerships, 
has  led  to  a  separate  code  as  to  these  being  framed 
for  the  United  Kingdom.  See  Joint-stock  Com- 
panies. The  practice  of  limiting  the  liability  of 
partners  or  shareholders  in  joint-stock  companies 
had  of  late  years  led  to  the  belief,  that  a  similar 
restriction  might  well  be  extended  to  ordinary 
partnerships,  and  accordingly  a  bill  was  introduced 
into  parliament  in  1864  to  enable  this  to  be  done. 
By  that  bill — which,  however,  did  not  extend  to 
Scotland — any  person  may  place  a  specific  sum  of 
money  in  a  firm,  and  become  a  partner,  with  liability 
limited  to  such  sum.  Such  limited  partner,  however, 
is  to  refrain  from  all  participation  in  the  conduct  of 
the  business,  otherwise  he  will  become  a  general 
partner.  Nor  is  his  name  to  appear  in  the  title  of 
the  firm.  But  for  his  own  security  and  satisfaction,  he 
is  entitled  to  examine  the  books,  so  as  to  ascertain 
801 


the  profits.  In  this  kind  of  partnership,  certain 
particulars  are  to  be  registered  with  the  registrar 
of  joint-stock  companies,  such  as  the  name  and 
place  of  business  of  each  partner,  describing  whether 
he  be  a  general  or  limited  partner,  the  nature  of  the 
business,  and  the  place  of  carrying  it  on,  the  name 
of  the  firm,  the  amount  lent  by  each  limited  partner, 
and  the  time  at  which  it  is  to  be  repaid.  This  kind 
of  partnership  may  be  renewed  from  time  to  time 
on  fresh  registration.  Any  clerk  or  servant  may 
be  allowed  to  share  profits  without  incurring  the 
liability  of  partner.  The  register-books  of  this 
class  of  partnerships  are  to  be  open  to  the  registrar. 
These  partnerships  may  sue  in  the  name  of  the 
firm.  This  step  may  be  considered  at  present  in  the 
light  of  an  experiment,  but  it  is  expected  to  take 
firm  root  in  modern  business,  as  it  enables  capitalists 
and  traders  to  unite  on  a  more  rational  basis,  and 
combine  their  several  interests  and  capacities  much 
more  effectually  than  could  be  done  heretofore. 

In  Scotland,  the  law  of  partnership,  though  in  its 
essential  features  the  same  with  the  law  of  England, 
differs  in  one  or  two  particulars.  The  partnership 
is  treated  as  a  distinct  person  in  law,  the  partners 
being  only  its  sureties  or  cautioners  ;  and  the  con- 
sequence of  this  is,  that  in  actions  by  or  against  the 
firm,  the  individual  partners  need  not  be  named, 
though  in  practice  one  or  two  of  them  generally  are 
named.  Each  partner  may  also  sue  the  firm  as  if  it 
were  a  distinct  person ;  and  the  firm  may  be  made 
bankrupt  without  any  of  the  partners  being  seques- 
trated. See  Paterson's  Comp.  of  E.  &  S.  Law, 
p.  214. 

PA'RTRIDGE  (Perdix),  a  genus  of  gallinaceous 
birds,  of  the  family  Tetraon'ulw,  having  a  short, 
strong  bill,  naked  at  the  base  ;  the  upper  mandible 
convex,  bent  down  at  the  tip  ;  the  wings  and  tail 
short,  the  tarsi  as  well  as  the  toes  naked,  the  tarsi 
not  spurred. — The  Common  P.,  or  Gray  P.  (P. 
cinerea),  is  the  most  plentiful  of  all  game-birds  in 
Britain,  and  becomes  increasingly  plentifid  as  culti- 
vation is  extended,  whilst  the  range  of  the  moorfowl 
is  restricted.  It  is  not  found  in  the  Outer  Hebrides. 
On  the  continent  of  Europe,  it  is  abundant  in  almost 
all  districts  suitable  to  its  habits,  from  Scandinavia 
to  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  found  also  in  the  north 
of  Africa,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  west  of  Asia.  It 
varies  considerably  in  size  ;  those  found  in  rich  low- 
lands being  generally  the  largest,  and  about  124 
inches  in  entire  length ;  whilst  those  which  inhabit 
poorer  and  more  upland  districts  are  rather  smaller. 
The  female  is  rather  smaller  than  the  male.  The 
upper  parts  of  both  are  ash-gray,  finely  varied  with 
brown  and  black ;  the  male  has  a  deep  chestnut 
crescent-shaped  spot  on  the  breast,  Thich  is  almost 
or  altogether  wanting  in  the  female.  The  male  has 
also  the  throat  and  sides  of  the  face  bright  rust- 
colour,  of  which  there  is  less  in  the  female.  A 
variety  called  the  Mountain  P.  has  the  plumage 
brown.  The  P.  is  seldom  found  far  from  cultivated 
land.  It  feeds  on  grain  and  *>ther  seeds,  insects  and 
their  larvae  and  pupae,  and  the  pupae  of  ants  are 
very  generally  the  food  southt  at  first  for  the  young. 
It  pairs  early  in  spring,  at  'vhich  time  fierce  conflicts 
take  place  among  the  males.  The  nest  is  usually  on 
the  ground,  among  brushwood  and  long  grass,  or  in 
fields  of  clover  or  corn,  and  generally  contains  from 
twelve  to  twenty  eggs.  The  young  run  as  soon  as 
they  are  hatched  Both  parents  shew  a  very  strong 
attachment  to  their  young,  and  great  courage  in 
repelling  assailants ;  they  have  also  recourse,  like 
many  other  birds,  to  stratagem,  to  draw  off  the 
most  powerful  and  dangerous  enemies,  such  as  dogs, 
in  another  direction,  fluttering  close  before  them  as 
if  broken- winged,  whilst  the  brood  escape.  Until 
the  end  of  autumn,  the  parent  birds  and  their  brood 


PARTRIDGE  BERRY— PASCAL. 


keep  together  in  a  oovey  ;  late  in  the  season,  several 
coveys  often  unite  into  a  pads,  when  it  becomes 
much  more  difficult  for  the  sportsman  to  approach 
them.    The  Bight  of  the  P.  ia  strong  and  rapid  for 

a  short  distance,  but  it  does  not  seem  to  be  capable 
of  a  long-sastained  flight.  The  eggs  of  partridges 
are  often  batched,  and  the  young  birds  reared,  l>y 
the  domestic  ben,  the  chief  requisite  being  a  plentiful 
■apply  of  ants  when  the  birds  are  very  young. 
Partridges  thus  reared  become  very  tame,  but  they 
seldom  breed  in  the  aviary. — The  Red-lbgobd  P. 
(/'.  rufua,  or  CoccabU  rv/us,  the  genus  or  sub-genus 
Caecabia  being  distinguished  by  a  rudimentary  blunt 
spur  on  the  tarsi)  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe 
and  of  tin'  Channel  [elands, and  is  now  also  plentiful 
in  some  parts  of  England,  particularly  Norfolk  and 
Suffolk,  into  which  it  has  been  introduced.  It  is 
rather  larger  1,han  the  Common  P.,  stronger  on  the 
wing,  and  less  easily  approached  by  the  sportsman, 
whilst  it  is  also  less  esteemed  for  the  table.  The 
upper  parts  are  of  a  reddish-ash  colour;  the  throat 
and  cheeks  white,  bounded  by  a  collar  of  black, 
which  expands  in  black  spots  on  the  breast ;  and 
the  sides  exhibit  liars  of  black.  The  plumage  is 
smooth.  — Two  other  species,  nearly  allied  to  this, 
are  found  in  some  of  the  southern  parts  of  Europe. 
India  has  a  number  of  species.  The  habits  of  all 
the  species  much  resemble  those  of  the  Common 
Partridge. — The  name  P.  is  sometimes  extended  so 
as  to  include  the  species  of  Ortyx  (see  Virginian 
Quail),  and  in  South  America  is  sometimes  given 
to  the  Tinamous. 

PARTRIDGE  BERRY.     See  Gaultheria. 

PARTRIDGE  PIGEON  (Geophapa),  an  Austra- 
lian genus  of  Colunibidce,  approaching  more  than 
most  of  the  pigeons,  in  character  and  habits,  to 
the  true  gallinaceous  birds,  and  particularly  to 
partridges.  Their  plumage  is  beautiful,  and  gener- 
ally with  a  bronze  tinge  and  lustre  on  the  wings, 
which  causes  them  to  be  sometimes  called  Bronze- 
wings.  There  are  several  species.  They  live 
mostly  on  the  ground,  and  rise  with  a  whirring 
noise,  like  the  pheasant,  when  disturbed.  They  are 
highly  esteemed  for  the  table. — Geotrygon  montana, 
a  species  of  another  genus  of  Columbidce,  bears-  the 
name  of  Partridge  Dove  in  the  West  Indies.  It 
also  seeks  its  food  chiefly  on  the  ground,  although 
it  affects  well-wooded  districts. 

PARTRIDGES,  in  Artillery,  were  very  large 
bombards  formerly  in  use  at  sieges  and  in  defensive 
works.     They  are  mentioned  in  Eroissart. 

PARTRIDGE-AVOOD,  a  very  pretty  hard-wood 
from  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil ;  it  is  usually  of  a 
reddish  colour,  in  various  shade  from  light  to  dark, 
the  shades  being  mingled  in  thin  streaks;  but  in 
some  choice  sorts  they  are  civrled  upon  one  another 
so  as  to  resemble  the  feathers  of  the  partridge, 
whence  its  name.  One  variety  occurs  in  which  the 
colours  are  remarkably  bright,  and  it  is  consequently 
called  Pheasant- wood.  In  Brazil,  this  beautiful 
wood  is  so  plentiful  that  it  is  employed  in  ship- 
building, and  it  is  said  to  be  used  in  British  navy- 
yerds  under  the  name  of  Cabbage-wood,  but  this  is 
doubtf'.'.l;  many  woods  are  known  as  partridge,  and 
several  as  cabbage  Avood.  Among  the  Brazilians,  it 
is  called  'Angelim,'  and  they  describe  four  sorts — 
Angelim  de  pedra  (the  Stone  Angelim),  A.  vermeUio, 
(Bed  Angelim),  A.- amargoso  (Bitter  Angelim),  and  A. 
varzea  (Cultivated  Angelim;.  Its  chief  use  in  Great 
Britain  is  for  cabinet-work,  Tnnbridge-ware^  parasol- 
eticks,  fans,  and  other  small  matters,  for  which  its 
beauty  recommends  it.  It  is  said  to  be  yielded  by  the 
leguminous  tree  (Atulira  ivermis),  which  is  found  not 
only  in  the  Brazils,  but  in  other  parts  of  South  Amer- 
ica and  the  West  Indies. 
332 


PARTS  OF  SPEECH   are  the  several  I  i 
classes   into   which   the   words  of    a   language  are 
divided.     There  is  nothing  In  the  outward  form  of 
words   that    would   enable    us   to   divide   them    into 
The   distinction  lies  in  the  offices  that  the 
several  words  perform  in   a    Sentence  (q.  v.).      All 
words  performing  the  same  office  in  sentences  belong 
to  the  same  class.     The  essential  parts  of 
are  the  Noun,  Adjective,  Pronoun,  Verb,  Adverb, 
Preposition,  Conjunction  (see  these  several    ; 
The  Articles  (q.  v.)   are  not  distinct  parts  of  speech, 
being  essentially  pronouns  ;  and  Interjection*  (q.  v.) 
hardly  belong  to  articulate  speech.     To   name  thn 
class  or  part  of  speech  to  which  each  word  of  » 
sentence  belongs,  is  called  to  parse  it. 

PARTURITION.     See  Midwifery. 

PARTY,  in  Heraldry.     See  Partition  Lines. 

PARTY-WALL  is  the  wall  dividing  two  house9 
or  tenements,  and  which  is,  in  a  certain  sense,  one 
and  indivisible,  though  the  property  of  two  or  more 
parties.  The  question  as  to  who  is  the  owner  of 
any  particular  part  of  the  party-wall,  is  solved  by 
ascertaining  who  is  the  owner  of  the  soil  on  which 
it  is  built.  In  the  absence  of  evidence  to  the  con- 
trary, it  is  presumed  that  half  of  the  soil  belongs  to 
the  owner  on  one  side,  and  the  other  half  to  the 
owner  of  the  other  side ;  and  unless  the  wall  has 
stood  twenty  years  and  upwards,  each  owner  can 
do  what  he  likes  with  his  own  half,  and  can  pare 
it  away  if  he  likes.  But  in  general,  mutual  interest 
prevents  each  party  from  resorting  to  his  strict 
legal  rights.  A  practice  exists  for  one  who  builds  a 
house  adjoining  the  wall  of  a  neighbour,  to  pay  for 
half  the  expense.  In  Scotland,  a  party  building 
close  to  the  wall  of  another's  house,  can  compel  the 
owner  of  the  first  house  to  give  him  half  of  the 
wall  or  gable,  on  paying  half  the  expense  ;  while  in 
England  there  is  no  such  compulsion.  In  Scotland, 
where  the  practice  exists  of  building  houses  in  flats 
lying  each  upon  the  other,  the  law  is  not  clearly 
settled,  and  requires  to  be  cleared  up  as  to  what  is* 
the  nature  of  the  property  or  interest  which  each 
proprietor  of  a  flat  has  in  that  part  of  the  gable 
bounding  his  own  flat.  The  better  opinion  is,  that 
each  is  the  entire  owner  of  his  half  of  the  gable, 
the  others  having  merely  cross  servitudes ;  and 
hence  it  follows,  that  if  the  flats  on  both  sides  of 
a  gable  belong  to  one  owner,  he  can  make  a  com- 
munication through  the  gable,  provided  he  do  not 
injure  the  chimney-flues  of  the  lower  flats,  or  the 
stability  of  the  structure. 

PARVATI  (from  the  Sanscrit  parvata,  mountain, 
literally,  mountain-born)  is  one  of  the  names  by 
which  Durga,  the  consort  of  S'iva,  is  usually  called, 
she  being  the  daughter  of  the  mountain  Himalaya. 

PA'RVISE,  a  porch  or  open  space  in  front  of  the 
door  of  a  church. 

PASCAGOU'LA,  a  river,  and  bay  at  its  mouth, 
in  Mississippi,  U.  S.  The  river,  formed  by  the 
junction  of  numerous  branches,  drains  the  south 
eastern  portion  of  the  state,  and  flows  into  Missis 
sippi  Sound.  A  ship-canal  has  recently  been  cut 
through  the  shell-reef  at  its  mouth.  It  is  navigable 
100  miles  through  a  sandy  region  of  pine-forests, 
supplying  turpentine.  The  villages  on  the  hay  are 
summer  resorts  from  Mobile  and  New  Orleans;  ind 
on  the  shores  at  night  are  heard  sounds  like  the 
JEolian  harp,  supposed  to  be  caused  by  some  kind 
of  shell-fish. 

PASCAL,  Blaise,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
philosophers  and  scholars  of  the  17th  c.,  was  born  at 
Clermont,  in  Auvergne,  France,  June  19,  1623.  His 
father,  Etienne  Pascal,  was  president  of  the  Com 
des   Aides   at    Clermont.      His   mother,    Antoinette 


PASCAL-PAS-DE-CALATS. 


Bezon,  died  while  he  was  little  beyond  infancy.  He 
had  two  sisters — the  elder,  Gilberte.  Madame  Perier, 
afterwards  his  biographer  ;  the  younger,  Jacqueline, 
who  became  a  nun  of  Port  Koyal,  under  the  cele- 
brated Mere  Angelique,  sister  of  Antoine  Arnauld. 
From  childhood,  Blaise  gave  evidence  of  extra- 
ordinary abilities  ;  and  when  he  reached  his  eighth 
year,  his  father  resigned  his  office  at  Clermont,  and 
came  to  Paris,  in  order  personally  to  direct  the  boy's 
education.  For  the  purpose  of  concentrating  all  the 
boy's  efforts  upon  languages,  his  father  kept  out  of 
bis  reach  all  books  treating  the  subject  of  mathe- 
matics, for  which  he  had  early  evinced  a  decided 
taste  ;  and  it  is  recorded  that  by  his  own  unaided 
speculations,  drawing  the  diagrams  with  charcoal 
upon  the  floor,  he  made  some  progress  in  geometry. 
One  account  represents  him  as  having  thus 
mastered  the  first  thirty-two  propositions  of 
the  first  book  of  Euclid's  Elements — a  statement 
which  carries  its  own  refutation  with  it.  Thence- 
forward, he  was  permitted  freely  to  follow  the 
bent  of  his  genius.  In  his  sixteenth  year,  he  pro- 
duced a  treatise  on  Conic  Sections,  which  extorted 
the  almost  incredulous  admiration  of  Descartes. 
In  his  nineteenth  year,  he  invented  a  calculating- 
machine  ;  and  turning  his  attention  to  the  novel 
questions  as  to  the  nature  of  fluids,  which  Torri- 
celli's  theories  had  raised,  he  produced  two  essays, 
which,  although  not  published  till  after  his  death, 
have  established  his  reputation  as  an  experimental 
physicist.  His  father  having  accepted  an  office  at 
Kouen,  P.  was  there  brought  much  into  intercourse 
with  a  distinguished  preacher,  Abbe  Guillebert,  a 
member  of  the  Jansenists,  but  a  man  of  great  elo- 
quence, a  great  master  of  ascetic  theology,  from 
whom  and  from  other  members  of  the  same  rigid  sect, 
as  well  as  from  the  writings  of  Arnauld,  St  Cyran, 
and  Nicole,  P.'s  mind  received  a  deeply  religious  turn ; 
and  his  health  having  suffered  much  from  excessive 
study,  he  gave  himself  up  in  great  measure  to  retire- 
ment and  theological  reading,  and  to  the  practice  of 
asceticism.  The  death  of  his  father,  and  his  sister 
Jacqueline's  withdrawal  to  Port  Koyal,  confirmed 
these  habits  ;  and  it  is  to  this  period  that  we  owe 
his  magnificent  though  unfinished  Pensees,  which 
have  extorted  the  admiration  even  of  his  unbeliev- 
ing, and  therefore  unsympathising  critics.  Having 
fully  identified  himself  with  the  Jansenist  party,  he 
was  induced  (1655)  to  take  up  his  residence  at  Port 
Royal,  although  not  as  a  member  of  the  body, 
where  he  resided  till  his  death,  entirely  given  up  to 
prayer  and  practices  of  mortification,  among  which 
practices  may  be  mentioned  that  of  wearing  an  iron 
girdle,  studded  with  sharp  points,  which  he  forced 
into  his  flesh  whenever  he  felt  himself  assailed  by 
sinful  thoughts.  In  the  controversy  to  which  the 
condemnation  of  Arnaidd  by  the  Sorbonne  (1655) 
gave  rise,  P.  took  a  lively  interest ;  and  it  was  to 
this  controversy  that  he  contributed  the  memorable 
Lettres  Provinciates,  published  under  the  pseudonym 
of  Louis  de  Montalt.  These  famous  Letters  (eighteen 
in  number,  not  reckoning  the  nineteenth,  which  is  a 
fragment,  and  the  twentieth,  which  is  by  Lemaistre) 
are  written,  as  if  to  a  provincial  friend,  on  the 
absorbing  controversial  topic  of  the  day.  The  first 
three  are  devoted  to  the  vindication  of  Arnaidd, 
and  the  demonstration  of  the  identity  of  his  doctrine 
with  that  of  St  Augustine.  But  it  was  to  the  later 
letters  that  the  collection  owed  both  its  contem- 

?orary  popularity  and  its  abiding  fame.  In  these 
'.  addresses  himself  to  the  casuistry  and  to  the 
directorial  system  of  Arnauld's  great  antagonists, 
the  Jesuits ;  and  in  a  strain  of  humorous  irony  which 
has  seldom  been  surpassed,  he  holds  up  to  ridicule 
their  imputed  laxity  of  principle  on  the  obligation 
of  restitution,  on  simony,  on  probable  opinions,  on 

am 


directing  the  intention,  on  equivocation  and  mental 
reservation,  &c.  In  all  this,  lie  professes  to  produce 
the  authorities  of  their  own  authors.  Of  the  extra- 
ordinary ability  displayed  in  these  celebrated  Letters, 
no  question  can  be  entertained  ;  but  the  Jesuits  and 
their  friends  loudly  complain  of  their  unfairness, 
and  represent  them  as  in  great  part  the  work  of  a 
special  pleader.  The  quotations,  with  the  exception 
of  those  from  Escobar,  were  confessedly  supplied  by 
P.'s  friends.  It  is  complained  that  many  of  the 
authors  cited  are  not  Jesuits  at  all ;  that  many  of 
the  opinions  ridiculed  and  reprobated  as  opinions  of 
the  Jesuit  order,  had  been  in  reality  formally  repu- 
diated and  condemned  in  the  Society  ;  that  many  of 
the  extracts  are  garbled  and  distorted  ;  that  it 
treats  as  though  they  had  been  designed  for  the 
pulpit  and  as  manuals  for  teaching,  works  which 
in  reality  were  but  meant  as  private  directions 
of  the  judgment  of  the  confessor ;  and  that, 
in  almost  all  cases,  statements,  facts,  and  circum- 
stances are  withheld,  which  would  modify,  if  not 
entirely  remove,  their  objectionable  tendency. 
See  Jesuits.  To  all  which  the  enemies  of  the 
Jesuits  reply  by  arguments  intended  thoroughly 
to  vindicate  Pascal.  P.  himself  entertained 
no  compunctious  feeling  for  the  production  of 
these  Letters,  but  even  at  the  approach  of  death 
declared  his  full  satisfaction  with  the  work,  such  as , 
it  was.  His  later  years  were  made  very  wretched 
by  continued,  or  at  least  frequently  recurring  hypo- 
chondria, under  the  influence  of  which  he  suffered 
from  very  painful  fantasies,  which  he  was  unable 
to  control.  His  strength  was  completely  worn  out 
by  these  and  other  infirmities,  and,  prematurely  old, 
he  died  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-nine  in  Paris,  in 
the  year  1662.  His  Pensees  sur  la  Religion,  et  sur 
quelques  autres  Sujets,  being  tmfinished,  were  pub- 
lished with  suppressions  and  modifications  in  1669  ; 
but  their  full  value  was  only  learned  from  the  com- 
plete edition  which  was  published  at  the  instance  of 
M.  Cousin  (2  vols.,  Svo,  Paris,  1844).  Of  all  his 
works,  the  Lettres  Proviiic'ales  have  been  the  most 
frequently  reprinted.  They  were  translated  into 
Latin  in  the  lifetime  of  P.  by  JSicole,  under  the 
pseudonym  of  a  German  professor,  'Wilhelm  Wen- 
droc ; '  and  an  edition  in  four  languages  appeared 
at  Cologne,  in  1684. 

PA'SCO,  or  CEKRO  DE  PASCO,  an  important 
mining  city  in  Peru,  in  the  department  of  Junin, 
stands  at  an  elevation  of  upwards  of  13,000  feet 
above  seadevel,  80  miles  north-east  of  Lima  in  a 
direct  line,  but  upwards  of  130  miles  by  the  wind- 
ing mountain  road.  It  consists  of  a  collection  of 
huts  spread  over  an  area  that  has  been  hollowed 
out  and  perforated  in  all  directions  by  mines.  The 
number  of  the  inhabitants  varies  according  to  the 
state  of  the  mines ;  being  sometimes  considerably 
more  than  12,000,  and  often  much  less.  The  Cerro, 
or  'mountain  knot,'  of  Pasco  rises  in  Sacshuanata, 
16,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Coal  is  found 
in  the  vicinity. 

PAS-DE-CALAIS  (Fr.  for  Strait  of  Dover),  a 
department  in  the  north  of  France,  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  the  department  of  Nord  and  the  Strait 
of  Dover,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Strait  of  Dover 
and  the  English  Channel.  Area,  1,631,590  acres, 
of  which  S83,3D0  acres  are  cultivated,  and  236,707 
in  meadows.  Pop.  (1872)  761,158.  The  surface  is 
level,  with  the  exception  of  a  ridge  of  hills  running 
from  the  south-east  to  the  north-west,  ending  in 
Gris-nez  Cape  (q.  v.),  and  forming  the  water-shed 
between  the  North  Sea  and  the  English  Channeb 
The  rivers,  which  are  of  no  considerable  length,  are 
the  Scarpe  and  Lys  in  the  basin  of  the.  North  Sea, 
and  the  Authie  and  Canche  belonging  to  the  basin 


PASENG-PASQUE  FLOWER. 


of  the  English  Chaunel.  The  rivers  are  navigable 
within  the  department,  and  are  connected  by  canals. 
The  coast-line  is  80  miles  in  length,  and  the  shores 
are  in  certain  parts  low  and  sandy  ;  while  for 
several  miles  on  either  side  of  Gtris-nez,  dill's 
similar  to  those  of  Dover  front  the  sea.  The 
climate  is  mild,  lntfc  exceedingly  inconstant.  The 
soil  is  very  fertile — all  the  usual  cereal  and  legu- 
minous crops  are  produced  in  abundance — and 
the  country  is  very  productive  both  as  regards 
agriculture  and  manufactures.  Fishing  is  actively 
carried  on,  on  the  coast,  particularly  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Boulogne.  Coal  of  an  indiffere  it 
quality  is  raised,  the  excellent  quarries  of  the 
department  are  worked,  and  considerable  quantities 
of  turf  are  cut.  The  industrial  establishments  are 
numerous  and  important,  as  iron-foundries,  glass- 
works, potteries,  tanneries,  and  numerous  bleach- 
H'Orks,  and  mills  and  factories  of  various  kinds. 
Boulogne  and  Calais  are  the  principal  harbours. 
There  are  six  arromlissements  —  Arras,  Betkune, 
St  Omcr,  St  Pol,  Boulogne,  and  Montreuil.  The 
capital  is  Arras. 

PASENG.     See  Goat. 

PA'SEWALK,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Stettin,  125  miles  west-north-west  of  the 
city  of  that  name,  on  the  Uker.  It  contains  two 
churches,  two  hospitals,  and  several  woollen-cloth 
and  leather  factories ;  and  carries  ou  an  active 
general  trade.     Pop.,  exclusive  of  military,  SI 46. 

PASHA',  or  PACHA,  a  title  used  in  the  Ottoman 
empire,  and  applied  to  governors  of  provinces,  or 
military  and  naval  commanders  of  high  rank.  The 
name  is  said  to  be  derived  from  two  Persian  words 
— pa,  foot  or  support,  and  shah,  ruler— and  signifies 
'the  support  of  the  ruler.'  The  title  was  limited 
in  the  early  period  of  the  Ottoman  empire  to  the 
princes  of  the  blood,  but  was  subsequently  extended 
to  the  grand-vizier,  the  members  of  the  divan,  the 
seraskier,  capitan-pasha,  the  begler-begs,  and  other 
civil  and  military  authorities.  The  distinctive  badge 
of  a  pasha  is  a  horse's  tail,  waving  from  the  end  of 
a  staff,  crowned  with  a  gilt  ball ;  in  war,  this  badge 
is  always  carried  before  him  when  he  goes  abroad, 
and  is  at  other  times  planted  in  front  of  his  tent. 
The  three  grades  of  pashas  are  distinguished  by  the 
number  of  the  horse-tails  on  their  standards  ;  those 
of  the  highest  rank  are  pashas  of  three  tails,  and 
include,  in  general,  the  highest  functionaries,  civil 
and  military.  All  pashas  of  this  class  have  the  title 
of  vizier ;  and  the  grand- vizier  is,  par  excellence,  a 
pasha  of  three  tails.  The  pashas  of  two  tails  are  the 
governors  of  provinces,  who  generally  ai'e  called  by 
the  simple  title  '  pasha.'  The  lowest  rank  of  pasha 
is  the  pasha  of  one  tail ;  the  sanjaks,  or  lowest  class 
of  provincial  governors,  are  of  this  rank.  The  pasha 
of  a  province  has  authority  over  the  military  force, 
the  revenue,  and  the  administration  of  justice.  His 
authority  was  formerly  absolute,  but  recently  a 
check  was  imposed  on  him  by  the  appointment  of 
local  councils.  The  pasha  is  in  his  own  person  the 
military  leader  and  administrator  of  justice  for  the 
province  under  his  charge,  and  holds  office  during 
the  pleasure  of  the  sultan— a  most  precarious 
tenure,  as  the  sultan  can  at  any  moment,  in  the 
exercise  of  his  despotic  power,  exile,  imprison,  or 
put  him  to  death ;  and  this  has  frequently  been 
done  in  cases  where  the  pasha's  power  has  excited 
the  apprehension,  or  his  wealth  the  avarice  of  his 
royal  master. 

PASKEVITCH,  Ivan  Feodorovitch,  Count  of 
Erivan,  Prince  of  Warsaw,  and  a  Russian  field- 
marshal,  was  born  at  Poltava,  May  19,  1782.  He 
was  descended  from  a  Polish  family,  and  was  at 
first  a  page  to  the  Czar  Paul,  but  entered  the  army, 


and  served  in  the  campaign  in  180/5,  which  was 
ended  by  the  defeat  of  Austerlit/  j  and  then  against 
tie'  Turks.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
campaign    of   1812,   and    several    tunes  defeated   the 

French  under  Eugene,  Ney,  and  St  Cyrj  he  was 
also  present  at  Leipzig  and  the  conflicts  under  the 
walls  of  Paris.  In  1825,  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief against  the  Persians,  whom  he 
completely  defeated,  conquering  Persian  Armenia, 
taking  Erivan,  and  ending  the  war  by  the  peace  of 
Turkmanshai  (q.  v.),  a  peace  exceedingly  favourable 
to  Russia.  In  recompense  for  these  services,  he  was 
created  Count  of  Erivan,  and  received  a  grant  of 
1,000,000  rubles  (£158,600).  In  1828  and  1 829,  he 
made  two  campaigns  against  the  Turks  in  Asia, 
signalised  by  the  taking  of  Kara,  Erzerum,  and 
other  important  provinces,  and  terminated  by  the 
treaty  of  Adrianople  in  1829.  In  1831,  P.,  now  a 
field-marshal,  was  appointed  viceroy  of  Poland, 
put  an  end  to  the  revolt  within  three  months  after 
his  appointment,  and  reconstructed  the  administra- 
tion on  the  basis  of  a  complete  incorporation  with 
Russia.  Such  were  the  vigour  and  severity  of 
his  rule,  that  the  eventful  year  1S4S  passed  over 
without  any  attempt  at  revolution.  When  Russian 
intervention  in  Hungary  had  been  resolved  upon, 
P.,  though  now  67  years  of  age,  marched  into  that 
country  at  the  head  of  209,000  men,  and,  after  a 
junction  with  the  Austrians,  defeated  the  Hunga- 
rians in  several  battles,  and  by  mere  force  of  numbers 
crushed  out  the  last  spark  of  insurrection.  The 
50th  anniversary  of  his  military  service  was  cele- 
brated at  Warsaw,  in  1S50,  with  the  utmost  rejoic- 
ings, and  on  this  occasion  the  sovereigns  of  Austria 
and  Prussia  conferred  on  him  the  rank  of  field- 
marshal  in  their  respective  armies.  In  1854,  he 
unwillingly  took  the  command  of  the  Russian 
army  on  the  Danube ;  but  fortune,  which  had 
hitherto  invariably  smiled  upon  him,  deserted  him 
at  Silistria ;  and  after  undergoing  a  succession  of 
sanguinary  repulses,  and  being  himself  grievously 
wounded,  he  withdrew  his  army,  and  resigning  the 
command,  retired  to  Warsaw,  where  he  fell  into  a 
state  of  profound  melancholy,  and  died  January  2iJ, 
1S56. 

PA'SPALUM,  a  genus  of  grasses,  with  spikes 
either  solitary  or  variously  grouped,  one-flowered 
spikelets,  and  awnless  palese.  The  species  are 
numerous,  natives  of  warm  climates. — P.  scrobicu- 
latum  is  cultivated  as  a  cereal  in  India,  where  it  is 
called  Koda.  See  Millet.  It  will  grow  in  very 
barren  soils,  and  delights  in  a  dry  loose  soil.  P. 
exile  is  cultivated  in  like  manner  in  the  west  of 
Africa,  where  it  is  called  Fundi  (q.  v.)  or  Fundungi. 
— Other  species  are  valuable  as  fodder-grasses.  P. 
purpureum  is  a  very  important  fodder-grass  in  the 
coast  districts  of  Peru,  durug  the  dry  months  of 
February  and  March.  P.  stoloniferum,  also  a 
Peruvian  species,  has  been  introduced  into  France. 
Among  the  North  American  species  are  P.  Jiuitans, 
setaceum,  l(evey  distkhum,  diyitaria,  &c. 

PASQUE  FLOWER  (Pulsatilla),  a  genus  *ot 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Panunculacece,  by  many 
botanists  still  included  in  Anemone,  the  chief  distin- 
guishing characteristic  being  the  long  feathery  awns 
of  the  fruit.  The  species  are  perennial,  silky,  her- 
baceous plants,  with  doubly  pinnatifid  or  doubly 
trifid  leaves,  and  a  simple  one-flowered  scape.  They 
are  narcotic,  acrid,  and  poisonous.  The  Common  P. 
(Pulsatilla  vulgaris  or  Anemone  Pulsatilla)  is  a  native 
of  many  parts  of  Eui'ope,  and  of  chalky  pastures  in 
several  parts  of  England.  It  has  widely  bell-shaped 
bluish-jnirple  flowers.  Another  species,  P.  or  A. 
pratensis,  a  native  of  the  continent  of  Europe, 
not    of   Britain,   has    smaller    and  more  perfectly 

307 


PASQUINADE-PASSAGLIA. 


bell-shaped  blackish-purple  flowers. — These  plants 
emit,  when  bruised,  a  pungent  smell ;  and  contain, 
as  their  principal  constituent,  a  peculiar  pungent 
essential  oil,  which,  in  combination  with  Anemonic 
Acid,  forms  an  acrid  and  very  inflammable  sub- 
stance called  Anemonine,  or  Pulsatilla  Camjjhor,  and 


Pasque  Flower  (Anemone  Pulsatilla). 

is  sometimes  used  in  medicine.  Pulsatilla  is  a 
favourite  medicine  of  the  homoeopathists.  Easter 
Eggs  are  coloured  purple  in  some  places  by  the 
petals  of  the  pascpie  flower. — More  acrid  than  any 
of  the  species  just  named  is  Pulsatilla  patens,  which 
occasionally  even  blisters  the  skin. 

PASQUINA'DE,  an  anonymous  or  pseudonymous 
publication  of  small  size,  sometimes  printed,  some- 
times only  posted  up  or  circulated  in  manuscript,  and 
having  for  its  object  the  defamation  of  a  character, 
or  at  least  the  turning  of  a  person  to  ridicule.  The 
name  is  derived  from  Pasquino,  a  tailor  remark- 
able for  his  wit  and  sarcastic  humour,  who  lived  in 
Rome  towards  the  close  of  the  15th  c,  and  attracted 
many  to  his  shop  by  his  sharp  and  lively  sayings. 
Some  time  after  his  death,  a  mutilated  fragment  of 
an  ancient  statue,  considered  to  represent  Menelaus 
supporting  the  dead  body  of  Patroclus,  was  dug  up 
opposite  his  shop,  and  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
Braschi  Palace,  near  the  Piazza  Navoni.  It  was 
named  after  the  defunct  tailor,  and  thus  the  practice 
originated  of  affixing  to  it  placards  containing 
satires  and  jests  relative  to  the  affairs  of  the  day — 
the  pope  and  the  cardinals  being  favourite  victims 
of  the  invisible  satirists.  Until  quite  recently,  it 
was  the  only  outlet  which  the  Roman  had  for  his 
opinions  and  feelings.  One  or  two  may  be  quoted 
as  specimens  of  the  mordant  style  of  the  Pasquin 
statue.  '  Great  sums,'  said  the  satirist  one  day,  in  an 
epigram  addressed  to  Pope  Paul  III.,  'were  formerly 
given  to  poets  for  singiug  ;  how  much  will  you  give 
me,  0  Paul,  to  be  silent?' — On  the  marriage  of  a 
young  Roman  called  Cesare  to  a  girl  calledRoma, 
the  statue  gave  the  following  advice  :  *  Cave,  Caesar, 
ne  tua  Eoma  respublica  hat.'  Next  day  the  rival 
statue  of  Marforio,  in  the  Capitol,  replied :  '  Caesar 
imperat ; '  to  which  Pasquin  with  exquisite  malice 
retorted  :  '  Ergo  coronabitur.' 

PA'SSAGE,  West,  a  seaport  town  upon  the 
western  shore  of  the  estuary  of  the  river  Lee,  in  the 


coxinty  of  Cork,  Ireland,  which  has  risen  into 
importance  chiefly  as  a  watering-place,  and  as  the 
shipping-port  and  marine  subuib  of  the  city  of 
Cork,  from  which  it  is  distant,  by  the  Cork  and 
Passage  Railway,  about  6  miles.  As  the  river 
above  P.  is  not  navigable  for  ships  above  400  or  500 
tons  burden,  ships  of  higher  tonnage  discharge  their 
cargoes  at  Passage.  It  is  also  a  ship-building 
station.  Pop.  236.3;  of  whom  about  four-fifths  me 
Catholics;  400  Protestants  of  the  Established 
Church,  and  the  rest  of  other  religious  denomina- 
tions.— There  is  another  small  town  of  the  same 
name,  East  Passage,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Suir, 
in  the  county  of  Waterford,  Ireland. 

PASSAGLIA,  Carlo,  a  Roman  Catholic  theo- 
logian of  great  eminence,  who  has  obtained  much 
notoriety  in  connection  with  the  recent  movement 
for  the  unity  of  Italy,  is  a  native  of  the  duchy  of 
Lucca,  where  he  was  born  May  2,  1812.  His  origin 
is  very  humble,  and  he  entered  extremely  young  as 
a  scholar  of  the  Jesuit  Society,  of  which  he  was 
enrolled  a  member  in  the  year  1827.  Having 
obtained  much  distinction  in  the  schools  of  the 
order,  and  having,  as  is  usual  with  its  members, 
taught  for  some  time  in  the  lower  schools,  he  com- 
pleted his  theological  studies  in  the  Roman  College, 
and  was  appointed  Professor  of  Canon  Law,  and 
eventually  of  Dogmatical  Theology.  His  reputation 
for  learning  stood  in  the  very  first  rank  of  Roman 
Catholic  theology,  and  his  lectures  were  exceedingly 
admired  for  their  eloquence  and  erudition,  but  were 
considered  in  some  respects  too  diffuse  for  the 
class  of  pupils  who  frequented  his  school.  During 
the  temporary  withdrawal  of  the  Jesuits  from  Rome 
in  1848 — 1851,  P.  with  some  of  his  brethren  came 
to  England,  where  he  taught  theology  to  the  young 
brethren  of  his  order,  and  on  the  re-establishment  of 
the  Jesuits  in  the  Roman  College,  he  resumed  pos- 
session of  his  chair.  During  the  discussions  which 
preceded  the  definition  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception  of  the  blessed  Virgin  Mary 
(q.  v.),  P.  prepared  an  elaborate  treatise  as  well  on 
the  doctrine  as  on  the  history  of  that  question, 
which  was  published  at  the  cost  of  the  Roman 
government.  Soon  afterwards,  however,  the 
dissatisfaction  which  was  felt  at  the  unsuitable 
character  and  method  of  his  lectures,  led  to 
some  remonstrance  on  the  part  of  the  authorities  of 
the  order,  and  ultimately  to  his  resignation  of  the 
professorship  of  theology.  Still,  however,  he  con- 
tinued a  member  of  the  Society ;  and  the  pope,  who 
felt  a  warm  friendship  for  him,  established  in  the 
Roman  university  a  special  chair  of  Philosophy  for 
him,  of  which  he  took  possession,  but  which  he  did 
not  long  retain.  In  the  end  of  1858,  or  early  in 
1S59,  he  left  the  Society  of  the  Jesuits,  and  soon 
afterwards  he  began  to  take  an  active  part  in  the 
discussions  as  to  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  ;  and 
with  a  view  to  an  accommodation  of  the  difficulties 
in  which  it  was  involved,  he  undertook  a  voluntary 
mission  to  Turin,  which,  however,  led  to  no  results. 
Having  fallen  under  suspicion  in  Rome,  and  his 
house  having  been  invaded  by  a  domiciliary  visit  of 
the  police,  he  withdrew  from  Rome,  and  settled  at 
Turin,  where  he  established  a  journal,  entitled  II 
Mediatore,  which  in  1864  was  still  in  course  of 
publication.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Turin 
parliament,  in  which  career,  however,  his  success 
fell  far  short  of  his  reputation. 

P.'s  principal  works  are  the  treatise  on  the  Im- 
maculate Conception  already  referred  to  (4  vols. 
4to) ;  a  treatise  (Latin)  on  the  Primacy  of  St  Peter 
(8vo,  1850);  a  scholastic  treatise  entitled  Commen- 
tarius  Theologicus  de  Partitione  Divir..e  Voluntatis 
(8vo,  Rome,  1851);  an  apology  for  the  cause  of 
Italian     unity,    entitled    Pro    Causa     Italica ;     aa 


PASSAIC— PASS ENG  BR  PIGEON. 


Hpiscopaa  Catholicoa  (Florence,  1841),  in  which  he 
recommends  the  church  bo  make  peace  with  the  na- 
tion; several  essays  on  various  subjects,  and  a  Reply 
to  Renan'a  I'is  da  Jifaua  (Italian). 

PASS  VIC,  a  river  of  New  .1.  rsey,  1T.  S.,  rises  in 
Morris  County,  and  after  a  circuitous  BOUth-eaeterly 
course  of  '.in  indes,  empties  into  Newark  Hay.  It  is 
navigable  for  sloops  for  a  short  distance;  and  its 
falls  of  72  feet  at  Patterson  furnish  water-power 
to  numerous  factories,  and  are  an  attraction  to 
tourists. 

PA  SS  AMAQUODDY  BAY  opens  out  of  the  Bay 

of  Fundv,  between  Maine  and  New  HrunswicU, 
North  America.  It  is  12  miles  long  by  6  wide,  and 
»hut  in  by  a  cluster  of  islands  so  as  to  form  an 
excellent  harbour.  It  receives  the  St  Croix,  Didge- 
quasli,  and  other  rivers,  and  forms  the  harbour  of  the 
flourishing  town  of  Eastport,  The  bay  abounds  in 
lish,  and  has  tides  of  25  feet. 

PA'SSANT,  a  heraldic  term  used  to  express  the 
attitude  of  an  animal  in  a  walking  position,  with 


his  head  straight  before  him  (fig.  1)  ;  fig.  2  repre- 
sents the  attitude,  Passant  gardant;  fig.  3,  Passant 
re'jaidant. 

PASSA'ROWITZ,  a  well-built  town  of  European 
Turkey,  in  the  province  of  Servia,  5  miles  south  of 
the  Danube,  and  15  miles  east  of  Semendria.  Its 
streets  are  wide  and  unpaved,  its  houses  detached, 
and  surrounded  with  palisades.  Pop.  5000.  The 
town  is  chiefly  noteworthy  for  the  treaty  which 
was  signed  here  by  Prince  Eugene  and  the  grand 
vizier,  July  21,  171S.  By  this  treaty,  which  put  an 
end  to  the  war  undertaken  by  the  Turks  against 
Venice  in  1714  for  the  conquest  of  the  Morea,  a  truce 
of  25  years  was  established,  and  the  Banat  of 
Temesvar,  the  western  portion  of  Wallackia  and 
Servia,  the  town  and  territory  of  Belgrade,  and  a 
part  of  Bosnia,  were  secured  to  the  House  of 
Austria, 

PA'SSAU,  a  picturesque,  fortified,  frontier  town 
of  Bavaria,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Inn  and  the 
Ilz  with  the  Danube,  90  miles  east-north-east  of 
Munich.  It  consists  of  P.  Proper  (triangular  in 
shape,  and  occupying  an  eminence  on  the  tongue 
of  land  between  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube 
and  the  left  bank  of  the  Inn),  and  the  suburbs, 
Innstadt,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Inn  ;  Anger  and 
Fort  Oberhaus,  between  the  Danube  and  the  Ilz  ; 
and  Ilzstadt,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ilz.  At  the 
point  of  junction,  the  Inn  is  both  wider  and  has  had 
a  longer  course  than  the  Danube,  the  former  being 
834  feet ;  while  the  latter  is  only  696  feet  wide. 
A  wooden  bridge  over  the  Inn,  resting  on  eight 
piers  of  granite,  connects  Innstadt  with  P.,  and 
the  Danube  is  crossed  by  a  fine  bridge  resting  on 
seven  piers,  also  of  granite.  Fort  Oberhaus,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Danube,  stands  on  steep,  wooded 
cliffs,  at  an  elevation  of  upwards  of  400  feet,  and 
commands  the  passage  both  of  the  Inn  and  Danube, 
besides  which  the  town  is  further  defended  by  the 
castle  of  Niederhaus,  and  by  ten  detached  forts. 
The  appearance  of  P.,  situated  at  the  confluence 
of  two  great  rivers,  and  rising  like  an  amphitheatre 
on  the  most  beautiful  spot  of  the  Danube,  is  strik- 
ingly effective  aud  picturesque.  Among  the  chief 
buildings  are  the  cathedral,  the  bishop's  palace,  the 


post-office,  where  the  treaty  of  p.  was  si^rd  in 
1558;  the  Jesuits1  College,  a  large  building  now  n  etl 

a-  a  school;  :md  the  f  "lim.lt  of  St.  .Michael's.      l-i  the 

Cathedral  Square  (Domplatz)  is  a  bronze  statue  of 

Kin-'  .Maximilian  Joseph,  of  recent  election.  1'. 
contains  also  numerous  picture-galleries,  collections 
of  antiquities,  and  benevolent  and  charitable  institu- 
tions. The  women  of  1'.  are  famous  for  their  beauty. 
Top.  13,88& 

The  natural  advantages  of  this  site,  in  n  military 
point  of  view,  were  appreciated  tit  an  early  period 
by  the  Romans,  who  erected  a  Btrong  camp  here, 
garrisoned  it  with  Batavian  troops,  and  from  this 
circumstance  named  it  Batata  Castra,  Y.  was  long 
the  sei-  of  a  bishopric  founded  in  the  7th  C,  but 
secularised  in  1803.  By  the  treaty  of  P.,  signed 
here  in  1652  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  on  the 
one  side,  and  the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany  on 
the  other,  public  recognition  of  the  Lutheran  faith 
among  the  institutions  of  the  empire  was  granted 
The  cathedral  of  P.  and  great  part  of  the  town  were 
consumed  by  fire  in  1662. 

PASSECAILLE   and    PASSEPIED,  two    old 

French  dances,  the  music  of  the  former  being  in  f, 
the  latter  in  £  time.  Compositions  under  these 
names,  suggestive  of  the  dances  in  question,  though 
not  meant  for  dancing,  occur  among  the  '  Suites,'  or 
collections  of  short  pieces  for  the  harpsichord  or 
clavichord  by  Sebastian  Bach  and  Handel. 

PA'SSENGER  PIGEON  {Ectopistesmi(p-ato,!us), 
a  species  of  pigeon,  native  of  North  America,  and 
particularly  interesting  from  the  marvellous  num- 
bers of  which  its  flocks  are  often  composed.  The 
genus  to  which  it  belongs  has,  like  the  turtle  doves, 
a  bill  more  slender  than  the  ordinary  pigeons, 
notched,  and  with  a  tumid  fleshy  covering  above  at 
the  base ;  the  head  is  small  in  proportion  to  the 
body,  the  legs  are  short  and  strong,  the  feet  naked, 
the  tail  either  rounded  or  wedge-shaped,  the  wings 
long  and  pointed.  The  P.  P.,  generally  known  in 
North  America  as  the  Wild  Pigeon,  has  a  long 
wedge-shaped  tad ;  the  whole  length  being  from 
15  to  17  inches,  of  which  the  tail  occupies  nearly 


Passenger  Pigeon  (Ectopistes  migralorius). 

one  half.  It  is  a  beautiful  bird,  of  very  graceful 
form  and  finely-coloured  plumage.  The  plumage  of 
the  female  is  duller  than  that  of  the  male. — The 
P.  P.  is  found  in  almost  all  parts  ot  North  America, 
from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Arctic  regions.     It 

309 


PASSENGERS  BY  LAND  AND  SEA— PASSING-NOTES. 


is  not,  properly  speaking,  a  bird  of  passage;  its 
migrations   being   apparently  altogether  consequent 

on  the  failure  of  the  supplies  of  food  in  one  locality, 
and  the  necessity  of  seeking  it  in  another,  and  not 
connected  with  the  breeding  season  or  the  season 
of  the  year.  Its  power  of  flight  is  very  great,  and 
it  is  supposed  to  be  able  to  sustain  a  long  flight  at 
the  rate  of  sixty  miles  an  hour.  Passenger  pigeons 
have  been  killed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  New 
York,  with  their  crops  full  of  rice,  which  they  must 
have  collected  in  the  fields  of  Carolina  or  Georgia 
not  many  hours  before.  It  is  not,  therefore,  very 
wonderful  that  wanderers  of  this  species  should 
occasionally  appear  in  Britain  and  in  other  regions 
far  from  their  native  abode.  The  nest  of  the  P.  P. 
in  the  American  forests  generally  consists  of  a  few 
dry  twigs  placed  in  a  fork  of  the  branches  of  a  tree, 
and  containing  two  eggs,  sometimes  only  one  egg. 
They  breed  two  or  three  times  in  a  season.  In  the 
backwoods,  vast  numbers  of  pigeons  building  in 
one  breeding-place,  many  nests,  sometimes  100  or 
more,  are  often  to  be  seen  in  one  tree.  These 
great  breeding-places  extend  over  a  vast  tract  of- 
forest,  sometimes  not  less  than  forty  miles  in 
length ;  but  in  the  more  cultivated  parts  of  the 
United  States  the  P.  P.  builds  singly  and  not  in 
communities.  The  numbers  of  birds  forming;  the 
communities  of  the  western  forests  surpass  calcula- 
tion. Flocks  of  them  are  to  be  seen  flying  at  a 
great  height  in  dense  columns,  eight  or  ten  miles 
long ;  and  there  is  reason  to  suppose,  from  the 
rapidity  of  their  flight,  and  the  number  of  hours 
taken  by  a  column  in  passing  a  particular  spot,  that 
in  some  of  their  great  migrations  the  column,  a 
mile  broad,  is  more  than  150  miles  long.  Their 
roosting-places,  as  well  as  their  breeding-places,  are 
of  prodigious  magnitude.  The  graphic  descriptions 
of  Wilson  and  Audubon  are  too  long  to  be  quoted ; 
but  there  is  perhaps  nothing  of  the  kind  so  wonder- 
ful in  relation  to  any  species  of  bird.  The  noise  of 
wings  and  of  cooing  voices  is  as  loud  as  thunder, 
and  is  heard  at  the  distance  of  miles.  It  drowns 
the  report  of  guns.  The  multitudes  which  settle 
on  trees,  break  down  great  branches  by  their 
weight,  so  that  it  is  dangerous  to  pass  beneath. 
They  crowd  together,  alighting  one  upon  another, 
till  they  form  solid  masses  like  hogsheads,  and  great 
numbers  are  killed  when  the  branches  break. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring  country  as- 
semble, shoot  them,  knock  them  down  with  poles, 
stifle  them  by  means  of  pots  of  burning  sulphur, 
cut  down  trees  in  order  to  bring  them  in  great 
numbers  to  the  ground,  eat  them,  salt  them,  and 
bring  their  hogs  to  fatten  on  them.  Wolves,  foxes, 
lynxes,  cougars,  bears,  racoons,  opossums,  polecats, 
eagles,  hawks,  and  vultures  all  congregate  to  share 
the  spoil.  The  flesh  of  the  P.  P.  is  of  a  dark  colour, 
but  tolerably  pleasant.  That  of  young  birds  is 
much  esteemed.  The  nestlings  are  in  general 
extremely  fat,  and  are  sometimes  melted  down  for 
the  sake  of  their  fat  alone.  The  food  of  the  P.  P. 
consists  chiefly  of  beech-mast  and  acorns,  but  it 
readily  eats  almost  any  kind  of  nut,  berry,  or 
seed. 

PASSENGERS  BY  LAND  AND  SEA.  The 
law  affecting  passengers  b}'  land,  in  a  carriage  or 
public  conveyance,  may  be  stated  as  follows :  The 
owners  of  the  railway  or  other  carriage  do  not  con- 
tract to  carry  the  passenger  with  perfect  safety ; 
they  do  not  warrant  that  he  will  not  be  injured ; 
but  they  merely  contract  to  carry  him  without  any 
negligence  on  their  part.  Hence,  in  case  of  accident, 
though  it  is  not  strictly  correct  in  point  of  law  to 
assume  that  the  accident  arose  from  some  negligence 
of  the  carrier,  unless  there  is  evidence  to  support  it, 
this  presumption  is  in  point  of  fact  always  made, 
310 


and  it  lies  on  the  carrier  to  shew  that  it  was  from 
no  fault  or  negligence  on  his  part  that  the  accident 
happened.  As  questions  of  negligence  must  almost 
always  be  decided  by  a  jury,  and  their  preposses- 
sions are  against  admitting  the  idea  that  accidents 
arise  from  any  cause  except  negligence  of  the 
earner — which  is  a  wholesome  doctrine — it  seldom 
ever  happens  that  a  railway  or  public  company 
attempt  to  dispute  their  responsibility  on  that 
ground.  The  rule  is  that  a  railway  company  are 
responsible  for  the  negligence  of  any  of  their  ser- 
vants ;  and  hence,  in  case  of  accidents,  all  passen- 
gers injured,  and  in  case  of  death,  the  parent, 
husband,  wife,  or  children  of  the  deceased  pas 
invariably  make  a  claim  of  compensation,  except 
when  the  accident  was  caused  by  the  passengers 
own  personal  negligence.  For  while  a  carrier  is 
bound  to  use  due  care  to  carry  the  passenger  with 
safety,  it  is  equally  true  that  the  passenger  is  at  the 
same  time  bound  to  take  ordinary  care  of  himself, 
and  not  act  in  a  rash  or  foolish  way,  so  as  to  lead  to 
an  accident.  Before  railways  and  canals  were  in 
use,  it  was  sometimes  doubted  whether  it  was  not 
the  duty  of  carriers  by  coach  to  carry  all  persons 
who  presented  themselves  and  offered  to  pay  their 
fai-e ;  but  this  notion  is  exploded,  and  even  railway 
companies  are  not  bound  to  carry  everybody  who 
comes,  but  merely  to  give  reasonable  accommoda- 
tion to  the  ordinary  number,  otherwise  their  liability 
would  be  enormous  on  particular  occasions  where 
crowds  assemble.  Their  interest  is  usually  a  suffi- 
cient inducement  on  such  occasions  to  provide 
the  accommodation  required.  A  passenger  has  a 
right  to  carry  along  with  him  Luggage  (q.  v.). 

In  the  case  of  passengers  by  sea,  a  peculiar  code 
has  been  constructed,  owing  to  the  peculiarity  of 
their  situation.  The  fundamental  rule  of  the  com- 
mon law  is  the  same  as  on  land  carriage — that  the 
carrier  by  sea  does  not  engage  to  carry  with  absolute 
safety,  but  merely  to  omit  nothing  in  his  power, 
and  to  use  due  care.  The  legislature,  however,  has 
passed  statutes  to  regulate  the  duties  of  carriers  by 
sea,  the  latest  being  18  and  19  Vict.  c.  119.  The 
act,  however,  only  applies  to  voyages  from  the 
United  Kingdom  to  places  out  of  Europe,  and  not 
to  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Payment  of  the  passage 
money  must  be  made  before  commencing  the  voyage, 
and  the  owners  are  not  bound  to  forward  steerage 
passengers  by  the  very  ship  contracted  for,  if  an 
equally  eligible  ship  be  offered,  provided,  however, 
that  families  are  not  to  be  separated.  If  the  ship  is 
disabled  on  the  voyage,  the  owners  are  bound  to 
repair  the  ship  in  six  weeks,  or  send  on  the  passen- 
gers. If  the  passengers  exceed  300,  a  medical 
practitioner  must  be  on  board,  and  the  provisions 
must  be  according  to  a  certain  scale  of  diet.  The 
Emigration  Commissioners  require  to  inspect  emi- 
grant ships,  and  to  give  a  certificate  as  to  fitness. 
As  to  passenger  steamers  in  Great  Britain,  a  certifi- 
cate is  required  from  the  Board  of  Trade,  specifying 
the  voyage  and  number  of  passengers  allowed  to  be 
carried. 

PA'SSERINE  BIRDS.     See  Ixsessobes. 

PASSING-BELL,  a  bell  tolled  during  the  death 
agony  of  a  dying  person,  at  the  moment  of  the 
soul's  'passing'  from  earth  to  its  eternal  abode.  Its 
use  in  Catholic  countries  is  to  invite  the  hearers  to 
join  in  the  prayers  which  are  ordered  'for  the  dying 
in  their  hour  of  agony,'  and  which  the  priest  with 
his  attendants  recites  in  the  death  chamber.  Se» 
Bell. 

PASSING-NOTES,  in  Music.  In  passing  from 
one  chord  to  another,  an  intervening  note,  not 
belonging  to  either  chord,  may  be  used  to  assist  the 
progression.     Such  a  ncte  is  called  a  passing-note  or 


PASSION  CROSS— PASSION-WEEK. 


note  of  transition,  as  the  notes  D   and  F  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  subjoined  example  : 


Passion  Cross. 


I  I 

PA'SSION  CROSS,  a  cross  of  the  form  on  which 
our  Saviour  suffered,  with  a  long  stein  and  a  short 
traverse  near  the 
top.  It  is  of  occa- 
sion il  occurrence  as 
a  heraldic  charge, 
though  less  frequent 
than  many  other 
varieties  of  cross.  A 
paasion  cross,  v»hen 
elevated  on  three 
steps  or  degrees  (which  have  been  said  by  heralds 
to  represent  the  virtues  of  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity), 
is  called  a  Cross  Calvary. 

PASSIONFLOWER  {Passiflora),  a  genus  of 
plants  almost  exclusively  natives  of  the  warm  parts 
of  America,  and  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Passhloracece  ;  an  order  of  exogenous  plants,  of 
which  more  than  200  species  are  known,  mostly 
climbers,  having  tendrils  which  spring  from  the 
axils  of  the  leaves,  herbaceous  or  half  shrubby, 
natives  of  tropical  and  subtropical  countries,  but 
rare  in  Asia  and  Africa.  The  leaves  of  the  Paxsi- 
fioracere  are  alternate,  simple,  and  variously  lobed 
The  liowers   are  generally  hermaphrodite,  with  a 


Passionflower  {Passiflora  carulea). 

coloured  calyx,  generally  of  five  segments;  the 
segments  of  the  corolla  equal  in  number  to  those  of 
the  calyx  or  absent,  and  several  rows  of  filamentous 
processes  springing  from  within  the  cup  which  is 
formed  by  the  consolidated  calyx  or  corolla;  the 
stani&ns,  generally  five,  and  genendly  united  by 
their  filaments,  inserted  at  the  base  of  the  tube  of 
the  calyx ;  the  ovary  free,  generally  elevated  on  a 
long  stalk,  one-celled ;  three  thick  styles  with 
dilated  stigmas ;  ovules  numerous.  The  fruit  is 
either  fleshy  or  capsular.  In  the  Passionflowers  it 
is  fleshy.  This  genus  has  received  its  name  from 
fanciful  persons  among  the  first  Spauish  settlers  in 
America,  imagining  that  they  saw  in  its  flowers  a 
representation  of  our  Lord's  passion  ;  the  filamentous 
processes  being  taken  to   represent  the  crown  of 


thorns,  the  nail-shaped  styles  the  nails  ot  the  cross, 
and  the  live  anthers  the  marks  of  the  wounds.  The 
species  are  mostly  half  shrubby  evergreen  climbers, 
of  rapid  growth;  and  most  <>f  them  have  lobed 
leaves,  with  from  two  to  seven  lobes.  The  flowers 
of  many  ate  large  and  beautiful,  on  which  account 
they  are  often  cultivated  in  hothouses.  Some  of 
the  species  are  also  cultivated  in  tropical  countries 
for  their  fruit,  particularly  those  of  which  the  fruit 
is  known  by  the  name  Granadilla  (q.V.).  The  fruit 
of  P.  ediilia  is  also  somewhat  acid  and  of  a  pleasant 
flavour,  and  ices  flavoured  with  it  are  delicious.  Its 
fruit  is  about  two  inches  long,  and  an  inch  and  a 
half  in  diameter,  of  a  livid  purple  colour,  with 
orange  pulp. — The  fruit  of  some  species  of  P.,  how- 
ever, is  not  only  uneatable,  but  fetid  ;  and  the  roots, 
leaves,  and  flowers  of  some,  as  well  as  of  other 
PassifloracecB,  have  medicinal  properties,  narcotic, 
emmenagogue,  anthelmintic,  febrifugal,  &c.  P. 
rubra  is  called  Dutchman's  Laudanum  in  Jamaica, 
because  a  tincture  of  the  flowers  is  used  as  a  substi- 
tute for  laudanum.  The  most  hardy  species  of  P.  is 
the  BLUE  P.  (P.  incarnata),  which  grows  well 
enough  in  some  parts  of  the  southern  states,  and 
bears  a  fruit  which  is  sometimes  edible.  !'■  lutea  has 
small  yellow  flowers,  and  occurs  in  the  northern 
6tates. 

PA'SSIONISTS,  a  religious  congregation  of 
priests  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  object 
of  whose  institute,  indicated  by  their  name,  i9 
to  preach  '  Jesus  Christ  and  him  crucified.'  The 
founder,  Paul  Francis,  surnamed  Paul  of  the  Cross, 
was  born  in  161)4  at  Ovada,  in  the  diocese  of 
Acqui  in  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia.  Having  cirni- 
meuced  his  career  as  a  hermit,  he  formed  the 
design  of  enlisting  others  in  the  missionary  life ; 
and  being  ordained  priest  in  1737,  he  associated 
himself  with  ten  others,  and  obtained  for  his 
plan  the  approbation  of  successive  popes,  together 
with  the  convent  on  the  Celiau  Hill,  at  Rome, 
which  still  forms  the  mother-house  of  the  con- 
gregation. The  special  object  of  the  institute 
was  to  instil  into  men's  minds  by  preaching,  by 
example,  and  by  devotional  practices,  a  sense  of 
the  mercy  aud  love  of  God  as  manifested  in  the 
passion  of  Christ.  Hence  the  cross  appears  every- 
where as  their  emblem,  in  their  churches,  in  their 
halls,  and  in  the  courts  and  public  places  of  their 
monasteries.  A  large  crucifix,  moreover,  forms  part 
of  their  very  striking  costume.  They  go  barefooted, 
and  practise  many  other  personal  austerities,  rising 
at  midnight  to  recite  the  canonical  hours  in  the 
church  ;  and  their  ministerial  work  consists  chierly 
in  holding  what  are  called  'missions,'  wherever 
they  are  invited  by  the  local  clergy,  in  which 
sermons  on  the  passion  of  Christ,  on  sin,  and  on 
repentance,  together  with  the  hearing  of  confessions, 
hold  the  principal  places.  Paul  of  the  Cross  died 
in  1775.  For  a  time  his  congregation  remained 
in  obscurity ;  but  it  has  risen  into  much  notice 
within  the  last  30  years,  new  houses  having  been 
founded  in  England,  Ireland,  Belgium,  America, 
and  Australia. 

PASSION-WEEK,  the  name  commonly  given  iu 
England  to  the  week  immediately  preceding  Easter, 
and  otherwise  called  Holy  Week  (q.  v.).  But  by 
the  proper  rubrical  usage,  Passion-Week  is  that 
which  precedes  Holy  W'eek,  commencing  on  Passion 
Sunday,  the  fifth  Sunday  of  Lent.  In  the  Roman 
calendar,  the  whole  of  the  last  fortnight  of  Lent  is 
known  by  the  name  of  Passion-tide,  and  all  the 
services  of  that  time  differ  in  many  respects  from 
those,  not  alone  of  the  year,  but  even  of  the  rest  of 
Lent.  The  verse  Gloria  Patri  is  discontinued  both 
in  the  mass  and  in  the  Breviary,  and  all  pictures, 

3U 


PASSIVE  TITLE— PASSPORT. 


crucifixes,  statues,   and  other  sacred  representations 
are  veiled  during  the  whole  of  Passion-tide. 

PA'SSIVE  TITLE,  in  the  Law  of  Scotland,  is  the 
liability  of  an  heir,  or  one  who  represents  and  inter- 
feres with  the  estate  of  a  deceased  person,  to  pay  all 
the  debts  of  the  deceased.  It  was  considered  that  so 
great  an  opportunity  of  fraud  in  secreting-  the  goods 
of  a  deceased  person  existed,  that  the  heir  was  pre- 
sumed to  he  liable  for  all  the  debts  of  the  deceased, 
unless  he  took  good  care  to  give  up  an  inventory,  and 
so  shew  what  properly  there  was.  The  barbarous 
doctrine  of  holding  an  heir  universally  liable  has 
latterly  been  much  restricted ;  but  the  explanation  is 
entirely  technical. 

PA'SSOVER  (Pesach,  Pascha),  the  first  and 
greatest  of  the  three  annual  feasts  (licgalim) 
instituted  by  Moses,  at  which  it  was  incumbent 
upon  every  male  Israelite  to  make  a  pilgrimage 
to  the  house  of  the  Lord.  It  was  celebrated  on 
the  anniversary  of  the  Exodus  from  Egypt — i.  e., 
on  the  14th  clay  of  Nisan,  otherwise  called  Abib,  tire 
period  of  the  first  full  moon  in  the  spring — and 
lasted  eight  days.  In  commemoration  of  the 
incidents  connected  with  the  great  event  of  the 
liberation  of  the  people,  it  was  ordained  that 
unleavened  bread  only  should  be  eaten  during 
this  festive  period,  whence  it  also  bore  the  name 
Chart  hamazzoth  (Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread) ;  and, 
further,  that  a  lamb  one  year  old,  and  free  from 
all  blemish,  roasted  whole,  together  with  bitter 
herbs,  should  form  the  meal  in  every  house  on 
the  eve  of  the  feast.  Prayers  and  thanksgivings,  all 
with  a  reference  to  the  redemption  from  bondage, 
accompanied  the  repast,  at  which  the  members  of 
the  family  or  families  who  had  joined  in  the  purchase 
of  the  lamb  had  to  appear  in  travelling  garb.  At 
a  later  period,  a  certain  number  of  cups  of  red  wine 
were  superadded  to  this  meal,  to  which,  as  its 
special  ceremonies  and  the  order  of  its  benedictions 
were  fixed,  the  name  Seder  (arrangement)  was  given. 
The  name  P.  was  more  strictly  limited  to  the  first 
day,  in  which  the  paschal  lamb  was  entirely  con- 
sumed, the  reserving  of  any  part  of  it  to  the  next 
day  being  expressly  forbidden  (Ex.  xh.  10) ;  and  the 
name  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread  belonged  rather 
to  the  remaining  days,  on  which  other  animal  food 
was  eaten ;  but  the  names  were  often  used  indis- 
criminately. 

The  P.  is  generally  regarded  by  Christian  theo- 
logians as  at  once  a  sacrifice  and  a  sacrament,  and 
in  the  former  character  as  an  eminent  type  of  the 
sacrifice  of  Christ.  The  death  of  Christ  at  the  very 
time  of  the  P.  is  regarded  as  corroborative  of  this 
view,  which  is  indeed  plainly  adopted  in  certain 
passages  of  the  New  Testament,  as  John  xix.  36, 
and  1  Cor.  v.  7,  in  which  last  place  our  Saviour  is 
designated  'Christ  our  Passover.'  The  P.  is 
regarded  as  typical  of  Christ,  in  its  connection  with 
the  deliverance  of  Israel  from  the  bondage  of  Egypt, 
held  to  typify  our  salvation  from  the  bondage  of 
sin  ;  in  its  being  a  sacrifice,  and  that  of  a  iamb 
without  blemish — the  perfection  of  the  paschal  lamb, 
as  of  the  other  sacrificial  A'ictims,  being  supposed  to 
signify  the  perfection  of  the  great  sacrifice  ;  and  in 
many  other  minor  particulars,  of  which  one  is  that 
referred  to  in  John  xix.  36,  that  no  bone  of  the 
paschal  lamb  was  to  be  broken. 

The  Paschal  meal,  as  at  present  celebrated  among 
the  Jews,  has  more  the  character  of  a  hallowed 
family-feast,  with  reference,  however,  to  the  great 
national  event.  The  greater  part  of  those — it  may 
be  added  here — who  live  out  of  the  Holy  Land  cele- 
brate it  on  the  two  fi  rst  evenings,  as,  owing  to  the 
uncertainty  prevalent  at  one  time  with  respect  to 
the  fixing  of  the  new  moon  by  the  Sanhedrim  at 
313 


Jerusalem,  it  was  ordained  that  the  '  Exiles '  should 
celebrate  all  their  festivals — except  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment— on  two  successive  days,  a  law  still  in  force 
among  the  orthodox.  The  regulations  of  the  '  lamb 
for  each  house,'  the  travelling  garb,  &c,  are  abro- 
gated, but  many  further  symbolical  tokens  have  been 
superadded ;  reminiscences,  as  it  were,  both  of  the 
liberation  from  Egypt,  and  the  subsequent  downfall 
of  the  sanctuary  and  empire.  The  order  of  prayers 
and  songs  to  be  recited  on  these  evenings  has  also 
received  many  additions,  and  even  medieval  German 
songs  have  crept  in,  as  supposed  to  contain  a  sym- 
bolical reference  to  the  ultimate  fate  of  Israel.  See 
Haggada  {shel  Pesach),  Festivals,  Easter,  Lord's 
Supper. 

PASSPORT,  a  warrant  of  protection  and  per- 
mission to  travel,  granted  by  the  proper  authority, 
to  persons  moving  from  place  to  place.  Every 
independent  state  has  the  right  to  exclude  whom 
it  pleases  from  its  territory,  and  may  require  that 
all  strangers  entering  it  be  furnished  with  pro- 
perly authenticated  documents,  shewing  who  they 
are,  and  for  what  purpose  they  are  visiting  the 
country.  Passports  are  sometimes  issued  by  the 
ministers  and  consuls  of  the  country  which  the 
traveller  intends  to  visit,  which  cannot,  however, 
be  done  without  the  consent  or  connivance  of  the 
state  of  which  the  holder  of  the  instrument  is  a 
subject ;  they  properly  proceed  from  the  authorities 
of  the  state  to  which  the  traveller  belongs,  and 
ought  to  bear  the  visa  or  countersignature  of  the 
minister  or  consul  of  the  country  which  he  is  about 
to  visit.  In  many  European  states  no  one  is 
allowed  to  go  abroad  without  a  passport  from  his 
government  authorising  him  to  leave  the  country — 
a  provision  used  as  a  means  of  detaining  persons 
charged  with  crime.  In  some  states,  passports  are 
even  required  by  the  natives  to  enable  them  to  go 
from  place  to  place  in  their  own  country.  The 
regulations  of  different  states  have  varied  much 
regarding  the  use  of  passports;  and  of  late  years  the 
general  tendency  has  been  to  relax  the  stringency 
of  the  regulations  connected  with  them.  Since  the 
facilities  of  travelling  have  so  greatly  increased,  it 
seems  to  have  become  the  prevalent  opinion  that 
the  passport  system  tends  to  obstruct  the  free  inter- 
course that  is  desirable  between  citizens  of  different 
countries ;  while  it  is  ineffectual  to  prevent  the 
entrance  of  dangerous  or  suspicious  characters,  who 
can  obtain  passports  on  false  pretences,  or  make  their 
way  in  without  them.  Within  the  United  Kingdom 
no  passports  are  required ;  but  for  a  British  subject 
travelling  in  many  parts  of  the  continent,  they  are 
requisite.  Till  of  late  years,  the  greater  part  of 
British  subjects  travelling  abroad  used  to  be  fur- 
nished with  passports  from  the  ministers  or  consuls 
of  the  countries  which  they  purposed  to  visit ;  the 
lord  provost  of  Edinburgh  was  also  in  the  way 
of  issuing  passports  to  Scotchmen.  Of  late  years 
the  passport  most  used  by  British  subjects  is  that 
of  the  British  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs, 
which  is  now  granted  to  any  British  subject  on 
application  of  a  banking  company  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  or  on  the  recommendation  of  the  chief 
magistrate  of  any  corporate  town  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  or  of  any  magistrate  or  justice  of  the 
peace,  physician,  surgeon,  solicitor,  notary,  or 
minister  of  religion,  who  shall  certify  that  the 
applicant  is  the  person  that  he  professes  to  be. 
If  the  applicant  be  a  naturalised  British  subject, 
he  must  be  known  to  the  Foreign  Secretary,  or 
recommended  to  him  by  some  person  known  to 
him,  and  his  certificate  of  naturalisation  must  be 
forwarded  to  the  Foreign  Office.  A  Foreign  Office 
passport  must,  as  a  general  rule,  be  countersigned 
by  the  minister  or  consul  of  each  country  which  the 


PASSY— PASTILE. 


holder  means  to  visit.  The  passport  is  good  for 
life  ;  the  visas  only  fop  a  year.    Since  January  1861, 

British  subjects  have  l  Kin  admitted  from  England 

into  France,  and  allowed  to  travel  in  that  country 
without  passport,  on  merely  declaring  their  nation- 
ality ;  but  that  exemption  does  not  seem  to  apply 
when  France  is  entered  bom  another  side  than  the 
Channel.  [n- Belgium,  Holland,  Norway,  Sweden, 
Italy,  and,  according  to  the  most  recent  regulations, 
also  in  Prussia,  passports  are  not  asked  for.  hi 
Austria,  the  passport  has  to  be  shewn  and  counter- 
signed by  the  police  authorities  at  the  frontier; 
hut  except  in  some  of  the  gamSOC  towns,  it  is  hardly 
ever  asked  for  in  the  interior.  In  many  of  the 
smaller  German  states,  any  person  meaning  to  remain 
in  a  town  above  twenty-four  hours  must  Bend  liis 
passport  to  the  police-office,  anil  obtain  a  permission 
to  reside.    Till  lately,  throughout  the  greater  part  of 

Europe,  a  traveller  was  liable  to  he  called  on  to  pro- 
.luee  his  passport,  not  only 'at  every  frontier  town, 
hut  at  every  garrison  town  through  which  Ik;  passed, 
the  ceremony  of  countersignature  by  the  police  being 
repeated  each  time.  This  was  more  especially  the 
case  in  Italy,  where  the  visas  were  attended  with 
perpetual  delays,  annoyances,  and  demands  on  the 
traveller's  purse. 

Citizens  of  the  United  States  can  obtain  passports 
from  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  State  at  Washing- 
ton, or  of  the  American  Minister  at  London. 

In  time  of  war,  passports  or  safe- conducts  are 
granted  by  the  supreme  authority  on  the  spot— i.  e., 
the  officer  in  command — to  insure  safety  to  the 
holders  when  passing  from  spot  to  spot,  or  while 
occupied  in  the  performance  of  some  act  specified 
in  and  permitted  by  the  passport.  Passports  may 
be  granted  for  goods  as  well  as  individuals ;  and,  in 
time  of  war,  the  passport  of  a  ship  is  the  formal 
voucher  of  its  neutral  character.  It  purports  to  be 
a  requisition  on  the  part  of  the  government  of  a 
6tate  to  allow  the  vessel  to  pass  freely  with  her 
company,  passengers,  goods,  and  merchandise, 
without  hinderance,  seizure,  or  molestation,  as  being 
owned  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  such  state. 

PASSY,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Seine,  a  suburb  of  Paris,  and  included  within  the 
fortifications  of  that  city.     See  Paris. 

PASTA,  Gicjditta  (Judith),  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  opera  singers  of  modern  times,  was 
born  near  Milan  in  Italy  in  179S,  and  received 
her  musical  education  partly  at  Como,  under  the 
chapel-master  of  the  cathedral  there,  and  partly  in 
the  conservatoire  at  Milan.  After  181 1  she  appeared 
at  various  theatres  of  the  second  rank  in  Northern 
Italy,  and  obtained  a  respectable  success,  but  did 
not  give  any  particular  indication  of  possessing 
more  than  average  ability.  Her  first  great  triumph 
was  achieved  at  Verona  in  1822.  The  year  follow- 
ing she  was  engaged  at  the  Paris  Italian  Opera, 
where  her  singing  excited  great  admiration.  From 
this  moment  she  laboured  incessantly  to  reach  the 
ideal  perfection  she  had  set  before  her  mind.  From 
1S25  to  183it  was  the  period  of  her  most  splendid 
triumphs,  which  were  won  principally  in  London 
and  Paris.  Vienna,  where  she  accepted  an  engage- 
ment in  1832,  witnessed  the  last.  Some  time 
afterwards  she  withdrew  from  the  stage,  and 
purchased  a  villa  near  Lake  Como,  where,  and  at 
Milan,  she  resided  until  her  death  in  1865.  P.  in  her 
best  days  had  a  magnificent  voice,  which  easily  passed 
from  clear  shrill  soprano  notes  to  the  gravest  con- 
tralto tones.  In  addition  she  had  a  fine  dramatic 
energy  and  stateliness  of  manner,  that  suited  lofty 
and  imposing  characters.  Her  principal  roles  were 
Medea,  Desdemona,  Semiramide,  La  Sonnambula 
(the  opera  of  this  name  was  written  for  her  by  Bel- 
lini), and  Oiulia  in  Borneo  e  Oiulia. 


PASTE,  a  term  applied  to  various  compositions 
in  which  there  is  just,  sufficient  moisture  to  soften 
without  liquefying  the  m 

Common  or  adhesive  paste  is  made  by  mixing 
wheateu  Hour  witli  cold  water  in  the  propoi  . 
about  two  pounds  to  a  gallon.  The  water  is  added 
by  degrees,  and  well  stirred  in,  so  as  to  i 
himpiness.  About  an  ounce  of  powdered  alum  ia 
sometimes  added  to  increase  its  adhesiveness,  and 
for  shoemakers  and  bookbinders  about  an  ounce 
and  a  half  of  finely-powdered  rosin  is  substi- 
tuted for  the  alum,  which  thickens  it  much 
and  renders  it  much  more  tenacious.  When  the 
ingredients  are  thoroughly  mixed,  they  are  boiled, 
great  care  being  taken  to  stir  them  thoroughly 
whilst  boiling  to  prevent  burning.  This  pi 
used  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes,  more  especially 
by  paper-hangers,  bill-stickers,  bookbinders,  paste- 
board makers,  &c.  An  adhesive  paste,  called 
Chinese  Paste,  is  made  by  reducing  to  perfect  dry- 
ness bullock's  blood.  It  is  then  powdered  and 
mixed  with  one  tenth  of  its  weight  of  finely- 
powdered  quicklime.  When  used,  it  is  mixed  with 
water  sufficient  to  form  a  paste,  which  ia  a  strong 
cement  for  pottery,  wood,  stone,  &c. 

Fruit  Paste  is  made  by  taking  the  juice  of  any 
fruit  and  dissolving  in  it  an  ounce  to  a  pint  of  gum- 
arabic,  or  gum-senegal,  which  many  prefer ;  then 
evaporate  by  a  gentle  heat  until  the  liquid  is  as 
thick  as  syrup,  and  add  to  every  pound  of  it  a  pound 
of  finely-powdered  refined  sugar  ;  continue  the  heat, 
and  stir  it  until  the  sugar  and  juice  are  thoroughly 
incorporated,  after  which  it  is  poured  out  on  a 
marble  slab  slightly  oiled.  When  cooled,  it  may  be 
formed  into  lozenges  for  use.  An  imitation  of  this 
is  made  very  generally  by  mixing  three  parts  of 
citric  acid,  twenty-four  parts  of  gum,  and  forty- 
eight  pai-ts  of  refined  sugar,  and  dissolving  the 
whole  in  water,  and  gently  heating  it  to  insure 
complete  solution  and  mixture.  It  is  then  variously 
coloured  and  flavoured  with  any  of  the  fruit 
essences.  This  paste  is  often  sold  under  the  name  of 
jujubes,  which  were  formerly  lozenges  of  fruit  paste 
prepared  from  the  juice  of  the  jujube  fruit,  Ziziphua 
jujaba. 

Polislunrj  Pastes  vary  according  to  the  materials 
upon  which  they  are  to  be  employed.  For  brass, 
the  best  kind  is  a  mixture  of  two  parts  of  soft 
soap  with  four  parts  of  rotten-stone  in  very  fine 
powder.  Another  sort  is  eight  parts  of  fine  rotten- 
stone  powder,  two  parts  of  oxalic  acid  powdered, 
three  parts  olive  oil,  and  enough  of  turpentine  to 
make  them  into  a  paste.  For  iron,  a  mixture  of 
emery  powder  and  lard  is  used ;  and  for  pewter  a 
mixture  of  finely-powdered  bath-brick  and  soft  soap. 
For  wood,  a  paste  called  furniture  paste  is  made  by 
adding  spirit  of  turpentine  to  beeswax  sufficient  to 
form  it  into  a  soft  paste,  wdiich  is  rubbed  on  thinly 
with  a  brush  and  woollen  rag,  and  afterwards 
polished  with  a  dry  woollen  cloth  and  soft  brush. 

Shaving  pastes  are  very  numerous,  but  the  basa 
of  all  is  soap.  The  best  of  all  is  the  true  ISapIes 
soap  (see  Soap),  but  it  is,  often  mixed  with  other 
ingredients  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  vendor. 
For  other  applications  of  the  word  Paste,  see  Gems 
(Imitation),  and  Macaroni. 

PA'STEL,  chalk  mixed  with  other  materials  ond 
various  colours,  and  formed  into  pencils  or  cray  ons 
(q.  v.). 

PASTEL.     See  Woad. 

PA'STILE,  PASTIL,  or  PASTILLE,  a  dimin- 
utive  of  paste.  This  term  was  originally  applied  to 
lozenges  as  little  portions  of  confectionary  paste, 
but  it  has  been  of  late  chiefly  confined  to  a  mixture 
of  odorous  materials,  as  in  the  case  of  the  / ami rjating 

313 


PASTO— PASTORAL  POETRY. 


pastiles,  which  are  burned  either  as  incense  or  as 
a  means  of  diffusing  an  agreeable  odour.  They  are 
composed  of  charcoal  powder,  with  such  aromatic 
gums  as  benzoin,  labdanum,  &c. ;  and  powders  of 
sweet-scented  woods  and  barks,  as  sandal-wood, 
cinnamon,  and  especially  cascarilla  barks.  Essen- 
tial ods  are  also  added,  and  the  whole  are  worked 
into  a  paste  with  a  little  gum-mucilage,  and 
formed  into  small  sharp-pointed  cones  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  high,  and  half  an  inch  broad  at  the 
base.  When  perfectly  dry,  they  are  used  by 
lighting  at  the  point,  and  as  they  burn  down  an 
agreeable  odour  is  given  out  with  the  smoke.  Very 
tasteful  vessels,  called  pastille  burners,  usually  of 
porcelain,  are  made  for  using  them.  Another  kind 
of  pastille,  usually  in  the  form  of  a  small  pill  covered 
with  gold  or  silver  leaf,  is  used  for  perfuming  the 
breath  ;  it  is  made  of  the  same  kind  of  ingredients, 
excepting  the  charcoal. 

PA'STO,  a  town  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia, 
on  a  high  plateau  between  two  ridges  of  the  Andes, 
148  miles  north-east  of  Quito.  Height  above  sea- 
level  upwards  of  8500  feet.  It  is  in  the  direct 
route  from  the  Popayan  Pass  to  Quito.  Pop.  about 
7000. 

PASTOR,  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  Starling  family 
(Sturnidce),  differing  from  starlings  in  the  com- 
pressed and  slightly-curved  bill.  In  habits,  as  in 
characters,  they  are  very  nearly  allied  to  starlings. 
The  name  P.  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  their 


Rose-coloured  Pastor  (Pastor  roseue). 

being  frequently  seen  with  flocks  of  sheep.  The  only 
European  species  is  the  Rose-coloueed  P.,  or  Rose- 
coloured  Ouzel  (P.  roseus),  a  rare  visitant  of  Britain 
and  of  the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  and  more 
common  in  the  north  of  Africa,  Syria,  and  India 
than  in  any  part  of  Europe. 

PASTORAL  LETTER,  a  letter  addressed 
either  at  certain  stated  times,  or  on  the  occur- 
rence of  some  notable  occasion,  by  a  '  pastor,'  but 
especially  by  a  bishop  to  the  clergy  under  his 
jurisdiction,  to  the  laity  of  his  flock,  or  to  both. 
Of  the  former  class,  in  the  Church  of  Rome,  are 
the  so-called  Lenten  Mandates,  or  Instructions, 
issued  before  the  commencement  of  Lent,  and 
making  known  the  regulations  enacted  for  the 
observance  of  the  Lenten  fast,  the  dispensations 
granted,  and  the  devotions  and  other  pious  works 

Erescribed  Such  also  are  the  letters  issued  by  a 
ishop  on  many  of  the  chief  festivals  of  the  year. 
It  is  usual  for  bishops,  besides  their  stated  letters,  to 
address  to  their  clergy  or  people  instructions  suited 
to  any  particular  emergency  which  may  arise,  and 
sometimes  to  take  occasion  from  the  issuing  of  the 
Btated  pastoral  letter  to  offer  instruction  on  some 
topic  of  importance  which  may  engage  public  atten- 
tion   at    the    time,   on    some   prevalent    abuse    or 


scandal  or  some  apprehended  danger  to  the  faith 
or  to  morals.  To  this  class  belong  many  of  the 
remains  of  the  early  fathers,  especially  in  the 
Western  Church.  In  some  countries  the  govern- 
ment, as  formerly  in  Austria,  claimed  a  right 
to  exercise  a  censorship  over  the  pastoral  letters  to 
be  issued  by  the  bishops.  This  right,  however,  is 
regarded  by  churchmen  as  a  usurpation,  and 
although  submitted  to,  is  admitted  only  under 
protest     See  Placetum  Regium,  Febronianism. 

PASTORAL  POETRY  is  that  kind  of  poetry 
which  professes  to  delineate  the  scenery,  sentiment, 
and  incidents  of  shepherd-life.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  the  first  attempts  to  give  a  rhythmic  expression 
to  human  feeling  were  to  some  extent  of  this  char- 
acter. Men  were  originally  shepherds,  and  their 
festal  songs  and  hymns  would  derive  at  least 
substance  and  imagery  from  their  primitive  occupa- 
tions ;  but  as  a  distinct  branch  of  poetic  art, 
pastoral  poetry  was  not  cultivated  till  a  compara- 
tively late  period ;  for  although  critics  are  fond  of 
pointing  to  the  lives  of  the  Hebrew  patriarchs,  and 
to  the  story  of  Ruth,  as  specimens  of  the  antiquity 
of  the  pastoral  in  the  East,  yet,  as  these  profess  to 
be  history,  and  not  fiction,  they  can  be  instanced 
only  to  prove  that  the  material  for  this  kind  of 
poetry  existed  from  the  earliest  ages.  In  point  of 
fact,  it  was  only  after  innocence  and  simplicity  had 
passed  away,  or  were  thought  to  have  passed  away, 
from  real  life,  that  men  began,  half  from  fancy,  and 
half  from  memory,  to  paint  the  manners  of  the  past 
as  artless,  and  the  lives  of  their  ancestors  as  con- 
stantly happy.  It  was  thus  the  Brass  Age  that 
made  the  Golden.  The  oldest  specimens  of  the 
classic  pastoral  are  the  Idylls  of  Theocritus  (q.  v.), 
which  appeared  about  275  b.  c. — long  after  Greece 
had  produced  her  masterpieces  in  epic  narrative,  in 
the  war  ode,  and  almost  all  other  kinds  of  the  lyric,  in 
tragedy,  comedy,  history,  phdosophy,  and  rhetoric. 
Theocritus  was  imitated  by  Bion  and  Moschus, 
whose  pastorals  approximate  in  form  to  the  drama. 
Among  the  Latins,  the  refined  and  courtly  Virgil, 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  wrote  his  Bucolica  or 
Eclogues,  on  the  model  of  his  Greek  predecessors ; 
but,  however  beautiful  and  melodious  the  verses  of 
these  urban  writers  are,  we  cannot  suppose  for  a 
moment  that  the  rude  shepherds  and  shepherdesses 
of  Italy  or  Sicily  indulged  in  such  refined  senti- 
ments, or  spent  their  time  so  poetically  as  there 
they  are  made  to  do.  Virgil,  we  may  rest  assured, 
is  as  far  from  giving  a  genuine  picture  of  pastoral 
life  in  his  verse,  as  any  modern  poet  who  prates  of 
Chloe  and  Phyllis. 

During  the  middle  ages,  pastoral  poetry  in  this 
artistic,  aud  therefore  conventional  sense  of  the 
term,  was  almost  unknown ;  but  with  the  first 
glimpse  of  reviving  classicism,  the  pastoral  reappears. 
The  earliest  specimens  are  afforded  by  Boccaccio 
(q.  v.),  about  the  first  modern  Italian  who  studied 
Greek.  It  is  to  the  countrymen  of  Boccaccio 
that  we  owe  the  creation  of  the  pastoral  drama, 
of  which  there  is  no  trace  in  ancient  literature. 
The  Favola  di  Orfeo  of  Politian  (q.  v.),  performed 
at  the  court  of  Mantua  in  14S3,  is  the  first 
dramatic  poem  which  pretends  to  represent  the 
sentiments,  incidents,  and  forms  of  pastoral  life. 
Critics  have  forgotten  this  work  when  they  make 
Tansillo  the  inventor  of  the  favola  pastorale,  or 
boscareccia,  on  account  of  his  J  due  Pellegrini  (1539), 
or  Agostino  Beccari,  whose  pastoral  comedy,  II 
Sacrifizio,  was  played  at  Ferrara  in  1554  However, 
it  is  true  that  the  extraordinary  popularity  of 
Beccari's  piece  originated  a  crowd  of  favole  bosca- 
reec'w,  the  finest  and  most  poetical  of  which  is  the 
Arninta  of  Tasso,  represented  at  the  court  of  Ferrara 
in  1572.    A  later,  but  hardly  less  famous  production 


PASTORAL  STAFF— PASTORAL  THEOLOGY. 


is  the  Pastor  Fido  of  Guarini  (q.  v.),  published  at 
Venice  in  1590;  and  in  the  18th  c,  the  poet 
Metastasio  (q.  v.)  revived  for  a  moment  the  interest 
in  this  graceful  and  picturesque,  hut  unreal  branch 

of  literature.      In  Spain,  during  the  first  part  oi    t  lie 

16th  e.,  it  abundantly  flourished.  The  first  who 
wrote  pastoral  dialogues  was  Juan  del  Elcina  [dr. 
1500) ;  he  was  followed  by  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega, 
and  others.  During  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.,  one  may  say  that  Spanish  imaginative 
litei  ature  was  almost  wholly  of  a  hueolic  character  ; 
but  in  Spain,  as  elsewhere,  it  took  largely  the  form 
of  pr^e- romance  (see  Novels)  rather  than  of  poetry, 
deriving  its  inspiration  from  the  Daplmis  and  Chine, 
of  Lougus,  the  Byzantine  roinancist,  not  from  the 
tuneful  strains  of  the  JMantuan  swan.  England, 
however,  can  boast  of  Spenser's  Shepherd's  Calendar, 
which  is  at  least  full  of  charming  poetry,  and  is 
appropriately  dedicated  to  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  whose 
pastoral  romance  of  Arcadia  outstrips  in  point  of 
literary  beauty  all  other  fictions  of  that  class.  The 
Germans  reckon  Shakspeare's  As  You  Like  It  in 
the  list  of  pastoral  dramas  ;  but  its  right  to  be 
so  classified  is  by  no  means  clear,  although  we  may 
admit  that  it  betrays  the  influence  of  the  pastoral 
poetry  and  romance  that  had  just  ceased  to  he  the 
rage  among  the  scholarly  geniuses  of  Europe.  A 
similar  influence  is  visible  in  the  writings  of  other 
Elizabethan  dramatists,  as,  for  example,  in  the 
Faith/id  Shepherdess  of  Fletcher.  In  France, 
pastoral  poetry  is  perhaps  older  than  in  any  of  the 
western  nations.  The  comedy  of  Adam  de  Lehalle, 
surnamed  Le  Bossu  d'Arras  (The  Hunchback  of 
Arras),  entitled  Le  Jeu  de  Robin  et  Marion  (and 
which  exists  in  MS.  in  the  Bibliothtque  Nationale), 
belongs  to  the  middle  of  the  13th  century.  During 
the  civil  wars  in  the  latter  half  of  the  10th  c,  the 
pastoral  was  turned  to  political  uses.  In  the 
following  century,  it  continued  for  some  time  to  be 
popular,  or  rather,  let  us  say,  fashionable.  Even 
the  great  Richelieu  alleviated  the  cares  of  office 
with  the  composition  of  La  Grande  Pastorale  ;  but 
here,  too,  the  poem  soon  gave  wray  to  the  prose- 
romance,  which  was  hardly  less  unreal,  and  far  more 
exciting. 

Perhaps  the  best  pastoral,  ancient  or  modern, 
is  the  Gentle  Shepherd  of  Allan  Ramsay  (q.  v.), 
published  in  1725.  *  It  is,'  says  Mr  Carruthers 
(Chambers's  Cyclopaedia  of  English  Literature, 
vol.  i.,  p.  601),  'a  genuine  picture  of  Scottish 
life,  but  of  life  passed  in  simple  rural  employ- 
ments, apart  from  the  guilt  and  fever  of  large 
towns,  and  reflecting  only  the  pure  and  unso- 
phisticated emotions  of  our  nature.  The  affected 
sensibilities  and  feigned  distresses  of  the  Corydons 
and  Delias  find  no  place  in  Ramsay's  clear  and 
manly  page.  He  drew  his  shepherds  from  the  life, 
placed  them  in  scenes  which  he  actually  saw,  and 
made  them  speak  the  language  which  he  every  day 
heard — the  free  idiomatic  speech  of  his  native  vales.' 
His  English  contemporaries,  Pope,  Ambrose  Philips, 
Gay,  and  others,  who  form  the  'Augustan,'  or  Queen 
Auue  school  of  poets,  also  addicted  themselves  to 
the  composition  of  pastoral  poetry ;  but  though 
there  is  mmh  fine  description  in  the  verses,  they 
are,  m  general,  purely  conventional  performances,  in 
imitation  of  the  classic  poets,  who,  as  we  have  said, 
did  not  themselves  imitate  nature.  From  this 
censure,  however,  must  be  excepted  the  six  pastorals 
of  Gay,  entitled  the  Shepherd's  Week,  which  are 
full  of  honest  country  humour,  and  contain  charming 
pictures  of  English  country  life.  Since  the  eaily 
part  of  the  18th  c,  however,  pastoral  poetry,  strictly 
so  called,  has  ceased  to  be  cultivated  in  England 
and  almost  everywhere  else.  In  the  pages  of 
Wordsworth,   who   lived   all  his   days  among  the 


Cumberland  shepherds,  we  indeed  find  many  exqtn 
site  glimpses  of  pastoral  life,  as  it  presented  itself 
to  the  profound  and  tender  imagination  of  thai 
poet  of  nature,  but  few  direct  delineations  of 
pastoral  manners.  Germany  imitated  abundantly 
ihe  French  and  Italian  models  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  18th  century.  The  last  and  best  of  the 
German  series  is  the  Ertain  ">"/  Elmirt  of  Goethe's 
youth.  The  general  impression  appears  to  be  thai 
tlie  age  of  pastoral  poetry  has  passed  away  forever, 
and  that  Damon  and  Chloe  wul  never  reappear  in 
verse. 

PASTORAL  STAFF,  sometimes  also,  although 
not  properly,  called  Crosier  (q.  v.)  (Lat.  Oacuuu 
pastoraUe),  one  of   the  insignia   of    the   episcopal 

office,  sometimes  also  borne  by  au  abbot.  It 
is  a  tall  staff  of  metal,  or  of  wood 
ornamented  with  metal,  having,  at 
least  in  the  Western  Church,  the 
head  curved  in  the  form  of  a  shep- 
herd's crook,  as  a  symbol  of  the 
pastoral  office.  The  head  of  the 
pastoral  staff  of  an  archbishop, 
instead  of  the  crook,  has  a  double 
cross,  from  which  its  name  of 
crosier  is  derived.  In  the  Greek 
Church  the  staff  is  much  shorter, 
and  the  head  is  either  a  plain  Creek 
cross  of  the  form  of  the  letter  Tan, 
or  it  is  a  double-headed  crook, 
which  sometimes  appears  in  the 
shape  of  the  upsdon,  T.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  determine  the  time  at  which 
the  pastoral  staff  first  came  into 
use.  The  first  distinct  allusion  to 
it  is  in  St  Augustine's  commentary 
on  the  124th  psalm.  Gregory  of 
Tours,  in  his  life  of  St  Martin, 
mentions  the  pastoral  staff  of  St 
Severinus,  who  was  Bishop  of 
Cologne  in  the  eud  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury. From  an  early  time,  the 
pastoral  staff  was  connected  with 
the  actual  possession  of  the  jurisdiction  which  it 
symbolises.  The  giving  of  it  was  one  of  the  ceie- 
monies  of  investiture ;  its  withdrawal  was  part  of 
the  form  of  deprivation  ;  its  voluntary  abandonment 
accompanied  the  act  of  resignation  ;  its  being  broken 
was  the  most  solemn  form  of  degradation.  So 
also  the  veiling  of  the  crook  of  an  ahhot's  ]  pastoral 
staff,  during  the  episcopal  visitation,  signified  the 
temporaiy  subjection  of  his  authority  to  that  of  the 
bishop.  An  abbot  being  required  to  carry  his 
pastoral  staff  with  the  crook  turned  inwards, 
shewed  that  his  authority  was  purely  domestic.  The 
pope  alone  does  not  use  a  pastoral  staff.  In  the  later 
medieval  period  the  material  was  often  extremely 
costly,  and,  referring  to  the  relaxation  of  the  times, 
it  was  said  '  that  formerly  the  church  had  wooden 
pastoral  staves  and  golden  bishops,  but  that  now  the 
staves  are  of  gold  and  the  bishops  of  wood.'  The 
workmanship  was  sometimes  extremely  beautiful. 
We  annex  as  a  specimen  of  the  highest  art  the 
pastoral  staff  of  William  of  Wykeham,  now  in  Xew 
College,  Oxford.  This  is  a  sample  of  the  Norman 
pastoral  staff.  The  Saxon  was  by  no  means  so  tail. 
The  Irish  pastoral  staff  is  of  a  type  quite  peculiar, 
and  some  of  the  sculptured  specimens  preserved 
in  the  British  Museum,  at  the  Royal  Irish  Academy, 
and  elsewhere,  are  very  interesting  as  illustrating 
the  ecclesiastical  costume  of  the  period. 

PASTORAL  THEOLOGY,  that  branch  of 
theological  science  "^hich  regards  the  duties  and 
obligations  of  pastors  la  relation  to  the  care  of  souls. 
It  comprises  two  parts ;  first,  that  which  treats  of 

316 


Pastoral  Staff. 


PASTRY— PASTURES. 


the  obligations  of  the  pasters  themselves,  and  which 
is  therefore  designed  for  the  training  and  prepara- 
tion of  the  candidates  for  the  pastoral  office.  The 
other  part  of  pastoral  theology,  which  might  perhaps 
better  be  called  Popular  Theology,  comprises  the 
objective  teaching  which  is  to  be  employed  in  the 
instruction  and  direction  of  the  flock,  committed  to 
the  pastor's  charge.  This  branch  of  theology  has 
long  formed  a  leading  portion  of  the  training  of 
candidates  in  the  Evangelical  Churches  of  France 
and  Germany ;  and  a  valuable  manual  for  Catholic 
Btudies  has  recently  appeared  in  Vienna,  Lehrbuch 
der  Kallwlisclfn  Pastoral,  von  Dr  A.  KerscLhainmer, 
8vo,  Wien,  1SG3. 

PA'STRY,  articles  of  food  in  which  the  chief  part 
consists  of  a  paste  made  of  flour.  This  would  of 
course  apply  to  bread,  but  it  has  been  limited  by 
custom  to  such  lighter  articles  as  are  made  by 
the  pastry-cook,  and  chiefly  to  those  in  which 
the  paste  is  made  to  assume  a  light  flaky  character 
by  the  addition  of  butter,  &c,  and  by  the  mode  of 
working  it  up.  The  commonest  kind  is  made  of  a 
dough  of  flour  and  water,  into  which  butter  or 
lard  is  worked  by  hand,  in  the  proportion  of  six 
ounces  to  the  pound.  The  finest  kind  is  usually 
termed  puff  past",  and  considerable  skill  is  required 
to  make  it  well,  for  it  depends,  next  to  the  goodness 
of  the  materials,  upon  lightness  of  hand  in  kneading 
the  ingredients  together.  These  ingredients  consist 
of  fine  wheaten  flour  and  butter  in  the  proportion  of 
four  ounces  of  butter  to  a  pound  of  flour,  with  cold 
water  just  sufficientto  makeagood  stiff' elastic  dough ; 
this  is  rolled  out  with  a  rolling-pin,  and  double 
the  previous  quantity  of  butter  is  then  spread 
over  it.  It  is  then  rolled  up  and  lightly  kneaded, 
bo  as  to  work  the  butter  in  thoroughly.  Coolness  is 
very  important  in  making  pastry ;  a  marble  slab  is 
therefore  most  desirable  for  making  it  upon.  The 
thinner  it  is  rolled  out  before  the  butter  is  then  spread 
the  better,  because  when  it  is  put  in  the  oven  the 
laminae  which  have  been  formed  by  folding  or  roll- 
ing up  the  butter  with  the  dough,  separate  by  the 
disengagement  of  the  watery  vapour,  and  the  thinner 
and  lighter  the  flakes  are  the  better  is  the  puff 
paste.  Another  kind  is  called  short  paste ;  in  this 
the  flour  is  made  warm,  and  the  butter  or  lard  used 
is  often  melted,  and  a  little  sugar  and  an  egg  or 
two  are  added.  This,  when  baked,  has  none  of  the 
flaky  character  of  puff"  paste,  but  it  is  better  adapted 
for  meat  and  some  other  kinds  of  pies  which  require 
to  be  baked  without  a  dish.  Game  pies,  with 
elaborately-decorated  crusts,  are  made  of  this  pastry. 

PA'STURAGE,  in  English  Law  called  Common  of 
Pasture,  is  classed  among  rights  of  common  or  pro- 
fits a  prendre,  and  is  the  right  of  one  who  is  not  the 
owner  of  land  to  put  his  sheep  or  cattle  on  such 
laod  to  feed  there.  In  Scotland  it  is  called  a  servi- 
tude of  pasturage.  In  both  countries  the  right  can 
be  established  by  prescription,  in  England  of  thirty 
years,  and  in  Scotland  of  forty  years.  Where  the 
parties  entitled  to  pasturage  dispute  as  to  their 
respective  proportions  of  cattle,  the  suit  to  redress 
the  matter  is  called  in  Scotland  an  action  of  'sowming 
and  rowming.' 

PA'STURES  (Lat.  pasco,  to  feed)  are  fields  or 
tracts  of  land  devoted  to  the  feeding  of  oxen,  sheep, 
and  other  herbivorous  animals,  which  eat  the  grass 
and  other  herbage  as  it  grows.  Grass  is  grown 
sometimes  in  the  rotation  with  grain  and  other 
crops,  when  it  remains  on  the  ground  for  one  or 
more  years,  is  frequently  mown  during  the  first 
summer,  and  grazed  afterwards,  but  is  again  ploughed 
up  to  be  succeeded  usually  by  oats  or  wheat.  For 
such  purposes,  rye-grass,  red,  white,  yellow,  and 
algike  cloves,  are  used  either  alone  or  mixed  in 
316 


varying  proportions.  On  the  uplands  of  Great 
Britain,  wherever  from  any  cause  grain  crops  cannot 
profitably  be  grown,  and  throughout  many  of  tne 
richest  plains  and  valleys,  especially  of  England  and 
Ireland,  there  are  thousands  of  acres  of  land  which 
have  been  under  grass  from  time  immemorial.  Such 
permanent  pastures  are  estimated  to  occupy  fully 
14,000,000  acres  in  England,  nearly  8,000,000  in 
Scotland,  and  about  9,0i  10,000  in  Ireland.  Some- 
times they  have  been  self-sown,  occasionally  they 
have  been  laid  down  with  care,  seldom  are  they  as 
highly  cultivated  and  liberally  managed  as  they 
should  be.  The  best  of  them  are  used  for  feeding 
heavy  bullocks  ;  those  of  somewhat  poorer  descrip- 
tion are  often  grazed  by  dairy  stock  ;  whilst  the 
down  or  upland  pastures  are  especially  profitable 
for  sheep.  It  has  now  become  a  common  practice, 
and  is  every  year  becoming  more  and  more 
general,  to  give  additional  food  of  various  kinds  to 
animals  fed  on  pastures.  Even  cattle  grazing  on  the 
richest  pastures  are  supplied  with  linseed  cake,  &c, 
to  hasten  the  process  of  fattening,  and  to  improve 
their  quality ;  roots  are  given  to  sheep  when  fat- 
tening for  the  market,  and  hay  to  those  which  are 
to  be  kept  as  stock ;  whilst  when  oats  or  beans 
are  cheap,  many  sheep-farmers  rind  it  advantageous 
to  give  them  even  to  the  hardy  stock  of  exposed 
hill-pastures.  All  pastures  are  much  improved  by 
thorough  drainage.  The  application  of  farmyard 
dung  soil,  lime,  and  almost  every  sort  of  top- 
dressing  is  beneficial.  Irrigation  is  sometimes  profit- 
able, and  in  some  other  countries  is  far  more 
common  and  far  more  requisite  than  in  Britain. 
Rich  pastures  on  which  oxen  are  fed  are  injured  by 
sheep,  which  reject  the  coarsest  grass,  and  pick  out 
the  finest ;  but  a  few  horses  turned  into  them 
during  the  autumn  or  winter  help  to  consume  the 
coarser  tufts.  The  coarsest  and  rankest  grass  may 
once  or  twice  a  year  be  cut  over  by  the  scythe; 
and  either  made  into  rough  hay,  or  if  left  on  the 
ground,  the  cattle,  when  it  has  partially  dried,  will 
readily  eat  it  up.  A  dressing  of  lime  and  salt 
scattered  over  the  rougher  parts  of  the  fields  in 
autumn  will  sweeten  the  herbage,  and  induce  the 
stock  to  eat  it  down  regularly.  Moss,  which  is  a 
great  pest  in  many  pastures,  may  be  got  rid  of  by 
penning  sheep,  well  fed  with  swedes,  cake,  or  corn, 
regularly  over  the  field ;  or  by  harrowing  the  surface 
in  several  different  directions  during  January  or 
February,  applying  then  a  top-dressing  of  soil  or 
dung,  and  in  March  or  April  sowing  some  clover  or 
other  seeds,  which  will  be  firmed  down  by  the  bush 
harrow,  clod-crusher,  or  heavy  roller.  The  droppings 
of  the  cattle  ought  to  be  broken  up  and  scattered 
over  the  ground.  Rich  pastures  intended  for  the 
fattening  of  cattle  ought  not  to  be  used  during 
winter,  but  allowed  to  become  luxuriant  before 
the  cattle  are  turned  upon  them  in  spring.  Very 
lean  animals,  whether  oxen  or  sheep,  cannot  with 
advantage  be  at  once  placed  on  very  rich  pasture, 
but  must  be  gradually  fitted  for  it.  In  some  of 
the  hill  districts  of  Scotland,  devoted  to  sheep- 
faiming,  increased  productiveness  ha3  resulted 
from  breaking  up  portions  of  the  pasture,  and 
after  two  or  three  crops  have  been  taken,  laying 
them  down  as  pastures  again.  All  good  pastures 
produce  a  very  mixed  herbage,  not  consisting 
merely  of  one  kind  of  grass,  but  of  several  or 
many,  with  clovers  and  other  plants.  Different 
species  of  Meadow-grass  (Poa),  Fescue  (Festuca), 
Foxtail  (Alopecurus),  Oat-grass  (Avena),  Cock's- 
foot  (Darttjlis  glomerata),  Rye-grass  (Lolium),  Hair- 
grass  (Aira),  Vernal-grass  (Anthoxanthum),  and 
Timothy  or  Cat's-tail  (PMrum),  are  among  the 
most  common  grasses  of  British  pastures.  Yarrow 
{Achillcea    millefolium)    is   very  abundant   in  soma 


PATAGONIA. 


Sutures,  and  is  sometimes  sown  with  grass,  clover, 
■  ■.,  in  land  meant  for  p  irmanent  pasture.  Different 
kin. is  of  clover  are  adapted  t"  different  soils  and 
situations.  The  presence  of  rushes  is  very  indica- 
tive of  the  want  of  drainage.  Thistles  and  ducks 
are  injurious,  and  are  to  be  extirpated  as  much  as 
possible.  Some  of  the  plants  naturally  abundant  on 
nigh  hill-pastures,  as  Nanlua  atricta  and  Juncus 
(lutu.ii'ix,  are  very  unnutritions ;  and  the  substitu- 
tion of  others  in  their  stead,  is  one  of  the  benelits 
derived  from  the  breaking  up  of  sued  lam's. 

1'  LTAGO'NIA,  the  most  southern  country  of 
South  America)  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  and  the  Bio  Negro,  which  separates 
it  from  the  Pampas  (q.  v.) ;  on  the  N.W.  by  the 
Chilian  territories;  on  the  W,  by  the  Pacific;  on 
the  8.  by  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  which  separates  it 
from  Tierra  del  Fueso;  and  on  the  E.  by  the 
Atlantic.  It  lies  in  lat.  38° — 53°  S. ;  and  in  long. 
62?  40'— 75°  40'  W.  Length  upwards  of  1000 
miles,  greatest  breadth  about  480  miles;  area  about 
350,000  square  miles;  estimated  pop.  3000.  If 
this  estimate  is  correct,  F.  must  be  one  of  the 
most  sparsely-peopled  regions  of  the  globe.  The 
coast  of  the  Atlantic  is  much  broken  by  extensive 
bays  and  inlets,  none  of  which,  however,  are  of 
much  importance  or  advantage,  in  a  commercial 
point  of  view.  Along  the  western  coast,  and 
stretching  from  42°  S.  to  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  are 
numerous  islands,  with  precipitous  shores,  belonging 
apparently  to  the  system  of  the  Cordilleras.  The 
principal  islands  are  Chiloe,  the  Chonos  Archipelago 
(q.  v.),  Wellington  Island,  the  Archipelago  of  Madre 
de  Dios,  Queen  Adelaide's  Archipelago,  and  Deso- 
lation Island.  These  islands — which,  together  with 
several  peninsulas,  form  a  coast  almost  as  rugged  as 
that  of  Norway — are  mountainous  ;  but  in  none  of 
them,  except  in  Desolation  Island,  do  the  mountains 
rise  to  the  snow-line. 

Surface,  Soil,  <tc— The  country  of  P.  divides  itself 
into  two  regions,  very  unequal  in  size  and  very 
different  in  character.  These  are  Eastern  and 
Western  P.,  which  are  divided  by  the  great  moun- 
tain range  of  the  Andes.  Western  P.,  comprising 
this  range,  the  coast  districts,  and  the  islands,  is 
rugged  and  mountainous.  Opposite  the  island  of 
Chiloe  are  two  active  volcanoes,  one  of  which,  Min- 
chinmavida,  is  8000  feet  high.  The  slope  of  the 
country  from  the  Andes  to  the  Pacific  is  so  steep, 
and  the  strip  of  shore  so  narrow,  that  the  largest 
river  of  this  distiict  has  its  origin  only  about  13 
miles  from  its  embouchure  on  the  coast.  In  the 
island  of  Chdoe,  in  the  north  of  Western  P.,  the 
mean  temperature  of  winter  is  about  40°,  that  of 
summer  rather  above  50° ;  whde  at  Port  Famine,  in 
the  extreme  south  of  this  region,  and  800  miles 
nearer  antarctic  latitudes  than  Chiloe,  the  mean 
temperature  is  not  much  lower,  being  in  winter 
about  33%  and  in  summer  about  50°.  This  unusually 
small  difference  in  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
extremes  of  Western  P.,  which  extends  over  about  14° 
of  lat.,  is  due  to  the  great  dampness  of  the  atmosphere 
all  along  the  coast.  The  prevailing  winds  of  this 
region  blow  from  the  west ;  and,  heavily  surcharged 
with  the  moisture  they  have  drawn  from  the 
immense  wastes  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  they  strike 
against  the  Andes,  are  thoroughly  condensed  by  the 
cold  high  mountains,  and  fall  in  rains  that  are  almost 
perpetual  from  Chiloe  to  the  Strait  of  Magellan. 
South  of  47°  S.  lat.,  hardly  a  day  passes  without  a 
fall  of  rain,  snow,  or  sleet.  This  continual  dampness 
has  produced  forests  of  almost  tropical  luxuriance. 
A  kind  of  deer  wanders  on  the  east  side  of  the 
mountains  ;  pumas  and  water- fowl  are  met  with  ; 
and,  along  the  coast,  seals,  otters,  sea-elephants, 
fish,  and  shell-fish  are  found. 


Eastern  P.,  often  called  the  plain*,  compi 
far  the  larger  portion  of  1'..  and  i 
from  the  Andes  to  the  At, antic.  Its  surface  has 
not  yet  been  thoroughly  explored,  and  is  described 
only  in  the  most  general  terms.  According  to  all 
accounts  written  previously  to  the  year  1864, 
Eastern  I'.,  from  its  northern  to  its  southern  limits, 
is  an  immense,  stony,  shingly  waste,  generally 
level,  but  gradually  rising  in  terraced  steppe*  from 
tin-  Atlantic  to  tin-  Cordilleras.  Tin-  elevation  of  the 
highest  of  these  terraces  is  about  -.     The 

surface  is  covered  with  stones  and  pebbles,  mixed 
with  earth  of  a  whitish  colour,  overlying 
masses  of  porphyry,  and  strewn  with  in 
boulders.  Thorny  brushwood,  tufts  of  coarse  brown 
grass,  and,  toward  the  west,  basaltic  ricL/es,  break 
the  dead  level  of  the  dreary  landsca>M=>.  The 
Btrongly  impregnated  with  saltpetre.  Salt  lakes  of 
every  variety  of  extent  and  level  abound.  Many  of 
these  lakes  are  surrounded  by  a  brilliant  snow-white 
crust ;  the  waters  of  some  of  them  are  cold  in  summer 
and  hot  in  winter,  while  in  others  the  waters  are 
poisonous.  Extending  along  the  south  coast  for 
several  hundred  miles,  there  is  a  great  deposit  of 
tertiary  strata,  underlying  a  stratum  of  a  white 
pumaceous  substance,  a  tenth  part  of  which  is 
marine  infusoria.  Sea-shells  are  scattered  every- 
where across  the  country,  and  salt  is  everywhere 
abundant,  from  which  circumstances  it  has  been 
inferred  that  this  tract  was  once  a  sea-bottom.  The 
air  of  Eastern  P.  is  generally  dry  and  hot,  deriving 
no  moisture  from  the  prevailing  west  winds,  which 
pass  over  the  plains  after  having  been  drained  by 
the  Andes.  Hurricanes,  however,  cutting  and  frigid, 
sweep  over  the  plains  with  great  fury,  stripping  the 
hides  from  the  roofs  of  the  rouhihs  or  huts,  and 
paralysing  the  inhabitants  with  cold  and  with  fear. 
The  above  account,  though  in  general  correct,  must 
be  supplemented  as  wed  as  modified  by  a  few  facts 
as  to  the  surface  from  one  who  recently  lived  for 
three  years  in  P.  and  its  vicinity.  According  to 
M.  Guinnard,  the  country  along  the  banks  of  the 
Itio  Negro  is  for  the  most  part  mountainous,  and  is 
intersected  by  deep  ravines ;  but  it  is  not,  as  has 
hitherto  been  believed,  completely  sterile,  for,  on 
the  contrary,  the  escarped  banks  of  the  river  are 
sometimes  abundantly  fertile.  The  same  traveller 
further  estimates  that  one-third  of  the  entire  area 
of  this  country — which  has  hitherto  been  described 
as  barren — is  of  great  fertility,  especially  the  regions 
on  the  east  coast  and  on  the  Strait  of  Magellan  in 
the  south.  Along  the  eastern  base  of  the  Andes 
also,  the  great  tract  of  territory  called  Los  Serranoa 
is  astonishingly  picturesque  and  fertile.  Here  great 
forests  abound,  to  which  the  Indians  retire  for  shelter 
from  the  freezing  winds  of  winter.  There  are  also 
deep  valleys  furrowed  by  mountain  torrents ;  and 
numerous  lakes,  the  haunts  of  wild-duck  and  othen 
water-fowl  which  woidd  delight  the  European 
sportsman,  but  which  are  never  disturbed  by  the 
Indians,  and  are  almost  as  tame  as  barn-yard  fowls. 
Except  pasture,  Eastern  P.  has  no  productions. 
However  fertile  the  sod  in  some  places  may  be,  it 
is  nowhere  cultivated.  The  Indians  live  upon  the 
produce  of  the  chase  alone,  and  seem  to  desire  no 
better  sustenance.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Kio 
Negro  (q.  v.)  ;  the  Chupat,  which  flows  through  a 
cood  soil,  producing  excellent  pasture  and  good  fire- 
wood ;  and  the  Santa  Cruz,  which  flows  through  a 
barren  district,  in  a  valley  from  one  to  five  miles 
wide,  and  1400  feet  below  the  level  of  the  plain. 
All  these  rivers  rise  in  the  Andes  ;  the  Chupat 
flows  east,  and  the  others  south-east.  Herds 
of  horses  are  reared,  dogs  abound,  and  in  the 
more  favoured  regions,  cattle  are  bred ;  pumas  and 
foxes  are   met   with,  as   well   as   condors,   hawks. 

317 


PATAGONIA. 


partridges,  and  water-fowl  in  Los  Serranos.  But  by 
far  the  most  important  animals  are  the  guanaco 
(wild  llama),  the  nandou  (Patagonian  ostrich),  and 
the  gama,  a  kind  ot  deer. 

Inhabitants. — The  Patagonians  have  been  hitherto 
described  only  in  the  most  general  terms,  and  in 
many  cases  very  inaccurately.  Little  was  known  of 
their  appearance,  habits,  and  employments.  Kecent 
information,  however,  enables  us  definitively  to  class 
the  Patagonian  monster  of  the  early  voyagers  with 
Gulliver's  giants.  The  tallest  of  the  tribes  are  com- 
posed of  men  who,  on  an  average,  are  nearly  six  feet 
m  height ;  while  in  other  tribes  the  average  height 
is  an  inch  or  two  less.  There  is  reason  to  believe, 
however,  that  instances  of  unusual  height  are  as 
rare  in  P.  as  in  Europe.  The  peculiar  costume  of 
the  Patagonians,  which  in  most  instances  consists  of 
a  long  mantle  of  hide,  drooping  with  unbroken  out- 
line from  their  shoulders  almost  to  the  ground,  gives 
them  the  appearance  of  extraordinary  height.  Many 
of  the  tribes  also  are  large  in  body,  while  they  have 
comparatively  short  extremities ;  and  these,  when 
Been  on  horseback,  covered  with  their  long  mantles, 
seem  almost  gigantic  in  stature.  Their  colour  is  a 
reddish  brown.  Their  shoulders  are  large,  and  well 
thrown  back  ;  the  chest  is  well  expanded ;  the  head 
large,  the  forehead  open  and  prominent ;  the  mouth 
large  ;  the  eyes  black,  and  generally  large  ;  the  nose 
frecpiently  hooked,  long,  and  thin,  though  among 
some  tribes  it  is,  as  a  rule,  broad  at  the  nostrils  ;  the 
ears  are  large,  and  elongated  by  the  heavy  ornameuts 
of  their  own  manufacture  which  they  wear  in  them, 
and  which  are  so  large  that  they  often  rest  on  the 
shoulders.  The  hair,  generally  black,  coarse,  and 
lank,  is  sometimes  rolled  together  on  the  top  of 
the  head.  Their  houses,  called  roukahs,  are  formed 
of  three  rows  of  stakes  driven  into  the  ground.  The 
middle  row  is  higher  than  the  others,  and  the  three 
rows  are  tied  together  with  strings  of  hide,  and  so 
kept  in  their  place.  This  frail  framework  is  covered 
with  hides  which  reach  the  ground  ou  all  sides,  and 
are  fastened  to  it  by  small  stakes  of  bone.  At  night- 
fall, guanaco  hides  are  spread  on  the  ground  within 
the  tents,  and  the  men  and  women  laying  aside 
their  mantle,  their  only  garment,  and  which  some- 
times serves  as  a  blanket,  go  to  sleep  under  the  same 
roof  and  in  the  same  apartment.  Bathing  in  cold 
water  every  morning,  throughout  the  whole  year, 
is  a  custom  to  which  men,  women,  and  children 
conform;  and  although  the  morning  bath  may  not 
free  them  from  vermin — a  national  characteristic — 
yet  it  has  the  effect  of  preventing  disease,  and  of 
enabling  them  the  more  easily  to  endure  the  severi- 
ties of  winter.  The  men,  when  out  on  the  hunt, 
shew  wonderful  courage  and  adroitness ;  when  not 
so  engaged,  they  live  in  perfect  idleness.  They  are 
incredibly  greedy  and  voracious.  They  deck  their 
heads,  and  ornament  them  into  the  perfection  of 
ugliness,  greasing  their  hair  with  the  grease  of  the 
horse.  They  pull  out  the  hair  of  the  eyebrows 
and  beard,  and  paint  their  bodies  with  black,  red, 
and  other  colours.  The  Patagonians  are  nomads ; 
some  of  the  tribes,  however,  as  the  Puelches,  are 
nomads  from  choice,  not  from  necessity,  for  their 
district  or  headquarters  is  abundantly  fertile.  The 
more  important  tribes  are  nine  in  number ;  and 
each  tribe  is  led  and  governed  by  a  cacique,  whose 
power  extends  also  to  numerous  sub-tribes.  Each 
famdy  and  each  man,  however,  is  entirely  free,  and 
can  remain  attached  to  a  certain  tribe  or  separ- 
ate from  it  at  pleasure.  The  Patagonians 
form  themselves  into  these  communities  for  the 
purpose  of  self-defence.  Wars  are  so  frequent 
that  security  is  found  only  in  union.  The 
chiefs  are  considered  as  the  fathers,  the  leaders, 
and  th^  rulers  of  the  tribe ;  and  are  selected 
31S 


chiefly  on  account  of  their  bravery  in  battle. 
The  more  powerful  tribes  frequently  make  raids 
upon  settlements,  and  carry  off  great  numbers  of 
horses  and  cattle.  They  subsist  upon  the  flesh  of 
horses,  nandous,  gamas,  and  guanacos  ;  the  flesh 
they  eat  is  generally  raw.  Their  choice  morsels  are 
the  liver,  the  lungs,  and  the  raw  kidneys,  which 
they  prefer  to  eat  dished  in  the  warm  blood  of  the 
animal,  or  in  curdled  milk  seasoned  with  salt. 
Roots  and  fishes  are  also  eaten,  but  raw  flesh  is  the 
staple.  They  are  hospitable  among  themselves, 
though  bitterly  hostile  to  Christians.  Their  only 
manufactures  are  mantles  of  guanaco  hide,  and 
saddles,  bridles,  stirrups,  and  lassos.  The  lassos 
aud  the  articles  of  harness  are  chiefly  plaited,  and 
evince  wonderful  ingenuity  and  nicety  of  execution, 
The  mantles  are  made  for  the  most  part  by  a  tribe 
called  the  Tchcouelches.  They  are  mainly  made  by 
women,  who  first  in  a  rude  and  primitive  manner  tan 
the  leather,  then  put  the  hides  together,  and  sew 
them  with  the  small  sinews  of  the  animal  itself. 
Afterwards  the  men  rub  them  with  a  stone  for  the 
purpose  of  suppling  them  and  flattening  the  seams, 
and  then  ornament  them  with  capricious  desigus 
in  red  and  black  paint.  The  Indians  obtain  a  few 
cattle  and  horses  in  exchange  for  these  mautles, 
which  are  no  less  prized  by  neighbouring  tribes  than 
they  are  by  the  Hispano-Americans.  Clothed  in 
one  of  them,  the  natives  expose  themselves  to  the 
most  intense  cold  without  receiving  any  injury. 

The  religion  of  the  Patagonians  is  dualistic. 
They  believe  in  two  gods  or  superior  beings — the 
God  of  Good  and  the  God  of  Evil ;  or,  in  their  own 
language,  Vita  Ouenetrou — the  Great  Man,  and 
Honacouvou  or  Gualetchou — the  Cause  of  Evils. 
The  former  they  consider  the  creator  of  all  things, 
and  they  believe  that  he  sends  the  sun  to  them  as 
his  representative,  as  much  to  examine  what  takes 
place  among  them,  as  to  warm  their  bodies  and 
renew  the  brief  spring  verdure.  The  moon  is  another 
representative,  whose  office  it  is  to  watch  them  and 
give  them  light.  Believing  that  they  themselves 
require  a  great  deal  of  'watching,'  they  further 
believe  that  every  country  on  the  globe  has  its  own 
sun  and  moon,  or  special  watchers.  They  have  no 
idols.  Their  faith  is  transmitted  from  father  to  son, 
and  its  observances  are  strictly  attended  to.  They 
are  full  of  strange  superstitions.  They  dread  the 
north  and  the  south,  believing  that  from  the  south 
come  evil  spirits,  who  take  possession  of  the  souls 
of  the  dying,  and  bear  them  off  to  the  north.  They 
consider  that  the  best  means  of  ensuriug  a  long 
life  is  to  go  to  sleep  with  the  head  lying  either  to 
the  east  or  to  the  west.  They  also  believe  that  all 
natural  phenomena  have  their  causes  in  their  own 
conduct,  and  that  all  misfortunes  are  sent  as  punish- 
ments due  to  moral  delinquencies.  Thus,  the 
fearful  tempests  that  sweep  over  their  plains  inspire 
them  with  the  greatest  dread.  During  the  preva- 
lence of  the  hurricane,  they  crouch  together  in  their 
huts;  fear  makes  them  inactive,  and  they  do  not 
stir  from  their  grovelling  position  even  to  cover 
themselves  with  the  hides  which  the  tempest 
strips  from  their  huts.  The  Patagonian  never  eats 
or  drinks  without  turning  to  the  sun.  and  throw- 
ing down  before  him  a  scrap  of  meat  or  a  few 
drops  of  water,  and  using  a  form  of  invocation. 
This  form  of  invocation  is  not  fixed,  but  it  hardly 
ever  varies,  and  is  to  the  following  effect :  '  O 
Father,  Great  Man,  king  of  this  earth !  give 
me  favour,  dear  friend,  day  by  day;  good  food, 
good  drink,  good  sleep ;  I  am  poor  myself,  are 
you  hungry?  Here  is  a  poor  scrap;  eat  if  you 
wish.'  The  Patagonians  observe  two  great  religious 
fetes — one  in  summer,  in  honour  of  the  Benevolent 
Deity ;  and  another  in  autumn,  in  honour  of  the  God 


pItAla    patella. 


of  Evil.  On  the  OCCSBion  of  these  fetes,  the  Indians 
assemble  on  horseback,  dressed  in  the  most  cere- 
monious manner,  with  their  bail  newly  ■_ 
ami  their  1 1' idies  freshly  painted.  On  such  occasions, 
it  is  customary  to  wear  whatever  vestments  they 
may  have  obtained  either  in  war  or  by  stealth  from 
civilised  men;  and  a  Patagonian  chief  may  be  seen 
wearing  above  his  mantle  of  hide  the  shirt  of  the 
European,  or  casing  his  legs  in  a  pair  of  pantaloons. 
The  Patagoniana  are  much  given  to  gambling  and 
to  drinking.  They  make  intoxicating  beverages 
from  the  berries  which  they  find  in  their  woods,  and 
they  obtain  liquor  From  the  1 1 ispano- Americans,  in 
exchange  for  mantles. —  Trois  Ans  D'Esclavaye  chez 
les  Patajons,  par  A.  Guinnard. 

A  t 

PATALA  (from  pat,  fall)  is,  in  Hindu  Mythology, 
the  name  of  those  inferior  regions  which  have 
seven,  or,  according  to  some,  eight  divisions,  each 
extending  downwards  teu  thousand  yojanas,  or 
miles.  The  soil  of  these  regions,  as  the  Vishriu- 
Purdn'a  relates,  is  severally  white,  black,  purple, 
yellow,  sandy,  stony,  and  of  gold  ;  they  are  em- 
bellished with  magnificent  palaces,  in  which  dwell 
numerous  Danavas,  Daityas,  Yakshas,  and  great 
snake-god.?,  decorated  with  brilliant  jewels,  and 
happy  in  the  enjoyment  of  delicious  viands  and 
strong  wines.     There  are  in  these  regions  beautiful 

groves,  and  streams  and  lakes,  where  the  lotus 
lows,  and  the  skies  are  resonant  with  the  kokila's 
songs.  They  are,  in  short,  so  delightful,  that  the 
saint  Narada,  after  his  return  from  them  to  heaven, 
declared  among  the  celestials  that  P.  was  much 
more  delightful  than  Indra's  heaven.  Professor 
Wilson,  in  his  Vishnu- Purdn'a,  says  'that  there  is 
no  very  copious  description  of  Patala  in  any  of  the 
Purdn'as  ;  that  the  most  circumstantial  are  those  of 
the  V&yu  and  Bhdgavata  Purdn'as;  and  that  the 
Mahdbhd  rata  and  these  two  Purdn'as  assign  different 

divisions  to  the  Danavas,  Daityas,  and  Xagas 

The  regions  of  the  P&tala  and  their  inhabitants  are 
oftener  the  subjects  of  profane  than  of  sacred 
fiction,  in  consequence  of  the  frequent  intercourse 
between  mortal  heroes  and  the  serpent-maids.  A 
considerable  section  of  the  Vr'ihat-Kathd  consists  of 
adventures  and  eveuts  in  this  subterraneous  world.' 
For  inferior  regions  of  a  different  description,  see 
Karaka. 

PATAXJALI  is  the  name  of  two  celebrated 
authors  of  ancient  India,  who  are  generally  looked 
upon  as  the  same  personage,  but  apparently  for  no 
other  reason  than  that  they  bear  the  same  name. 
The  one  is  the  author  of  the  system  of  philosophy 
called  Yoga  (q.  v.),  the  other  the  great  critic  of 
Katyayana  (q.  v.)  and  Pan'ini  (q.  v.).  Of  the  former, 
nothing  is  known  beyond  his  work — for  which  see 
the  article  Yoga.  The  few  historical  facts  relating 
to  the  latter,  as  at  present  ascertained,  may  be 
gathered  from  his  great  work,  the  Mahdbhdshya,  or 
'  the  great  commentary.'  The  name  of  his  mother 
was  Gon'ika, ;  his  birthplace  was  Gonarda,  situated 
in  the  east  of  India,  and  he  resided  temporarily  in 
Cashmere,  where  his  work  was  especially  patronised. 
From  circumstantial  evidence,  Professor  Goldstucker 
has,  moreover,  proved  that  he  wrote  between  140 
and  120  B.  c.  (Pd/iini,  his  Place  in  Sanscrit  Litera- 
ture, p.  235,  ff.).  The  Mahdbhdshya  of  P.  is  not 
a  full  commentary  on  Pan'ini,  but,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  only  a  commentary  on  the  Varttikas,  or 
critical  remarks  of  Katyayana  on  Pan'ini.  '  Its 
method  is  analogous  to  that  of  other  classical  com- 
mentaries :  it  establishes,  usually  by  repetition, 
the  correct  reading  of  the  text,  in  explaining  every 
important  or  doubtful  word,  in  shewing  the  connec- 
tion of  the  principal  parts  of  the  sentence,  and  in 
adding  such  observations  as  may  be  required  for  a 


better  understanding  of  the  author.  P.ut  frequently 
Patau jali  also  attaches  his  own  critical  remarks  to  the 
emendations  of  Katyayana,  often  in  support  of  the 
views  of  the  latter,  but  not  seldom,  too,  in  order  to 
refute  his  criticisms,  and  to  defend  Pan'ini;  while, 
again,  at  other  times,  he  completes  the  statement  of 
one  of  them  by  his  own  additional  rules.'  P.  being 
the  third  of  the  grammatical  triad  of  India  (see 
Pan'ini),  and  his  work,  therefore,  having  the  ad  van* 
tage  of  profiting  by  the  scholarship  of  his  predeces- 
sors, he  is  looked  upon  as  a  paramount  authority  ia 
all  matters  relating  to  classical  Sanscrit  grammar ; 
and  very  justly  60,  for  as  to  learning,  ingenuity, 
and  conscientiousness,  there  is  no  grammatical 
autlfbr  of  India  who  can  be  held  superior  to  him. 
The  Mahdbhdshya  has  been  commented  upon  by 
Kaiyyat'a,  in  a  work  called  the  Blidahya-Pra- 
dipa;  and  the  latter  has  been  annotated  by 
Nagojlbhatta,  in  a  work  called  the  BliAshya- 
pradipodyota.  So  much  of  these  three  latter 
works  as  relates  to  the  first  chapter  of  the 
first  book  of  Pan'ini,  together  with  the  Varttikas 
connected  with  them,  has  been  edited  at  Mirzapore, 
1S5G,  by  the  late  Dr  J.  11.  Ballantyne,  who  also  gave 
a  valuable  literal  translation  of  the  first  forty 
pages  of  the  text. 

PATA'PSCO,  a  river  of  Maryland.  U.S.,  rises  on 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  state,  and  flows  south- 
easterly 80  miles  to  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  14  miles 
south  of  Baltimore,  to  which  city  it  is  navigable. 
Its  falls  furnish  water-power  to  numerous  factories. 

PATCHOU'LI.  This  very  interesting  material 
is  the  dried  branches  of  Poaostemon  Patchouli 
(natural  order  Labiata>),  which  was  first  introduced 
to  this  country  as  an  article  of  merchandise  in 
1844.  The  plant  is  a  native  of  Silhet,  the  Malay 
coast,  Ceylon,  Java,  the  neighbourhood  of  Bombay, 
and  probably  also  of  China;  but  owing  to  the 
fondness  of  Asiatics  for  the  perfume  which  it 
yields,  it  is  difficult  to  say  where  it  is  native  or 
cultivated.  Every  part  of  the  plant  is  odoriferous, 
but  the  younger  portions  of  the  branches  with 
the  leaves  are  chosen ;  they  are  usually  about 
a  foot  long.  The  odour  is  peculiar  and  diffi- 
cult to  define,  but  it  has  a  slight  resemblance 
to  sandal-wood ;  it  is  very  powerful,  and  to  many 
persons  is  extremely  disagreeable.  The  odour  of 
patchouli  was  known  in  Europe  before  the  material 
itself  was  introduced,  in  consequence  of  its  use  in 
Cashmere  to  scent  the  shawls  with  a  view  of 
keeping  out  moths,  which  are  averse  to  it ;  hence 
the  genuine  Cashmere  shawls  were  known  by  their 
scent,  until  the  French  found  the  secret,  and 
imported  the  herb  for  use  in  the  same  way.  Its 
name  in  India  is  Pucha-pat,  and  it  is  there  used  as  an 
ingredient  in  fancy  tobaccoes,  and  as  a  perfume  for 
the  hair.  It  is  also  much  prized  for  keeping  insects 
from  linen  and  woollen  articles.  The  essence  af 
patchouli  is  a  peculiar  heavy  brown  oil,  with  a 
disagreeably  powerful  odour ;  it  is  obtained  \y 
distillation,  and  requires  extreme  dilution  for  p«** 
fumery  purposes. 

PATE'LLA,  or  KNEE-CAP,  is  a  Sesamoid  Bons 
(q.  v.),  developed  in  the  single  tendon  of  the  lecluf, 
vastus  externus,  and  vastus  interims  muscles — the 
greater  extensor  muscles  of  the  leg.  It  is  heart- 
shaped  in  form,  the  broad  end  being  directed 
upwards,  and  the  apex  downwards.  The  anterior 
or  external  surface  is  convex,  perforated  by  small 
apertures  for  the  entrance  of  vessels,  and  marked 
by  rough  longitudinal  striae,  while  the  posterior  or 
internal  surface  is  smooth  and  divided  into  two 
facets  by  a  vertical  ridge,  which  corresponds  and 
fits  into  the  groove  on  the  lower  articulating  surface 
of  the  femur  or  thigh-bone,  while  the  two  facets  (of 

319 


PATELLA.  AND  PATELLID^E-PATENT. 


Fig.  1. — Posterior  surface  of 
right  Patella. 

1,  outer  facet;  2.  inner  facet; 
3,  surface  to  which  the  liga- 
mentum  patellse  is  attached. 


which  the  outer  is  the  broader  and  deeper)  corres- 
pond to  the  articular  surface  of  the  two  condyles. 
Thi3  bone  is  liable  both  to  dislocation  and  fracture. 
Dislocation  may  occur 
either  inwards  or  out- 
wards ;  but  it  is  most 
frequent  in  the  outward 
direction.  The  displace- 
ment may  be  caused 
either  by  mechanical 
violence,  or  by  too 
sudden  contraction  of 
the  extensor  muscles  in 
whose  conjoined  tendon 
it  lies ;  and  is  most  liable 
to  occur  in  knock-kneed, 
flabby  persons.  It  may 
be  readily  detected 
by  the  impossibility  of 
bending  the  knee,  and 
by  the  bone  being  felt 
in  its  new  position,  and, 
except  in  one  rare  variety,  the  dislocation  is  capable 
of  being  reduced  without  any  difficulty.  Fracture 
of  the  patella  may  (like  dislocation)  be  caused  either 
by  muscular  action  or  by  mechanical  violence. 

Fracture  by  muscular  action  is  the  more  common 
of  the  two  forms,  and  occurs  thus :  A  person  in 
danger  of  falling  forwards, 
attempts  to  recover  himself 
by  throwing  the  body  back- 
wards, and  the  violent  action 
of  the  extensors  (chiefly  the 
rectus)  snaps  the  patella 
across,  the  upper  fragment 
being  drawn  up  the  thigh, 
while  the  lower  portion  is 
retained  in  situ  by  that 
portion  of  the  common  ten- 
don which  is  continued  from 
the  patella  to  the  tubercle 
of  the  tibia,  and  which 
is  called  the  ligamentum 
patellae.  The  treatment  con- 
sists in  relaxing  the  oppos- 
ing muscles  by  raising  the 
trunk,  and  slightly  elevating 
the  limb,  which  should  be 
kept  in  a  straight  position. 
In  consecpience  of  the  great 
diflicidty  of  bringing  the 
broken  surfaces  into  exact 
apposition,  as  mav  be  readily 
ternal  condyle  of  risht  understood  from  the  accom- 
femur ;  e,  head  of  tibia  ; 


Fig.  2. 
a,  rectus  muscle ;  b,  vastus 
externus  muscle  ;  c,  liga- 
mentum   patella ;  d,  ex- 


/,  head  of  fibu-la. 


panying  figure,  it  is  very 
difficult  to  obtain  bony 
reunion  of  the  parts,  and  the  case  generally  results 
either  in  mere  kgamentous  union  or  in  no  true 
union  at  all. 

PATELLA  and  PATELLID^E.     See  Limpet. 

PA' TEN  (Lat.  patina,  a  dish),  the  plate 
employed  for  the  elements  of  bread  in  the  Eucha- 
ristic  service.  Anciently  it  was  of  considerable 
size ;  and  while  the  practice  of  the  Offertory 
(q.  v.)  continued,  there  was  a  special  paten  for  the 
bread-offering.  In  the  Roman  Cathobc  Church,  in 
which  the  unleavened  wafer-bread  is  used,  and  the 
communion  is  distributed  from  a  distinct  vessel 
called  Pyx  (q.v.),  the  paten  is  a  small  circular  plate, 
always  of  the  same  material  with  the  chalice.  It 
is  often  richly  chased  or  carved,  and  studded  with 
precious  stones.     It  is  used  only  in  the  mass. 

PA'TENT  is  an  exclusive  right  granted  by  the  gov- 
ernment (in  letters  patent  or  open,  whence  the  name) 
to  an  individual  to  manufacture  and  sell  a  chattel  or 
320 


article  of  commerce  of  his  own  invention.   The  present 

law  allows  the  inventor  to  have  a  monopoly  of  his  in- 
vention for  seventeen  years,  without  a  further  privilege 
at  the  end  of  that  time.  The  evils  of  the  present  law 
are  that  there  is  a  great  deal  of  uncertainty  in  the  mode 
of  ascertaining  what  is  a  new  invention.  Hence,  when 
a  patent,  has  been  granted,  if  it  is  of  such  a  nature  as 
to  lead  to  competition,  infringements  arc  almost  mat- 
ters of  course,  and  the  only  mode  of  discovering  and 
checking  the  infringement  is  so  tedious,  costly,  and 
ineffective,  that  inventors  generally  pass  their  lives  in 
constant  litigation,  fighting  in  detail  a  succession  of 
imitators  who  often  have  nothing  to  lose  by  defeat, 
and  therefore  entail  all  the  greater  burden  on  the  legit- 
imate manufacturer.  It  has  been  said  that  not  more 
than  three  patents  per  cent,  are  remunerative. 

All  the  business  connected  with  British  patents  is 
now  transacted  at  the  office  in  London.  The  commis- 
sioners of  patents  are  the  Lord  Chancellor,  Master  of 
the  Rolls,  Attorney  and  Solicitor  General  of  England 
and  Ireland,  and  the  Lord  Advocate  and  Solicitor 
General  of  Scotland.  The  mode  in  which  an  inventor 
proceeds,  is,  first  to  present  a  petition  for  a  grant  of 
letters-patent,  accompanied  by  a  statement  in  writing 
of  the  specification,  a  copy  of  which  must  be  left  at  the 
patent-office.  These  papers,  as  also  drawings,  must 
be  in  a  certain  prescribed  form,  and  are  laid  before  one 
of  the  law  officers  of  the  crown,  who  may  call  to  his 
aid  a  scientific  person  to  be  paid  by  the  applicant.  A 
provisional  patent  may  be  applied  for  in  the  first  in- 
stance, and  the  complete  patent  deferred  for  six  months 
— an  arrangement  which  gives  the  benefit  of  priority 
to  the  applicant  of  time  to  prepare  and  test  his  speci- 
fication, and  of  paying  the  expenses  more  gradually ; 
but  the  effect  is  the  same  in  the  end,  the  patent  dating 
from  the  first  application.  After  a  patent  has  been 
granted,  and  been  in  existence  for  three  years,  a  fee  of 
£50  must  be  paid  ;  and,  at  the  end  of  the  seven  years, 
a  fee  of  £100.  The  letters-patent  extend  to  the  whole 
of  the  United  Kingdom. 

In  France,  patents  are  granted  for  the  term  of  5, 10, 
or  15  years,  at  the  option  of  the  applicant;  in  Prussia, 
forl5years;  in  Russia,  for  3,  5,  or  10  years;  in  Spain, 
for  5,  10,  or  15  years;  in  Belgium,  for  20  years;  in 
Holland,  for  5,  10,  or  15  years;  in  Austria,  for  not 
more  than  15  years;  in  Italy,  for  15  years.  In  all 
cases,  fees  are  exigible  from  the  patentee. 

The  only  law  in  force  in  the  U.  States  relating  to 
patents  for  inventions,  &c,  was  approved  July  8,  1870, 
ami  enacts  that  any  person,  whether  citizen  or  alien, 
being  the  original  inventor  or  discoverer  of  any  new  and 
useful  art,  machine,  manufactuie  or  composition  of 
matter,  or  any  new  and  useful  improvement  theieof, 
may  obtain  a  patent  for  the  term  of  seventeen  years  for 
his  invention  or  discovery,  provided  the  whole  or  any 
part  of  what  he  claims  as  new  has  not  been  already 
patented  or  described  in  a  printed  publication  in  this 
or  nny  foreign  country,  or  been  invented  or  discovered 
in  this  country,  and  if  he  has  not  abandoned  his  in- 
vention to  the  public,  or  if  it  has  not  been  in  public  use 
or  on  sale  for  more  than  two  years  previous  to  his 
application.  Every  discovery  is  not  deemed  patentable, 
and  a  philosophical  principle  or  elementary  truth  in 
science  cannot  be  made  the  subject  of  a  patent,  unless 
applied  to  some  directly  useful  purpose.  Merely  con- 
ceiving the  idea  of  an  improvement  or  machine  is  not  an 
invention  or  discovery.  The  invention  must  be  reduced 
to  a  practical  form,  either  by  the  construction  of  the 
machine  itself  or  of  a  model  thereof,  or  by  making  a 
drawing  of  it,  or  by  such  disclosure  of  its  exact  charac- 
ter as  that  a  mechanic  can  and  does  from  the  descrip- 
tion given  construct  the  improvement  or  a  model 
thereof,  before  it  will  prevent  a  subsequent  inventor 
from  obtaining  a  patent. 

Application  for  a  patent  must  be  completed  and 
prepared  for  examination  within  two  years  after  filing 


PATERA  -  PATER-NOSTER, 


die  petition,  must  be  made  by  tbe  actual  inventor,  if 
alive,  or  by  hia  executor  or  assignee,  if  deceased,  and 
a  fee  of  fifteen  dollars  paid.  A  specification  most  Ik? 
presented  Betting  forth  tbe  manner  of  constructing, 
compounding,  and  using  tbe  invention  or  discovery. 
It  musl  state  what  tbe  inventor  claims,  describe  the 
drawings,  machine,  composition,  or  improvement,  and 
heinti-r  make  oath  or  affirmation  thai  he  does  verily  be- 
lieve himself  to  l"'  the  original  inventor,  &a;  that  he 
COM  not  believe  ir  was  ever  before  known  or  used. 
The  drawings  or  models  must  be  prepared  of  certain 
dimensions,  after  a  certain  manner,  as  described  by  the 
rales  of  the  Patent  Office,  to  be  submitted  to  tbe  ex- 
aminer of  the  office.  It'  his  claim  lie  rejected  for  want 
of  novelty,  he  may  file  a  formal  renewal  with  or  with- 
out amendment,  or,  if  again  rejected,  may  appeal  to 
the  hoard  of  examiners  in  chief,  having  once  paid  a 
fee  of  ten  dollars;  and,  it'  needful,  may  appeal  again 
to  the  commissioner  in  person  upon  the  payment  of  a 
fee  of  twenty  dollars;  and,  if  dissatisfied  with  his  de- 
cision, may  appeal  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  sitting  in  banc, 

A  commissioner  may  extend  a  patent  granted  prior 
to  March  2,  1861,  to  seven  years  from  the  expiration 
of  the  original  term,  hut  no  patent  granted  since 
March  2,  1861,  can  he  extended.  Hie  applicant  for  an 
extension  must  file  his  petition  and  pay  the  requisite 
fee  not  more  than  six  months  nor  less  than  ninety 
days  prior  to  the  expiration  of  his  patent.  No  patent 
can  be  renewed  after  it  has  once  expired. 

The  taking  out  of  a  patent  in  a  foreign  country  does 
not  prejudice  a  patent  previously  obtained  here,  nor 
does  it  prevent  obtaining  a  patent  here  subsequently, 
unless  the  invention  shall  have  been  introduced  into 
public  use  in  the  United  States  for  more  than  two 
years  prior  to  the  application.  The  U.  S.  patent  must, 
t  wcver,  expire  at  the  same  time  with  the  foreign 
pai/nt,  and  in  no  case  can  it  be  in  force  more  than 
seventeen  years. 

Caveats. — Any  citizen  of  the  United  States,  or  alien 
who  has  resided  for  one  year  in  the  United  States,  and 
has  made  oath  of  his  intention  to  become  a  citizen 
thereof,  claiming  to  be  the  original  inventor,  &c.  can 
file  a  caveat  in  the  secret  archives  of  the  Patent  Office 
on  the  payment  of  a  fee  of  ten  dollars  therefor.  By 
so  doing  the  caveator  will  be  entitled  to  notice  to  file 
bis  application  and  contest  the  priority  of  his  invention 
with  any  other  person  claiming  the  same  invention. 

Designs. — Any  new  and  original  design  for  the  print- 
ing of  textile  fabrics,  and  ornament,  print,  or  picture 
printed  or  cast,  &c,  or  any  new,  useful,  and  original 
shape  or  configuration  of  any  manufactured  article  not 
known  or  used  by  others,  or  patented  or  described  in 
any  printed^  publication,  may  be  made  the  subject  of  a 
patent  to  any  person,  whether  citizen  or  alien,  for  3^, 
for  7,  or  for  ii  years,  as  the  said  applicant  may  elect, 
upon  the  payment  of  fees  of  ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty 
dollars  respectively.  If  granted  prior  to  March  2, 
1861,  they  may  be  extended  7  years  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  patents  for  inventions.  Lawful  trade-marks 
may  also  be  recorded  in  the  Patent  Office,  and  the  ex- 
clusive use  will  be  secured  to  the  party  having  a  right 
thereto  for  a  term  of  thirty  years  on  the  payment  of 
twenty-five  dollars.  This  may  be  renewed,  on  certain 
conditions,  for  thirty  years  longer. 

Fees. — Nearly  all  the  fees  payable  to  the  Patent 
Office  must  be  paid  in  advance.  On  filing  a  caveat, 
ten  dollars;  application  for  patent,  fifteen  dollars; 
issuing  each  original  patent,  twenty  dollars ;  applica- 
tion for  re-issue,  thirty  dollars;  extension,  fifty  dol- 
lars; on  depositing  a  trade-mark,  twenty-five  dollars, 
&c.  See  Rules  and  Regulations  for  Proceeding*  in 
the  Patent  Office,  July,  1870,  and  Patent  Laws,  1S70. 
See  Pictures  and  Copy-right. 

PA'TERA    (Lat.),    a    round    dish,    imitations   of 
whiih   were   carved  by   the   Romans   in   the   panels 
333 


of    their   ceilings,   &c.      The    name  is  also  4rpiisd 


Patera. 

to     the     foliated    ornaments    used     in    th»    a<nr« 

position. 

PATE'RCULUS,  C.  Vei.leitts,  a  Roman  ht-itovian, 
descended  from  an  ancient  and  wealthy  Campania* 
family,  is  thought  to  have  been  born  about  19  n.  c. 
He  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age,  and  from  4  to 
12  a.  d.  served  under  Tiberias  as  prefect  oi 
in  Germany,  Pannonia,  and  Dalmatia.  He  was  a 
great  favourite  with  Tiberius,  and  when  the  latter 
became  emperor,  14  a.d.,  P.  was  appointed  praetor. 
He  was  alive  in  30  A.  t>.,  as  his  history  comes  down 
to  that  year;  but  it  is  conjectured  that  in  th« 
following  year  he  was  probably  put  to  death 
of  the  friends  of  Sejanus,  of  whom  he  speaks  highly 
in  his  work.  P.'s  claim  to  remembrance  is  hia 
Histories  Romano;,  a  compendium  of  universal,  but 
more  particularly  of  Roman  history,  in  two  looks. 
The  work,  as  we  have  it,  is  not  complete ;  the 
beginning,  and  a  portion  following  the  8th  chapter, 
bein^  wanting.  It  seems  to  have  commenced  with 
the  fall  of  Troy;  and  describes  only  the  most  pro- 
minent historical  incidents,  but  these,  fortunately, 
with  considerable  fulness  of  detail.  .Scholars  are 
satisfied  that  it  i3  the  work  of  a  man  who  is,  on  the 
whole,  impartial  and  discriminating.  The  style  is 
based  on  that  of  Sallust.  The  editio  princepa  of 
the  Historice  Romance  appeared  at  Basel  in  1520  ;  th9 
most  valuable  is  Rhunken's,  on  account  of  its  excel- 
lent notes  (Lugd.  Bat.  1789),  reprinted  by  Frotscke.r 
(Leips.  1S30— 1839) ;  but  OreUi's  (Leips.  183-5)  has 
the  least  corrupt  text. 

PATERE'ROS,  were  small  pieces  of  ordnance, 
now  obsolete,  worked  on  swivels  ;  most  commonly 
used  on  board  ships,  where  they  were  mounted  on 
the  gunwale,  and  discharged  showers  of  old  nails, 
&c.,  into  hostile  boats.  The  French  called  them 
Pierriers,  from  loading  them  with  stones. 

PA'TER-NO'STER  (Lat.  'Our  Father'),  called 
also  The  Lord's  Prayer,  a  short  form  of  prayer 
suggested  or  prescribed  by  our  Lord  to  his  disciples 
(Matt.  vi.  9 — 13,  Luke  xi.  1 — 4)  as  the  model 
according  to  which,  in  contrast  with  the  prayers 
of  the  Pharisees,  their  petitions  ought  to  be  com- 
posed. From  the  earliest  times  the  Pater-Noster 
has  been  accepted  as,  by  excellence,  the  form 
of  Christian  prayer.  It  formed  part  of  nil  the 
ancient  liturgies.  So  sacred,  indeed,  was  its  use, 
that,  strange  as  the  provision  may  now  appear,  it 
was  comprehended  among  the  things  which  were 
reserved  from  pagans  and  catechumens  under  the 
well-known  Discipline  of  the  Secret  (q.  v.).  The 
early  fathers — Origen,  Tertullian,  Cyprian — refer  to 
it  in  terms  which  shew  that  even  then  it  was  a 
recognized  form  of  private  prayer.  It  was  solemnly 
recited  at  the  administration  of  baptism,  and  one  of 
the  privileges  of  the  baptised  was  the  use  of  the 
Pater-Noster.  More  than  one  of  the  fathers,  and 
very  many  later  writers  of  every  form  of  Christian 
belief,  have  devoted  special  treatises  to  the  expo- 
sition of  this  prayer,  which  is  regarded  as  embracing 
in  its  few  hut  comprehensive  clauses  nil  the  fitting 
ami  legitimate  objects  of  the  prayer  of  a  Christian. 
The  Catechism  ot  the  Council  of  Trent  contains  a 

321 


PATERSON— PATNA. 


detail  =d  exposition  and  commentary  of  it,  and  in  all 
the  services  not  only  of  the  Roman  Missal,  Breviary, 
Ritual,  Processional,  and  Ordinal,  but  in  all  the 
occasional  services  prescribed  from  time  to  time,  it 
is  invariably  introduced.  In  the  Rosary  (q.  v.)  of  the 
Virgin  Mary  it  is  combined  with  the  Hail  Mary,  the 

Erayer  addressed  to  the  Virgin  (whence  the  larger 
eads  of  the  'Rosary'  are  sometimes  called  Pater- 
N osiers),  and  perhaps  the  most  usual  of  all  the  formal 
shorter  devotions  among  Roman  Catholics  is  the 
recitation  a  stated  number  of  times  of  the  'Pater,' 
with  one  or  more  'Ave  Marias,'  generally  concluding 
with  the  Doxology.  The  form  of  this  prayer  as 
rommonly  used  by  Protestants  concludes  with  the 
clause,  'for  Thine  is  the  kingdom,  and  the  power, 
and  the  glory  for  ever.  Amen.'  This  clause  is  not 
used  b}'  Roman  Catholics.  Of  the  two  gospels — 
that  of  Matthew  and  that  of  Luke — in  which  the 
delivery  of  the  prayer  by  our  Lord  is  related, 
that  of  Luke  has  not  this  clause ;  and  even  in  the 
Gospel  of  Matthew  it  i3  found  only  in  the  later 
61SS.,  in  which  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  it  is 
i  modern  interpolation.  It  was  retained,  however, 
in  Luther's  German  translation,  and  in  the  Author- 
ised Version,  whence  its  use  became  common  among 
Protestants. 

PATERSON,  a  city  of  New  Jersey,  U.S.,  at  the 
falls  of  the  Passaic  River,  on  the  Morris  Canal,  and 
New  York  and  Erie  Railway,  17  miles  north-west 
of  New  York,  a  well-built  city,  with  upwards  of  20 
cotton  factories,  extensive  paper-mills,  and  factories 
of  locomotives,  carriages,  flax,  and  hemp,  and  large  silk 
factories  (employing  about  8000  hands),  &c. — to  which 
the  falls  of  the  Passaic  furnish  water-power.  The  man- 
ufacture of  locomotives  is  conducted  on  an  extensive 
scale.  The  city  contains  county  buildings,  an  academy, 
several  banks,  5  newspapers,  and  40  churches.  Pop.  in 
1860,19,588;    1870,33,582;    1880,50,887. 

PATFRSON,  William,  the  most  celebrated, 
after  John  Law  (q.  v.),  of  the  commercial  schemers 
of  the  17th  c,  was,  like  Law,  a  Scotchman,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  born  in  the  parish  of  Tinwald, 
Dumfriesshire,  about  1660.  Of  his  early  history 
nothing  is  known  beyond  the  fact,  established  by 
conclusive  evidence,  that  he  possessed  himself  of 
an  extensive  and  minute  knowledge  respecting  the 
institutions  and  commerce  of  foreign  countries.  His 
first  appearance  in  history  is  at  the  time  when  he 
laid  before  the  merchants  and  capitalists  of  London 
the  complete  draught  of  his  scheme  of  banking. 
The  scheme  was  favourably,  nay  even  eagerly, 
adopted  by  them,  and  after  being  modified  so  as  to 
render  it  practically  serviceable,  became  the  basis 
of  an  institution  which,  in  1690,  was  incorporated 
under  the  name  of  the  'Bank  of  England.'  P., 
however,  soon  became,  for  reasons  now  unknown, 
disconnected  with  the  Bank.  His  next  project 
was  the  renowned  Darien  Scheme  (q.  v.),  which 
received  the  royal  sanction  in  1695,  and  came  to 
ruin  in  1701.  Its  disastrous  failure  so  affected  P. 
as  to  produce  temporary  lunacy,  and  after  his 
recovery  he  lived  in  retirement.  Nothing  further 
is  known  concerning  him. 

PATHOLOGICAL   ANATOMY,  or  the 

anatomy  of  diseased  organs,  is  included  in,  but 
must  not  be  confounded  with  pathology,  as  until 
comparatively  lately  was  often  the  case.  It  is 
merely  a  section — although  a  most  important  sec- 
tion— of  pathology,  contributing  (as  Professor  Vogel 
has  well  remarked)  '  to  practical  medicine  the  solid 
materials  from  which  to  construct  a  basement, 
without  having  the  power  to  erect  a  perfect 
edifice.'  Pathological  anatomy  enables  the  surgeon 
to  decide  whether  a  suspicious  tumour  is  malig- 
nant or  of  a  comparatively  harmless  nature,  and 
S22 


in  many  other  ways  is  of  the  greatest  import- 
ance to  surgery  ;  and  although  at  first  sight  it 
might  appear  to  be  of  small  importance  in  relation 
to  Therapeutics,  this  is  not  in  reality  the  case. 
Scientific  treatment  necessarily  demands  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  material  changes  which  lie  at  the 
foundation  of  the  various  morbid  symptoms.  Hence 
pathological  anatomy  not  only  forms  a  portion  of 
the  positive  basis  of  Therapeutics,  but  it  also  point* 
out  the  processes  by  which  the  different  altered  parts 
may  be  gradually  restored  to  their  normal  condition. 
It  not  merely  indicates  what  requires  healing, 
but  in  mauy  cases  also  the  course  that  must  be 
adopted  in  order  to  aid  the  curative  tendency  of 
nature.  It  likewise  serves  as  a  cheek  on  thera- 
peutics, exposing,  in  a  most  conclusive  manner,  the 
absurdity  of  many  pretended  methods  of  cure.  It 
points  out,  for  example,  that  in  a  certain  stage  of 
inflammation  of  the  lungs  (Pneumonia)  a  fibrinous 
fluid  separates  from  the  blood,  and  by  its  coagula- 
tion renders  a  portion  of  the  tissue  of  the  lung 
impermeable  to  air ;  and  further  that  it  requires 
several  days  for  this  coagulated  matter  to  resume 
the  fluid  condition  and  to  be  removed.  If  any  one 
should  assert — and  such  assertions  have  often  been 
made — that  in  this  stage  of  the  disease  he  could 
apply  a  remedy  which  would  cure  the  patient  in  a 
few  hours,  a  very  slight  knowledge  of  pathological 
anatomy  would  shew  the  folly  of  such  an  asser 
tion.  The  best  English  works  on  this  subject  an°i 
Vogel's  Pathological  Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body, 
and  Jones  and  Sieveking's  Manual  of  Pathological 
Anatomy. 

PATHO'LOGY  (from  the  Gr.  pathos,  disease, 
and  logos,  a  discourse)  is  that  department  of  medi- 
cine which  treats  of  the  doctrine  of  morbid  actions 
or  diseases.  In  this  country  the  term  is  so  far 
restricted  as  not  to  include  the  causes,  treatment, 
&c,  of  diseases,  but  the  most  eminent  French  and 
German  writers  regard  it  as  equivalent  to  'the 
Theory  and  Practice  of  Medicine,'  and  consider  it 
as  treating  not  only  of  the  classification,  causes, 
symptoms,  and  physical  signs  of  diseases,  but  as  also 
including  their  seat,  the  phenomena  which  precede 
and  follow  them,  their  progress,  their  duration,  their 
modes  of  termination,  the  different  forms  in  which 
they  occur,  their  complications,  the  changes  to  which 
they  give  rise  in  the  solids  and  fluids  of  the  body, 
and  their  treatment. 

PA'TMOS,  a  bare  and  rocky  island  in  the  iEgean 
Sea,  about  45  miles  in  circumference.  It  belongs 
to  the  group  called  the  Sporades,  lies  to  the  south 
of  Samos,  and  is  now  called  Patino,  but  in  the 
middle  ages  Palmosa,  although  there  is  now  only 
one  palm-tree  in  the  whole  island.  It  is  celebrated 
as  the  place  to  which  the  apostle  John  was  exiled, 
and  where  he  saw  the  visions  recorded  in  the  Book 
of  Revelation.  On  the  top  of  a  mountain  stands 
the  famous  monastery  of  'John  the  Divine/  half 
way  up  to  which  a  cave  is  pointed  out  to  the  tra- 
veller in  which,  according  to  tradition,  the  apostle 
received  his  revelations.  See  Ross's  Beisen  auj 
den  Griecliischen  J/iseln  dps  Agdischen  Meeres,  and 
Guerin's  Description  de  Vile  de  Palmos,  &c.  (Paris, 
1856). 

PA'TNA,  or  more  correctly,  PATTANA  (i.e.,  the 
town),  an  important  trading  town  of  Hindustan,  chief 
town  of  a  British  district  and  division  of  the  same 
name  in  Bahar,  Presidency  of  Bengal,  stands  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  and  397  miles  by  land  north- 
west of  Calcutta.  The  city  proper,  forming  a  quad- 
rangle, extends  a  mile  and  a  half  along  the  river-side, 
and  is  half  that  extent  in  breadth.  P.  is  generally 
supposed,  however,  to  include  the  suburbs  which 
stretch  on  each  side  of  it  on  the  south  bank  of  the 


PATOIS— PATRTA  POTEST  AS. 


Ganges.  The  European  quarter  is  on  Che  weal  of  the 
town  proper.  Hire  are  a  church,  chapel,  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral:  government  offices;  school;  the 
Nabob's  palace;  the  great  tank,  and  several  note- 
worthy mosqnea  and  tombs,  The  streets  of  P,  are 
covered  with  mud  ami  slime  in  winter,  and  t he  air 
is  thickly  impregnated  with  choking  dust  in  summer. 
Pop.  (1871),  158. 900. 

P.,  tinder  the  former  name  of  Pathnavati,  is  sup- 
posed  to  have  been  the  capita]  of  Bahar,  419  years 
B.C.  Here,  at  an  early  period,  the  English  estab- 
lished factories  and  traded  in  opium,  rice,  &c  In 
1763,  disputes  about  transit-duties  arose  between  the 
Company's  servants  and  the  native  government  A 
War  ensued,  resulting  in  the  British  taking  possession 
of  the  district.  P.  was  the  head-quarters  of  the 
Wahabi  or  .Mussulman  conspiracy  in  1864.  Chief 
sent  of  the  opium  trade;  trade  also  in  tahle  linen, 
wax  candles,  toys,  bird-cages,  and  talc  pictures.  The 
division  of  1'.  has  an  area  of  2:5.732  Bq.  m.,  and  a  pop. 
(1872)  of  13,122,743:  the  district,  an  area  of  2101 
sq.  in.,  and  a  pop.  of  1,559,638. 

PATOIS  (of  uncertain  derivation),  the  French  term 
applied  to  corrupt  dialects  of  a  language  spoken  by 
the  uneducated.     Sec  DIALECT. 

PATON,  Sib  Joseph  Noel,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  living  Scottish  artists,  was  born  in 
Dunfermline  in  1S23.  It  is  understood  that  in 
early  life  he  employed  himself  in  making  designs  for 
the  damask  manufacturers  of  his  native  place,  and 
for  the  muslin  and  lace  embroiderers  of  Paisley.  He, 
however,  soon  turned  his  attention  to  the  walk  of 
art  proper,  and  his  cartoon  sketch,  '  The  Spirit  of 
Religion,'  gained  one  of  the  three  premiums  at  the 
Westminster  Hall  competition  in  1845.  Two  years 
thereafter,  his  oil-picture  of  '  Christ  bearing  the 
Cross,'  and  his  '  Reconciliation  of  Oberon  and 
Titania,'  joiutly  gained  the  prize  of  £300.  He  sub- 
sequently executed  a  companion-picture  to  the 
'  Reconciliation,'  entitled  the  '  Quarrel  of  Oberon 
and  Titania ; '  and  both  now  adorn  the  Royal  Scottish 
Academy's  galleries  in  Edinburgh.  These  pictures 
made  the  artist's  reputation.  Although  somewhat 
hard  and  dry  in  colour,  and  without  any  retiring 
and  shadowy  depth,  they  are  full  of  brilliant  fancy  ; 
and  the  multitudes  of  figures,  and  the  variety  of 
fairy  incident,  affect  the  spectator  much  in  the  way 
that  the  constant  sparkle  of  Congreve  or  Sheridan 
affects  the  reader.  He  has  since  painted  much  more 
simply  and  powerfully.  '  Dante  Meditating  the 
Episode  of  Francesca,'  was  exhibited  in  Edinburgh 
in  1852;  and  the  '  Dead  Lady,'  a  work  of  great  and 
solemn  pathos,  in  1S54.  In  1S55,  his  great  picture, 
'The  Pursuit  of  Pleasure,' was  exhibited  and  much 
admired,  and  sold  for  two  thousand  guineas. 
He  has  since  painted  '  Home  from  the  Crimea,'  a 
replica  of  which  is  in  the  possession  of  Her  Majesty; 
and  '  In  Memoriam,'  a  scene  from  the  Indian 
mutinies ;  and  for  the  Association  for  the  Promotion 
of  the  Fine  Arts  in  Scotland,  a  series  of  picture- 
illustrations  of  the  'Dowie  Dens  o'  Yarrow.'  The 
three  works  referred  to  have  been  engraved,  and 
are  deservedly  popular.  His  last  picture  of 
importance,  'Luther  at  Erfurt,'  was  exhibited  in 
London  in  1862,  and  subsequently  in  Edinburgh. 
He  has  not  confined  himself  to  painting  alone.  In 
conjunction  with  his  brother,  he  illustrated  Pro- 
fessor Aytoun's  Lays  of  the  Scottish  Cavaliers, 
Eublished  Christmas,  1863 ;  and  for  the  London  Art 
rni«n.  1864,  he  executed  twenty  illustrations  of  the 
Ancient  Mariner. 

P.  ha*  worked  with  the  pen  as  well  as  with  the 
brush  &nd  pencil.  In  1861  appeared  his  volume  of 
poetry,  entitled  Poems  by  a  Painter,  full  of  grace, 
melody,  and  eloquence.     He  was  knighted  in  1S67. 


PATO'NCE,   Cross,    in   Heraldry  (Lat.  patmt, 
expanding),  a  cross  with  its  termina- 
tions expanding  like  early  vegetation 
or  an  opening  blossom. 

PA'TOS,  Laqoadbb,    Sr,  si  i,,  Rio 

GRA.NDH  do. 

PAT  R AS    (ancient    Patrat,    Turk. 
Baliabadra),  a  fortified  seaport,  and 

the  most  important  trading  town  in  Fatonoe. 
the  v. est  of  Greece,  in  the  government 
of  Aehaia  and  Elis,  stands  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
gulf  of  the  same  name,  12  miles  .south-south-west 
of  Lepanto.  It  is  overlooked  by  the  strong  citudel 
— on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Acropolis— croflning  & 
ridge,  on  the  southern  slopes  of  which  the  ancient 
city,  as  well  as  the  modern  one  before  the  revo- 
lution, was  built.  The  P.  of  to-day  stands  on  a 
level  space  close  to  the  sea.  The  plain  of  P.  is 
exceedingly  valuable  for  the  currants  grown, 
and  which  are  the  most  important  export  of  the. 
town.  Its  harbour,  though  protected  by  a  mole,  is 
unsafe,  and  exposed  to  heavy  seas.  Earthquakes 
frequently  occur,  and  most  of  the  houses  arc  ou 
that  account  oidy  of  one  story.  Capotes,  made 
of  mixed  wool  and  goat's  hair,  are  manufactured 
and  besides  currants,  silk,  cotton,  wool,  and  hidej 
are  exported.  P.  is  a  thriving  town,  and  has 
almost  entirely  recovered  from  the  injury  it  sus- 
tained during  the  Greek  revolution.  Pop.  about 
20,000. 

Patrce  is  the  only  one  of  the  '  twelve  cities '  of 
Aehaia  which  still  exists  as  a  town ;  but  most  of 
its  relics  have  been  swept  away  by  earthquake  and 
revolution. 

PA'TRIA  POTE'STAS  is  the  term  used  to 
express  the  power  which  the  civil  law  gave  to  the 
Roman  father  over  his  children,  and  which  has  been 
the  foundation  of  the  greatly  modified  paternal 
authority  recognised  in  modern  systems  of  juris- 
prudence. The  right  of  a  parent  to  control  his 
child  not  come  to  years  of  discretion  is  a  part  of 
natural  law,  but  the  more  extensive  patria  potestaa 
of  the  Romans  was  probably  a  relic  of  those  early 
times  in  which  families,  or  tribes  considered  as 
families,  led  a  wandering  pastoral  life  in  dread  of 
each  other,  under  the  guidance  of  a  chief,  whom  it 
was  necessary  to  invest  with  an  almost  unlimited 
authority. 

By  the  Roman  law,  the  patria  potestas  was 
acquired  naturally,  by  the  birth  of  a  child  in 
wedlock,  or  civilly,  by  legitimation,  or  adoption.  An 
unemancipated  son  or  daughter,  a  grandchild  by  a 
son,  or  any  other  descendant  by  males,  was  viewed 
as  a  part  of  the  parent's  property.  In  early  times  a 
father  had  the  power  of  life  and  death  over  his 
children  :  by  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  he 
could  sell  them  as  slaves,  or  could  transfer  them  to 
another  family  by  adoption.  Under  the  republic, 
the  despotic  authority  exercised  by  fathers  over 
their  offspring  was  practically  limited  to  a  consider- 
able extent  by  the  censors,  and  several  emperora 
issued  constitutions  to  restrain  the  cruelties  often 
perpetrated  by  fathers  towards  their  children.  First 
the  ri<dit  of  sale,  and  then  that  of  life  and  death  waa 
taken  asvay.  Alexander  Severus  restricted  the 
ri<dit  of  the  father  to  moderate  chastisement,  and 
Constantine  declared  that  the  father  who  should 
kill  his  son  was  to  be  held  guilty  of  murder.  By 
the  early  Roman  law,  the  son,  being  in  his  father's 
power,  could  not  acquire  property  for  himself ;  his 
acquisitions  all  belonged  to  his  father ;  hence  he  waa 
incapable  of  making  a  testament.  There  were,  how- 
ever, particularly  in  later  times,  modes  by  which  he 
could  acquire  peculium,  or  property  which  should 
be  independent  of  his  father.     A  father  might  give 

333 


PATRIA  POTESTAS— PATRIARCH. 


his  son  property  to  trade  on,  which  would  be  his  own ; 
and  latterly  a  son  acquired  for  himself  whatever  he 
gained  in  military  service,  or  by  the  discharge  of 
certain  civil  functions.  In  all  matters  belonging  to 
the  jw'j  publicum,  a  son  was  independent  of  his 
father ;  he  could  vote  at  the  elections,  hold  the 
most  important  offices  of  state,  or  command  the 
army.  He  could  also  be  a  tutor,  tutory  being 
considered  a  munus  publicum.  In  later  times,  a  son 
promoted  to  the  consular  dignity  ceased  to  be  under 
the  restraints  of  paternal  control,  but,  unlike  an 
emancipated  son,  he  retained  his  rights  of  succession. 
Lawful  children  were  entitled  to  aliment  from  their 
parents  ;  an  obligation  attached  in  the  lirst  instance 
to  the  father  and  mother,  and,  failing  them,  to  the 
gran  d  f ath  er.  Until  the  time  of  J  ustinian,  illegitimate 
children  had  only  a  claim  for  support  against  their 
mother  ;  that  emperor  gave  them  a  right  to  demand 
aliment  from  their  father. 

In  no  modern  system  has  the  paternal  power  been 
carried  so  far  as  under  the  Roman  law.  According 
to  the  French  'Code  Civile,'  a  child  is  under  the 
authority  of  his  parents  till  majority  or  emanci- 
pation ;  up  to  that  time  he  cannot  quit  the 
paternal  residence  without  leave  of  his  father,  except 
for  enrolment  in  the  army  at  18  years  of  age. 
Majority  is  attained  at  the  age  of  21,  but  a  minor  is 
emancipated  by  marriage.  At  15,  a  minor  may 
be  emancipated  by  his  father,  or,  if  his  father 
be  dead,  by  his  mother,  by  a  simple  declaration 
before  a  magistrate.  The  father  possesses  somewhat 
extensive  powers  of  chastisement.  He  may  obtain 
a  warrant  to  arrest  his  child  under  1G,  ami  detain 
him  in  prison  for  a  month  ;  and  an  order  may 
be  obtained  for  the  incarceration  for  six  months 
of  a  child  above  1G,  on  cause  shewn  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  magistrate.  Parents  are  entitled  to  the 
usufruct  of  "their  children's  property  till  the  age 
of  18  or  emancipation,  subject  to  the  burdens  of 
maintenance  and  education  ;  but  this  right  does  not 
extend  to  property  acquired  by  the  industry  of  the 
children,  or  bequeathed  by  a  stranger  under  the 
condition  of  an  exclusion  of  parental  interference. 

By  the  law  of  England,  a  father  is  guardian  to  his 
lawful  children  in  minority,  though  this  right  ceases 
to  some  extent  at  14.  He  has  the  power  of 
moderate  chastisement.  As  guardian,  he  receives 
the  rents  of  any  real  estate  which  the  child  may 
possess,  which  he  must  account  for  when  majority 
i3  attained.  The  paternal  power  never  extends 
beyond  majority,  and,  to  some  effect,  marriage  acts 
as  an  emancipation.  A  father  may  by  deed  appoint 
a  guardian  to  such  of  his  children  as  are  unmarried 
at  his  death  till  they  attain  majority. 

In  Scotland  a  father  has  a  general  control  over  the 
persons  of  his  children  during  pupilarity  ;  that  is, 
till  the  age  of  14  in  the  case  of  sons,  and  12 
in  the  case  of  daughters.  He  may  fix  their  place  of 
residence,  direct  their  education,  and  inflict  reason- 
able chastisement.  The  limits  of  the  patria  potestas 
as  regards  children  who  have  attained  puberty,  but 
are  under  21  yeai-s  of  age,  are  not  very  exactly 
defined ;  but  it  seems  to  be  understood  that  in 
ordinary  circumstances  minors  are  not  entitled 
to  choose  their  own  place  of  residence  in  defiance  of 
paternal  authority.  The  father  is  administrator-in- 
law,  and  tutor  and  curator  of  his  children,  unless  in 
the  case  of  an  estate  left  by  a  stranger  and  placed 
under  separate  management.  This  guardianship 
ceases  on  majority,  or  on  the  marriage  of  a  daughter. 

PA'TRIARCH  (Gr.  patriarclt.es,  the  head  of  a 
tribe)  is  the  name  given  to  the  heads  of  the 
families  in  the  antediluvian  period  of  Scripture 
history,  and  is  still  more  familiar  as  the  designation 
in  Jewish  history  of  the  three  progenitors  of  the 
Jewish  people,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob.  In  the 
324 


later  history  of  the  Jews,  too,  after  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  the  name  was  used  to  designate  th« 
heads  of  the  Sanhedrim,  one  of  whom,  the  patriarch 
of  the  west,  resided  at  Tiberias,  in  Galilee,  and 
the  other,  the  patriarch  of  the  Eastern  Jews,  at 
Babylon.  The  most  familiar  use  of  the  v.  ord, 
however,  is  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  church. 
It  is  the  name  given  to  the  bishops  of  certain  great 
Metropolitan  (q.  v.)  Sees,  who  not  only  held  rank 
beyond  other  metropolitans,  but  also  enjoyed  a 
jurisdiction  almost  identical  with  that  of  the  metro- 
politan in  his  own  province  over  all  the  metropolitans 
themselves  (with  their  provinces)  included  in  their 
district,  which  was  called  a  Patriarchate.  The 
name  patriarch  originally  seems  to  have  been  given 
commonly  to  bishops,  or  at  least  was  certainly 
given  in  a  less  special  sense  than  what  it  eventually 
assumed;  nor  can  the  date  at  which  the  title  first 
assumed  its  now  received  use  be  exactly  determined. 
It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  name  and  the  office 
were  both  recognised  before  the  Council  of  Nice,  at 
which  time,  as  we  learn  from  the  si'itli  canon,  the 
patriarchal  sees,  acknowledged  by  'ancient  custom,' 
were  three  in  number,  Rome,  Antioch,  and  Alexan- 
dria. After  the  translation  of  the  seat  of  empire  to 
Byzantium,  thenceforward  called  Constantinople, 
that  see,  originally  subject  to  the  metropolitan  of 
Heraclea,  obtained,  first  metropolitan,  and  after- 
wards patriarchal  rank  ;  and  eventually  established 
a  precedency  over  the  patriarchs  of  Antioch  and 
Alexandria,  being  second  only  to  Rome.  The 
contests  between  the  patriarchs  of  Rome  and 
Constantinople  were  among  the  chief  causes  of  the 
Greek  Schism  (q.  v.).  To  these  four  patriarchates 
was  added  a  fifth,  in  the  year  451,  that  of  Jerusalem, 
which  was  formed  out  of  the  ancient  patriarchate 
of  Antioch.  The  limits  of  these  five  patriarchates 
can  only  be  loosely  assigned.  The  authority  of  a 
patriarch  was,  in  the  main,  that  of  a  metropolitan, 
but  extended  over  the  metropolitans  themselves.  He 
had  a  right  to  consecrate  the  metropolitans,  and  to 
preside  over  the  councils  of  his  patriarchate.  After 
the  Greek  Schism,  and  particularly  after  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  Latin 
prelates  were  appointed  with  the  title  and  rank  of 
patriarch  in  the  four  great  Eastern  sees.  It  was 
hoped  that  the  union  of  the  churches,  effected  at 
the  Council  of  Florence,  would  have  put  an  end  to 
the  contest  tlras  created ;  but  that  union  proved 
transitory,  and  the  double  series  of  patriarchs  has 
been  continued  to  the  present  day.  The  Nestorian 
and  Eutychian  sections  of  the  Eastern  Churches, 
too,  have  each  their  own  patriarch,  and  the  head  of 
that  portion  of  the  former,  which  in  the  16th  c.  was 
reconciled  with  the  Roman  see,  although  known  by 
the  title  of  Catholicos,  has  the  rank  and  authority  of 
patriarch.  After  the  separation  of  the  Prussian 
Church  from  that  of  Constantinople,  the  name  and 
authority  of  the  metropolitan  in  the  end  was  trans- 
formed into  that  of  patriarch.  But  the  office  was 
suppressed  by  Peter  the  Great. 

Besides  these,  which  are  called  the  Greater 
Patriarchates,  there  have  been  others  in  the  Western 
Church  known  by  the  name  of  Minor  Patriarchates. 
Of  these  the  most  ancient  were  those  of  Aquileia 
and  Grado.  The  latter  was  transferred  to  Venice  in 
1451  ;  the  former  wa3  suppressed  by  Benedict  XIV. 
France  also  had  a  patriarch  of  Bourges ;  Spain,  for 
her  colo-nial  missions,  a  patriarch  of  the  Indies  ;  and 
Portugal  a  patriarch  of  Lisbon.  These  titles, 
however,  are  little  more  than  honorary. 

In  the  non-united  Greek  Church,  the  ancient 
system  of  the  three  patriarchates  of  ConstantiLople, 
Antioch,  and  Jerusalem  is  nominally  maintained, 
and  the  authority  of  the  patriarchs  is  recognised  by 
their  own  communion.     But  the  jurisdiction-limits 


PATRIARCHAL  CROSS— PATRICK,  ST,  ORDER  OP. 


of  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  who  [a  acknow- 
ledged as  the  head,  have  been  iimrh  modified.  The 
Russo-Greek  Church  withdrew  from  him  partially 
in  the  17th,  and  finally  in  the  18th  century.  That 
of  Greece  proper  has  been  practically  separated 
since  the  independence  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece  j 
and  some  yean  since  it  formally  declared  its  inde- 

fundence.    The  patriarchs  of  Jerusalem  and  Autioch 
ave  few  followers  of  their  own  rite. 

PATRIARCHAL  CROSS,  a  cross  which,  like 
the  patriarchal  crosier,  has  its  upright 
part  Crosse  I  by  two  horizontal  liars, 
the  upper  shorter  than  the  lower.  A 
cross  patriarchal  fimbriated  or  was  a 
badge  of  the  Knights  Templars. 

PATRI'CIAN  (Lat.  patriciua,  from 
pater,  father),  a  name  given  to  the 
members  of  Roman  gentes,  of  whom  the 

populus  Jiomanus  consisted,  and  to  their 
descendants  by  blood  and  adoption.  Palres  and 
patricii  were  in  the  early  days  of  Rome  synonym- 
ous ,  they  were  so  named  from  the  patrocinium 
which  they  exercised  over  the  whole  state,  and  all 
classes  of  whom  it  was  composed,  Niebuhr's 
researches  have  established  that,  until  the  plebs 
became  a  distinct  order,  the  patricians  were  the 
entire  citizens  or  jwpulus  of  Rome  ;  a  select  number 
of  them  were  senators ;  and  the  origiual  inhabitants, 
reduced  to  a  condition  of  servitude,  were  known  by 
the  name  of  clientes  or  plebs.  The  amalgamation 
of  the  three  tribes  of  Ramnes,  Tities,  and  Luceres, 
gave  rise  to  a  distinction  between  patres  majorum 
gentium  and  patres  minorum  gentium — the  latter 
term  being  applied  to  families  recently  elevated 
to  au  equality  with  the  old  patrician  class.  On  the 
establishment  of  the  plebeians  as  a  distinct  order, 
sharing  certain  rights  with  the  patricians,  the 
patriciate  became  an  aristocracy  of  birth,  in  the 
exclusive  possession  of  a  number  of  important  privi- 
leges. A  long  struggle  between  the  two  orders 
ended  in  the  attainment  by  the  plebeians  of  a  political 
equality,  and  the  establishment  of  a  new  aristocracy 
of  notdles  based  on  wealth  and  office.  Under 
Constantine,   the    dignity   of    palricius    became    a 

Eersonal  title  ;  not  hereditary,  but  conferring  very 
igh  honour  and  certain  privileges.  It  was  created 
at  Constantinople,  and  not  confined  to  Romans 
or  subjects  of  the  empire,  but  sometimes  bestowed 
on  foreign  princes.  These  patricians,  unlike  the 
old  Roman  order,  were  distinguished  in  dress  and 
equipage  from  the  ordinary  citizens.  The  popes  in 
after  times  conferred  the  same  title  on  eminent 
persous  and  princes,  including  many  of  the  German 
emperors.  In  several  of  the  Germanic  kingdoms 
the  title  of  patrician  was  bestowed  on  distinguished 
subjects  ;  and  in  some  parts  of  Italy  the  hereditary 
nobility  are  still  styled  patricians. 

PATRICK,  St,  a  distinguished  missionary  of  the 
5th  c,  commonly  known  as  the  Apostle  of  Ireland. 
There  is  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  date  and  place 
of  his  birth.  The  year  of  his  birth  is  variously 
assigned  to  the  years  377  and  387,  of  which  the 
latter,  if  not  even  a  later  date  is  more  probable. 
Of  the  place,  it  is  only  known  for  certain,  from 
his  own  confession,  that  his  father  had  a  small 
farm  near  Bonavem  Tabernios ;  and  in  one  of  the 
ancient  lives  he  is  said  to  have  been  l^orn  at 
Nemthur.  Arguing  on  these  data,  connected  with 
other  collateral  indications,  some  writers  assign  his 
birthplace  to  the  present  Boulogne-sur-  Mer ;  others 
to  a  place  in  the  estuary  of  the  Clyde  (called  from 
him  Kilpatrick)  at  or  near  the  modern  Dumbarton. 
His  father,  he  himself  tells,  was  a  deacon  named 
Calpurmius ;  his  mother,  according  to  the  ancient 
biographers,    ww   named    Conches   or    Conchessa, 


according  to  some  of  these  authorities,  a  sister  of 
St  Martin  <>i  Tours.  I'.'s  original  name  is  said  to 
have   been    Succath,    Patriciua    being  the    Roman 

appellative  by  which   he   was   known.      In   his    llith 
year  lie   was   seized,  while   at   his  father's   farm  of 
Bonavem  Tabernhs,  by  a  band  of  pirates,  and  with 
a   number  of  others  was  carried  to  Ireland,  and 
sold  to  a  petty  chief,  in  wle.se  service  he  remained 
for  six  years;  after  which  he  succeeded  in  eff 
his  escape,  and,  probably  aiter  a  Becond  oaptivity, 
went  to  France,  where  he  became  a  monk,  firbt  at 
Tours,  and  afterwards  in  the  celebrated  monastery 
of   Lerins.      In   the  year   431   he    went   to   Rome, 
whence    he    was    sent   by    the    pope   of    the   day, 
Celestine,    to    preach    in    Ireland;    1'alladius,    who 
had    been   sent   as    missionary  to   that   ccuntry  a 
short    time    before,    having     died.       Such    is    the 
received  account  of    his    mission  ;    but   Dr   Todd, 
his    latest   biographer,    regards    this    statement   as 
erroneous,   and   fixes  the  date    of    his  coining    to 
Ireland   eight   years   later.      He   was   ordained    in 
France,  and  arrived  in  Ireland  in  432.     His  mission 
was  eminently  successful.    He  adopted  the  expedient 
of  addressing    himself    first    to    the    chiefs,  and    of 
improving,  as  far  as  possible,  the  spirit  of  clanship, 
and   other  existing    usages    of    the    Irish   for   the 
furtherance     of    bis    preaching ;     nor    can    it    be 
doubted  that  he  had  much  success   in  Christian- 
ising   the    ancient    Irish   system   of   belief  and    of 
practice.     By  degrees  he  visited  a  large  portion  of 
the  kingdom,  and  baptised  great  numbers  as  well 
of  the  chieftains  as  of  the  people.     According  to  the 
accounts  of  his  Irish  biographers,  he  founded  365 
churches,  and  baptised  with  his  own  hand  12,1)1)0 
persons.     He  is  said  also  to  have  ordained  a  vast 
number  of  priests,  and  to  have  blessed  very  mauy 
monks  and  nuns.    After  he  had  been  about  20  years 
engaged  in  his  missionary  enterprise,  he  is  said  to 
have  fixed  his  see  at  Armagh  about  the  year  454 ; 
and  having  procured  two    of   his    disciples  to   be 
ordained  bishops,  he  held  probably  more  than  one 
synod,  the  decrees  of  which  have  been  a  subject 
of  much  controversy.     He  died  at  a  place  called 
Saul,  near  Downpatrick  ;   and  his  relics  were  pre- 
served at  Downpatrick  down  to  the  period  of  the 
Reformation.     The  place  is  still  venerated  by  the 
people.     The  date  of  his  death  is  much  disputed ; 
the   Bollandists    placing  it  in   460,   whde   Ussher 
holds  it  to  have  been  493.    Dr  Todd  inclines  strongly 
to  the  latter  opinion,  in  which  case  P.'s  age  would 
have  been  126,  or  at  least  116.     The  only  certainly 
authentic  literary  remains  of  St  P.  are  his  '  Confes- 
sion '  and  a  letter,  both  of  very  rude  Latinity,  but  of 
much  historical  interest.     The  letter  is  addressed  to 
Coroticus,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Welsh 
chieftain    named    Caradoc    (from   whom    Cardigan 
is  named),  who  had  made  a  descent  on  the  Irish 
coast,  and  slain  or  carried  off,  with  circumstances 
of  great  cruelty,  a  number  of  the  Irish,  many  of 
whom  were  neophytes.     These,  with  some  other  re- 
mains ascribed  to  him,  as  also  decrees  of  synods,  were 
published   in    Wilkins'    Concilia,   and    separately   Uj 
Ware,  Opuscula  S.  Pa triaci  Adscri2)ta  (1656),  and  by 
Villanucva  (Dublin,  1835).     The  latest  biography  of 
St  P.  is  that  of  the  Rev.  J.  IL  Todd,   1  vol.  8va 
(Dublin,  1863). 

PATRICK,  St,  Order  of,  a  national  order  or 
knighthood  for  Ireland,  established  by  George  I  IT.  on 
the  5th  of  February,  1783,  and  enlarged  in  1833.  As 
originally  constituted,  it  consisted  of  the  Sovereign, 
the  Grand-master  (who  was  always  the  lord-lieutenant 
of  Ireland  for  the  time  being),  and  15  Knights.  By 
the  statutes  of  1833  the  number  of  knights  was  in- 
creased to  22. 

The  Collar  of  the  order  (of  gold)  is  composed  of 
roses  alternating   with   harps    tied  together  with   a 

£36 


PATRIPASSIANS—  PATRON. 


knot  of  gold,  the  roses  being  enamelled  alternately 
white  within  red,  and  red  within  white,  and  in  the 
centre  is  an  imperial  crown  surmounting  a  harp  of 
gold,  from  which  the  badge  is  suspended.  The 
Badge  or  Jewel  is  of  gold,  and  oval;  surrounding 
it  is  a  wreath  of  shamrock  proper  on  a  gold  field ; 
within  this  is  a  band  of  sky-blue  enamel  charged 
with  the  motto  of  the  order,  Quis  Separabit 
MDCCLXXXIII.  in  gold  letters ;  and  within  this  band 
a  saltire  gules  (the  cross  of  St  Patrick),  surmounted 
by  a  shamrock  or  trefoil  slipped  vert,  having  on 
sach  of  its  leaves  an  imperial  crown  or.  The  field 
ni  the  crnss  is  either  argent,  or  pierced  and  left  open. 


Order  of  St  Patrick. 

A  sky-Dlue  Ribbon,  worn  over  the  right  shoulder, 
sustains  the  badge  when  the  collar  is  not  worn.  The 
Star,  worn  on  the  left  side,  differs  from  the  badge 
only  in  being  circular  in  place  of  oval,  and  in 
substituting  for  the  exterior  wreath  of  shamrocks 
eight  rays  of  silver,  four  of  which  are  larger  than 
the  other  four.  The  Mantle  is  of  rich  sky-blue 
tabinet,  lined  with  white  silk,  and  fastened  by  a 
cordon  of  blue  silk  and  gold  with  tassels.  On  the 
right  shoulder  is  the  Hood,  of  the  same  materials  as 
the  mantle. 

The  order  is  indicated  by  the  initials  K.  P. 

PATRIPA'SSIANS  (Lat.  pater,  father,  and 
passus,  suffered),  the  name  of  one  of  the  earliest 
classes  of  anti- Trinitarian  sectaries,  who,  in  main- 
taining the  oneness  of  the  Godhead,  held  that 
all  that  is  ascribed  in  the  Scriptures,  according  to 
the  Trinitarian  exposition,  to  any  of  the  Three 
Persons,  is  in  reality  true  of  the  one  Principle, 
whom  alone  these  sectaries  admitted,  being  in 
cousequeuce  called  '  Monarchians '  ((Jr.  monos, 
one,  and  arche,  principle).  The  leader  of  this 
sect  was  Praxeas,  a  native  of  Phrygia,  who  lived 
in  the  end  of  the  2d  century.  The  name  P.,  for 
which  the  Greek  equivalent  was  Patropa-schite, 
was  in  some  sense  a  sobriquet,  being  founded  on 
what  their  antagonists  regarded  as  the  absurd 
consequence  derivable  from  their  doctrine — viz., 
that  as  it  wa3  true  to  say  that  Jesus,  in  whom 
dwelt  the  Logos,  or  the  Sou,  suffered,  therefore  it 
326 


would  be  true  on  their  principles  to  say  that  the 
Father  suffered.  The  sect  in  this  particular  form 
was  chiefly  known  in  Rome  ;  but  their  principles  are 
in  the  main  the  same  with  those  of  the  Sabellians. 
In  Rome,  Praxeas  was  succeeded  by  Noetus,  but  the 
party  does  not  appear  to  have  been  numerous  or 
influential. 

PATRO'CLUS.     See  Achilles. 

PATRO'L  is  a  detachment  of  five  or  six  soldier*, 
fully  armed,  sent  out,  under  a  sergeant,  from  the 
mainguard  or  picket  to  traverse  the  streets  of  a 
garrison  town,  &c,  and  arrest  disorderly  persons 
or  soldiers  out  of  barrack  without  proper  passes. 
Prisoners  are  taken  to  the  guard-house,  and  brought 
before  the  town-major.  In  a  besieged  fortress, 
patrols  are  strong  bodies  of  men  employed  to  pro- 
menade the  lines  of  defence,  and  watch  against  any 
assaults  on  the  part  of  the  enemy. 

PATRON  (Lat.  patronus,  from  pater,  father), 
among  the  Romans  originally  signified  a  citizen  who 
had  dependents,  who  were  called  clients,  attached  to 
him.  Before  the  time  of  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve 
Tables,  the  most  frequent  use  of  the  term  patronus 
was  in  opposition  to  liberties,  these  two  words  being 
used  to  siguify  persons  who  stood  to  one  another  in 
the  relation  of  master  and  manumitted  slave.  The 
Roman  wa3  not  denuded  of  all  right  in  his  slave 
when  he  freed  him  ;  a  tie  remained  somewhat  like 
that  of  parent  and  child,  and  the  law  recognised 
important  obligations  on  the  part  of  the  libertus 
towards  his  patron,  the  neglect  of  which  involved 
severe  punishment.  In  some  cases  the  patron  could 
claim  a  right  to  the  whole  or  part  of  the  property 
of  his  freed  man.  The  original  idea  of  a  patron 
apart  from  the  manumitter  of  slaves  continued  to 
exist.  A  Roman  citizen,  desirous  of  a  protector, 
might  attach  himself  to  a  patron,  whose  client  he 
thenceforward  became  ;  and  distinguished  Romans 
were  sometimes  patrons  of  dependent  states  or 
cities,  particularly  where  they  had  been  the  means 
of  bringing  them  into  subjection.  Thus  the  Mar- 
celli  were  patrons  of  the  Sicilians,  because  Claudius 
Marcellus  had  conquered  Syracuse  and  Sicily.  The 
patron  was  the  guardian  of  his  client's  interest, 
public  and  private  ;  as  his  legal  adviser,  he  vindi- 
cated his  rights  before  the  courts  of  law.  The 
client  was  bound,  on  various  occasions,  to  assist 
the  patron  with  money,  as  by  paying  the  costs  of 
his  suits,  contributing  to  the  marriage  portions  of 
his  daughters,  and  defraying  in  part  the  expenses 
incurred  in  the  discharge  of  public  functions. 
Patron  and  client  were  under  an  obligation  never  to 
accuse  one  another  ;  to  violate  this  law  amounted  to 
the  crime  of  treason,  and  any  one  was  at  liberty  to 
slay  the  offender  with  impunity.  One  obvious  effect 
of  the  institution  of  clienlela  was  the  introduction  of 
an  element  of  union  between  classes  of  citizens  who 
were  otherwise  continually  brought  into  opposition 
to  each  other.  As  the  patron  was  in  the  habit  of 
appearing  in  support  of  his  clients  in  courts  of 
justice,  the  word  patronus  acquired,  in  course  of 
time,  the  signification  of  advocate  or  legal  adviser 
and  defender,  the  client  being  the  party  defended ; 
hence  the  modern  relation  between  counsel  and 
client. — Patron,  in  after  times,  became  a  common 
designation  of  every  protector  or  powerful  pro- 
moter of  the  interests  of  another ;  and  the  saints, 
who  were  believed  to  watch  over  the  interests  of 
particular  persons,  places,  trades,  &c,  acquired  in 
the  middle  ages  the  designation  of  their  patron 
saints.  The  saint  in  whose  name  a  church  ia 
founded  is  considered  its  patron  saint. 

The  term  Patron  has  also  been  applied  to  thesn 
who  endowed  or  supported  churches  and  convents. 
See  Patronage.  Ecclesiastical. 


PATRONAGE. 


PA'TRONAGE,  Ecclesiastical,  the  right    of 

Presenting  a  lit  person  to  a  vacant  ecclesiastical 
eiulice.  The  patron,  in  the  original  and  more 
strict  sense,  was  the  person  who  founded  or  endow  cd 
the  church.  In  the  early  ages  of  Christianity,  the 
countries  where  the  new  religion  had  been  adopted 
were  parcelled  out  into  large  districts  or  dioceses, 
aader  the  superintendence  Ot  a  bishop,  who  usually 
resided  in  the  neighbourhood  of  one  of  the  religious 
bona  s.  Within  such  district  the  bishop  had  the 
Uonnnation  of  the  priests,  who  supplied  religious 
instruction  to  the  people.  The  priests  were  paid 
Dut  of  the  episcopal   treasury,  and   travelled  abonl    in 

f',  e  exercise  of  their  duties,  baring  their  residence 
with  the  bishop,  and  forming  that  episcopi  clerua 
which  constituted  the  notion  of  cathedral  churches 
and  monasteries  in  their  simplest  form.  Occa- 
sionally a  bishop  endowed  a  church  in  his  diocese, 
and  attached  a  priest  permanently  to  it;  and  in  Gaul, 
in  the  5th  c.,  a  bishop  who  founded  a  church  in 
a  neighbouring  diocese  was  allowed  to  appoint  an 
incumbent  of  his  choice.  As  Christianity  became 
more  universal,  and  the  population  increased,  the 
means  of  worship  supplied  by  the  bishoprics,  the 
monasteries,  and  occasional  episcopally  endowed 
churches,  became  inadequate  for  tho  demands  of  the 
people,  and  the  proprietors  of  lands  began  to  build 
and  endow  churches  in  their  own  possessions.  In 
such  cases  the  chaplain  or  priest  was  not  paid  by  the 
bishop,  but  allowed  to  receive  for  his  maintenance, 
and  for  the  use  of  his  church,  the  whole  or  a  part 
of  the  profits  of  the  lands  with  which  the  founder 
had  endowed  it,  and  the  offerings  of  those  who 
frequerted  the  church  for  worship.  A  district  was 
defined  by  the  founder,  within  which  the  functions 
of  the  officiating  priest  were  to  be  exercised  ;  and 
both  the  burden  and  the  advantages  of  his  ministry 
were  limited  to  the  inhabitants  of  that  district.  As 
these  pious  foundations  tended  both  to  the  advance- 
ment of  religion  and  to  the  reliet  of  the  episcopal 
treasury,  they  were  encouraged  by  the  bishops, 
who  readily  consecrated  the  churches  thus  esta- 
blished, and  consented  that  the  incumbent  should  be 
resident  at  the  church,  and  receive  the  tithes  and 
offerings  of  the  inhabitants  and  what  endowment 
the  founder  had  annexed  to  the  church.  Eventually, 
it  came  also  to  be  stipulated  with  the  bishop  that 
the  founder  and  his  heirs  should  have  a  share  in 
the  administration  of  the  property,  and  have  the 
right  to  nominate  a  person  in  holy  orders  to  be  the 
officiating  minister  whenever  a  vacancy  occurred. 
It  also  became  a  not  unusual  arrangement  that 
when  owners  of  estates  rebuilt  such  churches  as  were 
dependent  on  the  cathedral,  or  undertook  to  pay  the 
incumbent,  to  the  relief  of  the  cathedral,  the  right 
of  presentation  was  transferred  from  the  bishop  to 
these  persons,  who  thenceforward  stood  in  the 
same  relation  to  these  churches  as  if  they  had  been 
the  original  founders.  Out  of  these  private  endow- 
ments arose  the  parochial  divisions  of  a  later  time, 
which  thus  owe  their  origin  rather  to  accidental  and 
private  dotation  than  to  any  legislative  scheme  for 
the  eflclesiiastical  subdivision  of  the  country.  The 
bounds  of  a  parish  were  at  first  generally  commen- 
surate with  those  of  a  manor,  and  the  lord  of  the 
manor  was  the-  hereditary  patron.  The  person 
enjoying  the  privileges  of  a  founder  was  called 
patronus  and  adcocatus.  He  had  a  pre-eminent  seat 
and  a  burial-place  in  the  church  ;  he  enjoyed  a  pre- 
cedence among  the  clergy  in  processions ;  his  name 
and  arms  were  engraved  on  the  church  and  on  the 
church-hells,  and  he  was  specially  named  in  the 
public  prayers.  He  had  the  right  to  a  certain  por- 
tion of  the  church  funds,  called  patronagium,  and 
enjoyed  the  fruits  of  the  benefice  during  a  vacancy. 
In  the  course  of  time  it  sometimes  happened  that, 


with  the  concurrence  of  all  parties  interested,  thft 
patronage,  and  the  church  wi*h  its  revenues  and 
appurtenances,  were  made  over  to  a  religious  house, 
which  thus  became  both  patron  and  perpetual 
incumbent  of  the  parish,  while  the  immediate  dutiea 
of  the  cure  were  devolved  on  a  vicar  or  stipendiary 
curate.  In  France,  the  right  of  patronage  was 
often  extended  to  churches  not  originally  private 
foundations  by  the  necessities  of  the  sovereigns, 
which  led  them  to  take  possession  of  church  pro- 
perty, and  bestow  it  in  fee  on  laymen,  who  appro- 
priated the  greater  part  of  the  revenues,  and  took 
the  appointment  of  the  clergy  into  their  own  hands. 
For  a  length  of  time,  not  merely  the  nomination  but 
the  investiture  of  the  clergy  came  to  be  exercised  by 
lay  patrons,  a  state  of  matters  which  roused  the 
indignation  of  successive  popes  and  councils:  until 
it  was  at  last  ruled  by  the  third  and  fourth  Lateran 
Councils  (1179  and  1215  a.d.)  that  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  patron  should  not  of  itself  suffice  to 
confer  any  ecclesiastical  benefice,  even  when  quali- 
fied by  the  discretionary  power  of  rejection  given 
to  the  bishop,  when  the  presentee  was  a  lay. 
man.  It  was  declared  necessary  that  the  presentee 
should  not  merely  have  the  temporalities  of  the 
benefice  conferred  on  him  by  induction,  but  also  bo 
invested  with  the  spiritualities  by  institution. 
When  the  bishop  was  patron  of  the  benelice,  the 
ceremonies  of  induction  and  institution  were  united 
in  that  of  collation.  With  the  growth  of  the  papal 
power,  however,  a  practice  arose  by  which  the  right 
of  presentation  or  induction,  which  had  nominally 
been  left  to  the  patrons,  became  in  some  degree 
nugatory.  Towards  the  close  of  the  12th  c,  letters 
of  request,  called  mandates  or  expectatives,  began 
to  be  issued  by  the  popes  to  patrons,  praying  that 
benefices  should  be  bestowed  on  particular  persons. 
What  had  at  first  been  requested  as  a  favour  was 
soon  demanded  as  a  right,  and  a  code  of  rules  was 
laid  down  with  regard  to  grants  and  revocations  of 
expectatives.  In  the  13th  c.  the  patronage  of  all 
livings  whose  incumbents  had  died  at  the  court  of 
Rome  (vacantia  in  curia)  was  claimed  by  the  pope; 
and  as  ecclesiastics  of  all  ranks  from  every  part  of 
Europe  frequently  visited  Rome,  the  number  of 
benefices  vacantia  in  curia  was  always  very  great. 
Clement  V.  went  so  far  as  broadly  to  declare  that 
the  pope  possessed  the  full  and  free  disposal  of  all 
ecclesiastical  benefices.  The  practice  next  arose  of 
the  pope  making  reversionary  grants,  called  provi- 
sions of  benefices,  during  the  lifetime  of  the  incum- 
bent, and  reserving  what  benefices  he  thought  fit 
for  his  private  patronage.  By  means  of  permissions 
to  hold  benefices  in  commendam,  and  dispensations 
for  non-residence  and  holding  of  pluralities,  upwards 
of  fifty  benefices  were  often  held  by  one  person ; 
and  throughout  all  Europe  the  principal  benefices 
were  filled  by  Italian  priests,  nominees  of  the 
popes,  who  were  often  ignorant  of  the  very  lan- 
guage of  the  people  among  whom  they  ministered. 
In  the  14th  c.  these  claims  encountered  much 
opposition.  England  took  the  lead  in  an  organised 
resistance,  which  was  in  the  end  successful.  A 
series  of  English  statutes  was  passed,  beginning 
with  the  Statute  of  Provisors,  25  Edw.  III.  c.  6, 
solemnly  vindicating  the  rights  of  ecclesiastical 
patronage,  and  subjecting  to  severe  penalties  (see 
Praemunire)  all  persons  who  should  attempt  to 
enforce  the  authority  of  papal  provisions  in  England. 
The  principles  adopted  by  the  third  and  fourth 
Lateran  Councils  have  since  been  substantially  the 
law  of  patronage  in  Roman  Catholic  countries.  A 
lay  patron  is,  by  the  canon  law,  bound  to  exercise 
his  right  of  presentation  within  four,  and  an  eccle- 
siastical patron  within  six  months,  failing  wbic 
the   right   to  present  accrues   hire   devohitn   to  tb; 

327 


PATRONAGE— PATRONYMIC. 


bishop  of  the  diocese.  Patronage  has  always  been 
more  or  less  subject  to  alienation,  transmission,  and 
the  changes  incident  to  other  kinds  of  property. 
The  modern  practice  of  patronage  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  is  detailed  under  the  head  Pro- 
vision (q.  v.). 

In  England,  where  the  modified  canon  law,  which 
was  in  use  before  the  Reformation,  is  still  in  force, 
the  rights  of  patrons  do  not  materially  differ  from 
those  which  they  possess  in  Roman  Catholic  coun- 
tries. For  some  details  regarding  the  right  of 
presentation  in  England,  see  Advowson. 

In  Scotland,  at  the  Reformation,  the  rights  of 
patrons  were  reserved,  and  presbyteries  were  bound 
by  several  statutes  to  admit  any  qualified  person 
presented  by  the  patron.  The  principle  of  these 
statutes  was  retained  in  the  enactments  introducing 
Episcopacy.  On  the  establishment  of  Presbytery 
under  favour  of  the  civil  war,  patronage  was  abol- 
ished by  act  1649,  c.  23,  and  the  election  of  the 
clergy  was  committed  to  the  kirk-session.  At  the 
Restoration,  this  statute  fell  under  the  act  rescis- 
sory, and  patronage  was  replaced  on  its  former 
footing.  On  the  reintroduction  of  Presbytery  at 
the  Revolution,  patronage  was  again  cancelled, 
and  the  right  to  present  conferred  on  the  Pro- 
testant heritors  and  the  elders  of  the  parish, 
subject  to  the  approval  or  rejection  of  the  whole 
congregation.  In  consideration  of  being  deprived 
of  the  right  of  presentation,  patrons  were  to  receive 
from  the  parish  a  compensation  of  600  merks 
(£33,  6s.  sterling),  on  payment  of  which  they  were 
to  execute  a  formal  renimciation  of  their  rights. 
Only  three  parishes  effected  this  arrangement  with 
the  patron,  and  patronage  was  permanently  restored 
in  all  the  parishes  where  no  renunciation  had  been 
granted  by  10  Anne,  c.  12.  This  act,  with  modifi- 
cations introduced  by  6  and  7  Vict.  c.  61,  is  now 
law.  Should  a  patron  fail  to  present  for  six  months 
after  the  occurrence  of  a  vacancy,  the  right 
to  present  falls  to  the  presbytery  jure  devoluto. 
The  presentee,  before  he  acquires  a  right  to  the 
emoluments  of  the  benefice,  must  be  admitted 
to  it  by  the  presbytery  of  the  bounds.  He  is  first 
appointed  to  preach  certain  trial  sermons,  after 
"which  a  day  is  fixed  within  six  weeks  for  moderat- 
ing in  his  call.  On  that  day  the  people  are  invited 
to  sign  a  written  call  to  the  presentee  to  be  their 
minister,  and  however  few  the  signatures  to  the  call 
may  be,  the  presbytery  are  in  use  to  pronounce  a 
formal  judgment  sustaining  it.  They  then  proceed 
to  examine  into  the  qualifications  of  the  presentee, 
and  provided  the  result  be  satisfactory,  the 
ordination  follows  (if  he  have  not  been  previously 
ordained),  and  he  is  formally  admitted  minister  of 
the  parish  by  the  presiding  minister.  Soon  after 
the  above-mentioned  act  of  Queeu  Anne,  a  feeling 
which  had  sprung  up  in  favour  of  popular  election, 
in  opposition  to  patronage,  led  to  various  acts  of 
resistance  to  the  settlement  of  presentees,  and 
brought  about  two  considei-able  secessions  from  the 
Church  of  Scotland.  It  continued  for  a  length  of 
time  to  be  a  subject  of  dispute  how  far  the  right  of 
the  church  to  judge  of  the  fitness  of  presentees 
could  entitle  her  to  make  rules  tending  to  disqualify 
them,  and  in  particular  whether  she  could  legally 
make  the  dissatisfaction  of  the  congregation  a  dis- 
qualification. For  a  long  time  prior  to  1834,  there 
had  been  no  attempt  to  give  effect  to  any  dissent  on 
the  part  of  the  congregation.  In  that  year  the  law 
of  patronage  again  became  a  ground  of  contention, 
when  a  majority  of  the  General  Assembly  embodied 
their  views  on  the  subject  in  the  so-called  Veto 
Act,  which  declared  that  no  minister  was  to  be 
imposed  on  a  congregation  when  a  majority  of  heads 
of  famdies  and  communicants  should  dissent  from 
828 


his  admission.  The  decision  of  the  Court  of  Session, 
confirmed  by  the  House  of  Lords,  finding  this  act 
to  be  ultra  vires  of  the  General  Assembly,  led  to  the 
secession  of  1843  and  formation  of  the  Free  Church 
(q.  v.).  After  that  event,  an  act,  6  and  7  Vict.  c.  71, 
commonly  called  Lord  Aberdeen's  Act,  was  passed 
to  fix  by  a  legislative  provision  the  effect  which  the 
church  courts  were  in  future  to  be  entitled  to  give 
to  the  dissent  of  the  congregation  in  the  collation  of 
ministers.  It  is  there  enacted,  that  after  the  trial 
sermons,  the  presbytery  shall  give  to  the  parishioners;, 
being  members  of  the  congregation,  an  opportunity 
to  state  objections  which  do  not  infer  matter  of 
charge  to  be  proceeded  against  according  to  the 
discipline  of  the  church.  The  presbytery  are  either 
to  dispose  of  the  objections,  or  to  refer  them  to  the 
superior  church  judicatory;  and  if  the  objections  be 
considered  well  founded,  the  presbytery  may  reject 
the  presentee.  No  power  is,  however,  given  to  reject 
him  on  the  ground  of  mere  dislike  as  such  on  the 
part  of  any  portion  of  the  congregation.  In  Scotland, 
patronage  is  in  all  cases  a  heritable  right;  it  is 
transferable  by  disposition  without  infeftment,  but 
capable  of  being  feudalised,  after  which  it  can  be 
completely  conveyed  only  by  infeftment. 

In  the  Protestant  churches  of  Germany,  Sweden, 
and  Denmark,  patronage  exists  to  some  extent, 
subject  to  restrictions,  which  differ  much  in  different 
localities.  The  right  to  present  is  sometimes  divided 
between  the  patron  and  the  consistory.  The  par- 
ishioners have  in  many  instances  a  voice :  the 
appointment  may  be  entirely  in  their  hands,  or  they 
may  have  merely  a  right  to  reject  the  presentee 
after  he  has  been  subjected  to  the  ordeal  of  a  trial 
sermon ;  and  in  either  case  this  right  may  be 
exercised,  according  to  local  usage,  either  by  the 
parishioners  at  large,  by  a  committee  of  their 
number,  or  by  the  blirgermeister.  When  there 
is  no  patron,  the  choice  generally  rests  with  the 
consistory  in  East,  and  with  the  parishioners  in 
West  Germany.  Induction  by  the  superintendent 
completes  the  right  of  the  presentee. 

In  the  Greek  Church  the  right  to  present  is 
generally  in  the  hands  of  the  bishops,  excepting  in 
Russia,  where  lay  patronage  exists  to  a  limited 
extent. 

PATRONYMIC  (Gr.  pater,  father,  and  onoma, 
name),  properly  a  name  taken  from  one's  father, 
but  generally  applied  to  such  names  as  express 
descent  from  a  parent  or  ancestor.  In  Sanskrit, 
Greek,  and  Latin,  patronymics  are  very  numerous. 
They  may  be  derived  from  the  name  of  a  father, 
mother,  grandfather,  or  remoter  ancestor,  as  Atrides, 
i.e.,  (Agamemnon),  son  of  Atreus  ;  Philyrides,  i.e., 
(Chiron),  son  of  Philyra ;  .^Sacides,  i.  e.,  (Achilles), 
grandson  of  iEacus.  The  names  of  the  founders  of 
nations  have  also  been  used  to  form  a  sort  of 
patronymic,  as  when  the  Romans  are  called  Romu- 
lidse.  In  Greek  and  Latin  the  commonest  termina- 
tions of  patronymics  are  ides  and  is.  Patronymics 
have  no  fewer  than  thirteen  recognised  termi- 
nations in  Sanskrit.  A  number  of  the  surnames  ia 
use  in  modern  times  are  patronymics,  as  Johnson, 
the  son  of  John ;  Thomson,  the  son  of  Thomas. 
Originally  these  names  fluctuated  from  generation 
to  generation,  as  still  is,  or  very  recently  was,  the 
case  in  Shetland,  where  Magnus  Johnson's  son  calls 
himself  John  Magnusson  or  Mansou.  In  the  course 
of  time,  it  was  generally  found  more  convenient  to 
take  a  surname  from  one  well-known  ancestor, 
which  should  descend  unchanged  to  the  chddren  of 
the  bearer  of  it.  The  termination  s  is  sometimes 
used  as  equivalent  to  son,  as  in  Jones,  Rodgers. 
To  patronymics  belong  Norman,  Highland,  Irish, 
and  Welsh  surnames  with  the  prefixes  Fitz,  Mac,  0, 
and  Ap,  respectively.     In  many  cases  the  Mac  of 


PATTEE— PAUL. 


Pattoc. 


the  Highlands  of  Scotland  ceased  to  have  a  fluctu- 
ating character  only  a  few  generations  ago.  In 
lit').").  ;m  got  of  the  parliament  of  Ireland  was  directed 

itgainst  the  use  01  patronymics.  Every  [rishman 
'dwelling  betwixt  or  among  Englishmen  in  the 
counties  of  Dublin.  Myeth,  Uriel,  or  Kildare,'  was 
ordered  '  to  take  to  him  an  English  surname  of 
a  town,  aa  Sutton,  Chester,  Trym,  8kryne,  Corke, 
Kinsale  ;  or  colour,  as  White,  Blacke;  or  arte  or 
science,  as  Smith  or  Carpenter;  or  oliice,  as  Cooke 
or  Butler  ;  and  that  he  and  his  issue  should  use  the 
same.'  In  Wales  it  was  long  the  practice  to  use  a 
string  of  ancestral  names,  eacli  with  the  syllable 
Ap  prefixed  to  it.  Camden  relates  that  '  in  the 
time  of  King  Henry  VIII.  an  ancient  worshipful 
gentleman  of  Wales  being  called  at  the  pannell  of 
a  jury  by  the  name  of  Thomas  Ap  William  *j> 
Thomas  Ap  Richard  Ap  Hoel  Ap  Evan  Vaghan,  &c, 
was  advised  by  the  judge  to  leave  that  old  manner ; 
whereupon  he  afterwards  called  himself  Moston, 
according  to  the  name  of  his  principal  house,  and 
left  that  surname  to  his  posteritie.'     See  Name. 

PATTEia,  Cross,  in  Heraldry  (Lat.  patulus, 
spreading),  also  called  Cross  Formee,  a 
cross  with  its  arms  expanding  towards 
the  ends,  and  flat  at  their  outer  edges. 
PATUXENT,  a  river  of  Maryland, 
U.S.,  rises  20  miles  east  of  Frederick 
City,  and  after  a  south-easterly  course 
of  90  miles,  empties  by  a  broad 
estuary  into  Chesapeake  Bay ;  navi- 
gable for  small  vessels  for  50  miles. 

PAU,  a  flourishing  town  of  France,  capital  of 
the  department  of  Basses-Pyrenees,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Gave-de-Pau,  105  miles  south-south- 
east of  Bordeaux.  It  occupies  a  rocky  height, 
cloven  into  two  portions  by  a  ravine  through  which  a 
Btreamlet  flows  into  the  Gave-de-Pau,  and  united 
by  a  high  bridge.  Toward  the  south  it  commands 
most  magnificent  views  of  the  Western  Pyrenees ; 
indeed,  for  mountain  views  its  situation  is  hardly 
surpassed  by  that  of  any  town  in  France.  As  seen 
from  this  town,  the  distant  Pyrenees  rise  in  peaks, 
cones,  and  serrated  ridges,  aud  present  an  outline 
as  varied  as  it  is  strikingly  beautiful.  The  town 
contains  a  palace  of  justice,  a  promenade,  Royal 
Square,  with  a  bronze  statue  of  Henri  IV.,  beau- 
tiful theatre,  university-academy,  museum,  and 
library  of  25,000  vols.  Linen  and  cloth  manufactures 
are  the  chief  branches  of  industry ;  in  the  vicinity, 
Jurancon  wine  (good  but  strong)  is  grown.  Many 
swine  are  fed  in  the  vicinity,  and  from  the  pork  the 
famous  Jambons  de  Bayonue  are  made.  Pau  is  a 
favourite  resort  of  the  English,  especially  during 
winter,  aud  is  a  general  rendezvous  for  those  who 
wish  to  explore  the  Pyrenees.     Pop.  (1872;  23,407. 

The  principal  budding,  however,  of  Pau,  and  that 
to  which  it  owes  its  existence,  is  the  old  castle 
which  stands  on  the  ridge  overlooking  the  river, 
and  forms  both  the  most  conspicuous  and  most 
interesting  feature  of  the  town.  It  has  five  towers, 
united  by  an  outer  wall,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  by  Gaston  de  Foix  about  the  year 
1363.  Pau  was  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Loarn, 
and  its  castle  was  the  birthplace  of  the  famous 
Henri  IV. 

PAUL,  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentile3,  was 
born  of  Jewish  parents  at  Tarsus,  in  Cilicia,  and 
inherited  from  them  the  rights  of  Roman  citizenship. 
His  original  name  was  Saul.  He  was  educated  first 
in  his  native  city,  then  in  the  zenith  of  its  repu- 
tation for  its  schools  of  literature  and  philosophy, 
where  he  doubtless  learned  to  speak  aud  write 
Greek  ;  and  afterwards,  to  be  perfected  '  in  the  law 
of  his  fathers,'  wa#«  sent  to  Jerusalem,   where  he 


studied  under  Gamaliel,  a  great  Jewish  doctor,  and 
became  one  of  the  strictest,  most  zealous,  and  most 
ardent  Pharisees.  Whether  it  was  here  or  at 
Tarsus  that  he  acquired  his  knowledge— which  we 

have  no  reason  to  believe  was  ever  very  deep— of 
the  philosophy  and  literature  of  Greece,  cannot  be 
ascertained  According  to  the  wholesome  rule 
observed  among  the  Jews,  that  every  person  should 
learn  some  trade,  Saul  became  a  tent-maker,  and  at 
this  trade  he  afterwards  laboured  (Acts  xviii.  ?,) 
for  his  support.  A  few  years  after  the  death  of 
Jesus,  ho  l-e'.ame,  >s  might  have  been  expected 
from  his  Graining  ani  temperament,  a  furious 
adversary  of  the  new  seel'  of  Christians.  We  ars 
told  (A'.ts  vi.  9)  that  the  Jews  of  the  Cilician 
synagogue  at  Jerusalem  were  among  those  who 
disDntdd  with  Stephen,  and  it  is  natural  to  suppose 
that  the  young  and  brilliant  zealot,  eager  for 
disputation,  was  conspicuous  among  the  crowd 
of  Jewish  students  who  poured  out  of  their  syna- 
gogues (of  which,  according  to  the  Talmud,  there 
were  4S0  in  the  holy  city),  in  the  insolence  of  their 
youth  and  scholarship,  to  crush  the  ignorant  fol- 
lowers of  the  Nazarene.  This  supposition  is  rendered 
highly  probable  by  the  fact,  that  he  was  present  at 
the  martyrdom  of  Stephen,  which  followed  almost 
immediately,  having  charge  of  the  raiment  of  them 
that  slew  him.  He  now  became  a  prominent  actor 
in  the  great  persecution  of  the  Christians  that  broke 
out  at  Jerusalem.  The  mysterious  circumstances 
that  led  to  and  attended  his  conversion  are  familiar 
to  all  readers  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  need 
not  be  recapitulated  here.  After  a  solitary  sojourn 
in  Arabia — perhaps  to  calm  his  perturbed  spirit  in 
communion  with  God,  and  to  solemnly  prepare 
himself  for  his  new  mode  of  life  — on  his  return 
to  Damascus,  he  changed  his  name  to  Paul,  and 
resumed  or  began  (it  is  not  quite  clear  which)  his 
apostolic  labours.  Naturally,  he  became  au  object 
of  intense  hostility  to  the  unbelieving  Jews  in  that 
city.  They  resolved  to  kill  him ;  but  his  friends 
contrived  a  way  of  escape,  and  he  fled  to  Jerusalem, 
where  at  first  he  was  received  with  suspicion  by  the 
disciples,  but  afterwards,  through  the  kind  offices 
of  Barnabas,  with  great  cordiality.  He  now  '  spoke 
boldly  in  the  name  of  Christ,'  disputing  also  against 
the  'Grecians' — i.  e.,  the  Hellenistic  Jews — with 
dangerous  success,  for  his  opponents  sought  to 
take  his  fife.  Again  he  was  obliged  to  flee,  and 
betook  himself  to  his  birthplace,  Tarsus,  where  he 
seems  to  have  remained  till  Barnabas  brought  him 
to  Antioch  (not  far  off),  to  assist  in  the  great  work 
of  evangelisation  going  on  in  that  city.  After 
a  short  visit  to  Jerusalem  in  the  year  of  the  famine, 
44  A.D.,  they  were  set  apart  by  the  prophets  and 
elders  of  the  church  at  Antioch  for  the  evangel- 
isation of  the  more  distant  Jews.  From  Seleucia 
they  proceed  on  their  first  missionary  expedition  to 
the  southern  districts  of  Asia  Minor,  Pamphylia, 
Pisidia,  and  Lycaonia,  where  they  met,  especially 
in  some  places,  with  considerable  success,  in  preach 
ing  the  gospel.  It  is  very  interesting  to  notice  how 
gradually  the  light  of  Christianity  dawned  on  the 
mind  of  the  apostle.  He  did  not  grasp  all  at  one* 
its  grand  design.  It  was  not  even  by  abstract  reflec- 
tion that  he  arrived  at  it.  Circumstances  of  quito 
an  outward  sort  forced  him  to  the  sublime  con- 
clusions of  his  creed.  It  was  when  the  Jews  of 
Pisidian  Antioch,  enraged  at  his  preaching  the 
gospel  indiscriminately  to  their  Gentile  fellow- 
townsmen  and  themselves,  '  contradicted  and 
blasphemed  '  him,  that  he  boldly  announced 
Christ  as  the  universal  Redeemer.  After  the 
return  of  P.  and  Barnabas  to  Antioch,  they  con 
tinued  to  labour  in  that  city  for  a  long  time,  til- 
dissensions  having  arisen  about  the  circumcision  of 

323 


PAUL. 


Gentile  converts,  lie,  along  with  Barnabas  and  others, 
was  chosen  to  go  up  to  Jerusalem,  to  get  the  opinion 
of  the  apostles  and  elders  there  on  the  question, 
about  51  A.  D.  P.  and  Barnabas  now  returned  to 
Antioch,  where  they  continued  to  teach  and  preach, 
till  a  yearning  grew  up  in  the  heart  of  the  former 
to  revisit  his  Gentile  converts  in  Asia  Minor.  In 
his  second  expedition,  P.  was  accompanied  by  Silas 
instead  of  Barnabas,  and  traversed  the  whole  of 
Aoia  Minor  from  south  to  north,  evangelising  with 
great  success,  after  which  the  two  missionaries 
crossed  the  iEgean  and  landed  in  Europe,  planting 
it  Philippi,  the  capital  of  Thracian  Macedonia, 
the  first  Christian  church  in  that  continent.  The 
details  oi  his  visits  to  Thessalonica,  Berea,  Athens, 
and  Corinth  are,  doubtless,  familiar  to  our  readers, 
and  need  not  be  given  here.  We  can  only  notice 
his  appearance  at  Athens,  where,  on  Mars'  Hill, 
before  a  crowd  of  the  citizens,  among  whom  were 
Epicurean  and  Stoic  philosophers,  he  delivered  that 
magnificent  discourse  in  which  he  declared  to  the 
Athenians  the  character  of  the  '  unknown '  God. 
On  his  return  to  Asia  Minor  he  visited  Ephesus, 
•where,  as  usual,  he  'reasoned'  with  the  Jews 
in  their  synagogue ;  sailed  thence  to  Caesarea,  in 
Palestine,  and  proceeded  to  Jerusalem  'to  keep  the 
feast ; '  after  which  he  again  returned  to  Antioch, 
the  centre  from  which  his  operations  radiated.  Thus 
closed  his  second  evangelistic  journey. — The  third 
journey  of  P.  commenced  probably  about  54  A.  d., 
and  extended  over  much  the  same  district  as  the 
previous  one.  At  Ephesus,  where  he  remained  for  a 
period  of  two  years  and  three  months,  his  efforts  were 
powerfully  seconded  by  the  eloquence  of  the  great 
Alexandrian  convert,  Apollos.  Here  it  is  recorded 
(Acts,  xix.)  that  'God  wrought  special  miracles  by  the 
hand  of  Paul,  so  that  from  his  body  were  brought 
unto  the  sick  handkerchiefs  or  aprons,  and  the 
diseases  departed  from  them,  and  the  evil  spirits  went 
out  of  them.'  In  explanation  of  this  very  curious 
procedure,  which  has  a  disagreeable  resemblance  to 
ordinary  legerdemain,  it  has  been  suggested,  that  as 
Sphesus  was  a  city  noted  for  its  exorcisms,  spells, 
"\nd  incantatious — the  famous  Epliesia  Grammata 
sold  at  a  high  price  to  the  ignorant  and  super- 
stitious populace— this  style  of  miracle  was  an 
accommodation  to  their  belief  in  magic  and  dasmo- 
nism,  and  intended  to  shew  them,  according  to 
their  own  way  of  regarding  things,  the  superiority 
of  Christ's  power  to  that  of  the  evil  spirits  of 
heathen  worship.  From  Ephesus,  P.  went  up  to 
Jerusalem  with  a  presentiment  that  heavy  evils  were 
about  to  fall  upon  him  through  the  ever-maddening 
malice  of  the  Jews.  The  Jewish  populace  were 
goaded  into  the  wildest  fury  by  the  very  sight  of  Paul. 
The  captain  of  the  Pi.oman  guard,  Claudius  Lysias, 
had  to  interfere  to  save  him  from  being  torn  to  pieces ; 
but  as  forty  Pharisees  had  sworn  neither  to  eat 
por  drink  till  they  had  taken  his  life,  he  was  sent 
by  night,  under  a  strong  escort,  to  the  Roman 
governor,  Felix,  at  Caesarea,  where  he  was  unjustly 
detained  a  prisoner  for  two  years.  Having  finally 
»pjealed  to  the  Itoman  emperor,  according  to 
the  privilege  of  a  Roman  citizen,  he  was  sent 
to  Rome.  On  the  voyage  thither,  he  suffered 
shipwreck  at  Melita  (probably  Malta),  in  the  spring 
of  61  a.d.  At  Rome,  he  was  treated  with  respect, 
feeing  allowed  to  dwell  'for  two  whole  years  in 
his  own  hired  house.'  His  first  thoughts  were, 
as  usual,  directed  towards  his  Jewish  brethren 
in  the  city ;  but,  on  the  whole,  he  made  little 
impression  on  them.  Whether  he  ever  left  the 
city  or  not,  cannot  be  positively  demonstrated, 
but  it  is  believed  by  many  critics,  from  a  variety  of 
considerations,  that  he  did  obtain  his  liberty  about 
04  a.d.,  and  that  he  made  journeys  both  to  the  east 

330 


and  to  the  west,  revisiting  Asia  Minor,  and  carrying 
out  his  long-cherished  wish  of  preaching  the  gospel 
in  Spain,  then  thought  to  be  the  western  limit  of 
the  world.  Meanwhile  occurred  the  great  and 
mysterious  burning  of  Rome,  generally  attributed 
to  Nero.  The  latter  threw  the  blame  on  the  Chris- 
tians, who  were,  in  consequence,  subjected  to  a 
severe  persecution.  Among  the  victims  was  P., 
who,  according  to  tradition,  suffered  07  a.d. — Foi 
an  account  of  P.'s  correspondence  with  the  churches, 
see  the  articles  on  the  different  Epistles. 

PAUL,  the  name  of  five  popes,  of  whom  the 
following  appear  to  call  for  special  notice. — Paul 
III.,  whose  pontificate  falls  upon  one  of  the  most 
critical  periods  in  the  history  of  the  church,  was 
originally  named  Alessandro  Farnese,  and  was  born 
at  Carino,  in  Tuscany,  in  1468.  Having  been  created 
cardinal,  he  served  in  several  important  trusts,  and 
eventually  became  Bishop  of  Ostia  and  Dean  of  the 
Sacred  College.  On  the  death  of  Clement  VII.,  in 
1534,  he  was  elected  pope,  just  at  the  crisis  when 
the  world  was  alive  with  expectation  of  the  general 
council  which  was  to  decide  all  the  controversies 
at  that  time  agitating  the  public  mind  of  Europe. 
After  some  delays,  P.  convoked  the  council  to  meet 
at  Mantua  in  1542  ;  but  it  did  not  actually  assemble 
(in  Trent)  until  1545.  These  delays  are  by  some 
charged  upon  P. ;  but  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that 
much  of  it  was  due  to  the  difficulties  of  the  times. 
The  bull  of  excommunication  and  deposition  which 
he  issued  in  153S  against  Henry  VIII.  of  England, 
is  one  of  the  last  examples  of  the  exercise  of  the 
temporal  power  claimed  by  the  medieval  popes. 
In  the  contest  of  Charles  V.  with  the  Protestant 
League  in  Germany,  P.  sent  a  large  force  to  support 
him,  and  he  opposed  the  pacification  proposed  by 
the  emperor  upon  the  basis  of  the  Interim  (q.  v.). 
P.'s  couduct  in  aggrandising  the  fortune  of  his  son, 
Pietro  Luigi  Farnese,  has  been  severely  criticised  by 
historians  ;  the  more  so,  that  this  son  was  born  out 
of  wedlock,  in  the  early  youth  of  his  father.  P.  died 
November  10,  1549,  in  his  82d  year.— Paul  IV., 
named  John  Peter  Caraffa,  a  member  of  the  noble 
family  of  that  name,  was  born  in  Naples  in  1476. 
His  early  career  was  distinguished  for  ascetic  rigour. 
He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Chieti,  in  which  see 
he  laboured  most  earnestly  for  the  reformation  of 
abuses,  and  for  the  revival  of  religion  and  morality. 
With  this  view,  he  established,  in  conjunction  with 
several  congenial  reformers,  the  congregation  of 
secular  clergy  called  Theatines  (q.  v.),  and  was 
himself  the  first  superior.  It  was  under  his  influ- 
ence that  Paul  III.  organised  the  tribunal  of  the 
Inquisition  in  Rome.  On  the  death  of  Marcellus  II. 
in  1555,  although  in  his  seventy-ninth  year,  he  was 
elected  to  succeed  He  entered  upon  the  wider 
career  of  reformation  which  his  new  position  opened 
for  him  with  all  the  ardour  of  a  young  man,  and 
with  all  the  stern  enthusiasm  which  had  charac- 
terised him  during  life.  He  enforced  vigorously 
upon  the  clergy  the  observance  of  all  the  clerical 
duties,  and  enacted  laws  for  the  maintenance  of 
public  morality.  He  established  a  censorship,  and 
completed  the  organisation  of  the  Roman  Inqui- 
sition; he  took  measures  for  the  alleviation  of  the 
burdens  of  the  poorer  classes,  and  for  the  better 
administration  of  justice,  not  sparing  even  his  own 
nephews,  whom  he  banished  from  Rome,  on  account 
of  their  corrupt  conduct  and  profligate  life.  Hw 
foreign  relations,  too,  involved  him  in  much  labour 
and  perplexity.  He  was  embroiled  with  the 
Emperor  Ferdinand,  with  Philip  II.  of  Spam, 
with  Cranio,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.  Having  con- 
demned the  principles  of  the  Peace  of  Augsburg, 
he  protested  against  its  provisions.  Undsr  the 
weight  of  so  many  cares,  his  great  age  gave  way 


PAUL. 


He  died  August  18,  1550,  in  his  84th  year.  At  his 
death,  the  populace  broke  out  into  an  insurrectionary 
tumult,  which  lasted  till  the  conclave  for  the 
appointment  of  his  successor. — Paul  V.,  originally 
named  Camillo  Borghese,  was  born  in  Rome  in  1552. 
In  his  early  life,  he  was  a  distinguished  canonist  and 
theologian  ;  and  after  the  ordinary  prelatical  career 
at  Rome,  he  rose  lirst  to  the  post  of  nuncio  at  the 
Spanish  court,  and  afterwards  to  the  cardinal  ate 
under  Clement  VIII.  On  the  death  of  Leo  XI. 
in  1605,  Cardinal  Borghese  was  elected  to  succeed 
him.  His  pontificate  is  rendered  memorable  by 
the  celebrated  conflict  with  the  republic  of  Venice, 
into  which  he  was  plunged  at  the  very  outset  of  his 
career.  The  original  ground  of  dispute  was  the 
question  of  the  immunity  from  the  jurisdiction  of 
civil  tribunals  conceded  to  the  clergy,  who  claimed 
to  be  tried  by  ecclesiastical  tribunals  alone.  This 
claim  the  senate  resisted ;  and  further  causes  of  dis- 

Eute  were  added  by  a  mortmain  law,  and  a  law  pro- 
fiting the  establishment  of  new  religious  orders  or 
associations  unless  with  the  sanction  of  the  senate. 
Each  party  remaining  inflexible  in  its  determination, 
P.  issued  a  brief,  directing  a  sentence  of  excommu- 
nication against  the  doge  and  senate,  and  placing 
the  republic  under  an  interdict,  unless  submission 
should  be  made  within  twenty-four  days.  The 
senate  persisted,  and  an  animated  conflict,  as  well 
of  acts  as  of  writings,  ensued  in  the  latter  of  which 
the  celebrated  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi,  on  the  side  of  the 
republic,  and  on  the  papal  side,  Bellarmino  and 
Baron  ius,  were  the  leaders.  Preparations  were 
even  made  for  actual  hostilities  ;  but,  by  the  inter- 
vention of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  the  dispute  was 
accommodated,  and  peace  restored  in  1607,  although 
dissatisfaction  afterwards  arose  on  the  subject  of 
the  nomination  of  a  patriarch.  A  misunderstanding 
of  a  similar  nature  arose  between  the  pope  and  the 
crown  in  France  as  to  the  rights  of  censorship  on 
books,  and  as  to  the  receiving  of  the  disciplinary 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Treut ;  but  it  was  removed 
by  mutual  explanations.  His  administration  was 
vigorous  and  enlightened,  and  he  did  a  great  deal 
for  the  promotion  of  useful  public  works,  for  the 
embellishment  of  the  city,  the  restoration  and 
preservation  of  antiquities,  the  improvement  of.  the 
museums  and  libraries,  and,  above  all,  for  the  pious 
and  charitable  institutions  of  Borne.  P.  died  in 
his  69th  year,  January  28,  1621. 

PAUL,  Vincent  de,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
saints  of  the  modern  Catholic  Church,  was  born 
of  humble  parentage  at  Ranquines,  in  the  diocese 
of  Dax,  in  the  year  1576.  The  indications  of  abdity 
which  he  exhibited  led  to  his  being  sent  to  school 
at  Toulouse.  He  became  an  ecclesiastical  student, 
and  was  admitted  to  priest's  orders  in  1600.  On  a 
voyage  which  he  was  making  from  Marseille  to 
Narbonne,  his  ship  was  captured  by  corsairs,  and 
he  with  his  companions  sold  into  slavery  at  Tunis, 
where  he  passed  through  the  hauds  of  three  different 
masters.  The  last  of  these,  who  was  a  renegade 
Savoyard,  yielded  to  the  exhortations  of  Vincent, 
resolved  to  return  to  the  Christian  faith,  and  with 
Vincent,  made  his  escape  from  Barbary.  They  landed 
in  France  in  1607.  Having  gone  thence  to  Rome,  he 
was  intrusted  with  an  important  mission  to  the 
French  coui-t  in  1608,  and  continued  for  some  time 
to  reside  in  Paris  as  the  almoner  of  Marguerite  de 
Valois.  The  accident  of  his  becoming  preceptor  of 
the  ckddren  of  M.  de  Gondy,  the  commandant  of 
the  galleys  at  Marseille,  led  to  his  being  appointed 
almoner-general  of  the  galleys  in  1619.  It  was  at 
this  time  that  the  well-known  incident  occurred  of 
his  offering  himself,  and  being  accepted,  in  the  place 
of  one  of  the  convicts,  w  horn  he  found  overwhelmed 
with  grief  and  despair  at  having  been  obliged  to 


leave  his  wife  and  family  in  extren.e  destitution 
Meanwhile  he  had  laid  the  foundation  of  wliat  even- 
tually grew  into  the  great  and  influential  congre- 
gation of  Priests  of  the  Missions ;  an  association  of 
priests  who  devote  themselves  to  the  work  of  assisting 
the  parochial  clergy  by  preaching  and  hearing  con- 
fessions periodically  in  those  districts  to  which  they 
may  bo  invited  by  the  local  pastors.  The  rules  of 
this  congregation  were  finally  approved  by  Urban 
VIII.  in  lG'.i2  ;  and  in  the  following  year  the  Fathers 
established  themselves  in  the  so-called  Priory  of  St 
Lazare,  in  Paris,  whence  their  name  of  Lazariatt  is 
derived.  From  this  date,  his  life  was  devoted  to 
the  organisation  of  works  of  charity  and  benevo- 
lence. To  him  Paris  owes  the  establishment  of 
the  Foundling  Hospital,  and  the  first  systematic 
efforts  for  the  preservation  of  the  lives  and  the 
due  education  of  a  class  theretofore  neglected, 
or  left  to  the  operation  of  chance  charity.  The 
pious  Sisterhood  of  Charity  is  an  emanation  of 
the  same  spirit,  and  Vincent  was  intrusted  by  St 
Francis  of  Sales  with  the  direction  of  the  newly, 
founded  order  of  Sisters  of  the  Visitation.  The 
queen,  Anne  of  Austria,  warmly  rewarded  his  exer- 
tions, and  Louis  XIII.  chose  him  as  his  spiritual 
assistant  in  his  last  illness.  He  was  placed  by  the 
queen-regent  at  the  head  of  the  Conseil  de  Con* 
science,  the  council  chiefly  charged  with  the  direc- 
tion of  the  crown  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  ;  and  the 
period  of  hi3  presidency  was  long  looked  back  to  as 
the  golden  era  of  impartial  and  honest  distribution 
of  ecclesiastical  patronage  in  France.  Vincent  was 
not,  in  any  sense  of  the  word,  a  scholar,  but  his 
preaching,  which  (like  that  of  the  Fathers  of  his  con- 
gregation of  Lazarists)  was  of  the  most  simple  kind, 
was  singularly  affecting  and  impressive.  He  left 
nothing  behind  him  but  the  Rules  or  Constitutions  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Mission,  1658 ;  Conferences 
on  these  Constitutions,  4to ;  and  a  considerable 
number  of  letters,  chiefly  addressed  to  the  priests 
of  the  mission,  or  to  other  friends,  on  spiritual 
subjects.  He  died  at  the  advanced  age  of  85,  at 
St  Lazare,  September  27,  1660,  and  was  canonised 
by  Clement  XII.  in  1737.  His  festival  is  held  on 
the  19th  July,  the  day  of  his  canonisation. 

PAUL  (Petrowitsch),  Emperor  of  Russia,  the 
second  son  of  the  unfortunate  Peter  III.  and  the 
Empress  Catharine  II.,  was  born  in  1754,  became 
heir-apparent  on  the  death  of  his  elder  brother  in 
1763,  and  succeeded  his  mother  on  the  imperial 
throne  in  1796.  The  tragical  death  of  his  father 
when  he  was  still  a  child,  and  the  neglect  and  want 
of  confidence  with  which  his  mother  treated  him, 
exerted  a  baneful  influence  on  the  character  of 
P.,  who  was  kept  in  compulsory  seclusion  while 
Catharine  shared  the  administration  of  the  govern- 
ment with  her  favourites.  In  1776,  P.,  on  the  death 
of  his  first  wife,  a  princess  of  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
married  the  Princess  Dorothea  of  Wiirtemberg,  by 
whom  he  had  four  sons — the  late  Emperors  Alex- 
ander and  Nicholas,  and  the  Grand  Dukes  Constan- 
tine  and  Michael,  and  several  daughters.  After 
spending  some  years  in  travelling  with  his  wife 
through  Germany,  France,  and  Italy,  P.  was  recalled 
by  his  mother,  who  assigned  to  him  the  palace  of 
Gatchina,  30  miles  from  St  Petersburg,  as  his 
settled  residence,  while  she  took  his  children  under 
her  own  immediate  care.  The  death  of  the  empress 
in  1796  released  him  from  his  unnatural  restraint, 
and  he  ascended  the  th;one  with  no  practical 
acquaintance  with  the  mechanism  of  government, 
and  no  knowledge  of  the  people  whom  he  was 
called  to  rule  over.  A  determination  to  change 
everything  that  had  existed  under  the  previous 
reign,  and  to  wreak  vengeance  on  the  murderers  o£ 
his  father,  were  the  predominating  infl  u-ences  that 

331 


PAULDING-PAUL'S  (ST)  CATHEDRAL. 


glided  his  actions  ;  and  his  earliest  measures,  which 
were  the  disgrace  of  his  father's  murderers,  and  the 
pardon  of  all  Polish  prisoners,  gave  hopes  of  a  good 
reign ;  but  the  capricious  violence  of  character  and 
incapacity  for  business  which  P.  betrayed,  soon  dis- 
appointed the  hopes  that  be  had  awakened.  No 
department  of  the  state  was  free  from  his  frivolous 
interference,  and  no  class  of  the  nation  exempt 
from  the  effect  of  his  arbitrary  legislation.  While 
he  irritated  the  soldiery  by  vexatious  regulations 
in  regard  to  their  dress,  he  offended  the  nobles  by 
imperious  enactments  as  to  the  ceremonials  to  be 
observed  in  his  presence.  His  foreign  policy  was 
marked  with  similar  caprice.  After  having  adopted 
a  system  of  neutrality  in  the  war  between  France 
and  the  rest  of  Europe,  he  suddenly  declared  in 
favour  of  the  allied  powers,  and  sent  an  army  of 
56,000  men  under  Suwaroff  into  Italy.  The  success 
of  his  general  encouraged  him  to  send  a  second 
army  of  equal  strength  to  co-operate  with  the 
Austrians ;  but  their  defeat  in  1709  induced  P.  to 
recall  Suwaroff  with  the  Russian  troops  ;  and  having 
retired    from  the   allied   coalition  without   having 

f'ven  any  reason  for  his  conduct,  he  quarrelled  with 
ngland,  because  she  would  not  comply  with  his 
whimsical  demand  for  the  surrender  of  Malta,  and 
his  own  recognition  as  Grand  Master  of  the  Order  of 
Malta,  and  entered  into  a  close  alliance  with  Bona- 
parte, who  was  then  First  Consul.  The  jealousy 
and  hatred  of  England  by  which  both  were  actuated, 
proved  a  powerful  bond  of  union  between  them ;  and 
in  furtherance  of  their  scheme  of  uniting  all  the 
smaller  maritime  powers  into  one  vast  confederation 
against  England,  P.  concluded  a  convention  with 
Sweden  and  Denmark  for  the  purpose  of  opposing 
the  right  insisted  on  by  England  of  searching  neutral 
vessels.  The  result  was  that  the  English  govern- 
ment sent  a  fleet  into  the  Baltic  under  Nelson  to 
dissolve  the  coalition,  at  the  close  of  March  1801. 
P.  was  preparing  to  give  material  aid  to  the  Danes, 
when  a  conspiracy  was  formed  at  Sb  Petersburg  to 
put  a  stop  to  the  capricious  despotism  under  which 
all  classes  of  men  in  Russia  were  groaning.  The 
conspirators,  whose  numbers  included  Count  Pahlen, 
the  most  influential  man  at  court,  General  Bening- 
sen,  Uwarow,  and  many  other  distinguished  nobles 
and  officers,  appear  originally  to  have  intended  only 
to  force  P.  to  abdicate,  but  his  obstinate  disposition 
led  to  a  scuffle,  in  which  the  emperor  was  strangled, 
March  24,  1801. 

PAULDING,  James  "Kirke,  an  American  author, 
was  born  at  Pleasant  Valley,  New  York,  August 
22,  1779.  His  father  was  a  farmer,  descended  from 
the  early  Dutch  settlers.  Self-educated,  and  early 
developing  a  tendency  to  literature,  he  was  a  friend 
of  Washington  Irving,  and  wrote  a  portion  of 
Salmagundi.  During  the  war  of  1S12,  he  published 
the  Diverting  History  of  John  Bull  and  Brother 
Jonathan  ;  in  1S13,  a  parody  of  the  Lay  of  the  Last 
Minstrel,  entitled  A  Lay  of  the  Scottish  Fiddle;  and 
in  1814,  a  more  serious  work,  The  United  Stales  and 
England,  a  defence  against  articles  in  the  Quarterly 
Review.  This  work  attracted  to  him  the  attention 
of  President  Madison,  and  caused  him  to  be 
appointed  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Naval  Com- 
missioners. In  1817,  he  published  a  defence  of  the 
southern  states  and  of  slavery  in  Letters  from  the 
South,  by  a  NortJiern  Man  ;  in  1819,  a  new  series  of 
Salmagundi ;  in  1S22,  A  Sketch  of  Old  England,  by  a 
New  England  Man;  and  in  1824,  John  Bull  in 
America,  or  the  New  Munchausen,  a  satire  on  the 
writings  of  certain  British  tourists.  This  was 
followed  by  Konigsmarhe,  a  novel  (1825) ;  Merry 
Tales  of  the  Three  Wise  Men  of  Gotham  (1S26) ; 
The  New  Pilgrim's  Progress  (182S) ;  Tales  of  a  Good 
W«man  (1829) ;  Book  of  St  Nicholas  (1830).     These 


works,  mostly  humorous  and  satirical,  had  various 
degrees  of  local  popularity;  but  in  1831  he  produced 
The  Dutchman's  Fireside,&  novel  that  was  reprinted 
in  England,  and  translated  into  French  and  Dutch;, 
and  in  1832,  Westward  Ho!  which  attained  to  a 
similar  popularity.  These  were  followed  by  a  Lift 
of  Washington  (1835),  Slavery  in  the  United  Slate* 
(1836),  in  which  the  institution  is  defended  on 
social,  economical,  and  physiological  grounds.  He 
held  at  this  period  the  lucrative  post  of  Navy 
Agent  at  New  York,  and  was  by  Mr  Van  Buien 
appointed  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  which  gave  him 
the  position  of  cabinet  minister.  At  the  clcsft 
of  Mr  Van  Buren's  presidency  in  1841,  Mr  P« 
retired  to  a  country  residence  at  Hyde  Park,  New 
York,  where  he  wrote  The  Old  Continental,  a  novel 
(1846) ;  The  Puritan  and  his  Daughter  (1849) ;  and 
with  his  son,  a  volume  of  Piays  and  Fairy  Tales. 
He  died  at  Hyde  Park,  April  6,  1S60. 

PAULI'CIANS,  an  ancient  sect  of  the  Eastern 
Empire,  who,  by  Catholic  writers,  are  reckoned  an 
offshoot  of  the  Manichseans  (q.  v.).  According  to 
Peter  of  Sicily  and  Photius,  the  sect  originated  in 
Armenia  from  two  brothers,  named  Paul  (from  whom 
it  is  alleged  to  have  received  its  name)  and  John, 
who  flourished  in  the  4th  century.  Others  trace  it 
to  an  Armenian  named  Paul,  who  lived  under 
Justinian  II.  The  P.  were  at  all  times  treated 
with  much  suspicion,  and  repressed  with  great 
severity,  by  the  eastern  emperors ;  Constans,  Jus- 
tinian II.,  and  Leo  the  Isaurian  especial]}'  laboured 
to  repress  them,  and  indeed,  with  the  exception  of 
Nicephorus  Logotheta  (802 — 811),  it  may  be  said 
that  all  the  emperors,  with  more  or  less  rigour,  per- 
secuted them.  Their  greatest  enemy,  however,  was 
Theodora  (S41 — 855),  who,  having  ordered  that  they 
should  be  compelled  to  return  to  the  Greek  Church, 
had  all  the  recusants  cruelly  put  to  the  sword  or 
driven  into  exile.  A  bloody  resistance,  and  finally 
an  emigration  into  the  Saracen  territory,  was  the 
consequence  ;  and  it  is  from  the  Paulician  settlers 
in  Bulgaria  (Catholic  historians)  that  the  Mani- 
chasan  doctrines  which  tinged  the  opinions  of  most 
of  the  medieval  sects,  are  supposed  by  Roman 
Catholic  historians  to  have  found  their  way  into 
the  eastern  provinces  of  the  Western  Empire. 
Even  so  late  as  the  17th  c,  according  to  Mosheim 
(ii.  23S),  there  was  a  remnant  of  this  sect  existing 
in  Bulgaria. 

It  is  proper,  however,  to  notice  that  a  very 
different  view  of  the  character  and  doctrines 
of  the  P.  has  been  advocated  by  such  modern 
writers  on  ecclesiastical  history  as  Gieseler  and 
Neander,  according  to  whom  they  had  their  origin 
from  one  Constantine  of  Mananalis  (near  Samosata), 
an  Armenian,  who  had  received  a  present  of  two 
volumes — one  containing  the  four  gospels,  and  the 
other  the  epistles  of  Paul — and  who  afterwards 
assumed  the  name  of  Paul,  in  testimony  of  his  great 
veneration  for  that  apostle.  The  distinctive  char- 
acters of  his  doctrine  and  that  of  his  followers 
were  the  rejection  of  the  worship  of  the  Virgin,  the 
saints,  and  the  cross,  the  denial  of  the  material 
presence  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist,  and  the  asser- 
tion of  a  right  freely  to  search  the  Scriptures  ;  and 
the  charge  of  Manichseism  was  falsely  brought  against 
them  by  their  persecutors. 

PAULLI'NIA    See  Guarana  Bread. 

PAUL'S  (St)  CATHEDRAL  in  London  is  noted 
from  its  being  the  largest  and  most  magnificent  Pro- 
testant church  in  the  world,  and  second  ouly  to  St 
Peter's  in  Rome  among  the  religious  structures  of 
modern  times.  The  site  of  the  present  building  .was 
occupied  about  610  by  a  Christian  church  dedicated 
to  St  Paul    This  church  continued  till  10S3,  when  it 


•AULUS  jEG1NETA--PAULUS  DIACONUS. 


was  destroyed  by  fin.    From  its  ruins  arose  a  much 
more  splendid  edifice— the  immediate  precursor  of 
the  present  cathedral.      In   ll.'(7,  the  building  suf- 
fered severely  from  lire;  but,  that  being  tlie  great 
age  for  splendid  churches,  it  was  soon  restored  with 
great  magnificence,  the  bishops  and  the  people  con- 
tributing most  liberally  to  defray  the  cost.    Old  St 
Paul's  was  the  largest  church  in  the  country,  being 
6D0  feet  in   length,  130   in   breadth,  and  about  ISO 
feet  high.     The  total  height  of  the  stone  tower  and 
the  spire,  covered  with  lead,  which  surmounted  it, 
was  520  feet.     The  cloister  was  90  feet  square,  with 
a  beautiful  chapter- house  in  the  centre.     In  1606, 
the  great,  lire  of  London  completely  destroyed  the 
old  cathedral,  along  with  a  large  portion   of  the 
city  and  most  of  the  churches  ;  and  thereafter,  Sir 
Christopher  Wren  was  employed  to  design  about  50 
of  the  new  churches,  and,  among  others,  the  new 
cathedral.     In  1673,  he  submitted  several  designs 
for  a  new  cathedral  to  the  king,  who  selected  one, 
and  ordered  a  model  of  it  on  a  large  scale  to  be 
prepared.     This  was  done  by  Wren,  and  the  model 
still  exists.    Its  plan  is  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross, 
having  a  large  dome  over  the  centre,  supported  on 
eight  arches.      This  was,  however,   eventually   de- 
parted from;  and  the  new  design  was  modelled  on 
that  of  a  Gothic  cathedral,  with  an  interior  length 
of  460  feet,  width  210  feet  across  transepts,  and 
a  nave  94-  feet  wide.      The   dome,  and   the   eight 
supporting  arches  of  the  model,  are  preserved  ;  but 
in   the  new   design   the    .angle   arches   lead  to  no 
spacious  compartment,  but  to  small  dark  passages 
only  :  while  the  upper  portions  of  these  great  arches 
are  blocked  up  with  other  arches,  introduced  for 
constructive  purposes,  but  very  destructive  of  the 
architectural   effect.      The   plan  of  supporting  the 
dome  on  eight  arches  had  the  charm  of  novelty, 
and  also  of  simplicity  of  construction,  but  it  made 
the  arches  themselves  too  small  in  proportion  to  the 
great  span   of   the  dome.      The   constructive  skill 
displayed  by  Wren  in  this  building  is  universally 
acknowledged    and    admired,    but    it    is    thought 
that    he    has    allowed    the    mechanical    exigences 
of  the  work  to  interfere  too  much  with  its  decora- 
tive   requirements.       The    dome,    for    example,   is 
constructed  on  a  new  and  most  masterly  principle, 
the  thrust  of  the  vault  being  counterbalanced  by 
the  weight  of  a  brick  cone,  which  is  carried  up  to 
support  the  stone  lantern  over  the  exterior  dome. 
But  in  order  to  carry  this  out  with  the  least  expen- 
diture possible,  the  drum,  or  plain  cylindrical  wall 
under  the  dome,  is    sloped    inwards,  so    that   the 
columns  with  which  it  is  decorated  appear  to  the 
spectator   below  to   be   falling  inwards,  thus   pro- 
ducing  a  painful  and   disagreeable   effect.      Great 
exception  is  taken  to  the  fact,  that  the   external 
dome  is  of  wood,  and  not  of  stone,  and  so  liable  to 
premature  decay  ;  but  the  same  may  be  said  of  the 
wooden  roofs  over  the  vaults  of  Gothic  cathedrals  ; 
and  by  making  it  of   wood,  Sir   Christopher  was 
enabled  to  raise  it  to  a  height  which  makes  it  one 
oi  the  noblest  buildings  of  the  kind  in  the  world. 
The  design  of  the  nave,  from  the  classic  vaulting 
with  which  it  is  covered,  is  necessarily  to  a  great 
extent  a  failure.    When  domes,  or  intersecting  vaults, 
are  used  in  a  classic  building,  the  compartments 
must  be  about  square ;  there  can  therefore  be  but 
a  small  number  of  nave  piers,  as  compared  with 
those  of  a  Gothic  cathedral,  and  the  perspective  effect 
of  the  latter  is  thus  entirely  awanting.     The  same 
is  the  case  at  St  Peter's.      The  dome   is  particu- 
larly successful,  and  is  admitted  to  be  the  finest  in 
existence  ;  no  other  being  so  graceful  and  varied  in 
outliue  and  yet  so  massive  in  general   effect.     Its 
height  from  the  pavement  to  the  top  of  the  cross  is 
#04  feet.     The  west  front,  as  seen  from  Ludgate 


Hill,  is  most  striking  ;  the  two  campaniles  gronp 
most  harmoniously  with  the  dome,  and,  together 
with  the  portico,  produce  a  most  pleasing  and 
remarkable  effect.     This  front  must,  however,  I* 

condemned,  along  with  the  screen-walls,  if  strictly 
criticised.  The  upper  portico  appears  to  indicate 
an  upper  story  where  there  is  none,  and  the 
construction  and  true  form  of  the  building  are  not 
expressed  at  all.  St  Paul's  is  the  bitriafpl 
many  heroes  and  men  of  distinction,  whose  tombs 
are  in  the  crypt,  and  whose  monuments  adorn  the 
interior  of  the  cathedral.  Amongst  these  are  Nelson 
and  Wellington,  Collingwood,  Abercromby,  .Moore, 
Howe,  St  Vincent,  Picton,  Rodney,  and  many  other 
celebrated  soldiers  and  sailors;  Howard,  Johnson, 
Reynolds,  Barry,  opie,  West,  BirAstley  Coo] 
William  Jones,  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  and  other 
distinguished  civilians.  Several  of  the  monuments 
are  by  Flaxman,  Chantrey,  Bacon,  and  Rossi ;  but 
it  must  be  confessed  that  they  savour  generally 
too  much  of  heathen  mythology,  to  be  appropriate 
in  a  Christian  cathedral. 

PAU'LUS  ^EGINE'TA,  a  celebrated  Greek 
physician,  was  born  in  the  island  of  JEgina,  and 
Hourished  during  the  conquests  of  the  Calif  Omai 
in  the  7th  century.  Of  his  life  we  know  almost 
nothing  more  than  that  he  pursued  his  medical 
studies  first  at  Alexandria,  and  afterwards  in  Greece 
and  other  countries.  His  forte  lay  in  surgery  and 
obstetrics,  in  the  latter  of  which  departments  of 
medicine  his  practice  was  great.  He  abridged  the 
works  of  Galen,  and  was  deeply  read  in  those  of 
^Etius  and  Oribasius,  while  he  always  exercised  an 
independent  judgment  in  forming  his  conclusions. 
His  descriptions  of  diseases  are  brief  and  succinct, 
and  also  complete  and  exact.  He  often  grounds  his 
exjdanation  of  morbid  phenomena  on  Galen's  theory 
of  the  cardinal  humours ;  while  in  surgery  his 
writings  abound  with  novel  and  ingenious  views. 
His  works — the  principal  of  which  is  commonly 
called  De  Re  Medica  Libri  Septe.n  (Loud.  1S34) — 
have  passed  through  many  editions,  of  which  tho 
best  is  that  completed  at  Lyon  in  1567,  and  they 
have  also  had  many  translators,  of  whom  the  best 
in  English  is  Dr  Francis  Adams. 

PAULUS  DIACONTJS  (also  called  Pauuts 
Levita,  both  surnames  being  derived  from  his  eccle- 
siastical office),  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his 
time,  and  the  greatest  Lombard  historian,  was  born 
of  a  noble  Lombard  family  at  Friuli  about  730. 
His  father's  name  was  Warnefrid.  He  received  a 
superior  education  at  Pavia,  at  the  court  of  the 
Lombard  king  Ratchis,  and  appears  to  have  con- 
tinued at  court  during  the  reigns  of  his  successors, 
Aistulf  and  Desiderius,  and  to  have  accompanied 
Adelperga,  the  daughter  of  Desideriu3,  whose  edu- 
cation he  had  conducted,  to  the  court  of  her  lms- 
band,  Duke  Arichis  of  Beneventum.  For  her  he 
wrote,  in  781,  after  he  had  become  an  ecclesiastic, 
one  of  his  principal  works,  his  Historia  Romana,  a 
work  of  no  authority,  as  it  is  a  mere  compilation 
from  works  which  we  possess,  but  whkxh  was  greatly 
used  during  the  whole  of  the  middle  ages,  as  the 
many  manuscripts,  recensions,  and  continuations  of 
it,  attest.  An  sdition  of  the  genuine  text  is  still 
awanting,  but  a  ^eat  part  of  it  is  given  in  Muratori's 
Rerum  Italicarum  Scriptores,  vol.  1  (Milan,  1728). 
In  7S1,  P.  became  a  monk  of  Monte  Casino;  but 
afterwards  went  to  France,  and  won  the  esteem  of 
Charlemagne  in  a  high  degree  by  his  character  and 
learning.  He  aided  that  monarch  in  his  schemes 
for  the  promotion  of  learning,  and  introduced  the 
study  of  the  Greek  language  into  France.  He  made 
a  collection  of  homilies  from  the  best  sources,  at  tbe 
emperor's  desire,  known  as  the  HomUarivm,  often 


PAULUS-PAUSANIAS. 


printed  between  1482  and  1569,  and  translated  into 
German  and  Spanish.  At  the  request  of  Ansdlram, 
Bishop  of  Metz,  he  also  wrote  a  history  of  the  Bishops 
of  Metz,  Gesta  Episcoporum  Mellensium  (printed  in 
Pertz's  Monumenta  Germanke  Historica,  vol.  2), 
the  first  work  of  the  kind  on  the  north  of  the  Alps, 
but  the  example  of  which  was  soon  very  generally 
followed.  In  787,  he  returned  to  his  convent, 
where  he  remained  till  his  death,  which  is  said  to 
have  taken  place  in  797.  In  the  latter  years  of  his 
life,  he  wrote  his  History  of  the  Longobards  (De 
Gestis  Longobardum,  Libri  6),  but  did  not  live  to 
complete  it,  bringing  down  the  history  only  to  the 
death  of  Liutprand  in  744.  There  are  Beveral 
editions  of  this  work,  the  best  of  which  is  contained 
in  the  work  of  Muratori.  It  is  characterised  by 
remarkable  candour,  and  a  style  unusually  pure  for 
that  age.  The  high  repute  in  which  this  work  also 
was  long  held,  is  attested  by  the  great  number  of 
manuscripts  and  continuations.  P.  was  likewise 
the  author  of  a  number  of  theological  works,  and  of 
some  hymns  and  letters  still  extant. 

PAULUS,  Heinrich  Eberhard  Gottlob,  a 
German  theologian  of  great  note  in  his  day,  and  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  Rationalists  at  the  close  of  the 
last  and  the  first  quarter  of  the  present  century, 
was  born  at  Leonberg,  near  Stuttgart,  1st  September 
1761.  He  gave  himself  to  the  study  of  oriental 
languages  at  Gottingen,  and  afterwards  prosecuted 
it  in  London  and  Paris.  In  17S9,  he  was  called  to 
the  professorship  of  Oriental  Languages  at  Jena,  and 
in  1793  became  Professor  of  Geology,  on  the  death  of 
Doderlein.  Here  he  especially  signalised  himself  by 
the  critical  elucidation  of  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament,  in  so  far  as  they  presented 
oriental  characteristics.  The  results  of  his  labours 
may  be  seen  in  his  Philologisch-kritischen  unci  histo- 
rischen  Commentar  uber  das  Neue  Testament  (4  vols. 
Liib.  1800—1804) ;  Clavis  uber  die  Psalmen  (Jena, 
1791) ;  Clavis  uber  den  Jesaias,  and  other  writings 
belonging  to  this  period  of  his  literary  activity.  In 
1803.  he  removed  to  Wiirzburg ;  in  180S,  to  Bamberg; 
in  1809,  to  Nurnberg;  and  in  1811,  to  Ansbach. 
Durino"  these  various  changes,  he  had  ceased  to  be  a 
professor,  and  become  a  director  of  ecclesiastical  and 
educational  affairs  ;  lut  in  1811  he  accepted  the 
professorship  of  Exegesis  and  Ecclesiastical  History 
at  Heidelberg.  In  1819,  he  started  a  kind  of  his- 
torico-political  journal  entitled  Sophronizon,  in 
which  he  continued  to  write  for  about  ten  years. 
His  contributions  were  marked  by  weighty  sense, 
moderation,  and  knowledge  of  his  various  subjects, 
and  won  him  great  applause  at  the  time.  As  a  theo- 
logian, he  is  generally  looked  upon  as  the  type  of 
pure  unmitigated  rationalism — a  man  who  sat  down 
to  examine  the  Bible  with  the  profound  conviction 
that  everything  in  it  represented  as  supernatural 
was  only  natural  or  fabulous,  and  that  true  criticism 
consisted  in  endeavouring  to  prove  this.  From  his 
numerous  writings,  we  select  for  mention  the  fol- 
lowing: Memorabilien  (Leip.  1791 — 1796) ;  Sammlung 
der  merle wurdigsten  Reisen  in  den  Orient  (7  vols. 
Jena,  1792 — 1S03) ;  Leben  Jesu,  als  Grundlage  einer 
reinen  Geschichte  des  Urchristenthums  (2  vols.  Heidelb. 
1828)  ;  Aufklarende  Beitrdge  zur  Dogmen-Klrchen- 
und  lieUgionsgeschichte  (Bremen,  1S30) ;  and  Exege- 
iisches  Handbuch  uber  die  drei  ersten  Evangelien  (3 
vols.  Heidelb.  1830—1833).  P.  died  10th  August 
1851,  at  the  advanced  age  of  90 — having  lived  long 
enough  to  see  his  own  rationalistic  theory  of 
Scripture  give  place  to  the  'mythical'  theory  of 
Strauss,  and  that  in  its  turn  to  be  shaken  to  its 
foundations  partly  by  the  efforts  of  the  Tubingen 
school,  and  partly  by  those  of  Neander  and  the 
'Broad  Church'  divines  of  Germany.  See  P.'s 
Bkizzen  am  meiner  Bildungn-und  Lebensgeschichte 
834 


znm  Andenlcen  an  mein  50-jahriges  Jidjildum 
(Heidelb.  1839),  and  Reichlin  Meldegg's  IT.  E..  O 
Paulas  und  Seine  Zeit  (2  vols.  Stufctg  1S53). 

PAU'PER  COLONIES  are  establishments  at 
Frederiksoord  and  Veenhuizen  in  the  Netherlands, 
province  of  Drenthe,  and  at  Willemsoord  and 
Ommerschans  in  Overyssel.  They  were  erected  by 
a  benevolent  society  for  the  purpose  of  employing 
poor  people  in  cultivating  land  and  various  indus- 
tries. In  1S5S,  the  society  suspended  payments, 
and  the  state  took  the  temporary  management, 
arranged  with  the  creditors,  finally  retaining  Om- 
merschans and  Veenhuizen,  leaving  Frederiksoord 
and  Willemsoord  to  be  governed  by  the  society. 

On  1st  January  I860,  the  government  colonies 
contained  6034  persons,  of  whom  4407  had  been 
beggars.  There  were  41  farms,  15  factories  and 
workshops,  with  churches  and  schools.  The  stock 
consisted  of  104  horses,  508  cows,  1259  sheep,  &c, 
and  the  breadth  of  land  in  cidture  extended  to  1454 
acres  in  rye,  barley,  oats,  and  buckwheat,  741  in 
potatoes,  and  1124  in  grass.  Peat  is  extensively  cut ; 
half  a  million  coffee-bags  are  made  annually,  &c. 
These  institutions  are  kept  up  at  a  considerable 
expense  to  the  nation,  but  have  been  successful  in 
reducing  the  numbers  and  improving  the  social 
condition  of  many  of  the  destitute  poor. 

The  colonies  of  the  benevolent  society  extend  to 
4942  acres,  and  the  inhabitants  are  either  tenant 
cotters,  with  about  7  acres  of  land  attached  to  each 
house,  or  labour  for  the  society.  In  1863,  there 
were  259  cotter  families,  paying  for  house,  garden, 
land,  and  the  use  of  a  cow,  a  yearly  rent  of  about 
£5,  17s.  Those  who  are  not  required  for  the  land, 
work  in  the  factories,  weaving  cottons,  bagging, 
coarse  linens,  making  baskets,  mats,  &c.  There  are 
two  Protestant  churches,  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel, 
and  a  synagogue.  The  society's  colonies  have  never 
been  self-supporting,  and  are  partly  maintained  by 
the  yearly  contributions  of  members,  gifts,  legacies, 
&c. ;  the  total  receipts,  from  all  sources,  in  1S62, 
amounting  to  £37,000,  and  the  expenditure  to 
£34,000.  Pop.  2611.  In  1S63,  there  were  5079  mem- 
bers who  contributed  £1378 ;  and  the  property, 
stock,  &c,  of  the  society  are  valued  at  £74,000.  The 
colonists  have  been  greatly  improved  in  position, 
and  their  houses  shew  signs  of  industry  and  comfort. 
When  working  in  the  factories,  a  tenth  part  of 
their  weekly  earnings  is  placed  in  a  reserve  fund, 
which  is  paid  out  to  them  in  winter  or  in  time  of 
sickness. 

PAUSA'NIAS,  a  famous  Spartan  regent  and 
general,  the  son  of  Cleombrotus,  and  nephew  of 
Leonidas.  He  commanded  the  confederate  Greeks 
in  the  important  battle  of  Platrea  (479  B.C.),  in 
which  the  Persians  were  totally  routed,  and  their 
leader,  Mardonius,  slain.  He  then  marched  his 
troops  against  Thebes,  and  compelled  the  inhabit- 
ants to  give  up  the  chiefs  of  the  Persian  party  to 
him  for  punishment.  Elated  by  this  victory,  how- 
ever, he  became  in  an  extreme  degree  haughty  and 
vain -glorious,  took  all  the  credit  to  himself,  and 
allowed  none  to  the  Athenian  generals,  Aristides 
and  Kimon,  who  commanded  under  him,  and  treated 
all  the  other  Greeks  as  if  the  Spartans  were  their 
lords.  Nevertheless,  he  still  continued  his  conquests, 
capturing  Cyprus  and  Byzantium.  It  was  here  he 
first  began  to  play  false  to  Greece.  He  entered  into 
secret  negotiations  with  Xerxes,  with  the  view  of 
becoming  ruler,  under  the  Persian  monarch,  of  the 
whole  country,  and  in  his  journey  through  Thrace, 
even  adopted  the  dress  and  luxurious  habits  of  a 
Persian  satrap,  and  surrounded  himself  with  a  body- 
guard of  Persians  and  Egyptians.  Being  recalled,  en 
account  of  these  things,  by  the  Spartans,  his  formal 


PA  USANI AS-PAVIA. 


services  procured  hig  acquittal.  Ho  then  returned 
to  Byzantium,  where  he  renewed  his  traitorous 
intrigues,  was  expelled  from  the  city  for  a  criminal 
assault  upon  a  Byzantine  lady,  withdrew  to  the 
Troad,  and  there  continued  his  treachery.  He  was 
a  second  time  called  to  account  hy  the  Spartan 
ephors,  hut  again  escaped,  though  with  greater 
difficulty.  Yet  his  passion  for  the  sovereignty  of 
Greece,  even  though  at  the  expense  of  the  national 
liberties,  once  more  drove  him  to  play  the  traitor. 
He  tried  to  stir  up  the  Helots,  but  was  taken  in 
his  own  net.  A  Helot  betrayed  him.  When  P. 
found  his  position  desperate,  he  took  refuge  in  a 
temple  of  Athene.  Hereupon  the  people  blocked 
np  the  gate  of  the  temple  with  heaps  of  stones, 
and  left  him  to  die  of  hunger,  his  own  mother 
depositing  the  first  stone. 

PAUSANIAS,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of 
Greek  geographers  and  historians,  was  probably  a 
native  of  Lydia  in  Asia  Minor,  and  was  born  some 
time  in  the  2d  century.  He  travelled  through 
almost  all  Greece,  Macedonia,  and  Italy,  and  also 
through  part  of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  composed  from 
his  observations  and  researches  an  Itinerary,  entitled 
Hellados  Periegesis,  in  ten  books,  describing  the 
different  parts  of  Greece,  and  giving  a  particular 
account  of  the  monuments  of  art  and  of  the  legends 
connected  with  them.  His  style  is  by  no  means 
pure  ;  but  in  matters  of  his  own  observation  he 
is  most  trustworthy,  and  his  work  is,  on  many 
subjects,  one  of  the  most  valuable  sources  of 
information  that  we  possess.  There  are  numerous 
editions  of  bis  work;  the  oldest  was  printed  at 
Venice  in  1516  by  Aldus ;  and  the  most  recent  is 
that  by  J.  H.  0.  Schubart  and  C.  Walz  (3  vols. 
Leip.  1S3S — 1S40.  Translations  of  P.  exist  in 
English,  German,  and  French. 

PA'VEMENT,  flat  stones  or  '  flags '  used  for  the 
flooring  of  halls,  kitchens,  and  other  apartments, 
and  frequently  for  footpaths ;  also  the  stone  covering 
of  the  roadway  of  streets.  The  stones  used  for  flags 
vary  in  different  districts,  according  to  the  geological 
formation  of  the  neighbourhood.  The  pavements 
now  most  commonly  used  in  England  and  Scotland 
are  the  Arbroath  and  Caithness  stones — the  former  a 
Bofter  and  more  agreeable  stone  than  the  latter, 
which  is  exceedingly  hard  and  slippery  when  wet. 
Pavement  should  be  carefully  laid  on  a  solid  dry 
foundation,  and  set  in  a  good  bed  of  concrete  or 
lime,  and  the  joints  pointed  with  cement.  It  may 
also  be  laid  on  small  dwarf  walls,  built  of  brick, 
so  as  to  support  all  the  edges— this  is  a  good  method 
for  keeping  the  floor  dry. 

The  Paving  of  Streets  is  of  early  date,  and  is, 
in  fact,  necessary  to  any  considerable  degree  of 
civilisation  and  traffic.  The  Romans  paved  their 
streets  in  the  same  elaborate  and  solid  manner  in 
which  they  paved  their  highways.  See  Roads. 
Portions  of  the  ancient  pavement  of  the  streets  of 
Rome  are  in  use  to  the  present  day,  and  the  pave- 
ment of  Pompeii  remains  entire.  It  is  laid  with 
large  blocks  of  stone  of  polygonal  shape  (like  Cyclo- 
pean masonry),  very  carefully  fitted  together,  and 
of  considerable  depth,  and  below  there  is  a  carefully 
prepared  basis,  often  composed  of  several  distinct 
strata.  Some  of  the  Italian  towns — Florence,  for 
instance — have  still  pavement  of  this  description, 
and  no  foot- pavement. 

The  medieval  cities  were  almost  all  unpaved  till 
about  the  12th  c,  when  the  main  streets  of  the 
chief  towns  began  to  be  protected  with  stone.  The 
plan  now  adopted  is  nearly  the  same  in  all  the 
cities  of  Europe.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to 
secure  or  make  a  solid  foundation.  Thi3  is  done, 
where  the  natural  substratum  is  not  of  a  solid  kind, 


by  laying  the  street  with  a  solid  bed  of  concrete, 
having  a  slope  from  the  middle  to  the  sides  to 
throw  off  the  water.  On  the  concrete  is  placed 
the  real  pavement,  which  is  composed  of  blocks  of 
granite,  trap,  or  other  tough  rock.  These  should 
be  rectangular,  ami  the  deeper  the  better.  They 
are  generally  about  10  inches  to  12  inches  in  depth, 
and  6  inches  or  7  inches  broad,  and  from  1  to  2 
feet  in  length.  They  should  be  all  bedded  and 
jointed  in  strong  mortar.  This  is  not  often  done, 
as  it  is  thought  sufficient  to  bed  the  stones  in  sand, 
and  grout  them  with  hot  lime  on  the  top.  It  if 
clear,  however,  that  the  more  equal  the  stones  are 
in  depth,  and  the  more  solidly  they  are  bedded, 
the  longer  they  will  last.  Other  materials  besides 
stone  have  been  tried  for  the  paving  of  streets — 
such  as  blocks  of  wood  with  the  end  up,  and  blocks 
of  cast  iron.  The  wooden  pavement  is  delightfully 
easy,  and  not  noisy,  but  in  wet  weather  it  is  exceed- 
ingly slippery.  Cast-iron  is  too  hard,  and  causes 
too  much  jolting  and  noise. 

The  great  obstacle  in  the  way  of  really  good 
pavement  in  modern  streets  is  the  necessity  of 
frequently  breaking  it  up  for  the  laying  and  repair- 
ing of  pipes  for  gas,  water,  &c.  The  true  remedy — 
and,  in  the  end,  the  cheapest — would  be  to  have,  in 
the  chief  streets  at  least,  sub-ways  or  tunnels  for 
drains  and  pipes,  accessible  without  breaking  up 
the  pavement. 

PA'VIA,  a  city  of  Northern  Italy,  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Ticino,  20  miles  south  of  Milan,  and  3  mdes  above 
the  confluence  of  the  Ticino  and  the  Po.  A  covered 
bridge  of  eight  arches  connects  the  city  with  the 
suburb  of  Borgo  Ticino,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river,  and  from  this  bridge  the  istrada  Nuova,  or 
Corso,  the  principal  thoroughfare,  leads  north,  and 
extends  to  the  outskirts.  The  city  is  large,  sur- 
rounded by  walls,  and  has  an  imposing  appearance, 
bearing  the  impress  of  antiquity.  In  former  times, 
it  was  called  the  '  city  of  a  hundred  towers  ; '  but 
the  palace  of  Theodoric,  and  the  tower  where 
Boethius  wrote  the  treatise  De  Consolatione  Fhilo- 
sophios,  no  longer  exist ;  among  the  remaining  ones 
are  those  of  Belcredi  and  Del  Maino,  which  are  each 
169  feet  high.  Its  oldest  church,  and  perhaps  the 
oldest  in  Italy,  is  that  of  San  Michele,  which, 
although  the  date  of  its  foundation  is  uncertain,  is 
first  mentioned  in  661.  The  cathedral,  containing 
some  good  paintings,  was  commenced  in  1484,  but 
was  never  finished.  In  a  beautiful  chapel  attached 
to  it,  are  the  ashes  of  St  Augustine,  in  a  sarcophagus 
ornamented  with  50  bassi-rilievi,  95  statues,  and 
numerous  grotesques.  In  the  Church  of  San  Petro 
in  Ciel  d'Auro  are  deposited  the  remains  of  the 
unfortunate  Boethius.  The  Certosa  of  P.,  the  most 
splendid  monastery  in  the  world,  lies  four  miles 
north  of  the  city.  It  was  founded  in  1396,  contains 
many  beautiful  paintings,  and  abounds  in  the 
richest  ornamentation.  It  has  an  octagonal  cupola, 
painted  ultramarine,  and  enamelled  in  gold.  It 
was  sacked  by  the  French  in  1796.  Its  church  is 
in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross,  and  is  249  feet  long, 
and  173  feet  wide.  The  university  of  P.  is  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  Charlemagne  in  774,  and 
was  one  of  the  most  famous  seats  of  learning 
during  the  middle  ages.  Its  efficiency  was  much 
increased  by  Galeazzo  Visconti,  who  bestowed 
many  privileges  upon  it  in  the  year  1396.  It  con- 
sists of  numerous  colleges,  and  attached  to  it  are 
a  library  of  120,000  vols.,  a  numismatic  collection, 
anatomical,  natural  history,  and  other  museums,  a 
botanic  garden,  a  school  of  the  fine  arts,  &c.  The 
university  is  attended  by  about  1600  students.  It 
has  numbered  among  its  professors  Alciati,  Fidelfo, 
Spallanzani     Volta,  Scarpa,   Foscolo,    and    Monti 


PAVIA— PAWNBROKING. 


The  other  chief  edifices  com]  rise  private  palaces, 
theatre,  gymnasium,  &c.  P.  carries  on  a  good  trade 
in  wine,  rice,  silk,  and  cheese.     Pop.  (1872)  20.618. 

P.,  the  ancient  Ticinum  (afterwards  Papia, 
whence  the  modern  name),  was  founded  by  the 
Ligurii ;  it  was  sacked  by  Brennus  and  by  Hannibal, 
burned  by  the  Huns,  conquered  by  the  Romans, 
and  became  a  place  of  considerable  inqjortance, 
at  the  end  of  the  Boman  empire.  Then  it  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  Goths  and  Lombards,  and 
the  kings  of  the  latter  made  it  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy.  It  became  independent  in  the 
12th  c,  then,  weakened  by  civil  wars,  it  was  con- 
quered by  Matthew  Visconti  in  1345.  Since  that 
period,  its  history  is  merged  in  that  of  the  con- 
querors  of  Lombardy.  Here,  in  1525,  the  French 
were  defeated  by  the  imperialists,  and  their  king 
taken  prisoner ;  but  in  1527,  and  again  in  the 
following  year,  it  was  taken  and  laid  waste  by  the 
French.  It  was  stormed  and  pillaged  by  Napoleon 
in  1796,  and  came  into  the  possession  of  Austria  by 
the  peace  of  1814  Since  1859,  it  has  been  included 
within  the  re-organised  kingdom  of  Italy. 

PAVIA.     See  Horse-chestnut. 

PAVI'LION,  a  portion  of  a  building,  under  one 
roof,  of  a.  tent-like  form,  with  the  slope  of  the  roof 
either  straight  or  curved.  This  form  is  much  used 
in  France — the  higher  parts  of  the  new  buildings  at 
the  Louvre  are  good  examples  of  pavilions.  Pavilion 
roofs  are  sometimes  called  French  roofs. 

PAVLOGRA'D,  a  town  of  South  Russia,  in  the 
government  of  Ekaterinoslav,  and  38  miles  east- 
north-east  of  the  town  of  that  name,  on  the  Voltcha, 
an  affluent  of  the  Dnieper.  It  was  founded  in  1780, 
during  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Catharine  II.,  and  its 
first  colonists  were  the  Zaporogsky  Cossacks.  But  in 
1782,  a  great  portion  of  the  English  garrison  of  Foit 
Magon  in  Minorca,  having  been  subdued  by  the  Span- 
iards, and  being  forced  by  the  terms  of  their  capitula- 
tion to  renounce  the  English  service,  obtained  liberty 
from  the  Empress  Catharine  to  settle  in  Pavlograd. 
The  garrison  was  composed  chiefly  of  Corsicans.  Pop. 
of  the  town  (1866)  8543. 

PAVO'NIDiE,  a  name  sometimes  used  by 
ornithologists  to  designate  the  family  of  gallinaceous 
birds  more  commonly  called  Phasianklce  (q.  v.), 
sometimes  applied  as  a  designation  to  a  portion  of 
that  family  separated  from  the  rest  on  very  slight 
grounds,  the  chief  distinction  being  the  greater 
expansion  of  the  tail.  See  Peacock  and  Poly- 
plectron. 

PAWL,  on  shipboard,  is  a  catch  or  hook  to 
prevent  the  capstan  from  flying  round  backwards 
during  a  pause  in  the  heaving.  A  simdar  catch  is 
used  in  the  common  windlass. 

PAWNBROKING  (Du.  pand,  Ger.  p/and,  Fr. 
pan,  a  pledge).  The  business  of  lending  money  on 
pawns  or  pledges  appears  to  have  been  carried  on 
in  England  by  certain  Italian  merchants  or  bankers 
as  early  at  least  as  the  reign  of  Richard  I.  By 
the  12th  of  Edward  I.,  a  messuage  was  confirmed 
to  these  traders  where  Lombard  Street  now  exists  ; 
the  name  being,  according  to  Stow,  derived  from 
the  Longobards  who  used  to  congregate  there  for 
business  purposes.  Subsequently,  these  merchant 
adventurers  became  known  generally  by  the  name 
of  Lombardens.  Their  wealth  became  proverbial. 
Among  the  richest  of  them  were  the  celebrated 
family  of  the  Medici ;  from  whose  armorial  bearings 
it  is  conjectured  that  the  pawnbroking  insignia  of 
the  three  balls  have  been  derived.  The  bankers  of 
Lombard  Street  appear  to  have  exercised  a  monopoly 
in  pawnbroking  until  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  The 
trade  is  first  recognised  in  law  by  the  act  1st 
936 


Jamei  I.  c.  21.  In  the  perilous  dayi  of  Charles  I. 
the  g.  Idsmiths  were  very  frequently  chosen  as  the 
custod  »ns  of  plate  and  money;  which  circum3t82L36 
seems  to  have  suggested  to  them  the  profi  table 
businest  of  lending  on  pawns  and  discounting  bills. 
From  tl  is  time,  the  oppression  and  extortion  oftet. 
exercised  by  brokers  have  continued  to  attract  much 
public  attention  and  discussion ;  and  an  effort  has 
been  made,  both  in  England  and  on  the  continent, 
to  obviate  the  evil  by  the  establishment  of  what  are 
called  MoLts  de  Piete,  the  object  of  which  is  to 
advance  small  sums  to  the  very  poor  at  a  moderate 
interest.  See  Mont  de  Piete.  In  England,  after 
many  abortive  efforts,  a  Mont  de  Piete  office  wai 
started  in  170S ;  but  in  1731  it  came  to  a  disas- 
trous end.  The  bubble  mania  of  1824 — 1825  gave 
rise  to  a  similar  scheme.  In  this  instance  upwards 
of  £400,000  was  subscribed ;  but  the  undertaking 
miscarried,  and  the  capital  was  lost.  A  similar  fate 
attended  the  Irish  Mont3  de  Piete,  of  which  thero 
were  eight  in  1841.  In  184S,  they  had  all  dis- 
appeared except  one,  which  lingered  to  1853  ;  when 
it  also  expired.  It  would  thus  seem  hopeless  to 
attempt  to  establish  a  pawnbroking  office  in 
England  on  any  other  footing  than  an  ordinary 
commercial  one.  The  cause  of  failure  will  be  found 
to  he,  generally,  in  the  great  difficulty  of  conducting 
a  commercial  undertaking  on  charitable  principles, 
with  sufficient  energy  and  ability  to  compete  suc- 
cessfully with  others  originating  in  the  ordinary 
motives  which  lead  men  to  engage  in  trade. 

It  hardly  admits  of  dispute  that  the  pawn-shop,  in 
its  practical  working,  is  an  evil— necessary,  it  may 
be,  but  still  an  evil ;  and  the  having  recourse  to  it  is 
strongly  to  be  discouraged.  There  are,  doubtless, 
cases  where  men  are  driven  to  pawn  their  gooda 
from  causes  which  are  not  discreditable,  and  which 
do  not  render  it  certain  that  they  are  on  the  road 
to  ruin ;  but  such  cases  are  rare  exceptions  to  the 
general  rule.  Besides  making  borrowing  too  easy, 
and  thus  encouraging  the  fatal  habit  of  anticipating 
income,  the  pawn  shop  is,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten, 
the  door  to  the  drinking-skop.  Even  where  the 
one  does  not  directly  lead  to  the  other,  it  generally 
does  so  in  the  end.  That  '  borrowing  dulls  the 
edge  of  husbandry '  applies  with  a  force  increasing 
in  a  geometrical  ratio  as  we  descend  in  the  scale 
of  society.  Admitting,  however,  that  with  all  its 
tendency  to  demoralise,  pawnbroking  is,  in  many 
cases,  of  value  in  tiding  over  unforeseen  pecuniary 
difficulties,  it  is  sufficient  to  say,  that  so  long  as 
improvidence  prevails  among  large  classes  of  society, 
and  so  long  as  even  the  most  prudent  are  liable  to 
unforeseen  accidents,  the  accommodation  of  the 
pawn-shop  is  to  a  certain  extent  a  necessity,  and 
like  other  demands  of  the  public  will  continue  to  be 
supplied.  Nor  are  those  who  supply  this  demand 
to  blame,  any  more  than  the  caterers  for  many  other 
expenses  which  economists  pronounce  to  be  wasteful 
The  fault,  where  there  is  a  fault,  is  in  those  who 
borrow,  not  in  those  who  lend.  The  legislature, 
accordingly,  instead  of  trying  to  put  down  pawn- 
broking,  has  wisely  confined  itself  to  putting  it 
under  stringent  regulations  so  as  to  prevent  as  far 
as  possible  its  abuse. 

Pawnbrokers  are  restricted  in  their  business  by 
various  acts  of  parliament,  some  of  which  were 
passed  before  the  recent  abolition  of  the  Usury 
Acts.  The  chief  statute  is  the  39  and  40  Geo.  III. 
c.  99,  which  requires  them  to  take  out  a  licence 
(for  which  they  pay  £7,  10s.,  and  if  they  deal  in 
silver-plate,  £5,  15s.  additional),  fixes  the  rate  of 
interest,  and  makes  it  necessary  that  a  table 
of  interest  should  be  put  up  in  a  conspicuous 
part  of  the  shop,  to  keep  books  with  correct 
entries  of  the  name  and  place  of  abode  of  the  owners 


PAWTUCKET  -  PAXTON". 


of  goods,  Ac.  If  the  owner  of  goods  has  just  cause 
to  suspect  that  such  goodl  have  been  pawned  at  a 
particular  shop,  the  justices  of  the  peace  may  grant 
a  search -warrant,  and  if  found,  the  goods  must  lie 
restored  to  the  mvn.r.     Pawnbrokers  are  expressly 

J  prohibited  from  taking  in  pledge  goods  of  manu- 
acture  in  an  unfinished  state,  and  also  any  goods 
under  circumstances  which  ought  to  have  aroused 
their  suspicions.  Goods  which  have  been  in  pledge 
for  a  year  may  he  sold,  xmless  notice  not  to  sell  be 
given  before  the  expiration  of  the  12  months,  in 
which  case  three  months  more  are  allowed  to  the 
owner  to  redeem  them.  If  the  duplicate  is  lost,  the 
owner  of  the  goods  may  obtain  a  fresh  one  on  veri- 
fying the  fact  of  his  being  the  owner  before  a  justice 
of  the  paace.  If  the  money  borrowed  be  tendered 
with  interest  within  the  year,  the  pawnbroker  is 
bound  to  deliver  them  up,  otherwise  a  justice  of  the 
peace  may  by  order  compel  him  to  do  so.  The  mode 
of  selling  forfeited  goods  is  prescribed  by  the  statute 
to  be  by  auction,  and  at  four  times  in  the  year — the 
catalogues  to  contain  the  names  of  the  pawnbrokers, 
and  the  mouth  when  the  goods  were  pawned  and 
the  number  entered  in  the  pawnbroker's  books. 
The  result  of  the  sales  is  to  be  entered  in"  the  hooks 
of  the  pawnhroker  and  auctioneer,  and  the  surplus 
is  to  be  paid  on  request  to  the  owner  of  the  goods 
after  deducting  the  cost3  of  the  sale.  Pawnbrokers 
are  not  to  take  goods  in  pawn  from  persons  under 
the  influence  of  drink,  or  under  the  age  of  1G.  nor 
after  certain  hours,  according  to  the  season  of  the 
year.  In  case  of  penalties  imposed  on  pawnhrokers 
for  offences  against  the  act,  these,  in  several  cases, 
or  parts  of  them,  are  made  payable  for  the  benefit 
of  the  poor  of  the  parish.  A  pawnbroker  is,  by 
an  act  which  came  into  operation  January  1,  1873, 
liable  to  the  owner  of  the  goods  for  25  per  cent,  on 
the  sum  lent  in  case  of  fire  occurring  on  the  prem- 
ises. 

The  greatest  pawnbroking  establishment  in  the 
world  is  the  Mont  de  Piete  of  Paris.  It  trades  with 
borrowed  capital,  and  with  the  profits  of  former 
years.  By  the  most  recent  statistics  at  hand  it  is 
reported  to  have  received  in  one  year  1,431.575 
pledges,  valued  at  £1,036,371,  including  renewals, 
and  the  average  charge  was  about  15  per  cent, 
per  annum.  Taking  one  of  the  largest  offices  in 
England  out  of  London,  we  find  that  in  one  year 
it  received  142,835  pledges,  valued  at  £36,560, 
including  renewals,  and  the  average  charge  was 
25  per  cent,  per  annum.  Various  circumstances 
render  the  difference  between  the  rates  really  much 
less  than  these  figures  indicate ;  still  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  interest  charged  on  small  loans  is 
lower  at  the  Mont  de  Piete  of  Paris  than  in  the 
pawnbroking  offices  in  this  country ;  but  this 
convenience  is  limited  by  the  fact  of  the  French 
establishment  taking  no  loans  under  three  francs. 

What  is  called  in  England  the  '  dolly  shop,'  and 
in  Scotland  the  '  wee  pawn '  system  is  carried  on 
by  brokers,  ostensibly  buying  and  selling.  They 
receive  articles  as  bought ;  there  being  a  distinct 
understanding  that  the  seller  is  to  have  an  oppor- 
tunity of  repurchasing  within  a  limited  time,  at 
an  understood  increase  of  price.  The  general 
understanding  as  to  charge  is  a  penny  per  shilling 
per  week ;  a  month  being  usually  allowed  to 
redeem  the  article.  The  'wee'  broker  is  commonly 
resorted  to  because  the  article  is  one  which  the 
regular  dealer  will  not  take,  or  will  not  give  so 
high  an  advance  upon. 

PAWTU'CKET,  a  town  of  Rhode  Island,  U.  S., 
on  both  sides  of  the  Pawtucket  River,  4  miles  north 
of  Providence.  A  fall  of  50  feet  on  the  river,  and 
its  proximity  to  the  sea,  caused  it  to  be  selected  by 
Samuel  Slater,  in  1790,  as  the  site  of  the  first  cotton 
334 


factory  in  the  United  Suites,  it  now  contain*  i?. 
cotton  mills,  ia  machine  shops,  8  furnaces,  and  mmu- 
facturee  of  fire-engines,  belting,  jewellery,  &c  There 
are  15  churches,  6  banks,  l  newspaper,  a  public 
library,  with  extensive  steamboat  and  railway  con- 
nections.    Pop.  1 1880)  l '.'' 

PAX.  called  also  PaCTFICAU!  and   0»  CTLATORnJM 

(Eat.  oeculor,  I  kiss),  the  'Kiss  of  Peace,'  and  also 
a  sacred  utensil,  employed  in  some  of  the  solemn 
services  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  ceremony  of 
giving  the  so-called  '  kiss  of  peace'  during  the  macs. 

The  practice  of  saluting  each  other — the  men,  mon, 
and  the  women,  women— during  public  worship, 
and  particularly  in  the  agape,  >>r  love-feast,  ia 
frequently  alluded  to  by  ancient  writers,  as  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem,  Cateeh.  xv.,  and  St  Augustine,  Serin. 
227.  All  the  ancient  liturgies,  without  exception, 
refer  to  it  as  among  the  rites  with  which  the 
Eucharist  was  celebrated  ;  but  they  differ  as  to  the 
time  and  the  place  in  the  Eucharistic  service  in  which 
[  it  is  introduced.  In  the  Eastern  liturgies  it  is 
,  before,  in  the  Western  after  the  Offertory  (q.  v.) ; 
I  and  in  the  Roman  it  immediately  precedes  the 
'  communion.  The  ceremony  commences  with  the 
celebrating  bishop  or  priest,  who  salutes  upon  the 
cheek  the  deacon ;  and  by  him  the  salute  ia 
tendered  to  the  other  members,  and  to  the  first 
dignitary  of  the  assistant  clergy.  Originally  the 
laity  also  were  included,  but  this  has  long  since 
been  abandoned.  It  is  when  the  mass  is  celebrated 
by  a  high  dignitary  that  the  utensil  called  the  pax 
is  used.  The  pax  is  sometimes  a  crucifix,  some- 
times a  reliquary,  sometimes  a  tablet  with  a  figure 
sculptured  or  enamelled  upon  it.  Having  been 
kissed  by  the  celebrant,  and  by  him  handed  to 
the  deacon,  it  is  carried  by  the  latter  to  the  rest 
of  the  clergy.  In  ordinary  cases,  the  pax  is  uiven 
by  merely  bowing,  and  approaching  the  cheek  to 
the  person  to  whom  it  is  communicated.  The 
pax  is  omitted  in  the  mass  of  Maundy-Thursday 
(q.  v.),  to  express  horror  of  the  treacherous  kiss  of 
Judas. 

PAXO,  one  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  lies  10  miles 
south-west  of  the  coast  of  Albania,  and  9  miles 
south-south-east  of  the  island  of  Corfu.  It  is  about 
5  miles  long,  and  about  2  miles  broad.  The 
capital,  or  rather  the  chief  -village,  is  Port  Gaio 
(pop.  2000),  on  the  east  coast.  Olives,  almonds, 
and  vines  are  grown,  and  the  island  is  famous  for 
its  oiL  Water  is  sometimes  very  scarce.  Pop.  of 
the  island  about  3500. 

PAXTON,  Sir  Joseph,  English  architect  and 
horticulturist,  was  born  at  Milton-Bryant,  near 
Woburn,  Bedfordshire,  in  1803.  He  was  sent  to 
Woburn  Free  School,  but  left  it  at  an  early  age, 
and  obtained  employment  as  a  working  gardener. 
He  entered  the  service  of  the  sixth  Duke  of 
Devonshire,  at  Chiswick,  and  was  thence  trans- 
ferred to  Chatsworth,  where  he  became  the  duke's 
chief  gardener.  His  abilities  as  a  horticulturist 
found  ample  scope  in  the  beautiful  gardens  of 
Chatsworth,  and  are  further  attested  by  Paxtori* 
Magazine  of  Botany,  of  which  he  was  editor,  as 
well  as  other  works  on  plants  and  flowers.  The 
experience  he  obtained  in  designing  capacious  glass 
conservatories  at  Chatsworth  led  him  to  proposn 
a  Crystal  Palace  of  glass  and  iron  for  the  Great 
Exhibition  (q.  v.)  of  1851.  It  was  the  first  time 
these  materials  had  been  employed  on  so  extensive 
a  scale,  and  visitors  found  an  inexhaustible  theme 
of  admiration  in  a  fairy  palace  so  novel,  beauti- 
ful, and  magnificent.  His  design  obtained  for  him 
great  popularity  and  the  honour  of  knighthood. 
The  Crystal  Palace  of  1851  was  removed  from  Hyde 
Park,  but  became  the  germ  of  the  nobler  and  more 

337 


PAYMASTER-GENERAL-PEA. 


splendid  Palace  at  Sydenham,  the  construction  of 
which  he  superintended ;  the  grounds  were  also 
laid  out  by  him.  Crystal  palaces  for  exhibitions 
of  artistic  and  industrial  objects  have  since  1851 
been  constructed  at  Dublin,  New  York,  Paris, 
Manchester,  &c.  In  1854,  P.  was  returned  to 
parliament  on  the  liberal  interest  for  Coventry, 
which  he  represented  for  about  ten  years.  He  was  a 
member  of  many  learned  societies  in  Europe,  and  his 
works  on  horticulture  and  botany  are  much  esteemed. 
He  died  in  1865. 

PAY'MASTER-GE'NERAL  is  an  officer  of  the 
British  ministry,  but  not  of  the  cabinet,  charged  with 
Superintending  the  issue  of  all  moneys  voted  by  par- 
liament. He  is  virtually  the  paymaster  of  the  public 
service,  having  no  control  over  the  sums  issued,  and 
pacing  merely  on  the  order  of  the  department  con- 
cerned.    The  salary  of  the  office  is  £2000  per  annum. 

The  United  States  Paymaster-General  is  an  officer 
of  the  War  Department,  who  has  charge  of  the  dis- 
bursements to  the  regular  army  and  the  Military 
Academy.  Prior  to  May  1,  1869,  he  had  charge  of 
additional  bounty  claims  pending  and  unsettled  at  that 
date.  He  has  in  his  employ  sixty  regular  paymasters, 
employed  in  the  payment  of  the  army  at  the  289  mili- 
tary stations  scattered  over  vast  territories,  from  Maine 
to  California,  and  from  Alaska  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
His  disbursements,  during  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1869,  were  for  regular  troops,  $18,678,250;  Military' 
Academy,  $185,258;  volunteers,  $19,918,635;  trans- 
ferred to  other  paymasters,  $41,819,441. 

PAYMASTER,  British  Military  and  Naval. 
— Military  paymasters  are  either  '  District '  or  '  Regi- 
mental.' Of  the  latter,  who  constitute  by  far  the 
more  numerous  class,  there  is  one  to  every  brigade 
of  artillery,  regiment  of  cavalry,  and  battalion  of 
infantry  The  paymaster  holds  no  other  commis- 
sion, but  the  appointment  is  nearly  always  conferred 
upon  some  person  who  has  previously  held  a  com- 
batant rank  in  the  army.  The  functions  of  pay- 
master comprise  issuing  and  accounting  for  the  pay 
of  officers  and  men,  and  having  charge  generally  of 
all  the  finances  of  the  corps.  In  discipline,  the  pay- 
master is  responsible  to  the  officer  commanding  the 
regiment ;  but  in  all  money  matters  he  looks  for 
orders  to  the  War  Office  alone.  He  commences 
with  a  pay  of  12s.  6d.  a  day,  with  the  relative  rank  of 
captain  ;  and  after  twenty  years'  service  attains  the 
pay  of  £1,  2s.  6d.  a  day  and  relative  rank  as  major. 
Regimental  paymasters  were  first  appointed  during 
the  French  war. 

District  paymasters  have  financial  charge  in 
recruiting  districts.  They  are  usually  old  officers, 
and  receive  each  2s.  (id.  a  day  more  than  the  rates 
of  regimental  pay.  Both  in  districts  and  regiments 
army  paymasters  have  to  provide  security  for  the 
faithful  discharge  of  their  duty. — The  Naval  Pay- 
master is  for  a  ship  what  the  military  paymaster  is 
for  a  regiment ;  but  he  adds  to  those  duties  some  of 
those  performed  in  the  army  by  the  quartermaster, 
commissariat,  and  military  storekeeper,  for  he  has 
charge  of  the  provisions,  clothing,  and  miscellaneous 
stores,  as  well  as  of  mere  money.  Paymasters  are 
commissioned  officers,  receiving  from  £1,  12s.  lid. 
to  13s.  S(/.  a  day,  and  ranking,  according  to  service, 
with  captains,  commanders,  and  lieutenants.  Up 
to  the  year  1844  paymasters  were  styled  pursers, 
and  were  paid  by  profits  they  made  on  certain  of 
the  ship's  charges.  At  a  still  earlier  period  these 
pursers  had  been  warrant-officers. 

PAYMASTER-SERGEANT,  in  the  army,  is  a 
non-commissioned  officer,  whose  duty  it  is  to  act 
as  clerk  to  the  paymaster.  He  ranks  with  other 
etaff-sergeants,  and  receives  from  2s.  to  3s.  a  day, 
according  to  his  corps,  with  an  increase  of  Qd.  after 
333 


seven  years'  uninterrupted   service    as   paymaster- 
sergeant. 

PAYNISING,  a  process  for  preserving  and  hard- 
ening wood,  invented  by  a  Mr  Payne.  It  consists  in 
placing  well-seasoned  timber  in  an  air-ti'_;ht  chamber, 
and  then,  when,  by  means  of  a  powerful  air-pump, 
the  wood  is  deprived  of  its  air,  a  solution  of  sidphu- 
ret  of  calcium,  or  of  sulphuret  of  barium  is  admitted, 
and  readily  fills  up  the  empty  vessels  all  through 
the  wood.  The  air-pump  is  again  used,  and  the 
superfluous  moisture  is  drawn  out,  and  a  solution  of 
sulphate  of  iron  is  injected ;  this  acts  chemically 
upon  the  sulphuret  of  barium  or  of  calcium,  and 
forms  all  through  the  wood  either  the  insoluble 
sulphate  of  barium  (heavy  spar)  or  of  lime  (gyp- 
sum). The  addition  of  these  mineral  material* 
renders  the  wood  very  heavy,  but  it  becomes  also 
very  durable,  and  almost  incombustible. 

PEA  (Pisum),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminosce,  suborder  Papiiionacece,  closely 
allied  to  the  genus  Lathyrus  (q.  v.),  from  which  it 
differs  chiefly  in  the  triangular  style.  Two  species, 
supposed  to  be  natives  of  the  south  of  Europe  and 
of  the  East,  are  very  extensively  cultivated  for 
their  seeds  (peas),  which  are  the  best  of  all  kinds 
of  pulse;  the  Common  Pea  or  Garden  Pea  (P. 
sativum)  in  gardens,  and  the  Field  Pea  (P.  arvense) 
in  fields ;  both  of  them  climbing  annuals,  with 
pinnate  leaves,  ovate  leaflets,  and  branching  tendrils 
in  place  of  a  terminal  leaflet  ;  the  Garden  Pea 
distinguished  by  having  two  or  several  flowers  on 
each  flower- stalk,  the  flowers  either  red  or  white, 
more  generally  white,  and  the  seeds  subglobular ;  the 
Field  Pea  having  one  flower  on  each  flower-stalk, 
the  flowers  always  red,  and  the  seeds  angular 
from  crowding  and  compression  in  the  pod.  But 
it  is  not  improbable  that  they  are  truly  one 
species,  of  which  the  Garden  Pea  has,  through 
cidtivation,  departed  furthest  from  the  original 
type.  Peas  have  been  cultivated  in  the  East 
from  time  immemorial,  although  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans  do  not  seem  to  have  been 
acquainted  with  this  kind  of  pulse,  the  cultivation 
of  which  was  apparently  introduced  into  Europe 
very  early  in  the  middle  ages ;  and  its  cultivation 
extends  from  warm  climates,  as  India,  even  to  the 
Arctic  regions,  the  plant  being  of  rapid  growth  and 
short  life.  The  seeds  of  the  Garden  Pea  are  used 
for  culinary  purposes  both  in  a  green  and  in  a 
ripe  state ;  also  the  green  succulent  pods  of  some 
varieties,  known  as  Sugar  Peas  or  Wyker  Peas,  in 
which  the  membrane  lining  the  inside  of  the  pod — 
parchment-like  in  most  kinds — is  much  attenuated. 
Field  peas  are  used  both  for  feeding  cattle  and 
for  human  food.  For  the  latter  purpose,  peas  are 
often  prepared  by  being  shelled,  or  deprived  of  the 
membrane  which  covers  them,  in  a  particular  kind 
of  mill ;  they  are  then  sold  as  Split  Peas,  and  are 
much  in  use  for  making  Pea  Soup.  They  are  also 
ground  into  meal,  which  is  used  in  various  waj's, 
chiefly  for  making  a  kind  of  pottage  and  of  un- 
leavened bread.  In  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean,  peas  are  roasted  in  order  to  eating. 

There  are  innumerable  varieties  both  of  the  Field 
Pea  and  the  Garden  Pea,  those  of  the  latter  being  so 
much  the  products  of  horticultural  art,  that  they 
cannot  be  preserved  without  the  utmost  attention. 
Some  of  the  kinds  of  garden  peas  have  long  stems, 
and  require  for  their  support  stakes  of  six  or  eight 
feet  in  height ;  others  are  of  humbler  growth ;  and 
certain  dwarf  kinds,  preferred  as  most  convenient  in 
many  gardens,  succeed  very  well  without  stakes.  The 
largest  kinds  are  sown  in  rows  about  four  feet  asunder. 
In  Britain  and  America,  garden  peas  are  sown  at 
different  tunes  from  February  to  June,  in  order  to 


PEA— PEABODY. 


secure  a  Bupply  of  green  peas  during  a  considerable 
part  of  the  summer.  In  the  Bonthem  parts  of  Britain 
they  arc  also  sown  in  the  end  of  mitninn,  a  very  little 
protection  being  sufficient  for  them  daring  the  winter. 
Certain  small  kinds,  of  very  rapid  growth,  known 
as  Earl;/  Pea»t  are  preferred  for  the  first  Bowings, 
although  less  prodnctive  than  many  others.  The 
varieties  known  as  Afammoth  Peat  are  remarkable  for 
their  size  and  tenderness  in  a  green  state,  hut  shrivel 
as  they  ripen. 

Branches  of  trees  are  generally  used  for  pea- 
stakes,  when  they  can  he  obtained,  and  nothing 
can  be  better;  but  in  lieu  of  them,  strings  are 
Sometimes  stretched  between  poles  along  the  rows. 
Field  peas  arc  sometimes  sown  alone,  and  allowed 
to  support  each  other,  where  the  soil  is  not  very 
rich,  but  are  very  generally  sown  with  oats,  to  which 
they  cling. 

Chalky  and  other  calcareous  soils  are  particularly 
suitable  for  peas,  and  in  other  soils  a  good  field 
crop  is  seldom  obtained  unless  the  land  has  been 
well  limed,  or  manured  with  gypsum.  The  tree  use 
of  lime  is  supposed,  however,  to  l>e  unfavourable 
to  the  quality  of  garden  peas  intended  to  be  used 
green. 

Peas  are  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent  as  a 
field  crop  in  Britain,  but  are  best  adapted  to  those 
districts  in  which  the  climate  is  least  moist,  the 
seeds  being  very  apt  to  grow  in  the  pods  when 
moist  weather  prevails  in  autumn,  by  which  the 
crop  is  injured  or  destroyed.  The  most  productive 
kinds,  being  also  in  general  the  most  bulky  in 
straw,  are  very  apt  to  lodge  before  the  pods  are 
filled,  in  wet  seasons,  and  particularly  on  rich  land. 
They  are  also  grown  in  the  northern  United 
States. 

The  haulm  or  straw  of  peas  is  used  for  feeding 
cattle ;  and  for  its  sake,  field  peas  are  often  reaped 
before  they  are  quite  ripe,  great  care  being  taken 
in  stacking  the  straw  to  provide  for  ventilation,  so 
that  it  may  not  heat.  Pea  haulm  is  more  nitro- 
genous and  more  nutritious  than  hay. 

Land  to  be  sown  with  field  peas  should  be  very 
dean,  and  in  particular  free  of  couch  grass  ;  other- 
wise the  best  management  cannot  prevent  its 
becoming  more  foul  whilst  bearing  the  pea  crop. 
The  seed  ought  always  to  be  sown  in  rows,  twelve 
inches  apart,  or,  in  rich  soils,  eighteen  or  twenty 
inches  apart  Various  means  are  employed  for 
sowing  peas  ;  they  are  not  unfrequently  ploughed 
under  each  second  furrow  ;  but  the  seed  ought  not 
to  be  buried  more  than  four  inches  under  the 
surface,  and  indeed  that  depth  is  too  great ; 
although  many  farmers  sow  their  peas  deeper  than 
they  otherwise  would,  to  place  them  beyond  the 
reach  of  wood  pigeons.  All  possible  means  ought 
to  be  used  to  keep  the  land  free  of  weeds.  In  some 
districts,  peas  are  generally  sown  broadcast,  which 
renders  it  impossible  to  do  anything  for  this  pur- 
pose. In  the  harvesting  of  peas,  the  sheaves  are 
generally  left  loose  till  the  haulm  is  somewhat  dry. 

Numerous  varieties  of  peas  have  been  grown  in  the 
United  States.  Among  these  may  be  named  the 
Oregon  pea,  producing  a  very  rich  seed  and  abundant 
haulm  adapted  to  cattle  forage,  and  the  Japan  pea, 
which  is  enormously  productive.  The  Cow  pea  of 
the  southern  states  is  highly  esteemed  as  an  adjunct 
in  fertilising  the  soil. 

Besides  being  one  of  the  most  important  agricul- 
tural crops  of  Great  Britain,  peas  are  largely  im- 
ported into  England,  the  quantity  sometimes  reach- 
ing 120,000  quarters.  They  are  received  from  Den- 
mark, Prussia,  Germany,  Holland,  Morocco,  the 
United  States,  and  British  North  America;  and  of 
these,  Denmark  and  the  British  North  American 
colonies  send   the  greater  part.      As  an   article  of 


food,  if  not  taken  too  often  or  without  other  food, 
peu  are  very  valuable,  ai  they  contain  a  large  per- 
centage  of  auein,  which  is  a  flesh-forming  principle. 
This  principle  in  the  pea  has  been  called  legumin, 
but  chemists  are  now  generally  agreed  that  it  is 
identical  with  the  casein  of  cheese.  The  following 
is  an  analysis  of  one  hundred  parts  of  pea  meal  : 
Water m 


Ciseln, 
Starch, 
Sugar,      .        . 
Gum, 
F.t,  . 

Woody  Fibre, 

Mineral  Mutter, 


23-4 
37  0 
20 
90 
20 
10-0 
2-6 

1000 


The  unripe  peas  of  the  garden  varieties  are  amongst 
our  most  esteemed  vegetables,  and  the  meal  of  the 

white  or  yellow  varieties   used  in   soups  is  a  highly 
nutritious  and  agreeable  food. 

A  plant  found  on  some  parts  of  the  shores  of 
Britain,  as  well  as  of  continental  Europe  and  North 
America,  and  known  as  the  Sea  Pea,  has  been 
commonly  referred  to  the  genus  Pisum,  and  called 
P.  maritimum,  although  botanists  now  generally 
refer  it  to  Lathyrus.  it  much  resembles  the  com- 
mon pea ;  has  large  reddish  or  purple  flowers  on 
many-flowered  stalks ;  and  its  seeds  have  a  dis- 
agreeable bitter  taste.  Its  abundance  on  the  sea 
coast  at  Orford,  in  Sussex,  is  said  to  have  saved 
many  persons  from  death  by  famine  in  1555. — The 
other  species  of  Pisum  are  few.  But  the  name  Pea 
is  often  given  to  species  of  other  papilionaceous 
genera.  The  Sweet  Pea  and  Everlasting  Pea 
are  species  of  Lathyrus.  The  Chick  Pea  (q.  v.)  is 
a  species  of  Cicer. 

PEABODY,  George,  an  American  merchant, 
whose  name  deserves  to  be  held  in  remembrance  on  ac- 
count of  his  munificent  philanthropy,  was  born  at  Dan- 
vers,  Massachusetts,  February  18,  1795.  His  parents 
were  poor,  and  his  only  education  was  received  at  the 
district  school.  At  the  age  of  1 1  he  was  placed  with 
a  grocer,  and  at  1 5  in  a  store  in  Newburyport.  Visit- 
ing England  in  1827  to  buy  merchandise,  he  transacted 
financial  business  for  the  state  of  Maryland.  In  1837 
he  removed  to  London,  and  in  1843  became  a  banker, 
and  accumulated  a  large  fortune.  He  did  not  forget 
his  humble  origin  or  place  of  birth.  In  1852,  on  the 
100th  anniversary  of  the  corporate  existence  of  his 
native  town,  he  sent  home  $20,000  to  found  an  Edu- 
cational Institute  and  Library,  a  sum  he  afterwards 
increased  to  $200,000,  with  $50,000  to  North  Dan- 
vers.  He  also  contributed  $10,000  to  the  first  Grin- 
nell  Arctic  Expedition,  $1,400,000  to  the  city  of  Bal- 
timore for  an  Institute  of  Science,  Literature,  and 
the  Fine  Arts;  and  in  1863 — 9,  he  made  the  splendid 
donation  of  §2,500,000  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor  of 
London ;  and  in  1866 — 9,  $3, 500,000  for  the  promotion 
of  education  in  the  southern  states.  He  also  endowed 
the  Peabody  Museum  at  Salem,  Mass.,  with  $150,000, 
and  gave  to  the  Washington  College,  Va.,  $60,000; 
Newburyport,  $30,000  for  a  library;  Phillips'  Acad- 
emy, $30,000;  Andover,  $20,000*;  Maryland  His 
torical  Society,  $20,000;  Mass.  Historical  Society, 
$20,000;  anil  Kenyon  College,  $25,000,  ant',  left 
property  amounting  to  $5,000,000  to  his  relatives. 
In  the  trying  hours  of  American  credit,  Mr  Peabody 
proved  himself  a  true  son  of  America,  and  struggled 
manfully  to  sustain  the  honour  of  his  native  country ; 
and  the  restoration  of  confidence  in  American  securi- 
ties was  due  more  to  his  efforts  than  those  cf  any 
other  man.  He  died  in  London,  Nov.  4,  1S69.  His 
remains  were  temporarily  interred  in  the  royal  vault 
in  Westminster,  and  subsequently  conveyed  in  state 
on  board  the  British  ship  of  war  Monarch,  escort- 
ed   by  an  American  war  steamer,  to  this  country, 

339 


PEACE-PEACH. 


and  deposited  with  imposing  ceremonies  at  Danvers 
(now  Peabody),  Mass.,  March,  1870. 

PEACE,  Articles  of  the,  in  English  Law,  are 
certain  complaints  made  against  a  person  who 
threatens  another  with  bodily  injury,  and  the 
redress  given  is  to  bind  the  threatening  party  over 
with  sureties  to  keep  the  peace.  All  justices  of 
the  peace  have,  by  their  commission,  authority  to 
cause  persons  to  find  sufficient  security  to  keep  the 
peace,  and  an  ancient  statute  also  gives  authority. 
Hence  any  one  who  is  threatened  either  in  person 
or  property,  or  in  the  person  of  his  wife  or  child, 
may  go  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  and  complain 
on  his  oath  of  the  fact.  The  justice  is  to  consider 
if  the  language  used  amounted  to  a  threat,  and  if 
he  is  satisfied  that  it  does,  he  issues  his  warrant  to 
bring  the  party  before  him,  who  is  then  heard  in 
explanation,  and  if  it  is  not  satisfactory,  he  is 
ordered  to  find  sureties.  If  he  cannot  do  so,  he  is 
committed  to  prison  for  a  limited  time,  or  until  the 
next  quarter-sessions.  The  party,  when  he  finds 
sureties,  is  bound  over  for  a  term  not  exceeding 
twelve  months.  If  he  has  entered  into  recognizances 
(i.  e.,  given  a  bond  with  sureties),  and  he  break  the 
peace,  he  forfeits  his  recognizance,  and  the  sureties' 
goods  can  be  seized  to  pay  the  amount  of  the  bond. 

PEACE,  Offences  against  the  Public,  are 
those  offences  which  consist  in  either  actually 
breaking  the  peace,  or  constructively  doing  so  by 
leading  directly  to  a  breach.  These  offences  are 
now  usually  known  under  the  heads  of  unlawful 
assemblies,  seditious  libels  and  slanders,  riots, 
affrays,  challenges  to  fight,  forcible  entry  and 
detainer,  and  libel  and  slander.  Those  who  take 
part  in  an  unlawful  assembly  commit  a  misde- 
meanour against  the  public  safety.  All  persons 
assembled  to  sow  sedition,  and  bring  into  contempt 
the  constitution,  are  in  an  unlawful  assembly.  Thus 
it  was  held  that  an  attempt  to  hold  a  national  conven- 
tion was  illegal,  for  it  was  impossible  to  anticipate 
with  certainty  the  peaceable  result  of  such  a  meeting. 
It  is,  however,  somewhat  difficult  to  define  precisely 
what  amounts  to  an  illegal  assembly,  except  by 
saying  that  it  points  to  some  course  inconsistent 
with  the  orderly  administration  of  the  laws.  It  is 
the  duty  of  all  individual  citizens  to  resist  and 
oppose  any  unlawful  assembly;  but  the  duty  rests 
primarily  with  the  magistrates  of  the  district,  who 
are  indictable  for  breach  of  duty  in  not  taking 
active  and  immediate  steps  to  put  down  riots.  Thus 
the  mayor  of  Bristol  was  indicted  for  not  suppressing 
the  riots  at  the  time  of  the  Reform  Bill  The 
magistrates  ought  to  call  at  once  upon  special 
constables  to  be  sworn  in,  and  if  these  are  insuffi- 
cient, to  call  for  the  aid  of  the  military.  Seditious 
libels  are  also  offences  against  the  peace,  as  inciting 
directly  to  a  breach.  Such  are  libels  vilifying  the 
Sovereign  or  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  or  the  courts 
of  justice,  or  even  a  foreign  sovereign,  as  in  the  case 
of  Peltier,  who  was  tried  for  a  libel  against  the 
Emperor  Napoleon  I.,  the  tendency  of  such  a  libel 
being  to  breed  misunderstanding  between  our  own 
sovereign  and  the  foreign  sovereign.  A  riot  is  the 
most  active  form  of  an  offence  against  the  public 
peace.  To  constitute  a  riot,  there  must  be  at  least 
three  persons  engaged  together  in  pursuance  of  an 
illegal  purpose.  Riots  often  originate  in  an  attempt 
to  redress  summarily  some  private  wrong.  On  such 
an  occasion,  before  extreme  measures  are  resorted 
to,  and  as  a  test  of  the  good  faith  of  those  who  are 
spectators,  instead  of  parties,  and  by  way  of  full 
notice  to  all  concerned,  the  justices  of  the  peace 
may  read  the  Riot  Act,  1  Geo.  I.  st.  2,  c.  5,  whicli 
commands  all  persons  to  disperse  within  one  hour 
after  a  proclamation  is  read,  otherwise  they  will  be 
310 


guilty  of  felony.  Persons  not  removing  within  one 
hour  thereafter  may  be  arrested,  and  carried  before 
a  justice,  and  committed  to  prison.  It  is,  however, 
possible  that  the  justices  may  make  a  mistake  in 
thinking  that  to  be  an  illegal  assembly  which  is  not 
so,  for  the  mere  reading  of  the  Riot  Act  does  not 
alter  the  character  of  the  assembly,  and  accordingly 
if  the  party  arrested  prove  at  the  trial  that  it  was 
no  illegal  assembly  he  will  be  discharged.  An 
affray  is  also  an  offence  against  the  public  peace, 
being  a  public  assault,  i.  e.,  an  assault  committed  in 
presence  of  third  parties,  for  this  is  apt  to  lead  to 
further  breaches  of  the  peace  by  others  joining  in 
it.  Thus  prize-fights  and  duels  are  affrays,  and  all 
present  at  them  are  principal  offenders,  and  may  be 
arrested  by  a  constable  and  bound  over  to  keep  the 
peace,  and  punished  by  fine  and  imprisonment 
besides.  So  challenges  to  fight,  provocations  to 
fight,  and  forcibly  entering  into  a  house,  are 
misdemeanours  against  the  public  peace. 

PEACH  {Amygdalus  Persica),  a  tree  much  cul- 
tivated in  temperate  climates  for  its  fruit;  a  native 
of  Persia  and  the  north  of  India  ;  of  the  same  genus 
with  tho  Almond  (q.  v.),  and  distinguished  by 
oblongo-lanceolate  serrulate  leaves ;  solitary  flowers, 
of  a  delicate  pink  colour,  appearing  before  the 
leaves ;  and  the  sarcocarp  of  the  drupe  succulent 
and  tender,  not  fibrous  as  in  the  almond.  This 
difference  in  the  drupe  has  been  made  by  some  the 
groiind  of  a  generic  distinction,  but  there  are  inter- 
mediate states,  so  that  others  have  doubted  if  the 
P.  and  almond  are  even  specifically  distinct.  The 
Nectarine  differs  from  the  P.  only  in  having  a 
smooth  fruit,  whilst  that  of  the  P.  is  downy  or 
velvety,  and  is  a  mere  variety,  probably  produced 
and  certainly  preserved  by  cultivation.  Both  peaches 
and  nectarines  are  divided  into  freestones  and  cling' 
stones.  In  the  former  the  flesh  of  the  fruit  parts 
from  the  stone  ;  in  the  latter  it  adheres  to  it.  The 
Freestone  P.  is  the  Peche  of  the  French,  the 
Clingstone  P.  their  Pavie;  the  Freestone  Nectarine 
they  call  Peche  lisse,  and  the  Clingstone  Nectarine 
Brugnon.  Of  all  these  there  are  many  sub- varieties, 
the  finer  ones  being  perpetuated  by  budding,  which 
in  Britain  is  generally  on  plum  or  almond  stocks. 
There  is  a  remarkable  variety  of  Chinese  origin, 
with  the  fruit  compressed  and  flattened,  and  with 
almost  evergreen  leaves.  The  P.  is  much  cultivated 
in  the  south  of  Europe,  in  many  parts  of  the  East, 
in  the  warmer  temperate  parts  of  North  and  South 
America,  in  Australia,  &c,  as  a  standard  tree;  in 
general,  it  is  rather  a  small  tree  with  a  full  head  ; 
in  Britain,  it  is  generally  trained  on  walls,  and  in 
the  northern  parts  of  it  on  flued  walls  or  in  hot- 
houses, although  even  in  Scotland  excellent  peaches 
are  ripened  on  open  walls  without  artificial  heat. 
The  Nectarine  is  rather  more  tender  than  the  peach. 
In  the  extensive  P.  orchards  of  New  Jersey,  Delaware, 
Maryland,  S.W.  Michigan,  and  S.  Illinois,  which  some- 
times contain  10,000  or  20,000  trees,  the  peach  is  of  a 
superior  quality,  perhaps  unsurpassed  in  the  world. 
The  markets  of  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  Chicago 
are  thence  supplied  at  a  very  cheap  rate  in  seasons  of 
abundance.  The  crop  is  there  less  precarious,  owing 
to  the  ameliorating  influence  of  the  neighbouring  bays 
and  lakes.  See  J.  A.  Fulton,  Peach  Culture.  In 
more  southern  states,  much  of  the  fruit  is  used  for 
making  Peach  Brandy ;  or  is  dried  in  ovens,  or  in 
drying-houses  furnished  with  stoves,  or  in  the  sun, 
each  fruit  being  divided  into  two  parts,  and  the 
stone  taken  out,  and  when  dried  sent  to  market  to  be 
used  for  pies ;  the  refuse  of  the  orchards  is  used  for 
feeding  swine. — The  P.  is  a  very  pleasant  and  refresh- 
ing fruit,  and  in  a  stewed  form  is  useful  in  slight  cases 
of  constipation.  The  leaves,  when  fresh,  have  the  smell 
and  taste  of  bitter  almonds;   and  by  hruising  them. 


PEACH-WOOD— PEACOCK. 


mixing  the  pulp  with  water,  and  distilling,  the  Peach 
is  obtained  which  is  so  much  esteemed  by  many 
for  flavouring  articles  of  cookery.  They  have  been 
employed  us  a  Bedative  ami  as  a  vermifuge.  The  seeds 
almost  entirely  agree  in  their  properties  with  hitter 
almonds;  the  flowers  exhale  an  odour  of  bitter 
almonds:  and  both  seeds  and  flowers  arc  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  a  Liqueur  called  PerHco. 

PK4CH-W00D,  or  LIMA-WOOD,  a  dye-wood 
imported  from  South  America,  supposed  to  tie  the 
produce  of  a  species  of  Cfflsalpima,  allied  to  that 
which  yields  the  Nicaragua  wood.  It  yields  a  tine 
peach  colour,  whence  its  name,  and  is  now  much 
used  in  muslin  and  calico  printing  and  dyeing. 

PEA'COCK,  or  TEAFOWL  (paw),  a  genus  of 
gallinaceous  birds  of  the  family  Pavonidcs,  or 
Phasianidai,  of  which  only  two  species  are  known, 
natives  of  the  East  Indies ;  birds  of  large  size,  and 
remarkable  for  magnificence  of  plumage.  The  bill 
is  of  moderate  size,  somewhat  arched  towards  the 
tip  ;  the  cheeks  nearly  naked  ;  the  head  crested ; 
the  tarsi  rather  long,  and  armed  with  a  single  spur  ; 
the  wings  short;  the  upper  tail-coverts  prolonged 
far  beyond  the  tail,  and  forming  a  splendid  tram  — 
popularly  called  the  tail — which  is  capable  of  being 
erected  and  spread  out  into  a  great  disk,  the  true 
tail  being  at  the  same  time  erected  to  support  it. 
The  Common  P.  (P.  cristalus)  has  for  crest  a  kind  of 


Peacock. 

aigrette  of  24  upright  feathers,  with  slender  almost 
naked  shafts  and  broad  tip.  The  tail  consists  -of 
18  brown  stiff  feathers,  and  is  about  six  inches  long. 
The  train  derives  much  of  its  beauty  from  the  loose 
barbs  of  its  feathers,  whilst  their  great  number  and 
their  unequal  length  contribute  to  its  gorgeousness, 
the  upper  feathers  being  successively  shorter,  so 
that  when  it  is  erected  into  a  disk,  the  eye-like  or 
moon-like  spot  at  the  tip  of  each  feather  is  dis- 
played. The  lowest  and  longest  feathers  of  the 
train  do  not  terminate  in  such  spots,  but  in  spread- 
ing barbs,  which  encircle  the  erected  disk.  The 
blue  of  the  neck,  the  green  and  black  of  the  back 
and  wings  ;  the  brown,  green,  violet,  and  gold  of 
the  tail ;  the  arrangement  of  the  colours,  their 
metallic  splendour,  and  the  play  of  colour  in  chang- 
ing lights,  render  the  male  P.  an  object  of  universal 
admiration — a  sentiment  in  which  the  bird  himself 
evidently  participates  to  a  degree  that  is  very 
amusing,  as  he  struts  about  to  display  himself  to 
advantage,  and  labours  to  attract  attention,  afford- 
ing a  familiar  proverbial  image  of  ostentation  and 
pride.  When  the  disk  is  erected,  the  P.  has  the 
newer  of  rattling  the  shafts  of  its  feathers  against 
each  other  in  a  very  peculiar  manner,  by  a  strong 
muscular  vibration.    The  Peahen  is  much  smaller 


than  the  male  bird,  has  no  train,  and  is  of  dull 
plumage,  mostly  brownish,  except  that  the  neck  ia 
green.  As  in  some  other  gallinaceous  birds,  the 
female  has  been  known,  in  old  age,  to  assume  tho 
plumage  of  the  male.  Individuals  with  white  plum- 
age not  unfrequently  occur,  in  which  even  the  cyc- 
like spots  of  the  tail  are  but  faintly  indicated  ;  and 
pied  peacocks,  having  the  deep  blue  of  the  neck  and 
urease  contrasted  with  pure  white,  are  BOmetimefl 
ii.  The  P.  is  generally  supposed  to  have 
been  known  to  the  Hebrews  in  the  time  of  .Solomon, 
but  it  is  not  certain  that  the  word  commonly  trans* 
lated  peacock*  iu  the  account  of  Solomon's  importa- 
tions from  Tarshish  (2d  Chron.  ix.  21)  does  lot 
signify  parrots.  It  is  commonly  stated  that  it  first 
became  known  to  the  Greeks  on  the  occasion  of 
Alexander's  expedition  to  India,  but  Aiistophanes 
mentions  it  in  plays  written  before  Alexander  was 
born.  The  P.  became  common  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans ;  a  sumptuous  banquet  in  the  latter 
days  of  Roman  greatness  was  scarcely  complete 
without  it ;  and  wealth  and  folly  went  to  the  excess 
of  providing  dishes  of  peacocks'  tongues  and  pea- 
cocks' brains.  Throughout  the  middle  ages,  also,  a 
P.  was  often  presented  at  the  tables  of  the  great,  on 
great  occasions,  the  skin  with  the  plumage  being 
placed  around  the  bird  after  it  was  cooked.  The  P. 
is  now  common  in  most  parts  of  the  world ;  gener- 
ally kept,  however,  except  in  warm  countries,  for 
ornament  rather  than  for  profit,  although  both  the 
flesh  and  the  eggs  are  very  good.  It  readily  par- 
takes of  all  the  ordinary  food  provided  for  the 
poultry-yard,  and  is  fond  of  buds  and  succulent 
vegetables.  It  is  hardy  enough  even  in  cold 
climates,  except  that  few  eggs  are  laid,  and  the 
young  are  difficult  to  rear,  but  the  adult  birds  sit 
on  trees  or  on  the  tops  of  houses,  stacks,  &c,  during 
the  keenest  frosty  nights,  never,  if  they  can  avoid 
it,  submitting  to  the  confinement  of  a  roosting-place, 
like  that  of  the  common  fowL  Peacocks  are  found 
in  almost  all  parts  of  India,  Siam,  &c,  and  the 
multitudes  in  which  they  occur  in  some  districts 
are  wonderful.  '  About  the  passes  in  the  Jungletery 
district,'  Colonel  Williamson  says,  in  his  Oriental 
Field  Sports,  '  whole  woods  were  covered  with  their 
beautiful  plumage,  to  which  a  rising  sun  imparted 
additional  brilliancy.  The  small  patches  of  plain, 
among  the  long  grass,  most  of  them  cultivated,  and 
with  mustard  then  in  bloom,  which  induced  the 
birds  to  feed,  increased  the  beauty  of  the  scene ; 
and  I  speak  within  bounds  when  I  assert  that  there 
could  not  be  less  than  1200  or  1500  peafowls,  of 
various  sizes,  within  sight  of  the  spot  where  I  stood 
for  near  an  hour.'  Sir  James  Emerson  Tennent, 
also,  in  his  work  on  Ceylon,  says  that  '  in  some  of 
the  unfrequented  portions  of  the  eastern  province, 
to  which  Europeans  rarely  resort,  and  where  the 
peafowl  are  unmolested  by  the  natives,  their  num- 
ber is  so  extraordinary  that,  regarded  as  game,  it 
ceases  to  be  "  sport "  to  destroy  them  ;  and  their 
cries  at  early  morning  are  so  tumultuous  and 
incessant  as  to  banish  sleep,  and  amount  to  an 
actual  inconvenience.'— The  harsh  cry  of  the  P.. 
seems  to  have  been  imitated  in  its  Greek  name 
Tads,  and  probably  has  given  rise  also  to  the 
Latin  Pavo  and  the  English  pea-cock.  Tne  P., 
in  a  wild  state,  always  roosts  on  trees,  but 
makes  its  nest  on  the  ground.  When  alarmed, 
as  it  feeds  on  the  ground,  it  cannot  readily  take 
wing,  and  is  sometimes  run  down  by  dogs  or  by 
horsemen. — The  other  species  of  P.  is  the  Japan  P. 
or  Javanese  P.  {P.  Japonensis,  Javanicus,  or  mulU 
cus),  a  native  of  some  of  the  south-eastern  parts  of 
Asia  and  neighbouring  islands.  It  is  nearly  equal  in 
size  to  the  Common  P.,  but  of  less  brilliant  although 
▼ery  simdar  plumage.  The  cheeks  and  around  the 
'  341 


PEACOCK-STONE-PEARL. 


eyes  are  yellow;  the  neck,  and  other  fore  parts, 
greenish  with  golden  reflections.  The  crest  is 
longer  than  that  of  the  Common  P.,  its  feathers  less 
equal,  and  webbed  along  their  whole  length. 

PEACOCK-STONE,  the  name  under  which  the 
dry  cartilaginous  ligaments  of  some  large  lamelli- 
branchiate  molluscs,  as  the  pearl  oyster,  are  sold 
by  jewellers.  They  are  used  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses, although  not  so  much  as  formerly ;  and  far 
more  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  particularly  in 
Portugal,  than  in  Britain.  They  have  opaline 
reflections,  and  are  therefore  sometimes  called  Black 
Opal 

PEA  CRAB  {Pinnotheres),  a  genus  of  brachyur- 
ous  crustaceans,  with  nearly  circular  and  not  very 
hard  carapace.  They  are  of  small  size,  and  interest- 
ing from  their  living  within  the  mantle-lobes  of 
lamellibranchiate  molluscs,  a  circumstance  which 
was  well  known  to  the  ancients,  and  gave  rise  to 
many  curious  fables.  A  species  (P.  veterum)  ia 
very  common  in  the  pinnoz  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  was  imagined  to  render  important  services  to 
its  host  in  return  for  its  lodging,  keeping  a  lookout 
for  approaching  dangers,  against  which  the  blind 
pinna  itself  could  not  guard,  and  particularly 
apprising  it,  that  it  might  close  its  shell  when  the 
cuttle-fish  came  near.  It  is  curious  to  find  this 
repeated  by  Hasselquist,  in  the  middle  of  last 
century,  as  a  piece  of  genuine  natural  history. 
Whether  the  P.  C.  lives  at  the  expense  of  the  mollusc, 
and  sucks  its  juices,  is  uncertain.  It  is  certain 
that  the  flesh  of  such  molluscs  is  palatable  to  pea 
crabs,  and  they  eat  it  greedily  in  the  aquarium. 
The  friendship  of  the  P.  C.  and  the  pinna  is  of  course 
as  fabulous  as  that  of  the  lion  and  jackal,  or  of  the 
rattlesnake,  the  owl,  and  the  prairie-dog.  A  species 
of  P.  C.  (P.  pisum)  is  very  common  within  the 
mantle-lobes  of  the  Common  Mussel  on  the  British 
coasts.  Species  are  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the 
world. 

PEA  MAGGOT,  the  caterpillar  of  a  small  moth 
(Tortrix  or  Grapholltha  pisi),  which  lays  its  eggs 
in  young  pods  of  peas.  The  caterpillar  lives  in  the 
pods,  and  eats  the  peas.  This  moth  is  very  com- 
mon in  Britain,  and  in  wet  seasons  the  pods  of  peas 
are  often  found  very  full  of  its  caterpillar. 

PE'AN  (Old  Fr.,  pannes,  furs),  one  of  the  furs 
borne  in  Heraldry,  differing  from 

T",\  .'JSP! .VITA  Ermine  only  in  the  tinctures  : 
I  the  ground  being  sable,  and  the 
spots  of  gold. 

PEA  ORE,  a  form  of  com- 
pact brown  iron  ore  (hydrated 
peroxide  of  iron),  consisting  of 
round  smooth  grains,  from  the 
size  of  mustard-seed  to  that  of 
Pean.  small    pease.      Sometimes    the 

grains  are  still  smaller  and 
flattiah.  This  iron  ore  is  very  abundant  in  some 
places  in  France,  and  is  smelted. 

PEAR  (Pyrus  communis),  a  tree  of  the  same 
genus  with  the  Apple  (see  Pyrus),  and  like  it  one 
of  the  most  extensively  cultivated  and  valuable 
fruit-trees  of  temperate  climates.  The  leaves  are 
ovate,  serrated,  smooth  on  both  surfaces,  and  with- 
out glands  ;  the  flowers  are  produced  in  corymbs, 
which  may  almost  be  called  umbels,  and  are  smaller 
than  those  of  the  apple  ;  the  styles  are  distinct 
and  not  combined  at  the  base,  as  in  the  apple  ;  and 
the  fruit  is  hemispherical  at  one  end,  tapering 
gradually  away,  more  or  less  rapidly,  to  a  point 
at  the  other.  The  pear-tree  grows  wild  in  woods 
and  copses  in  Britain,  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
and  throughout  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia.  In  its 
342 


wild  state  it  is  usually  either  a  large  shrub  or  a 
small  tree,  thorny,  and  with  small  austere  fruit.  In 
cultivation  it  is  without  thorns,  becomes  a  tree  of 
40  or  50  feet  high,  sometimes  more ;  and  its  stem 
attains  a  diameter  of  three  feet.  Cultivation  has 
wrought  even  greater  changes  in  the  size  and  quality 
of  its  fruit.  The  pear  has  been  cultivated  from 
remote  antiquity.  Its  cultivation  was  probably 
introduced  into  Britain  by  the  Romans.  The  culti- 
vated varieties  are  extremely  numerous  ;  and  many 
new  ones  of  great  excellence  have  recently  been 
produced  The  Jargonelle  Pear  may  be  mentioned 
as  one  of  the  most  esteemed  of  the  varieties  long 
known  in  Britain.  Some  of  the  kinds  called  Berg- 
amot  and  Beurre  are  highly  esteemed.  Many  new 
kinds  have  heen  introduced  into  Britain  and  America 
from  France  and  Belgium.  The  varieties  of  pear  dif- 
fer much  in  hardiness  and  in  fitness  for  particular 
soils;  although  a  deep,  moderately  strong,  dry, 
loamy  soil  is  the  best  for  this  fruit.  The  finer 
varieties  are  cultivated  in  Britain  as  wall-trees. 
Pears  succeed  well  as  espaliers.  They  are  generally 
grafted  on  seedling  stocks  of  the  wild  pear,  but 
sometimes  on  the  rowan,  and  sometimes  on  the 
quince.  Pears  grafted  on  quince  stocks  are  the 
best  for  shallow  soils.  The  flowers  and  fruit  of  the 
pear  are  mostly  produced  on  spurs,  which  spring 
from  branches  of  more  than  one  year  old.  Various 
modes  of  training  and  pruning  are  practised  for 
pear-trees.  Among  the  varieties  of  pears  are  some 
which  ripen  early  in  autumn,  and  some  which 
do  not  ripen  till  the  beginning  of  winter,  and  which 
even  require  to  be  mellowed  by  keeping  for  a  short 
time  ;  whilst  some  of  the  kinds  cannot  easily  be 
kept  for  more  than  a  few  days.  In  general,  pears 
cannot  be  kept  so  long  nor  so  easily  as  apples. 
Pears  are  sometimes  made  into  a  preserve  with 
syrup ;  and  sometimes  cut  into  pieces,  and  dried  in 
the  sun  or  in  an  oven,  to  be  afterwards  used  in  pies, 
a  practice  very  prevalent  in  France. — A  very  agree- 
able fermented  liquor  called  Perry  is  made  from 
pears,  in  the  same  manner  as  Cider  from  apples  ; 
and  pear  orchards  for  this  purpose  are  to  be  seen 
in  some  parts  of  England,  especially  in  Worcester- 
shire and  Herefordshire.  The  varieties  of  pear 
cultivated  for  making  perry  are  all  rather  austere, 
and  those  which  yield  the  best  perry  are  far  too 
austere  to  be  palatable. — The  wood  of  the  pear-tree 
is  reddish,  very  hard,  fine-grained,  and  valuable  to 
turners  and  joiners.  In  the  northern  United  States 
the  best  varieties  of  pear  are  most  successfully  grown 
in  districts  adapted  to  the  vine. 

Besides  the  varieties  of  pear  usually  referred  to 
Pyrus  communis,  some  are  occasionally  cultivated 
which  are  generally  regarded  as  distinct  species. 
Such  are  the  Aurelian  Pear  (P.  salvifolia),  a 
native  of  France,  with  leaves  much  narrower  than  the 
common  pear,  and  a  long  fruit,  which  is  used  foj 
making  perry;  the  Snowy  Pear  (P.  nivalis),  a  native 
of  the  Alps  of  Austria,  with  oval  obtuse  leaves,  white 
and  silky  beneath,  and  a  globose  fruit,  which  is  very 
acid  till  it  becomes  quite  ripe,  or  is  beginning  to  decay, 
when  it  is  very  sweet;  the  Sand  Pear  (P.  sinensis), 
a  native  of  China  and  Cochin-China,  with  heart- 
shaped,  shining,  almost  evergreen  leaves,  and  apple- 
shaped  warted  fruit,  very  gritty,  and  fit  only  for 
baking,  cultivated  in  gardens  in  India,  but  hardy  in 
Britain.  For  detailed  information  respecting  "the 
adaptation  of  certain  varieties  of  pears  to  the  various 
sections  and  climates  of  the  U.  States,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  Thomas'  Am.  Fruit  Culturist,  Field's  Pear 
Culture,  and  Quinu's  Pear  Culture  for  Profit. 

PEAR,  Prickly.    See  Prickly  Peab. 

PEARL,  a  peculiar  product  of  certain  marine  and 
fresh-water    molluscs    or    shell-fish.      Most   of    the 


PEARL. 


molluscous  animals  which  are  aquatic  and  reside  in 
shells  an-  provided  with  a  fluid  Mention  with  which 
they  line  their  shells,  and  t'ive  to  the  otherwise 
harsh  granular  material,  of  which  the  shell  is  formed, 
a  beautifully  smooth  surface,  which  prevents  any 
unpleasant  friction  upon  the  extremely  tender  body 
of  the  animal.  This  secretion  is  evidently  laid  in 
extremely  thin  semi-transparent  films,  which,  in 
consequence  of  such  an  arrangement,  have  generally 
a  beautiful  iridescence,  and  form  in  some  species  a 
Sufficient  thickness  to  be  cut  into  useful  and  orna- 
mental articles.  The  material  itself  in  its  hardened 
condition  is  called  nacre  by  zoologists,  and  by  dealers 
Mother-of-pearl  (q.  v.).  Besides  the  pearly  lining  of 
the  shells,  detached  and  generally  spherical  or 
rounded  portions  of  the  nacre  are  often  found  on 
opening  the  shells,  and  there  is  great  reason  to 
suppose  these  are  the  result  of  accidental  causes, 
such  as  the  intrusion  of  a  grain  of  sand  or 
other  substance,  which,  by  irritating  the  tender 
body  of  the  animal,  obliges  it  iu  self-defence  to  cover 
the  cause  of  offence,  which  it  has  no  power  to 
remove  ;  and  as  the  secretion  goes  on  regularly  to 
supply  the  growth  and  wear  of  the  shell,  the 
included  body  constantly  gets  its  share,  and  thereby 
continues   to  increase  in   size   until   it   becomes   a 

{>earl.  The  Chinese  avail  themselves  of  the  know- 
edge  of  this  fact  to  compel  one  species  of  fresh- 
water mussel,  Unto  Hyria,  to  produce  pearls.  In 
order  to  do  this,  they  keep  the  Unios  in  tanks,  and 
insert  between  the  shell  and  the  mantle  of  the 
animal  either  small  leaden  shot  or  little  spherical 
pieces  of  mother-of-pearl.  These  are  sure  to  receive 
regular  coatings  of  the  nacreous  secretion;  and 
after  a  time  look  like  pearls  formed  under  ordinary 
circumstances.  These  curious  people  also  practise 
another  trick  upon  these  animals ;  they  insert  small 
images  of  tire  Buddha  stamped  out  of  metal,  which 
soon  become  coated  with  the  pearl- secretion,  and 
are  cemented  by  it  to  the  shells  ;  to  those  ignorant 
of  its  origin,  the  phenomenon  is  a  supernatural  testi- 
mony to  the  truth  of  Buddhism.  Examples  of  these 
curiosities  are  to  be  found  in  many  of  our  museums. 
A  plan  of  making  pearls  was  suggested  to  the 
Swedish  government  by  Linnaaus.  It  consisted  in 
boring  a  small  hole  through  the  shell  of  the  river 
mussel,  and  inserting  a  grain  of  sand,  so  as  to  afford 
a  nucleus  for  a  pearl.  The  plan  at  first  succeeded 
sufficiently  well  to  prove  its  practicability,  and  he 
was  rewarded  by  a  sum  of  money  (£450),  but  it  failed 
as  a  profitable  speculation,  and  was  abandoned. 

The  exact  nature  of  the  secretion  has  never  been 
satisfactorily  determined  ;  it  is,  however,  ascertained 
that  it  is  deposited  in  thin  films,  which  overlie  each 
other  so  irregularly,  that 
their  sharply  serrated  edges, 
when  magnified,  present  the 
appearance  represented  in 
fig.  1 ;  and  to  this  peculiar 
disposition  of  the  plates,  the 
beautiful  iridescence  of  com- 
mon pearls  is  attributed. 
Their  formation  was  a  great 
puzzle  to  the  ancients, 
amongst  whom  they  were 
very  highly  prized.  Dioscor- 
ides  and  Pliny  mention  the 
belief  that  they  were  drops  of  dew  or  rain  which 
tell  into  the  shells  when  opened  by  the  animal,  and 
were  then  altered  by  some  power  of  the  animal 
into  pearls.  This  opinion,  which  obtained  all  over 
the  east,  is  thus  charmingly  alluded  to  by  Moore : 

'  And  precious  the  tear  as  that  rain  from  the  sky, 
Which  turns  into  pearls  as  it  falls  in  the  sea.' 

The  most  famous  pearls  are  those  from  the  east  j  the 


Fig.  1. 


coast  of  Ceylon,  or  Taprobane  as  it  was  called  by 
the  Greeks,  having  from  the  earli.-st  times  been  the 
chief  locality  for  pearl  fishing.  They  are,  however, 
obtained  now  of  nearly  the  same  quality  in  other 
parts  of  the  world,  as  Panama  in  South 
Margarita  in  the  West  Indies,  the  CoromandeJ 
Coa3t,  the  shores  of  the  Sooloo  Islands,  the  Bahrein 
Islands,  and  the  islands  of  Karrak  and  CorgO  in  the 
Persian  Gulf.  The  pearls  of  the  Bahrein  fishery 
are  said  to  be  even  finer  than  those  of  Ceylon,  and 
they  form  an  important  part  of  the  trade  of  Rissora. 
These,  and  indeed  all  the  foreign  pearls   a  a 

jewellery,  are  produced  by  the  Pearl  Oyster  (q.  ▼.). 
The  shells  of  the  molluscs  which  yield  the  Ceylo" 


Fig.  2. 

Indian,  and  Persian  ones,  are  sometimes  as  much 
as  a  foot  in  diameter,  and  are  usually  about  nirie 
inches.  Those  of  the  New  World,  although  the 
shells  are  smaller  and  thicker,  are  believed  to 
be  the  same  species.  The  chief  locality  of  the 
Ceylon  pearl  fishery  is  a  bank  about  20  miles 
long,  10  or  12  miles  from  shore,  opposite  to  the 
villages  of  Condatchy  and  Aripo  on  the  northern 
coast.  The  season  of  the  fishery  lasts  about  three 
months,  commencing  at  the  beginuing  of  February, 
and  is  carried  on  under  government  regulations. 
The  boats  employed  are  open,  and  vary  in  size  from 
10  to  15  tons  burden  ;  they  put  out  at  night,  usually 
at  10  o'clock,  on  a  signal  gun  being  fired  from  the 
fort  of  Aripo,  and  make  for  the  government  guard 
vessel,  which  is  moored  on  the  bank,  and  serves  the 
double  purpose  of  a  guard  and  a  light- ship.  The 
divers  are  under  the  direction  of  a  manager,  who  is 
called  the  Adapanaar,  and  they  are  chiefly  Tamils 
and  Moors  from  India.  For  each  diver  there  is 
provided  a  diving-stone,  weighing  about  30  pounds, 
which  is  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  rope  long  enough 
to  reach  the  bottom,  and  having  a  loop  made  for 
the  man's  foot ;  and  in  addition  to  this,  a  large 
network  basket,  in  which  to  place  the  pearl  oysters 
as  he  collects  them.  These  are  hung  over  the  sides 
of  the  boat ;  and  the  diver,  placing  his  foot  in  the 
loop  attached  to  the  stone,  liberates  the  coils  of  the 
rope,  and  with  his  net-basket  rapidly  descends  to 
the  bottom.  To  each  boat  there  is  usually  allotted 
a  crew  of  13  men  and  10  divers,  5  of  whom  are 
descending  whilst  the  others  are  resting.  This  work 
is  done  very  rapidly ;  for,  notwithstanding  the  stories 
to  the  contrary,  the  best  divers  cannot  remain 
longer  than  80  seconds  below,  and  few  are  able  to 
exceed  60.  The  greatest  depth  they  descend  is  13 
fathoms,  and  the  usual  depth  about  9  fathoms. 
When  the  diver  gives  the  signal  by  pulling  the  rope, 
he  is  quickly  hauled  up  with  his  net  and  its  con- 
tents. Accidents  rarely  happen ;  and  as  the  men 
are  very  superstitious,  their  safety  is  attributed  to 
the  incantations  of  their  shark-charmers,  performed 
at  the  commencement  of  the  fishing.  Sir  E.  Ten 
nent,  however,  attributes  the  rarity  of  accidents  from 
sharks,  usually  so  abundant  in  tropical  seas,  to  the 
bustle  and  to  the  excitement  of  the  waters  dminp 

3tt 


PEARL. 


the  fishery  frightening  away  those  dreaded  creatures. 
The  divers  are  sometimes  paid  fixed  wages,  others 
agree  for  one-fourth  of  the  produce.  When  a  boat- 
load of  oysters  has  been  obtained,  it  returns  to  shore, 
and  the  cargo,  sometimes  amounting  to  20,000  or 
30,000,  is  landed  and  piled  on  the  shore  to  die  and 
putrefy,  iu  order  that  the  pearls  may  be  easily  found. 
The  heaps  are  formed  in  small  walled  compartments, 
the  walls  surrounding  each  being  about  one  or  two  feet 
in  height.  Several  of  these  compartments  surround 
a  small  central  enclosure,  in  which  is  a  bath,  and 
they  slope  towards  this  bath,  and  are  each  connected 
with  it  by  a  small  channel,  so  that  any  pearls 
washed  out  from  the  putrefying  mass  by  the  rain 
may  be  carried  into  the  bath.  When  the  animals 
in  the  shells  are  sufficiently  decomposed,  the  washing 
commences,  and  great  care  is  taken  to  watch  for 
the  loose  pearls,  which  are  always  by  far  the  most 
valuable ;  the  shells  are  then  examined,  and  if  any 
attached  pearls  are  seen,  they  are  handed  over  to 
the  clippers,  who,  with  pinchers  or  hammer,  skilfully 
remove  them.  Such  pearls  are  used  only  for  setting  ; 
whilst  the  former,  being  usually  quite  round,  are 
drilled  and  strung,  and  can  be  used  for  beads,  &c. 
The  workmen  who  are  employed  to  drill  the  pearls 
also  round  the  irregular  ones,  and  polish  them 
with  great  skill.  The  method  of  holding  the  pearls 
during  these  operations  is  very  curious  ;  they  make 
a  number  of  holes  of  small  depth  in  a  piece  of  dry 
wood,  and  into  these  they  fit  the  pearls,  so  that  they 
are  only  partly  below  the  surface  of  the  wood, 
which  they  then  place  in  water.  As  it  soaks  up 
the  water  and  swells,  the  pearls  become  tightly 
fixed,  and  are  then  perforated,  &c.  These  operations 
are  all  carried  on  on  the  spot. 

For  many  miles  along  the  Condatchy  shore,  the 
accumulation  of  shells  is  enormous,  and  averages 
at  least  four  feet  in  thickness.  This  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at,  when  it  is  remembered  that  this 
fishery  has  been  in  active  operation  for  at  least 
2000  years.  The  place  itself  is  exceedingly  barren 
and  dreary,  and,  except  during  the  fishing  season, 
is  almost  deserted  ;  but  at  that  time  it  presents  an 
exceedingly  animated  spectacle ;  thousands  of  people, 
of  various  countries  and  castes,  are  here  drawn 
together — some  for  the  fishery,  others  to  buy  pearls, 
and  others  to  feed  the  multitude.  They  chiefly 
reside  in  tents,  so  that  it  appears  a  vast  encampment. 
The  pearls  vary  much  in  size  ;  those  as  large  as  a 
pea,  and  of  good  colour  and  form,  are  the  best, 
except  unusually  large  specimens,  which  rarely 
occur,  the  most  extraordinary  one  known  being  the 
pearl  owned  by  the  late  Mr  Hope,  which  measured 
two  inches  in  length,  and  four  in  circumference,  and 
weighed  1800  grains.  The  smaller  ones  are  sorted 
into  sizes,  the  very  smallest  being  called  seed-pearls. 
A  considerable  quantity  of  these  last  are  sent  to 
China,  where  they  are  said  to  be  calcined,  and  used 
in  Chinese  pharmacy.  Amongst  the  Romans,  the 
pearl  -was  a  great  favourite,  and  enormous  prices 
wera  paid  for  fine  ones.  One  author  gives  the 
valutj  of  a  string  of  pearls  at  1,000,000  sesterces,  or 
about  £8000  sterling.  The  single  pearl  which 
•Cleopatra  is  said  to  have  dissolved  and  swallowed 
was  valued  at  £80,729  ;  and  one  of  the  same  value 
was  cut  into  two  pieces  for  earrings  for  the  statue 
of  Venus  in  the  Pantheon  at  Rome.  Coming 
down  to  later  times,  we  read  of  a  pearl,  in  Queen 
Elizabeth's  reign,  belonging  to  Sir  Thomas  Gresham, 
which  was  valued  at  £15,000,  and  which  he  is  said 
to  have  treateo:  after  the  fashion  of  Cleopatra  ;  for 
he  powdered  it  and  drank  it  in  a  glass  of  wine  to 
the  health  of  the  Queen,  in  order  to  astonish  the 
ambassador  of  Spain,  with  whom  he  had  laid  a 
wager  that  he  would  give  a  more  cosily  dinner  than 
could  the  Smn:ar<L 


During  the  occupation  of  Britain  by  the  Romans 
this  coiintry  became  famous  for  its  pearls,  which 
were  found  in  the  freshwater  mussel  of  our  rivers. 
See  Freshwater  Mussel.  Generally  the  pearls  c£ 
this  mollusc  are  small,  badly  coloured,  and  often 
valueless ;  but  occasionally  they  occur  of  such 
beauty  as  to  rival  those  of  the  pearl  oyster.  At 
present,  in  the  Scotch  rivers,  the  search  for  pearls 
is  prosecuted  vigorously  and  successfully,  especially 
by  a  merchant,  named  Unger,  of  Edinburgh,  who 
has  brought  Scotch  pearls  into  great  repute 
He  has  collected  specimens  ranging  from  £5  to 
£90  each,  and  formed  a  necklace  worth  £350.  Iu 
Scotch  pearls  of  the  highest  quality,  there  is  a 
pleasing  pinkish  tint,  which  is  very  permanent. 
The  fishing  for  pearl  mussels  is  by  no  means  so 
dangerous  or  troublesome  as  for  pearl  oysters ; 
usually  they  are  found  in  the  beds  of  streams, 
shallow  enough  to  wade  in,  and  so  clear  that  they 
can  be  seen  at  the  bottom.  If  too  deep  to  remove 
with  the  hand,  they  are  easily  captured  by  putting 
a  stick  between  their  gaping  shells,  which  instantly 
close  upon  it,  and  can  be  drawn  out  with  it.  So 
profitable  is  this  pursuit  becoming,  that  a  great 
many  persons  are  now  engaged  in  it. 

Very  fine  river  pearls,  known  on  the  continent  as 
Bohemian  pearls,  are  found  in  the  rivers  Moldau 
and  Wottawa.  There  is  also  a  fresh-water  pearl 
fishery  in  Bavaria,  where  the  river  Iltz  yields  at 
times  very  fine  specimens.  Even  the  most  inferior 
pearls  have  a  market  value  ;  for  pearls  can  only  be 
properly  polished  with  pearl  dust,  and  the  inferior 
pearls  are  powdered  for  the  purpose  of  polishing 
and  rounding  the  finer  ones. 

False  pearls  are  very  admirable  imitations,  made 
by  blowing  very  thin  beads  or  bulbs  of  glass,  and 
pouring  into  them  a  mixture  of  liquid  ammonia, 
and  the  white  matter  from  the  scales  of  *the  Bleak, 
and  sometimes  of  the  Roach,  and  Dace.  The 
proper  way  to  prepare  the  pearl-matter  is  first 
to  remove  the  scales  of  the  lower  part  of  the  fish ; 
these  must  then  be  very  carefully  washed,  after 
which  they  are  put  to  soak  in  water,  when  the 
pearly  film  falls  off  and  forms  a  sediment  at  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel,  which  is  removed  and  placed 
iu  liquid  ammonia  for  future  use.  Thi3  pearl 
mixture,  when  of  the  best  quality,  is  very  costly, 
being  as  much  as  £4  or  £5  per  ounce.  For  use,  it 
is  diluted  with  ammonia,  and  injected  into  the 
glass  beads,  so  as  to  thinly  coat  them  inside  ;  after- 
wards the  better  kinds  have  melted  white  wax 
poured  in,  which  renders  them  much  more  durable. 
The  French  and  Germans  produce  in  this  way  imita- 
tions of  the  finest  oriental  pearls  of  such  beauty, 
that  the  most  practised  eye  can  hardly  detect  the 
difference.  The  bleak  is  procured  in  considerable 
quantities  for  this  purpose  from  the  Thames  and 
other  rivers  in  England.     See  Bleak. 

The  invention  of  artificial  pearls  is  due  to  a 
Frenchman,  named  Jaquin,  in  the  time  of  Catharine 
de  Medicis,  and  the  manufacture  is  now  chiefly 
carried  on  in  the  department  of  the  Seine,  where 
great  improvements  have  lately  been  made,  espe- 
cially in  the  art  of  giving  the  irregular  forms 
of  large  pearls  to  the  glass-bulbs,  and  thus 
increasing  the  resemblance,  and  in  removing  the 
glassy  appearance  caused  by  the  exterior  glass 
coating,  by  exposing  it  for  a  short  period  to 
the  action  of  the  vapour  of  hydrofluoric  acid. 
Mucilage  of  fine  gum-arabic  is  also  used  instead 
of  wax,  which  increases  the  translucency,  gives 
greater  weight,  and  is  not  liable  to  melt  with 
the  heat  of  the  wearer's  body— a  defect  to  which 
those  filled  with  wax  are  very  liable. 

Roman  pearls  differ  from  other  artificial  pearls, 
1  by  having  the  coating  of  pearly  matter  on  the 


PEARL— PEASANT  WAR 


outside,  to  which  it  is  attached  by  an  adhesive 
rabstanoe.  The  art  of  making  these  was  derived 
from  the  Chinese. 

PEARL,  a  river  of  Mississippi,  U.S.,  which  rises 
about  10D  miles  north-north-east  of  Jackson,  and. 
Bowing  south  through  the  state,  separates  it  in  its 
lower  course  from  Louisiana,  and  empties  into 
Mississippi  Sound,  near  the  outlet  of  Lake  Pontchar- 
train.  It  (lows  nearly  300  miles  through  a  fertile 
cotton  country,  aud  is  navigable  to  Jackson,  the 
capital. 

PEARL  ASHES.     See  Potash. 

PEARL  BARLEY.     See  Barley. 

PEARL  OYSTER  [Avicula  or  Mdeagrina 
margariti/era),  a  lamellibranchiate  inoliusc,  of  the 
family  .  generally  found  — great  numbers 

together — attached  to  submarine  rocks  at  a  consid- 
erable depth  on  the  coasts  of  tropical  countries,  and 
important  as  producing  almost  all  the  pearls  and  all 
the  mother-of-pearl  of  commerce.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  Pearl  Mussel  ;  but  the  family  to  which 
it  belongs  differs  considerably  both  from  that  of 
mussels  and  from  that  of  oysters,  the  valves  of  the 
shell  being  unequal,  the  hinge-line  straight  and 
long,  and  the  animal  furnished  with  two  adductor 
muscles,  one  of  them  small,  and  with  a  foot  by 
which  it  produces  a  byssus.  The  P.  0.  is  of  an 
oblique  oval  form,  longitudinally  ribbed,  and  with 
concentric  foliations  when  young  which  disappear 
when  it  is  old.  It  attains  a  large  size,  and  there 
are  several  varieties,  the  most  important  of  which 
are  noticed  in  the  article  Mother-of-Pearl.  The 
whole  inside  of  the  shell  is  covered  with  a  thick 
layer  of  nacre  or  mother-of-pearl,  compact  and  beau- 
tiful, forming  indeed  the  chief  part  of  the  shell,  and 
exhibiting  very  considerable  variety  of  colour,  most 
frequently  white,  but  sometimes  blood-red.  Pearls 
are  formed  of  the  same  substance  (see  Pearl),  and  are 
generally,  if  not  always,  produced  by  eggs  which  have 
become  abortive,  and  which  remain  lodged  within 
the  mollusc  instead  of  being  ejected  into  the  sea. 

The  P.  0.  is  too  rank  and  coarse  to  be  eaten.  When 
taken  from  the  sea  it  is  commonly  laid  out  in  the 
6un  to  die,  that  the  pearls  may  be  sought  for  after 
the  shell  opens. 

The  P.  0.  is  not  the  only  mollusc  which  produces 
pearls.  The  Placuna  placenta — an  oyster  (family 
Ostreada?)  with  thin  transparent  shell,  which  is  used 
in  China  and  elsewhere  as  a  substitute  for  window 
glass — produces  diminutive  pearls.  The  Fresh- 
water Mussel  (q.  v.)  of  Britain  and  America  produces 
pearls  sometimes  of  considerable  beauty  and  value; 
mid  instances  have  occurred  of  pearls  being  found  in 
pinna;,  &c,  and  even  in  limpets. 

PEARL  SHELLS.     See  Mother-of-Pearl, 

PEARL  WHITE.    See  White  Colours. 

PEARSON,  John,  an  English  prelate  of  high 
celebrity,  was  born  in  1612  at  Snoring,  in  Norfolk, 
of  which  place  his  father  was  rector,  educated  at 
Eton  and  King's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took 
the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1639,  and  in  the  same  year 
took  orders,  and  was  collated  to  a  prebend  in 
Salisbury  Cathedral.  In  1640  he  was  appointed 
chaplain  to  Finch,  lord-keeper  of  the  great  seal,  and 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  became  chaplain 
to  Lord  Goring,  and  afterwards  to  Sir  Robert  Cook, 
in  London.  In  1650,  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
St  Clement's,  Eastcheap,  London ;  and  in  1659, 
published  the  great  work  by  which  he  is  now 
remembered,  An  Exposition  of  the  Creed.  It  was 
dedicated  to  his  flock,  to  whom  the  substance  of  it 
Iiad  been  preached  some  years  before  in  a  series  of 
discourses.  The  laborious  learning  and  the  judicial 
calmness  displayed  by  the  author  in  this  treatise 
have  long  been  acknowledged,  and  command  the 


respect  even  of  those  who  think  his  elaborate  argu- 
mentation   tedious  and   not  always  forcible.       It   is 

generally  reckoned  one  of  the  ablest  works  produced 
in  the  greatest  age  of  English  theology  the  17th 
century.     During  the  l'.  published  The 

Golden  Remain*  of  the  Ever  Memorable  Mr  John 
Haiee  of  Eton.  At  the  Restoration,  honours  and 
emoluments  were  lavishly  showered  upon  hi;n. 
Before  the  close  of  1660  he  received  the  rectory  of 
St  Christopher's,  in  London;  was  created  D.D.  at 
Cambridge;  installed  Prebendary  of  Ely  and  Arch- 
deacon of  Surrey;  and  male  Master  of  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge.  In  1661,  he  obtained  the 
Margaret  professorship  of  Divinity,  and  was  one  of 
the  most  prominent  commissioners  in  the  famous 
Savoy  conference  ;  in  1662,  he  was  made  Mister  cf 
Trinity,  Cambridge,  and  in  1673,  wa3  promoted  to 
the  bishopric  of  Chester.  The  year  before  he  had 
published  his  Vindiciaz  Epislolarum  8.  Fgnatii,  in 
answer  to  M.  Daille,  who  had  denied  the  gen- 
uineness of  the  epistles.  It  was  imagined  for 
years  that  P.  bad  triumphed  over  his  opponent. 
The  history  of  the  controversy,  however  (see 
Ignatius),  has  shewn  that  Daille  was  right  and  P. 
wrong.  In  16S4,  appeared  his  Annates  Cyprianici. 
He  died  July  16,  16S6.  P.'s  Opera  I'osthuma 
Chronologka  were  published  by  Dodwell  (Lond. 
16SS),  and  his  Orationes,  Condones  et  Dttermina- 
tiones  Theologicoz  contain  much  valuable  matter, 
for,  as  Bentley  used  to  say,  P.'s  '  very  dross  was 
gold.'  Bishop  Burnet  thought  him  '  in  all  respects 
the  greatest  divine  of  his  age.' 

PEASANT  WAR,  in  German  history,  the  name 
given  to  that  great  insurrection  of  the  peasantry 
which  broke  out  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1525, 
and  which  Zschokke  has  described  as  the  '  terrible 
scream  of  oppressed  humanity.'  The  oppression  of 
the  peasants  had  gradually  increased  in  severity,  as 
the  nobility  became  more  extravagant  and  the 
clergy  more  sensual  and  degenerate.  The  example 
of  Switzerland  encouraged  the  hope  of  success,  and 
from  1476  to  1517  there  were  risings  here  and  there 
amongst  the  peasants  of  the  south  of  Germany. 
A  peasant  rebellion,  called  from  its  cognizance, 
the  Bundschuh  (Laced  Shoe),  took  place  in  the 
Rhine  countries  in  1502,  and  another,  called  the 
'  League  of  Poor  Conrad,'  in  Wiirtemberg,  in  1514, 
both  of  which  were  put  down  without  any  abate- 
ment of  the  grievances  which  occasioned  them. 
The  Reformation,  by  the  mental  awakening  which 
it  produced,  and  the  diffusion  of  sentiments  favour- 
able to  freedom,  must  be  reckoned  amongst  the 
causes  of  the  great  insurrection  itself ;  although 
Luther,  Melanchthon,  and  the  other  leading 
reformers,  whilst  urging  the  nobles  to  justice  anc. 
humanity,  strongly  reprobated  the  violent  proceed- 
ings of  the  peasants.  The  Anabaptists,  however, 
and  in  particular  Miiuzer,  encouraged  and  excited 
them,  and  a  peasant  insurrection  took  place  in  the 
Hegau  in  1522.  Another,  known  as  the  '  Latin 
War,'  arose  in  1523  in  Salzburg,  against  an 
unpopular  archbishop,  but  these  were  quickly 
suppressed.  On  January  1,  1525,  the  peasantry  of 
the  abbacy  of  Kempten,  along  with  the  towns* 
people,  suddenly  assailed  and  plundered  the  convent, 
compelling  the  abbot  to  sign  a  renunciation  of  his 
rights.  This  proved  the  signal  for  a  rising  of  the 
peasants  on  all  sides  throughout  the  south  of  Ger- 
many. Many  of  the  princes  and  nobles  at  first 
regarded  the  insurrection  with  some  measure  of 
complacency,  because  it  was  directed  in  the  first 
instance  chiefly  against  the  ecclesiastical  lords ; 
some,  too,  because  it  seemed  likely  to  promote  the 
interests  of  the  exiled  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg,  who 
was  then  upon  the  point  of  reconquering  his  domin- 
ions  by  the  help   of  Swiss  troops ;    and  others, 


PEA-STONE— PEAT. 


because  it  seemed  to  set  bounds  to  the  increase  of 
Austrian  power.  But  the  Archduke  Ferdinand 
hastened  to  raise  an  army,  the  troops  of  the  empire 
being  for  the  most  part  engaged  in  the  emperor's 
wars  in  Italy,  and  intrusted  the  command  of  it 
to  the  Truchsess  Von  Waldburg,  a  man  of  stern 
and  unscrupulous  character,  but  of  ability  and 
energy.  Von  Waldburg  negotiated  with  the  peas- 
ants in  order  to  gain  time,  and  defeated  and 
destroyed  some  large  bodies  of  them,  but  was 
himself  defeated  by  them  on  the  2'2d  of  April, 
when  he  made  a  treaty  with  them,  not  having, 
however,  the  slightest  intention  of  keeping  it. 
Meanwhile  the  insurrection  extended,  and  became 
general  throughout  Germany,  and  a  number  of 
towns  took  part  in  it,  as  Heilbronn,  Miihlhausen, 
Fidda,  Frankfurt,  &c,  but  there  was  a  total  want  of 
organisation  and  co-operation.  Towards  Easter, 
1525,  there  appeared  in  Upper  Swabia  a  manifesto, 
which  set  forth  the  grievances  and  demands  of  the 
insurgents.  They  demanded  the  free  election  of 
their  parish  clergy ;  the  appropriation  of  the  tithes 
of  grain,  after  competent  maintenance  of  the  parish 
clergy,  to  the  support  of  the  poor  and  to  purposes  of 
general  utility  ;  the  abolition  of  serfdom,  and  of  the 
exclusive  hunting  and  fishing  rights  of  the  nobles  ; 
the  restoration  to  the  community  of  forests,  fields, 
and  meadows,  which  the  secular  and  ecclesiastical 
lords  had  appropriated  to  themselves  ;  release  from 
arbitrary  augmentation  and  multiplication  of 
services,  duties,  and  rents ;  the  equal  administra- 
tion of  justice ;  and  the  abolition  of  some  of  the 
most  odious  exactions  of  the  clergy.  The  conduct 
of  the  insurgents  was  not,  however,  in  accordance 
with  the  moderation  of  their  demands.  Their  many 
separate  bands  destroyed  convents  and  castles, 
murdered,  pillaged,  and  were  .guilty  of  the  greatest 
excesses,  which  must  indeed  be  regarded  as  partly 
in  revenge  for  the  cruelty  practised  against  them  by 
Von  Waldburg.  A  number  of  princes  and  knights 
concluded  treaties  with  the  peasants  conceding 
their  principal  demands.  The  city  of  Wiirtzburg 
joined  them,  but  the  Castle  of  Leibfrauenberg  made 
an  obstinate  resistance,  which  gave  time  to  Von 
Waldburg  and  their  other  enemies  to  collect  and 
strengthen  their  forces.  In  May  and  June  1525,  the 
peasants  sustained  a  number  of  severe  defeats,  in 
which  large  bodies  of  them  were  destroyed  The 
Landgraf  Philip  of  Hesse  was  also  successful  against 
them  in  the  north  of  Germany.  The  peasants,  after 
they  had  been  subjugated,  were  everywhere  treated 
with  terrible  cruelty.  In  one  instance  a  great  body 
of  them  were  perfidiously  massacred  after  they  had 
laid  down  their  arms.  Multitudes  were  hanged  in 
the  streets,  and  many  were  put  to  death  with  the 
greatest  tortures.  Weinsberg,  Rothenburg,  Wiirtz- 
burg,  and  other  towns  which  had  joined  them,  suffered 
the  terrible  revenge  of  the  victors,  and  torrents 
of  blood  were  shed.  It  is  supposed  that  more  than 
150,000  persons  lost  their  lives  in  the  Peasant  War. 
Flourishing  and  populous  districts  were  desolated. 
The  lot  of  the  defeated  insurgents  became  harder 
than  ever,  and  many  burdens  of  the  peasantry 
originated  at  this  period.  The  cause  of  the  Refor- 
mation also  was  very  injuriously  affected.  See 
Sartorius,  Versuch  einer  Geschichte  des  Deutschen 
Bauernkriegs  (Berl.  1795) ;  Ochsle,  Beitrage  zur 
Geschichte  des  Deutschen  Bauernkriegs  (Heilbronn, 
1829) ;  Wachsmuth,  Der  Deutsche  Bauernkrieg  (Leip. 
1834)  ;  and  Zimmermann,  Allgemeine  Geschichte  des 
grossen  Bauernkriegs  (3  vols.,  Stuttg.  1841 — 1843). 

PEA-STONE,  PISOLITE,  or  PI'SIFORM 
LIMESTONE,  is  a  kind  of  calcareous  spar  or 
limestone,  which  occurs  in  globules  from  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  to  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  imbedded  in 
a  cement  of  similar  substance.  There  is  generally 
346 


a  grain  of  sand  in  the  centre  of  each  globule  at:  the 
nucleus,  around  which  it  has  been  formed,  and  the 
concentric  plates  of  its  structure  are  easily  visible. 
Sometimes  the  nucleus  is  merely  a  bubble  of  air. 
P.  is  found  in  great  masses  near  the  hot  springs  of 
Carlsbad,  in  Bohemia.  It  is  sometimes  used  for 
ornamental  puqwses. 

PEAT,  a  substance  formed  by  the  decomposition 
of  plants  amidst  much  moisture,  as  in  marshes  and 
morasses ;  and  sometimes  described  as  a  kind  of 
Humus  (q.  v.),  formed  by  the  accumulation  of  the 
remains  of  mosses  and  other  marsh-plants.  The 
remains  of  the  plants  are  often  so  well  preserved  in 
it,  that  the  species  can  be  easily  distinguished. 
Reeds,  rushes,  and  other  aquatic  plants  may  usually 
be  traced  in  peat,  and  stems  of  heath  are  often 
abundant  in  it ;  but  it  chiefly  consists,  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  world,  of  different  species  of 
Sphagnum  (q.  v.),  or  Bog-moss.  Mosses  of  this 
genus  grow  in  very  wet  situations,  and  throw  out 
new  shoots  in  their  upper  parts,  whilst  their  lower 
parts  are  decaying  and  being  converted  into  peat ;  so 
that  shallow  pools  are  gradually  changed  into  bogs. 
It  was  at  one  time  believed  that  bogs  owed  their 
origin  to  the  destruction  of  forests,  the  fallen  trees 
impeding  the  natural  drainage,  and  causing  the 
growth  of  those  marsh-plauts  of  which  peat  is 
formed ;  and  this  theory  was  supported  by  reference 
to  instances  supposed  to  be  authenticated  by  tradi- 
tion— as  that  of  the  moor  of  Hattield  in  Yorkshire, 
now  consisting  of  about  12,000  acres  of  peat,  and  said 
to  have  been  a  forest  of  firs,  till  'the  Romans  under 
Ostorius,  having  slain  many  Britons,  drove  the  rest 
into  the  forest,'  which  was  then  destroyed  by  the 
victors.  There  are,  however,  satisfactory  proofs 
that  peat  has  accumulated  in  many  places  around 
trees ;  and  firs  remaining  in  their  natural  position 
have  been  found  to  have  six  or  seven  feet  of  peat 
under  their  roots,  although  other  trees,  as  oaks,  are 
commonly  found  with  their  stumps  resting  on  the 
soil  beneath  the  peat.  Yet  it  is  not  improbable  that 
the  destruction  of  forests  may,  in  some  instances,  by 
impeding  the  course  of  the  streams  which  flowed 
through  them,  have  caused  the  stagnation  of  water 
from  which  the  growth  of  peat  resulted.  Some  of 
the  largest  mosses  and  fens  of  Europe  occupy  the 
place  of  forests,  which  were  destroyed  by  order  of 
Severus  and  other  Boman  emperors ;  and  some  of 
the  British  forests,  now  mosses,  as  well  as  some  of 
those  of  Ireland,  were  cut  because  they  harboured 
wolves  or  outlaws.  The  overthrow  of  a  forest  by  a 
storm  in  the  17th  c,  is  known  to  have  caused  the 
formation  of  a  peat-moss  near  Loch  Broom,  in 
Ross-shire.  Layers  of  trees  are  not  unfrequently 
found  in  peat,  which  seem  to  have  been  suddenly 
deposited  in  their  horizontal  position,  and  sometimes  to 
have  been  felled  by  human  hands.  It  is  not  improb- 
able, however,  that  sometimes  peat  has  been  formed 
where  the  soil  has  been  exhausted  by  the  long- con- 
tinued growth  of  one  kind  of  tree.  The  growth  of 
peat  is  often  rapid  j  bogs  have  been  known  to  increase 
two  inches  in  depth  in  a  year.  The  surface  of 
a  bog  sometimes  becomes  a  floating  mass  of  long 
interlaced  fibres  of  plants,  known  in  Ireland  as  Old 
Wives'  Tow.  The  vegetation  on  the  surface  is  some- 
times very  green  and  compact,  like  a  beautiful  turf. 

Peat  is  vegetable  matter  more  or  less  decomposed, 
and  passes  by  insensible  degrees  into  Lignite  (q.  v.). 
The  less  perfectly  decomposed  pent  is  srenerally  of  a 
brown  colour ;  that  which  is  more  perfectly  decom- 
posed is  often  nearly  black.  Moist  peat  possesses  a 
decided  and  powerful  antiseptic  property,  which  is 
attributed  to  the  presence  of  gallic  acid  and  tannin, 
and  is  manifested  not  only  in  the  perfect  presena- 
tion  of  ancient  trees  and  of  leaves,  fruits,  &c,  but 
sometimes   even   of   animal  bodies.      Thus,  in  some 


PEA  WEEVIL-  PEBBLE. 


instances,  human  bodies  have  been  found  perfectly 
preserved  in  peat,  after  the  lapse  of  centuries. 

The  formation  of  peat  may  be  regarded  as  one 
of  tho  most  important  geological  changes  now  in 

evident  progress.  It  takes  place,  however,  only  in 
the  colder  parts  of  the  world.  In  warm  regions, 
the  decay  of  vegetable  substances,  after  life  has 
ceased,  is  too  rapid  to  permit  the  formation  of  peat. 
The  surface  covered  by  peat  is  very  extensive  in  all 
the  colder  parts  of  the  world ;  although  in  the 
southern  hemisphere  no  moss  seems  to  enter  into  its 
composition  ;  and  the  South  American  peat  is  said 
by  Mr  Darwin  to  be  formed  of  many  plants,  but 
ehielly  of  Aitelia pumila,  a  phanerogamous  plant  of 
the  rush  family.  The  surface  covered  by  peat  even 
in  England  is  considerable ;  it  is  greater  in  Scotland, 
and  very  great  in  Ireland.  Extensive  tracts  are 
covered  with  peat  even  in  the  southern  countries  of 
Europe,  and  sometimes  even  near  the  sea ;  and  in 
more  northern  regions,  the  mosses  or  bogs  are  still 
more  extensive.  For  their  physical  characters,  and 
the  mode  of  reclaiming  them,  or  converting  them 
into  arable  land,  see  Boo. 

Mere  peat  is  not  a  good  soil, .  even  when  suffi- 
ciently drained,  but,  by  the  application  of  lime, 
marl,  &c,  it  is  soon  converted  into  good  soil,  yield- 
ing excellent  crops.  A  mixture  of  peat  is  often  of 
benefit  to  soils  otherwise  poor.  And  for  many 
shrubs,  as  rhododendrons,  kalmias,  wrhortleberries, 
&c.,  no  soil  is  so  suitable  as  one  in  great  part 
composed  of  peat ;  which  is  therefore  in  much 
request  with  gardeners  in  order  to  the  formation  of 
the  soil  for  certain  kinds  of  plants. 

Peat  is  extensively  usjd  for  fuel.  The  more  per- 
fectly decomposed  that  the  vegetable  matter  is,  and 
the  more  consolidated  that  the  peat  therefore  is,  the 
better  is  it  suited  for  this  use.  It  is  the  ordinary 
fuel  of  great  part  of  Ireland,  and  is  there  almost 
always  called  turf,  although  the  term  turf,  in  its 
ordinary  Euglish  sense,  is  utterly  inapplicable  to  it. 
To  procure  peat  for  fuel,  the  portion  of  bog  to  be 
operated  upon  must  first  be  partially  dried  by  a 
wide  open  drain ;  its  surface  is  then  pared  off  with 
the  spade,  to  the  depth  of  about  six  inches,  to  remove 
the  coarse  undecomposed  vegetable  matter ;  the 
peat  is  afterwards  cut  out  in  pieces  (peats)  like 
bricks,  by  means  chiefly  of  a  peculiar  implement, 
called  in  Ireland  a  slane,  and  in  Scotland  a  peat- 
spade,  resembling  a  long,  narrow,  sharp  spade,  the 
blade  of  which  is  furnished  on  one  side  with  a 
tongue  set  at  a  right  angle  to  it.  This  implement 
is  used  by  the  hands  alone,  without  pressure  of  the 
foot.  The  soft  peat3  are  conveyed  to  some  neigh- 
bouring place,  where  they  are  set  up  on  end  in 
little  clusters  to  dry.  When  sufficiently  dry,  they 
are  conveyed  away,  and  may  be  piled  in  outhouses 
or  stacked  in  the  open  air.  The  operation  of  peat- 
cuttbig  is  always  performed  in  spring  or  summer. — 
Where  peat  for  fuel  cannot  be  obtained  in  the  way 
just  described,  the  black  mud  of  a  semi-fluid  bog  is 
sometimes  worked  by  the  feet  of  a  party  of  men, 
women,  and  children  until  it  acquires  such  a  con- 
sistency that  it  can  be  moulded  by  the  hand.  The 
process  is  laborious,  but  the  fuel  obtained  by  it  is 
good. — In  countries  depending  on  peat  for  fuel,  a 
vory  rainy  season  sometimes  occasions  great  incon- 
venience, and  even  distress,  by  preventing  the 
cutting  and  drying  of  the  peat. 

Peat  is  a  light  and  bulky  kind  of  fuel,  and  cannot 
be  conveyed  to  considerable  distances  without  too 

freat  expense.  Efforts  have,  however,  been  made, 
oth  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  to  render  it  more 
generally  useful,  and  so  to  promote  the  reclaiming 
of  bogs,  by  compressing  it  until  its  specific  gravity 
is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  coal  For  this  purpose,  it 
Is  first  reduced  to  a  pulp.    The  compressing  of  peat 


lias  not  yet  been  advantageously  prosecuted  on  an 
extensive  Bcale. 

Attempts  have  been  made  in  New  England  to  convert 
peal  intoa  compact  dry  fuel  Sanguine  anticipations 
were  excited  as  to  its  greal  value,  but  experience  has 
proved  that  peat  cannol  be  dag,  dried,  and  compressed 
at  a  cost  that  will  enable  it  t . .  compete  with  anthracite 
coal.  It  is  estimated  thai  the  losses  in  these  fruitless 
sell. mes  have  amounted  to  almost  $1,000,000. 

Peat-charcoal,  made  from  uncompressed  peat,  is  very 
light  and  inflammable,  and  therefore  unsuitable  for 
many  purposes,  but  forothersitii  particularly  ad 
and  no  kind  of  charcoal  excels  it  in  antiseptic  and  de- 
odorising properties.  It  is  also  mi  excellent  manure 
for  many  kinds  of  soil,  and  great  crops  have  often  been 
obtained  by  its  use.  Peat-charcoal  is  highly  esteemed 
for  the  smelting  of  iron,  and  for  working  and  temper- 
ing the  finer  kinds  of  cutlery.  Charcoal  made  from 
compressed  peat  is  in  density  superior  to  wood-char- 
coal, and  is  capable  of  being  used  as  coke.  The  Irish 
Amelioration  Society,  some  years  ago,  encouraged  the 
conversion  of  peat  into  charcoal,  but  it  seems  not  to 
have  paid  as  a  commercial  speculation,  although  the 
resulting  charcoal  was  of  good  quality.  Various  com- 
panies have  been  formed  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
valuable  products  from  the  destructive  distillation  of 
peat.  It  appears  from  researches  of  Sir  R.  Kane  and 
others,  that  1000  parts  of  peat  yield  about  11  of  sul- 
phate of  ammonia,  7  of  acetate  of  lime,  2  of  wood 
naphtha,  1  of  paraffin,  7  of  fixed  oil,  and  3  of  volatile 
oil.  The  manufacture  has  not,  however,  as  yet  proved 
sufficiently  profitable  to  be  generally  adopted,  although 
the  distillation  of  peat  has,  we  believe,  been  carried  on 
for  some  years  at  Athy,  near  Kildare.  For  further  de- 
tails on  this  subject  the  reader  is  referred  to  a  parlia- 
mentary Report  on  the  Nature  and  Products  of  the 
Destructive  Distillation  of  Peat,  published  in  1851, 
and  to  a  paper  by  Dr  Paul  in  the  6th  volume  of  Tht 
Chemical  News. 

PEA  WEEVIL  or  PEA  BUG  (Bruchus  pisi),  a 
beetle,  which,  in  the 
larva  state,  devours 
the  interior  of  seeds, 
leaving  little  but  the 
hull  untouched.  It  is 
abcut  one-fifth  of  an 
inch  long,  oval,  con- 
vex ;  the  head  bent 
downwards, black,va- 
riegated  with  bright 
brown  hairs,  and  with  white  spots  on  the  wing-cases. 

PEBBLE  (probably  allied  to  bubble,  from  the 
sound  of  water  running  among  stones),  a  small, 
round,  water- worn  stone  of  any  kind ;  but  with 
jewellers  sometimes  an  agate — agates  being  often 
found  as  loose  pebbles  in  streams,  and  those  of 
Scotland  in  particular  being  popularly  designated 
Scotch  Pebbles^  Hence  the  name  has  come  even  to 
be  extended  to  rock-crystal,  when  not  in  the  crystal- 
line form,  and  we  hear  of  spectacles  -with  eyes  of 
pebble,  &c.  Deposits  of  pebbles  (in  the  sense  of 
water- worn  stones),  occur  among  the  rocks  of  all 
periods,  but  the  pebbles  are  seldom  loose ;  they  are 
generally  cemented  together  by  iron,  lime,  or  silex, 
forming  a  pudding-stone  of  greater  or  less  hardness. 
Single  pebbles  are  sometimes  found  in  deposits  which 
have  been  formed  at  a  distance  from  currents  in  per- 
fectly still  water,  as  in  chalk  and  fine  silt.  They 
must  have  been  floated  to  their  places  entangled  in 
the  roots  of  trees,  or  attached  to  the  roots  of  large 
buoyant  sea-weeds. — Brazilian  Pebbles  (so  called 
from  BrazQ  having  been  long  famous  for  the  purity 
of  its  rock  crystal),  are  very  pure  pieces  of  Bock 
Crystal  (q.  v.),  used  by  opticians  for  making  the 
lenses  of  spectacles,  &c 

347 


Pea  Beetle  (Bruchus  pisi). 
a,  natural  >ize. 


PECCARY— PECTORILOQUY. 


PE'CCARY  (Dycoteles),  a  genus  of  Packydermata, 
of  the  family  Suidce,  much  resembling  hogs;  but 
having  a  mere  tubercle  instead  of  a  tail ;  only  three 
toes — no  external  toe— on  the  hind-feet ;  the  molar 
teeth  and  incisors  very  like  those  of  hogs,  but  the 
nanine  teeth  not  nearly  so  long,  and  not  curving 


L     •    /'V\ 


Peccary  (Dycoteles  torquatus). 

outwards.  An  approach  to  ruminants  is  seen  in 
the  stomach,  which  is  divided  into  several  sacs  ; 
also  in  the  union  of  the  metacarpal  and  metatarsal 
bones  of  the  two  greater  toes  into  a  kind  of  cannon 
bone.  A  glandular  opening  on  the  loins,  near  the 
tail,  secretes  a  fetid  humour.  Only  two  species  are 
known,  both  natives  of  South  America  ;  and  except 
the  tapirs,  the  only  existing  pachydermata  of  the 
American  continent. — The  Common  P.,  Collared 
P.,  or  Tajactj  (D.  torquatus),  is  found  in  almost  all 

!>ai-ts  of  South  America;  the  White-ltpped  P.  (D. 
abiatvs)  is  found  in  many  parts  of  it.  Both  are 
gregarious  ;  the  White-lipped  P.,  often  assembling 
in  very  large  herds,  and  sometimes  doing  great 
mischief  to  maize  and  other  crops.  The  herds  of 
the  White-lipped  P.  seem  to  follow  a  leader,  like 
those  of  ruminants.  The  Common  P.  chiefly  fre- 
quents forests,  and  small  companies  sometimes  take 
up  their  abode  in  the  hollow  of  a  great  tree.  The 
Common  P.  is  about  the  size  of  a  small  hog,  grayish ; 
the  hairs  alternately  ringed  with  black  and  yellowish 
white,  bristly;  and  on  the  neck  longer,  and  forming 
a  mane.  A  narrow  white  collar  surrounds  the 
neck.  The  White-lipped  P.  is  considerably  larger, 
of  a  darker  colour,  with  conspicuously  white  lips. 
The  ears  are  almost  concealed  by  the  hair.  Both 
Bpecies  are  capable  of  being  tamed,  but  are  of 
irritable  and  uncertain  temper.  In  a  wild  state 
they  defend  themselves  vigorously  against  assailants, 
making  good  use  of  their  sharp  tusks,  and  a  whole 
herd  combine  for  defence.  The  hunter  has  often  to 
take  refuge  from  them  in  a  tree.  They  are  omniv- 
orous ;  and  if  hurtful  to  crops,  render  service  by 
destroying  reptiles.  Their  voice  is  somewhat  like 
that  of  the  hog,  but  more  sharp.  Their  flesh 
resembles  that  of  the  hog,  but  is  said  to  be  inferior. 
The  glands  on  the  loins  must  be  cut  out  immediately 
after  the  P.  is  killed,  or  their  fetid  humour  infects  the 
whole  flesh.  Remains  of  extinct  peccaries  are  common 
in  the  Postpliocene  formation  of  N.  America. 

PE-CHIH-LE'.     See  Chih-le. 

PECK,  a  measure  of  capacity  for  dry  goods, 
Buch  as  grain,  fruit,  &c,  used  in  Britain,  and  equiva- 
lent to  2  imperial  gallons,  or  554-548  cubic  inches. 
It  is  thus  the  fourth  part  of  a  Bushel  (q.  v.).  The 
old  Scotch  peck,  the  16th  part  of  a  boll,  when  of 
wheat,  was  slightly  less  than  the  imperial  peck ;  but 
when  of  barley,  was  equal  to  about  1 456  of  it. 

PECORA  (Lat.  cattle),  a  Linnsean  order  of 
Mammalia,  now  generally  called  Ruminantia  (q.  v.). 

PECOS,  a  river  of  Texas,  U.S.,  rises  in  the 
mountains  near  Santa  Fe,  Key  Mexico,  runs  south- 
348 


Pecten. 


easterly  600  miles  through  New  Mexico  and  Texas, 
and  flows  into  the  Rio  Grande-del-Norte,  in  lat. 
about  29°  20'  N.,  long.  102°  W. 

PECTEN,  a  genus  of  lamellibranchiate  molluscs, 
commonly  referred  to  the  same  family  with  the 
oyster  (Ostreadce),  which  is  sometimes  called  PectU 
nidce.  The  shell  has  neither  teeth  nor  laminae  in 
the  hinge  ;  the  valves  are  unequal,  one  of  them 
being  often  much  more  convex  than  the  other  ;  the 
shape  is  regular ;  the  hinge  is  extended  by  ears, 
and  in  most  of  the  species  both  valves  have  rib* 
radiating  from  the  umbo 
to  the  margin.  Hence  the 
name  pecten  (Lat.  a  comb), 
from  the  appearance  which 
they  present.  The  animal 
has  a  small  foot ;  some  of 
the  species  are  capable  of 
attaching  themselves  by  a 
byssus ;  they  are  capable 
also  of  locomotion  by  open- 
ing and  rapidly  closing  the 
valves,  and  in  this  way  can 
even  regain  the  sea  from 
a  short  distance  by  leaping 
on  the  shore.  Some  of  the 
larger    species     are     often 

popularly  called  clams,  a  name  shared  by  other 
bivalves.  P.  Jacob&us,  a  native  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, is  the  Scallop-shell  which  pilgrims 
were  accustomed  to  wear  in  front  of  their  hat,  in 
token  of  their  having  visited  the  shrine  of  St  James 
at  Compostella.  It  attains  a  size  of  about  4  inches 
long  and  5  inches  broad.  P.  maximus,  found  on 
many  parts  of  the  British  coasts,  is  about  6  inches 
broad.  It  is  sometimes  eaten,  but  is  hard  and 
indigestible.  Several  other  species  are  British. 
Species  are  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world. 

PECTIC  ACID  and  PECTINE.     See  Fruits. 

PECTINIBRANCHIA'TA  (Lat.  comb-gilled), 
an  order  of  gasteropodous  molluscs,  having  the  gills 
composed  of  numerous  leaflets  or  fringes,  arranged 
like  the  teeth  of  a  comb,  and  affixed  to  the  internal 
surface  of  a  cavity  which  opens  with  a  wide  open- 
ing above  the  head.  The  sexes  are  distinct.  All 
the  P.  have  two  tentacles  and  two  eyes,  the  eyes 
often  stalked.  The  mouth  is  produced  into  a  pro- 
boscis, more  or  less  lengthened.  The  eggs  are  depo- 
sited in  a  mass,  with  an  envelope  often  of  very 
remarkable  and  complicated  form,  which  is  produced 
by  coagulation  of  a  viscous  albuminous  matter 
secreted  by  a  peculiar  gland  of  the  female.  The 
P.  are  very  numerous ;  the  greater  number  of 
gasteropods  being  included  in  this  order  ;  some  have 
a  siphon,  and  some  are  destitute  of  it ;  some  havo 
spiral,  aud  some  have  simply  conical  shells.  Almost 
all  are  inhabitants  of  the  sea  or  its  shores ;  a  few 
are  found  in  fresh  water.  To  this  order  belong 
Whelks,  Periwinkles,  Cones,  Volutes,  Calyptracae,  &c 

PECTORILOQUY  iB  a  term  of  such  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  history  of  chest  diseases  as  to 
require  a  brief  notice  in  this  work.  If  the  stetho- 
scope be  applied  to  the  chest  of  a  healthy  person, 
and  he  be  requested  to  speak,  the  sounds  of  his 
voice  will  be  conveyed  to  the  ear  of  the  observer 
with  very  different  degrees  of  clearness,  according 
to  the  part  of  the  chest  on  which  the  base  of  the 
instrument  rests.  If,  for  example,  it  be  applied 
at  the  top  of  the  sternum  or  breast-bone  the  voice 
will  reach  the  ear,  through  the  tube,  with  tolerable 
distinctness.  For  a  short  distance  on  either  side 
of  the  sternum,  just  below  the  collar-bones,  and  in 
the  arm- pits,  the  voice  is  still  heard,  but  the  sound 
is  indistinct  and  confused.  Below  the  third  rib,  and 
over  the  remainder  of  the  chest,  the  voice  only 


PECULIAR-PEDICULA  RIS. 


produces  an  obscure  thrilling  sound  which  is  known 
as  pectoral  resonance.  In  certain  morbid  conditions 
the   sounds   of   tho  voice   seem  to  proceed  with 

distinctness  from  the  walls  of  the  chest  directly  into 
the  ear;  and  then,  in  place  of  the  normal  pectoral 
resonance,  we  have  the  physical  sign  known  as 
Pectoriloquy  (from  the  Latin  pectort,  from  the  chest, 
and  lot/ imr,  1  speak).  It  occurs  when  a  tolerably 
superficial  excavation,  of  moderate  or  considerable 
size,  lies  under  the  stethoscope  ;  and  hence  it  was 
at  one  time  regarded  as  an  .almost  certain  indication 
of  advanced  consumption,  hut  it  is  now  known  that 
it  may  also  occur  when  solidified  masses  of  lung  lie 
between  a  large  bronchial  tube  and  the  part  of  the 
chest  on  which  the  instrument  rests. 

PECULIAR  (Fr.  peculier,  i.  e.,  private)  is,  in 
English  Law,  a  particular  parish  or  church  having 
jurisdiction  within  itself,  and  exempt  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary.  The  Courts  of  Peculiars 
in  these  jurisdictions  amount  to  about  300  in 
England  and  Wales,  and  had  jurisdiction  in  refer- 
ence to  probates  of  wills  before  the  recent  constitu- 
tion of  the  Court  of  Probate.  Their  jurisdiction 
is  still  somewhat  obscure. 

PEDAL  (Lat.  pes,  a  foot),  any  part  of  a  musical 
instrument  acted  on  by  the  feet.  The  pianoforte, 
the  harp,  and  the  organ  are  furnished  with  pedals, 
which,  however,  serve  an  entirely  different  purpose 
in  each  instrument.  In  the  pianoforte,  their  object 
is  to  effect  a  change  in  the  quality  or  intensity  of 
the  sound ;  the  damper  pedal  prolongs  the  sound  after 
the  finger  is  lifted  from  the  key,  and  the  shifting  or 
una  corda  pedal  softens  the  tone.  The  pedals  of 
the  harp  are  the  means  by  which  the  chromatic 
changes  of  intonation  are  effected.  In  the  organ, 
the  pedals  are  keys  put  in  action  by  the  feet.  The 
division  of  the  organ  which  is  connected  -with  the 
foot- keys  is  called  the  pedal-organ,  and  contains  the 
largest  pipes.  The  introduction  of  pedals  in  the 
organ  is  assigned  to  a  German  of  the  name  of 
Bernhard,  who  flourished  in  the  15th  c. ;  they  were 
long  of  being  brought  into  use  in  England,  but  now 
few  organs,  except  those  of  the  smallest;  dimensions, 
are  made  without  them.  Pedals  are  also  used  in 
the  organ  to  act  on  the  swell  and  on  the  stops. 
See  Organ. 

PEDALIA'CEJE.    See  Bignoniace^;. 

PEDAL-POINT,  or  PEDAL  HARMONY.  See 
Organ-point. 

PEDEE',  Great,  a  river  of  North  and  South 
Carolina,  U.S.,  rises  in  the  Alleghany  Mountains, 
in  the  north-west  of  North  Carolina,  and  running 
south  by  east  flows  through  the  east  portion  of 
South  Carolina,  and  enters  the  Atlantic  through 
Winyaw  Bay  at  Georgetown.  It  13  navigable  to 
Cheraw,  150  miles,  and  is  about  350  miles  in  length. 
— The  Little  Pedee,  its  principal  eastern  branch, 
is  formed  by  the  confluence 
n  of  several  smaller  rivers 
in  the  south  part  of  North 
Carolina. 

PE'DESTAL,  a  base  or 
block  on  which  columns, 
statues,  &c,  are  frequently 
set.  The  pedestal  is  much 
used  in  classic  architecture. 
Like  the  column,  it  has  a 
base,  a,  and  a  sort  of 
capital  or  cornice,  called 
the  surbase,  c  The  shaft, 
or  plain  block,  b,  is 
called  the  dado  or  die,  b. 

PEDETES,  or  HE'LAMYS,  a  genus  of  rodent 
quadrupeds    of    the    family    Muridce,    allied     to 


Jerboas,  but  differing  from  them  ir.  some  of  the 
characters  of  their  dentition,  The  hind-legs, 
although  very  long,  arc  not  bo  long  as  in  the  jerboas. 
The   tail  is   long.     The   JUMPING    EaRE  [P.  or    //. 

Capensis)  of  South  Africa  is  about  the  size  of  a 
rabbit  It  can  jump  '2o  or  30  feet  at  a  bound.  Its 
fore-feet  also  are  very  strong,  and  it  burrows  very 
expeditiously.  The  claws  arc  long  and  Btrong.  The 
habits  of  the  animal  arc  nocturnal,  and  it  does 
considerable  mischief  in  corn-fields  and  gardens. 

PEDICELLA'RIiE  are  very  remarkable  minute 
appendages  of  the  integuments  of  many  of  the  Echi- 
nodermata,  having  the  form  of  a  stalk,  with  a  small 
two-bladed  or  threc-bladed  forceps  at  its  summit. 
They  are  of  a  fleshy  substance,  with  calcareous 
granules  imbedded,  and  in  a  living  state  the  blades 
are  continually  opening  and  closing.  They  were  at 
one  time  supposed  to  be  parasitic  zoophytes,  but 
are  now  generally  believed  to  be  organs  of  the  star- 
fish or  sea-urchin,  although  their  use  is  merely 
conjectured  to  be  that  of  keeping  the  surface  of  tho 
echinoderm  free  of  algae  and  zoophytes.  The  intro- 
duction of  a  pin's  point  between  the  blades  causes  an 
immediate  closing  of  them.  They  are  found  both  on 
shelly  and  on  comparatively  soft  integuments,  and 
are  always  present,  and  always  of  a  particular 
form,  according  to  the  species  of  echinoderm,  and 
according  to  the  particular  place  which  they  occupy, 
being  crowded  chiefly  around  the  spines,  and  near 
the  mouth  of  sea-urchins. 

PEDICULA'RIS,  a  genus  of  herbaceous  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Scrophulariaceai,  some  of  which 
have  rather  large  and  finely-coloured  flowers.  Two 
species,  P.  palustris  and  P.  sylvatlca,  are  natives 
of  Britain,  common  in  wet  grounds.  Both  have 
received  the  name  of  Lousewort,  the  English  equi- 
valent of  '  pedicularis,'  from  their  supposed  influ- 
ence in  producing  the  lousy  disease  in  sheep ;  an 
influence  purely  imaginary.     Their  acridity  renders 


Pedestal. 


Pedicularis  palustris : 
a,  corolla  cut  open,  Bhewiug  the  stamens  ;  b,  fruit;  e,  pistil. 

them  injurious  to  sheep  which  eat  them.  P.  2}«llida1 
canadense,  and  gladiata  are  found  in  low  grounds,  from 
N.York  to  Virginia,  and  westward.  Several  species  occur 
in  N.  Europe  and  N.  Asia.  P.  sceptrum,  or  King  Charles' 
Sceptre,  is  one  of  the  principal  ornaments  of  marshy 
grounds  in  the  most  northern  countries  of  Europe. 

349 


PEDICULUS— PEDOMETER. 


PEDICULUS.    See  Louse. 

PE'DIGREE  (probably  from  Lat.  pes,  a  foot),  a 
tabular  view  of  the  members  of  a  particular  family 
with  the  relations  in  which  they  stand  to  each 
other,  accompanied  or  unaccompanied  by  a  notice 
of  the  chief  events  in  the  life  of  each,  with  their 
dates,  and  the  evidence  of  the  facts  stated.  Pedi- 
grees are  indispensable  aids  to  the  student  of  his- 
tory. The  wars  of  the  Roses,  the  claim  of  Edward 
III.  to  the  crown  of  France,  the  relative  position  of 
Mary  and  Lady  Jane  Grey,  the  circumstances  which 
brought  about  the  union  of  the  crowns  of  England 
and  Scotland,  the  Schleswig-Holstein  question — now 
occupying  the  attention  of  Europe — and  many  other 
familiar  chapters  in  the  history  of  nations,  as  well 
as  of  families,  cannot  be  read  aright  without  the  aid 
of  pedigrees.  The  materials  to  be  used  in  the  for- 
mation of  a  pedigree  are  notes  of  the  facts  to  be  set 
forth,  and  a  recognised  series  of  signs  and  abbre- 
viations. These  notes  comprise  the  name  of  every 
person  who  is  to  appear  in  the  pedigree,  with  such 
dates  and  circumstances  as  it  may  be  considered 
desirable  to  record.  Among  the  commonest  abbre- 
viations are  dau.,  for  daughter  of ;  s.  and  h.,  son  and 
heir  of ;  coh.,  coheir  of  ;  io.,  wife  of  ;  s.  p.  {sine  prole), 
without  issue  ;  v.  p.  (vitd  patris),  in  his  father's  life- 
time ;  b.,  born,  d.,  died  ;  dep.,  deposed  ;  K.,  king ;  E, 
earl,  &c.  The  sign  =  placed  between  two  names, 
indicates  that  they  were  husband  and  wife ;  ~^ 
indicates  that  they  had  children  ;  I  under  a  name 
signifies  that  the  person  had  children.  All  persons 
of  the  same  generation  are  to  be  kept  in  the  same 
horizontal  line ;  and  the  main  line  of  descent  is, 
wherever  possible,  to  be  indicated  by  keeping  the 
successive  names  in  a  vertical  column.  Continuous 
lines  indicate  the  succession  of  the  different  gene- 
rations. The  members  of  the  same  family  are 
generally  arranged  in  their  order  of  birth  in  two 

f  roups — the  sons  first,  and  then  the  daughters  ; 
ut  where  the  same  father  or  mother  has  chil- 
dren by  more  than  one  marriage,  the  children  of 
each  marriage  ought  to  form  distinct  groups.  The 
actual  arrangement,  however,  of  a  pedigree  must 
always  depend  on  the  leading  object  which  it  is 
intended  to  illustrate. 

Tabular  genealogies,  generally  brief,  and  meant  to 
illustrate  some  particular  claim  of  right,  are  found 
among  the  records,  public  and  private,  of  the  early 
middle  ages  ;  but  after  the  incorporation  of  the 
English  Heralds'  College,  far  more  attention  was 
devoted  to  the  compilation  of  pedigrees  of  families, 
more  particularly  with  reference  to  their  claims  to 
dignities  and  heraldic  insignia.  In  the  course  of 
the  16th  c,  the  heralds  obtained  copies  of  all  such 
accounts  of  the  English  families  of  any  distinction 
as  could  be  supplied  to  them,  and  entered  them  in 
the  books  which  contain  the  records  of  their  official 
proceedings.  Royal  commissions  were  issued  under 
the  Great  Seal  to  the  two  provincial  kings-of-arms, 
empowering  them  to  visit  in  turn  the  several  coun- 
ties of  England,  in  order  to  collect  from  the  princi- 
pal persons  of  each  county  an  account  of  the  changes 
which  had  taken  place  in  their  respective  families 
in  the  interval  since  the  last  preceding  visitation, 
and  to  inquire  what  account  could  be  given  of 
themselves  by  families  who  had  stepped  into  the 
rank  of  gentry,  or  had  become  settled  in  the 
county  since  that  period.  The  register-books 
kept  by  the  heralds  and  their  assistants  contain  the 
pedigrees  and  arm3  collected  in  the  course  of  the 
visitations,  with  the  signatures  of  the  heads  of  the 
families.  The  pedigrees  thus  collected  contain 
a  vast  body  of  information,  interesting  not  only 
to  the  professed  genealogist,  but  to  every  one 
who  would  know  anything  of  the  distinguished 
350 


characters  in  English  history.  Some  of  these  booka 
are  lost,  the  rest  are  scattered  among  tho  publio 
and  private  libraries  of  the  country,  the  largest 
collections  being  in  the  archives  of  the  College  of 
Arms  and  the  British  Museum.  After  the  begin- 
ning of  last  century,  the  visitations  were  discon- 
tinued, and  there  has  since  been  no  official  and 
regular  collection  of  pedigrees.  A  standing  order 
of  the  House  of  Lords,  in  1767,  required  that  before 
any  peer  should  be  allowed  to  take  hia  seat,  Garter- 
king-of-Arms  was  to  deliver  at  the  table  of  the 
House  of  Lords  a  pedigree  of  his  family,  to  be 
verified  by  the  Committee  of  Privileges,  and  even- 
tually preserved  in  the  records  of  the  House,  a  copy 
being  also  registered  in  the  College  of  Arms.  This 
order  was  rescinded  by  Lord  Thurlow  in  1802,  with 
the  view  of  framing  a  new  one ;  but,  unfortunately, 
this  was  never  done.  Persons  sensible  of  the  import- 
ance of  preserving  an  authentic  account  of  their 
descent,  frequently  record  their  pedigrees  for  pre- 
servation in  the  Register  of  the  College  of  Arms. 
This  register  is  quite  distinct  from  the  heraldic 
department  of  that  institution,  and  is  open  to  any 
one  who  wishes  to  preserve  evidence  of  any  pro- 
perly authenticated  facts  regarding  his  descent  and 
family. — In  Scotland,  in  the  absence  of  the  regular 
system  of  visitations  which  prevailed  in  England, 
there  is  a  great  deal  of  evidence  regarding  the 
pedigrees  of  the  historical  families  of  the  country 
scattered  here  and  there  in  public  and  private  col- 
lections, including  the  Advocates'  Library  and  Lyon 
Office.  A  register  of  genealogies,  similar  to  that  of 
the  English  Heralds'  College,  exists  in  the  Lyon 
Office,  in  which  the  pedigrees  of  applicants,  after 
being  proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  heraldic 
authorities,  are  inserted  with  the  accompanying 
evidence.  '  To  what  extent  the  register  of  gene- 
alogies in  the  Lyon  Office  may  be  admitted  as  a 
probative  document,  conclusive  of  the  facts  which 
it  sets  forth,  has  not  been  ascertained  by  actual  deci- 
sion ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  in  questions 
both  as  to  property  and  honours,  it  would  be  re- 
garded as  a  most  important  adminicle  of  proof.  The 
genealogical  department  of  the  Heralds'  College  in 
London  is  a  very  important  one,  and  it  is  to  be 
regretted  that  the  uses  of  the  corresponding  depart- 
ment of  the  Lyon  Office  are  so  little  understood 
and  appreciated  by  the  public' — Lorimer's  Hand- 
book of  the  Law  of  Scotland,  2d  edit.,  p.  446. 

PEDIGREE,  in  point  of  law,  is  the  legal  rela« 
tionship  between  individuals  which  is  looked 
to  with  regard  to  the  descent  of  property  and 
honours.  The  occasion  in  which  it  comes  into 
question  is  where  a  person  dies,  in  which  case  his 
property,  if  he  died  intestate,  is  divided  among 
those  who  are  related  by  blood.  The  real  property 
goes  to  one  set  of  relations,  and  the  personal  pro- 
perty to  others.  See  Intestacy,  Next  of  Kin, 
Succession,  Paterson's  Comp.  of  English  and  Scotch 
Law,  251,  257. 

PE'DIMENT,  the  triangular  space  over  the 
portico  at  the  ends  of  the  roof  of  classic  buildings. 
It  is  enclosed  by  the  horizontal  and  the  raking 
cornices,  the  latter  of  which  follow  the  slopes  of  the 
roof.  The  pediment  may  be  called  the  gable  of 
classic  buildings.  It  is  frequently  enriched  -with 
sculpture,  for  which  it  forms  a  fine  setting.  The 
doors  and  windows  of  classic  buildings  are  often 
surmounted  by  pediments,  either  straight-sided  or 
curved. 

PEDLERS.    See  Hawkers. 

PEDO'METER,  an  instrument  for  measuring 
walking  distances.  It  sometimes  has  a  watch  or 
clock  attached.  In  the  patent  pedometer  of  Messrs 
Payne,  William,  &  Co.,  there  is  a  repeating  watch. 


PEDRO— PEEL. 


which  shpv/3  seconds,  minutes,  and  hours,  and 
also  the  day  of  the  month.  They  are  used  by 
pedestrians,  and  for  measuring  streets  when  the 
fares  of  hired  carriages  are  disputed.  See  Odo- 
meter. 

PEDRO  I.  (Dom  Pet>ro  d'Alcantara),  Emperor 
of  Brazil,  was  the  second  son  of  John  VI.,  king  of 
Portugal,  and  was  born  at  Lisbon,  12th  October 
179S.  On  the  death  of  his  elder  brother  in  1801,  he 
became  Prince  of  Beja,  and  heir  to  the  throne  ;  and 
after  his  father's  accession  to  the  throne  of  Portugal 
and  Brazil  in  lSlti,  he  received  the  title  of  Prince  of 
Brazil,  He  was  carried  along  with  the  rest  of  the 
royal  family  of  Portugal  in  their  flight  to  Brazil  in 
1807,  and  from  that  time  remained  in  that  country. 
His  education,  owing  to  political  disturbances,  was 
not  carried  on  systematically,  and  after  his  arrival 
in  Brazil,  he  was  left  to  instruct  himself  very  much 
according  to  his  own  inclination.  In  1817,  he 
married  the  Archduchess  Leopoldine  of  Austria, 
and  on  his  father's  return  to  Lisbon  in  1821,  was 
named   Regent   of   Brazil.      At  this  time,  a  great 

Eolitical  crisis  was  impending  ;  the  Brazdians  had 
een  ut'erly  disgusted  at  the  preferment  of  Portu- 
guese to  the  highest  offices  of  state  and  the  chief 
clerical  dignities,  and  their  discontent  was  height- 
ened by  the  refusal  of  the  Portuguese  Cortes  to 
accord  to  Brazil  a  liberal  constitution  similar  to  that 
which  had  been  granted  to  the  mother-country,  and 
by  its  arbitrary  command,  that  P.,  who  was  at  the 
head  of  the  liberal  party,  should  at  once  return  to 
Portugal  to  complete  his  education.  P.,  however, 
cast  in  his  lot  with  the  Brazdians,  despite  threats 
of  exclusion  from  the  throne  of  Portugal,  and  was 
chosen,  on  12th  October  1822,  Emperor  of  Brazd. 
His  government  was  very  vigorous,  but  a  war  which 
broke  out  between  his  supporters  and  the  advocates 
of  republicanism,  distracted  the  country  for  a  time, 
and  prevented  the  liberal  measures  of  the  govern- 
ment from  taking  full  effect.  In  1  S25;  his  title  was 
recognised  by  the  Portuguese  Cortes ;  and  the  death 
of  his  father,  in  the  following  year,  opened  for  him 
the  succession  to  the  throne  of  Portugal.  This 
revived  the  national  spirit  of  the  Brazilian  Chambers, 
who  feared  that  they  were  about  to  be  again  reduced 
to  a  dependent  state,  and  P.'s  hasty  and  passionate 
temper  led  him  to  measures  which  whetted  the 
general  discontent.  But  he  merely  retained  the 
dignity  of  king  of  Portugal  long  enough  to  shew 
his  right  to  it,  and,  after  granting  a  more  liberal 
constitution,  immediately  resigned  in  favour  of  his 
daughter,  Maria  II.  (q.  v.).  The  disturbances  in 
Brazil  still  increased,  the  finances  fell  into  disorder, 
the  emperor's  second  marriage  with  the  Princess 
Amelia  of  Leuchtenberg  displeased  his  subjects ;  and 
after  making  various  ineffectual  attempts  to  restore 
tranquillity,  he  was  compelled,  by  the  revolution  of 
July  1831,  to  resign  the  throne  in  favour  of  his  son, 
Pedro  II.,  a  boy  of  5^  years  old.  P.  then  safled  for 
Portugal,  where  his  brother  Miguel  had  usurped  the 
throne ;  and  with  the  aid  of  an  army  which  was 
swelled  by  French  and  English  volunteers,  after  a 
three  years'  campaigu,  he  drove  away  the  usurper, 
and  restored  his  daughter  to  the  throne  in  1834. 
But  the  ceaseless  excitement  by  which  he  had 
been  surrounded,  and  the  excessive  demands  on  his 
energies,  had  produced  total  exhaustion,  and  he  died 
24th  September  1834  See  Brazil  ;  Miguel,  Dom  ; 
and  Portugal. 

PEDUNCLE.    See  Flower. 

PEEBLES.     See  Peeblesshire. 

PEEBLESSHIRE,  a  county  in  the  south  of 
Scotland,  also  called  Tweeddale,  from  consisting 
mainly  of  the  upper  valley  of  the  Tweed,  a  river 
which  originates  in  the  county.     P.  is  bounded  by 


Dumfries  and  Selkirk  shires  on  the  S.,  Lanarkshire 
on  the  W.,  Mid-Lothian  on  the  N.,  and  Selkirkshire 
on  the  K.  The  county  is  small,  containing  only  356 
square  miles,  or  227,869  statute  acres.  Its  lowest 
point  above  the  mean  level  of  the  sea  is  about 
450  feet,  from  which  to  1200  feet  is  the  region  of 
cultivation ;  but  the  county  being  a  group  of  hills, 
is  mostly  pastoral,  with  the  arable  lands  chiefly  in 
the  valleys.  The  highest  hill  is  Broad  Law,  which 
reaches  an  elevation  of  2754  feet  Within  the 
county,  the  Tweed  has  for  tributaries  the  small 
rivers  Eddleston,  Leithen,  Quair,  Manor,  and  L/ne, 
besides  many  mountain  rivulets.  P.  comprehend* 
sixteen  parishes,  but  several  being  ecclesiastically 
united,  the  number  of  parish  churches,  each  with 
a  settled  minister,  is  fourteen ;  the  number  of 
parish  schools  is  fifteen.  The  only  town  in  the 
county  is  Peebles,  an  ancient  royal  burgh,  pleasantly 
situated  on  a  peninsula  formed  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Eddleston  with  the  Tweed.  The  principal 
villages  are  Innerleithen,  Walker  Burn,  West  Linton, 
and  Carlops.  In  the  year  1871.  the  population  of  the 
county  was  12.330,  of  whom  3172  belonged  to  Peebles, 
which,  distant  22  miles  from  Edinburgh,  is  the  seat 
of  a  sheriff  and  county  administration.  It  is  also 
the  seat  of  a  presbytery.  Besides  the  parish  church, 
the  town  has  several  dissenting  places  of  worship, 
including  an  Episcopal  and  a  Roman  Catholic 
chapeL  It  likewise  possesses  some  good  schools, 
has  three  branch  banks,  and  a  number  of  inns.  As 
a  means  of  literary  and  social  improvement,  Mr  W. 
Chambers,  in  1859,  made  a  free  gift  to  this  his 
native  town  of  a  spacious  suite  of  buddings,  com- 
prising a  Reading-room,  a  Public  Library  consisting 
of  15,000  volumes,  a  Museum,  Gallery  of  Art,  and 
Hall  for  lectures  and  concerts — the  whole  being 
designated  the  Chambers'  Institution.  Long 
secluded  from  general  traffic,  P.  has  been  lately 
opened  up  by  radways  ;  and  the  woollen  manufac- 
ture has  made  considerable  progress  in  the  parish 
of  Innerleithen.  In  1872 — 1873,  the  valued  rental 
of  the  county,  town  included,  exclusive  of  railway 
property,  was  £110.450.  Peeblesshire  abounds  in  the 
remains  of  British  hill-forts,  border  towers,  and 
other  antiquities,  and  possesses  numerous  modern 
mansions  of  a  handsome  kind.  In  the  year  1864 
there  was  published  a  History  of  Peeblesshire,  by  W. 
Chambers,  1  vol.  8vo,  illustrated  with  maps  and  wood 
engravings ;  up  to  that  time,  the  only  account  of  the 
shire  had  been  a  Description  of  Tweeddale,  by  Dr 
Alexander  Pennecuik,  1715;  reissued  with  notes, 
1815. 

PEEL,  a  small  but  populous  and  thriving  sea- 
port towm  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Isle  of  Man.  It 
was  formerly  called  'Holm,'  and  was  a  place  of 
great  importance  in  the  island.  The  herring-fishery, 
the  building  of  vessels  of  small  tonnage,  and  the 
manufacture  of  nets,  are  here  carried  on  extensively, 
and  form  a  source  of  large  profits  to  the  inhabitants. 
The  bay  is  spacious,  and  abounds  with  fish  of 
excellent  quality. 

At  the  northern  extremity  of  this  bay  are  several 
grotesque  and  romantic  caverns.  The  southern 
extremity  is  formed  by  Peel  Island,  on  which  stand 
the  grand  old  ruins  of  Peel  Castle  and  St  German's 
Cathedral.  The  castle  was  formerly  the  frequent 
residence  of  the  Earls  of  Derby,  then  Lords  of  the 
Isle  of  Man,  and  is  expressly  named  in  the  original 
grant  of  Henry  TV.  to  the  Stanley  famdy.  Beneath 
the  cathedral  is  a  strong  subterranean  dungeon, 
where  many  noble  persons  were  in  former  days 
imprisoned,  including  Thomas,  Earl  of  Warwick, 
in  the  time  of  Richard  LL,  and  Elinor  Cobham, 
Duchess  of  Gloucester,  who  was  sentenced  to  per- 
petual imprisonment  in  it  in  the  year  1440,  and 
who  died  within  its  gloomy  recesses.    In  Sir  Walter 


PEEL. 


Scott's  Peveril  of  the  Peak,  constant  mention  is 
made  of  this  castle,  and  indeed  it  may  be  said  to 
be  the  scene  of  the  story.  The  ruins  are  yearly 
visited  and  admired  by  thousands  of  persons  from 
all  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  town  of  P. 
i3  now  rapidly  extending  its  boundaries,  and  bids 
fair  to  become  a  place  of  considerable  commercial 
importance.     Pop.  (1861)  2818;  (1871)3513. 

PEEL,  Sin  Robert,  a  very  eminent  British 
statesman,  was  born,  5th  February  1788,  near  Bury, 
in  Lancashire.  His  father,  Sir  Robert  Peel  (created 
a  baronet  in  1800),  was  a  wealthy  cotton-spinner, 
from  whom  he  inherited  a  great  fortune.  He  was 
educated  at  Harrow,  and  at  Christ- Church,  Oxford, 
where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1808— taking  a  double 
first-class— and  entered  the  House  of  Commons  in 
1809  as  member  for  Cashel,  adopting  the  strong  Tory 
politics  of  his  father.  Percival  was  then  prime- 
minister.  P.  set  quietly  about  the  business-work 
of  the  House,  feeling  his  way  with  that  steady 
prudence  and  persevering  diligence  that  were  the 
conspicuous  features  of  his  character.  In  1811,  he 
was  appointed  Under-secretary  for  the  Colonies  ; 
and  from  1812  to  1818,  he  held  the  office  of  Secre- 
tary for  Ireland.  In  this  capacity,  he  displayed 
a  strong  anti-Catholic  spirit  (whence  the  witty 
Irish  gave  him  the  nickname  of  '  Orange-Peel '), 
and  was  in  consequence  so  fiercely,  or,  shall  we  say, 
ferociously  attacked  by  O'Connell,  that  even  the 
cool  and  cautious  Secretary  was  driven  to  send  the 
agitator  a  challenge.  The  police,  however,  prevented 
the  duel  from  taking  place.  From  1818  till  1822, 
P.  remained  out  of  office,  but  not  out  of  parliament, 
where  he  sat  for  the  university  of  Oxford.  He 
now  began  to  acquire  a  reputation  as  a  financier 
and  economist;  and  in  1819,  was  appointed  chair- 
man of  the  Bank  Committee,  and  moved  the 
resolutions  which  led  to  the  resumption  of  cash- 
payments.  He  was  still,  however,  as  averse  as 
ever  to  anything  like  religious  or  political  reform. 
No  member  of  the  Liverpool-Castlereagh  cabinet 
could  have  been  to  appearance  more  resolute.  He 
even  vehemently  defended  the  infamous  'Peterloo 
Massacre'  of  1819.  In  1822,  he  re-entered  the 
ministry  as  Home  Secretary— Canning  shortly  after 
becoming  Foreign  Secretary,  on  the  suicide  of  Lord 
Castlereagh.  The  two  worked  together  pretty 
well  for  some  time,  as  P.  devoted  himself  chiefly  to 
financial  matters,  and  especially  to  the  currency; 
but '  Roman  Catholic  emancipation '  was  a  question 
on  which  Canning  was  considerably  in  advance  of 
his  brother- secretary ;  and  when  the  former  was 
called  upon  by  the  king,  after  the  resignation  of 
Lord  Liverpool,  to  form  a  sort  of  Whig- Tory 
ministry,  P.,  along  with  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
and  others,  withdrew  from  office.  Yet  it  is  singu- 
larly characteristic  of  this  most  honest  and  com- 
promising statesman,  that  even  when  he  seceded 
(1827),  his  opinions  were  veering  round  to  the 
liberal  and  generous  view  of  the  claims  of  Roman 
Catholics  ;  and  when  the  death  of  Canning,  shortly 
after,  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Wellington-Peel 
government,  its  great  measure — actually  introduced 
by  '  Orange-Peer  himself— was  the  ever-memorable 
one  for  the  '  relief '  of  the  Roman  Catholics  (1829). 
As  Home  Secretary,  he  also  signalised  himself  by 
a  re-organisation  of  the  London  police  force — since 
popularly  called  '  Peelers '  and  '  Bobbies,'  their 
previous  sobriquet  being  '  Charlies' — from  King 
Charles  I.,  who  (1640)  extended  and  improved  the 
police  system — and  by  the  introduction  of  several 
other  important  measures. 

Meanwhile,  the  university  of  Oxford  had  rejected 

its  apostate  representative,  and  chosen  in  his  stead 

Sir   Harry  Inglis.      But   now  came  on  the   great 

question  of  parliamentary  reform,  which  P.  firmly 

3S2 


but  temperately  opposed.    In  1S30,  the  Wellingtoh- 
Peel   ministry  fell,  and   was   succeeded    by   a  Whig 
ministry  under  Earl    Grey,  which,  in  18.32,  carried 
the   Reform   Bill.      P.  (now,   by    the   death   of   his 
father,  Sir    Robert   P.),  when    he   saw  that   reform 
was    inevitable,     accepted    defeat     and     its    results 
with    great    equanimity.       He     shrank    from    any- 
thing like  factious   opposition   to    the  measure,  and 
contented    himself    with   presenting    as    forcibly  as 
he    could   the    political    per-contra.      After   it  was 
passed,  he  became  the  leader  of  the  'Conservative' 
opposition;  and,  as  we  have  said,  accepting  reform 
itself   as   a  fait    accompli  and   irreversible,  he   only 
sought    by   keen    and   vigilant    criticism    of    Whig 
measures   to   retard  the    too   rapid  strides   of  liber- 
alism.     In  1833,  when  the  first  'reformed'  parlia- 
ment  assembled,   P.  took   his   seat   as    member'  for 
Tamworth,  which  he   represented    till   the   close  of 
his   life.      On    the    retirement    of    the    Melbourne- 
ministry  in  November,   1834,  he   accepted  the  office 
of  prime  minister,  but   could  not  succeed  in  giving 
stability  to    his   administration,  and   was   compelled 
again  to  give  place  to  Viscount  Melbourne  in  April, 
1835,  and  resumed  his  place  as  leader  of   the  oppo- 
sition.      P.'s    conduct    in    opposition    was    always 
eminently  patriotic.      The  Whigs,  who   were   being 
pressed   on  the   one   side  by  the   new  Radical  party 
and   the  Anti-corn  Law  League,  and   on   the   other 
by  O'Connell  and  the  Irish  Repealers,  gradually  lost 
ground,  and   being  narrowly   defeated   in    1841,  on 
a   motion   of   want   of  confidence,    dissolved   parlia- 
ment.      The    general     election    that    ensued     was 
virtually  a    contest    between    Free-trade    and   Pro- 
tection.      Protection    Avon ;     and    when     the     new 
parliament  met,  a  vote  of  no-confidence  was  carried 
by   a    majority   of    ninety-one.       The   Conservative 
party,  headed  by   P.,  now   came   into   office.      Tho 
great    feature     of    the    new    government    was    tho 
attitude  it  adopted  on  the  corn-law  question.     The 
Whigs,  while  in  office,   and  even  after  their  expul- 
sion,   were   bent  upon   a   fixed   but  moderate    duty 
on     foreign     corn;      the    Anti-corn     Law    League 
would   hear   of   nothing   short   of   an   entire   repeal,. 
while   Sir  Robert  was   in  favour  of   a  modification 
of    the    sliding   scale    of    duty  which    had   existed 
since  1828.      He  introduced   and  carried  (1842).  in 
spite  of   strong  opposition,    a  measure   based   upon 
this  principle.      The   deficit   in   the   revenue,  which 
had  become  quite  alarming  under  the  Melbourne 
administration,   next    engaged    his    attention,   and 
led  him  to  bring  in  a  bill  (1842)  for  the  imposi- 
tion of  an  'income-tax'  of  Id.  in  the   pound,  to 
be  levied  for  three  years.      To  alleviate  the  new 
.burden,  P.   commenced  a  revision   of  the  general 
tariff,  and  either  abolished  or  lowered  the  duties 
on  several  very  important    articles   of    commerce, 
such  as  drugs,  dye-woods,  cattle,  sheep,  pigs,  salted 
meat,   butter,   eggs,    cheese,    and    lard.      He  also 
shewed  himself  resolute  in  the  repression  of  the 
clamorous    and  anarchic   malcontents    of    Ireland. 
O'Connell    (q.  v.)    was    tried    for    conspiracy,   and 
though  the   judgment   against   him   was  set   aside 
on  appeal  to  the  House  of  Lords,  the  influence  of 
the  'agitator'  was  broken.     The  first  half  of  1845 
was  marked  by  the  allowance  to  Maynooth  being 
increased  and  changed  into  a  permanent   endow- 
ment   instead    of    an    annual    grant,    and   by  the 
foundation   of   the  Irish  unsectarian  colleges,  and 
other  important  measures.     But  the  potato-rot  in 
Ireland  during  the  autumn,  followed  by  a  frightful 
famine,    rendered    'cheap    corn'    a    necessity,    if 
millions    were    not   to    starve.      Cobden    and    the 
League    redoubled    their    exertions.       Lord    John 
Russell   announced  the  views  of  the  Whig   party 
on  the  crisis,  and  Peel  again  yielded.     He  told  his 
ministerial    colleagues    that    the    corn-laws    were 


PEEL-TOWER-PEG  ASUS. 


doomed,  and  that  their  repeal  was  inevitable.  Some 
of  them  refusing  to  go  along  with  him,  he  resigned; 
l>ut  after  a  few  days,  was  recalled,  and  resumed  office. 
Lord  Stanley  (afterwards  Earl  Derby)  seceded,  and 

with  Lord  George  Bentinck,  Mr  Disraeli,  &c, 
formed  a  4  no-surrender '  Tory  party ;  but  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,  Graham,  Aberdeen,  Gladstone, 
and  other  eminent  Conservatives,  stood  by  him, 
and  the  measure  for  the  repeal  was  carried.  He 
was,  however,  immediately  afterwards  defeated  on 
an  Irish  Protection  of  Life  Bill.  Not  so  much  upon 
tbJA  accocnt,  as  because  he  felt  that  the  course  wbich 
he  had  pursued  had  produced  a  dissolution  of  the 
eld  ties  of  party,  and  that  he  could  not  expect  for 
some  time  to  find  himself  at  the  head  of  a  strong 
government,  P.  retired  from  office  in  June  1846, 
giving  place  to  a  Whig  administration  under  Lord 
John  Kussell,  to  which  he  gave  an  independent 
but  general  support  as  the  leader  of  a  middle 
party  rather  Whig  than  Tory.  In  the  critical 
times  of  1847—1848,  he  was  one  of  the  most 
important  props  of  the  government,  whose  free-trade 
principles  he  had  now  completely  accepted.  His 
ecclesiastical  policy  had  also  undergone  a  remark- 
able change,  and  he  now  frankly  supported 
the  Whigs  in  the  efforts  to  carry  an  act  for 
the  repeal  of  the  Jewish  disabilities.  He  was 
himself  regarded  by  the  working  and  middle 
classes  generally  with  much  grateful  respect.  An 
unexpected  catastrophe  put  an  end  to  his  career. 
On  the  28th  of  June  1S50,  he  had  spoken  with  great 
eloquence  in  the  debate  on  Lord  Palmerston's  Greek 
policy  ;  but  on  the  following  day  was  thrown  from 
his  horse  in  Hyde  Park,  and  was  so  much  injured, 
that  he  died  ou  the  evening  of  the  2d  of  July.  — He 
left  rive  sons,  the  eldest  of  whom,  Sir  Robert  Peel, 
and  the  second,  Frederick,  are  both  members  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  have  adopted  generally  the 
later  or  Whig  politics  of  their  father. 

PEEL-TOWER  (W.  pill,  a  stake,  a  fortress; 
Lat.  pila,  a  stake,  pillar,  structure),  the  name  given 
to  the  towers  erected  on  the  Scottish  borders  for 
defence.  They  are  scpiare,  with  turrets  at  the 
angles,  and  the  door  is  sometimes  at  a  height  from 
the  ground.  The  lower  story  is  usually  vaulted, 
and  formed  a  stable  for  horses,  cattle,  &c.  For  an 
account  of  these  old  towers,  now  mostly  in  ruin,  see 
History  of  Peeblesshire,  by  W.  Chambers,  1S64. 

PEEPUL,  PIPUL,  or  PIPPUL  (Ficus  religiosa), 
also  known  as  the  Sacred  Fig  of  India,  and  in 
Ceylon  called  the  Bo  Tree  ;  a  species  of  Fig  (q.  v.), 
somewhat  resembling  the  Banyan,  but  the  branches 
not  rooting  like  those  of  that  tree,  and  the  leaves 
heart-shaped  with  long  attenuated  points.  The  tree 
is  held  sacred  by  the  Hindus,  because  Vishnu  is  said 
to  have  been  born  under  it.  It  is  generally  planted 
near  temples,  and  religious  devotees  spend  their 
lives  under  its  shade.  It  is  also  held  sacred  by  the 
Bitddhists.  It  attains  a  great  size  and  age.  A 
wonderfully  aged  tree  of  this  species  is  figured  in 
the  article  Bo  Trek  The  P.  is  often  planted  near 
houses,  and  by  the  sides  of  walks,  for  the  sake  of 
its  grateful  shade.  The  juice  contains  caoutchouc, 
and  is  used  by  women  as  bandoline.  Lac  insects 
feed  iipon  thi*  tree,  and  much  lac  is  obtained  from 
it.  The  fruit  is  not  much  larger  than  a  grape,  and 
although  eatable,  is  not  valued. 

PEER  (Fr.  pair;  Lat.  par,  equal),  a  general 
name  applied  to  the  titled  nobility  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  indicating  their  equality  of  rank.  The 
peerage  includes  the  various  degrees  of  Baron, 
Viscount,  Earl,  Marquis,  and  Duke.  The  peers  of 
England,  of  Great  Britain,  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  certain  representative  peers  of  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  together  with  certain  of  the  bishops  and 
335 


archbishops,  who  are  called  lords  spiritual,  consti- 
tute the  House  of  Lords.  The  dignity  of  the  peerage 
is  hereditary,  hut  m  early  times  was  territorial. 
Life  peexagea  seem  at  one  time  to  have  been  not 
unknown  in  England  ;  but  in  1S5G  Sir  James  Parke, 
having  been  created  by  Her  Majesty  Baron 
Wensleydale  'for  and  during  the  term  of  his  natural 
life,'  the  House  of  Lords,  on  the  report  of  a  Com- 
mittee of  Privileges,  held  that  lie  was  not  entitled  to 
sit  and  vote  in  parliament.  Ladies  may  be  peeresse* 
in  their  own  right  either  by  creation  or  by  inherit- 
ance. The  wives  of  peers  are  also  styled  peeresses. 
Under  the  articles  Nobility,  Parliament,  Duke, 
Marquis,  Earl,  Viscount,  and  Bakon,  will  be 
found  notices  of  each  order  of  peers,  and  of  the 
origin,  history,  and  privileges  of  the  peers  as  a  body. 

A  certain  limited  number  of  the  French  nobility 
were  styled  Peers  of  France. 

PEE  WIT.    See  Lapwing. 

PEG  ASS  E,  or  PACASSE  {Bos  pegams),  a  species 
of  ox,  a  native  of  the  interior  of  Western  Africa. 
The  head  is  short  and  thick,  the  forehead  wide ;  the 
horns  long,  extending  laterally  from  the  frontal 
ridge,  then  turning  downwards,  and  again  upwards  ; 
the  ears  very  large  and  pendidous ;  the  neck 
maned ;  the  tail  entirely  covered  with  long  hair ; 
the  legs  long.  Little  is  yet  known  of  this  eurioua 
species  of  a  most  important  tribe. 

PE'GASUS,  in  Greek  Mythology,  a  winged  horse 
which  arose  with  Chrysaor  from  the  blood  of  the 
Gorgon  Medusa,  when  she  was  slain  by  Perseus. 
He  is  said  to  have  received  his  name  because  he 
first  made  his  appearance  beside  the  springs  (pegai) 
of  Oceanus.  He  afterwards  ascended  to  heaven,  and 
was  believed  to  carry  the  thunder  and  lightning  of 
Zeus.  According  to  later  authors,  however,  he  was 
the  horse  of  Eos.  The  myth  concerning  P.  is  inter- 
woven with  that  of  the  victory  of  Bellerophon  over 
China  aera.  Bellerophon  had  in  vain  sought  to  catch 
P.  for  his  combat  with  this  monster,  but  was  advised 
by  the  seer  Polyidos  of  Corinth  to  sleep  in  the 
temple  of  Minerva,  and  the  goddess  appearing  to 
him  in  his  sleep,  gave  him  a  golden  bridle  and 
certain  instructions,  upon  which  he  acted,  and  made 
use  of  P.  in  his  combat  with  the  Chimaera,  the 
Amazons,  and  the  Solymi.  P.  is  also  spoken  of  in 
modern  times  as  the  horse  of  the  Muses,  which, 
however,  he  was  not.  The  ancient  legend  on  this 
subject  is,  that  the  nine  Muses  and  the  nine 
daughters  of  Pieros  engaged  in  a  competition  in 
singing  by  Helicon,  and  everything  was  motionless 
to  hear  their  song,  save  Helicon,  which  rose  ever 
higher  and  higher  in  its  delight,  when  P.  put  a  stop 
to°this  with  a  kick  of  his  hoof,  and  from  the  print 
arose  Hippocrene,  the  inspiring  spring  of  the  Muses. 
But  that  P.  is  the  horse  of  the  Muses,  is  entirely 
a  modern  idea,  being  first  found  in  the  Orlando 
Innamorato  of  Boiardo. 

PEGASUS,  a  genus  of  fishes,  constituting  the 


Sea  Dragon  {Pegasus  draco). 

family  Pegasid<t>,  related  to  the  group  Isiphohranrfm 
(q.  v.).    The  species  are  few;  they  are  small  tishe>.  na- 
tives of  the  Indian  seas,  interesting  from  their  peculiar 
'  353 


PEGS— PEINE  FORTE  ET  DURE. 


form  and  appearance.  The  breast  is  greatly  expand- 
ed, much  broader  than  Ugh,  tlie  gill-openings  in  the 
sides ;  the  pectoral  hns  are  extremely  large  and 
Btrong ;  a  long  snout  projects  before  the  eyes,  and 
the  mouth  is  situated  under  and  at  the  base  of  it ; 
the  body  is  surrounded  by  three  knobbed  or  spinous 
rings.  One  species  (P.  draco)  is  called  the  Sea 
Dragon,  another  (P.  volans)  is  popularly  known  as 
the  Pegasus. 

PEGS.  Small  square  pointed  pegs  of  wood  have 
of  late  years  been  introduced  by  the  Americans 
into  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes,  for  the 
purpose  of  connecting  the  parts  of  the  sole 
and  upper  leather  together  without  sewing.  See 
Shoemaking.  This  invention  has  been  so  exten- 
sively adopted,  that  the  manufacture  of  wooden 
pegs,  for  this  purpose,  has  become  an  important 
trade  in  America  and  Bohemia,  from  which  countries 
a  considerable  importation  is  made  to  Great  Britain. 
They  are  chiefly  made  of  maple-wood,  and  are  rarely 
more  than  an  inch  in  length. 

PEGU',  a  province  of  British  Burmah,  lies  between 
the  parallels  of  15°  14'— 19°  27'  N.  lat.,  and  the 
meridians  of  94°  13' — 96°  52'  E.  long.,  and  is 
divided  for  fiscal  purposes  into  the  following 
districts  or  provinces  : 


Rarjrnnn, 
Bassein, 
Myanoung, 
Promp, 
Thayet,  . 


Area  in 
Square  Miles. 

6£00 
.       8954 

4150 
.      C225 

3275 


Total, 


28,404 


373.M78 
316.833 
4-14.750 
257,157 
132,604 

1,524,422 


!)f  this  number  of  inhabitants,  about  800,000  are 
.rue  Bun-nans;  but  in  addition  to  these,  there  is  a 
sprinkling  of  Karens,  who  live  in  the  wild  and  hilly 
districts,  Taleins  or  Peguers,  Shans,  Tounpthoos, 
Khyengs,  Yabaings,  Indians,  Chinese,  and  a  few  other 
races.* 

The  principal  river  of  P.  is  the  Irrawadi  (q.  v.). 
In  March,  the  river  begins  to  rise,  and  gradually 
increases  in  volume  till  its  waters  are  forty  feet 
above  their  lowest  leveL  They  rapidly  subside  in 
October,  when  the  rains  cease,  and  the  north-east 
monsoon  sets  in.  The  revenue  of  P.  for  the  year 
1862—1863  was  5,653,316  rupees  ;  though,  under 
the  rule  of  the  king  of  Burmah,  it  did  not  amount 
to  half  that  sum.  P.  was  annexed  to  British  India 
at  the  close  of  the  Burman  war  of  1852,  since 
which  time  slavery  has  ceased  to  exist,  schools 
.have  been  established,  and  various  public  works 
undertaken. 

Rice  and  teak  timber  are  the  principal  exports. 
A  flotilla  of  steamers  keep  up  the  communication 
between  Rangoon  (q.  v.),  the  principal  port,  and  the 
chief  stations  on  the  Irrawadi,  conveying  troops, 
stores,  passengers,  and  mails  from  place  to  place. — 
Winter's  Six  Months  in  Britinh  Burmah  (Lond. 
1858)  ;  Martin's  British  India  (Lond.  1862). 

PEHLEVI  (Valour,  Power;  Zabdn  Pehlevi  = 
Language  of  Heroes)  is  the  name  of  an  ancient 
West- Iranian  (Mediau  and  Persian)  idiom,  in  use 

*  Lieutenant-colonel  A.  P.    Phayre,   chief  commissioner  of 
British  Burmah,  in  his  report  for  1863  (Eangoon,  1863)  states 
the  population  of  Pegu  as  follows  : 
Racei. 

1.  Europeans  and  their  descendants,          .        .  2,409 

2.  Burmese,  including  Aracanese  and  Talaings,    .  924,091 

3.  Karens 24. i, 518 

4.  Shans  and  Toungthoos 24.689 

5.  Chinese,    ........  1.724 

6.  Khyengs 18.879 

7.  Indians 11,844 

8.  Mohammedans  of  Burmah 2,089 

8.  All  racts  not  included  above,          .       .       .  9,142 


554 


Total, 


1,244,385 


chiefly  during  the  period  of  the  Sassanides  (235— 
640  a.  d.),  wiio,  wishing  fully  to  restore  the  ancient 
Persian  empire,  endeavoured  also  to  reinstate  the 
primitive  national  language,  fallen  into  disuse  as  a 
court-language  since  the  time  of  Alexander's  con- 
quest. Yet  they  did  not  fix  upon  the  pure  Persian 
as  it  was  still  spoken  in  the  interior,  but  upon  the 
dialect  of  the  western  provinces,  largely  mixed  with 
Semitic  words,  to  which  Aryan  terminations  were 
affixed.  The  grammatical  structure  of  the  P. 
presents  almost  the  same  poverty  of  inflections  and 
terminations  as  the  present  Persian.  Although,  how- 
ever, less  rich  than  Zend  (q.  v.)  in  inflection  and 
accentuation,  it  yet  boasts  of  the  same  copiousness 
of  words  as  that  dialect,  to  which  it  in  reality 
succeeded.  It  is  written  from  right  to  left,  and  the 
letters  are  mostly  joined.  The  remnants  of  P.  extant 
consist  of  coins,  inscriptions  (found  at  Hajiabad, 
Persepolis,  Kirmanshah,  &c),  and  a  number  of  books, 
all  relating  to  the  religion  of  Zoroaster.  The  most 
important  of  these  are  the  translation  of  the  chief 
part  of  the  Zend-Avesta  (Yazna,  Visparad,  and 
Vendidiid),  and  such  original  religious  works  as  the 
Bundehesh,  Shikandgumani,  Dinkart,  Atash  Baram, 
&c.  The  P.  of  the  books  differs  from  that  of  the 
inscriptions  and  coins  to  such  a  degree — accord- 
ing to  the  larger  or  smaller  preponderance  of 
the  Semitic  element — as  to  have  misled  investig- 
ators (Westergaard  and  others)  to  assume  that  two 
utterly  distinct  languages,  a  purely  Iranic  and  a 
Semitic  one,  had  been  used  somewhat  indiscrimin- 
ately at  the  time.  The  non-Iranian  element  is 
called  Huzvaresh  (Huzooresh)  by  the  Parsee  priests, 
who,  taking  advantage  of  the  ambiguity  of  the  P. 
alphabet,  often  substitute  the  corresponding  Persian 
for  the  foreign  words.  The  Iranian  part  of  the 
P.  differs  little  from  the  Persian  of  our  own 
day,  and,  in  fact,  the  P.  changed  first  into  Par- 
see,  and  subsequently  into  modern  Persian,  simply 
by  getting  rid  first  of  its  Chaldee,  and  then  of  those 
of  its  Iranian  words  which  had  become  obsolete. 
The  chief  use  of  the  P.  dialect  at  present  is  the 
assistance  it  offers  towards  the  elucidation  of  the 
Zend  itself.  For  the  history  of  its  investigation 
since  it  was  first  made  known  in  Europe,  we  refer 
to  Persian  Language  and  Literature. 

PEI-HO',  a  river  of  China,  which,  rising  on  the 
confines  of  Tartary,  traverses  the  northern  part  of 
the  province  of  Chih-le  (q.  v.)  or  Pe-chih-le,  and  falls 
into  the  Gulf  of  Pe-chih-le,  in  about  38°  30'  N.  lat. 

The  attack  on  the  escort  of  the  British  and 
French  ambassadors,  whilst  ascending  the  Pei-ho  to 
Pekin  (June  1S59),  led  to  the  war  with  China  of 
1860.     See  China. 

PEINE  FORTE  ET  DURE,  the  'strong  and 
hard  pain  ; '  a  species  of  torture  formerly  applied  by 
the  law  of  England  to  those  who,  on  being  arraigned 
for  felony,  refused  to  plead,  and  stood  mute,  or  who 
peremptorily  challenged  more  than  twenty  jurors, 
which  was  considered  a  contumacy  equivalent  to 
standing  mute.  In  the  beginning  of  the  13th  c, 
this  penalty  seems  to  have  consisted  merely  in  a 
severe  imprisonment  with  low  diet,  persisted  in  till 
the  contumacy  was  overcome.  But  by  the  reign  o{ 
Henry  IV.,  it  had  become  the  practice  to  load  the 
offender  with  weights,  and  thus  press  him  to  death, 
and  till  nearly  the  middle  of  the  18th  c,  pressing 
to  death  was  the  regular  and  lawful  mode  of 
punishing  persons  who  stood  mute  on  their  arraign- 
ment for  felony.  The  motive  which  induced  an 
accused  party,  in  any  case,  to  submit  to  this  penalty 
rather  than  to  plead,  was  probably  to  escape  the 
attainder  which  would  have  resulted  from  a  con- 
viction for  felony.  During  the  15th,  16th,  17th, 
and  even  the  18th  c,  various  cases  are  recorded 


J'KI  PUS-PEISISTRATOS. 


of  the  infliction  of  the  punishment  in  question. 
Latterly,  a  practice  prevailed  which  had  no  sanction 
from  the  iaw,  of  lirst  trying  the  effect  of  tying  the 
thumbs  tightly  together  with  whipcord,  that  the 
pain  might  induce  the.  offender  to  plead.  Among 
instances  of  the  infliction  of  the  peine  forte  <-t  dure, 
are  the  following:  Juliana  Quick,  in  1442,  charged 
with  high  treason  in  speaking  contemptuously  of 
Henry  VI.,  was  pressed  to  death.  Anthony  Arrow- 
6111. th,  in  1598,  was  pressed  to  death  (Surtees' 
History  of  Durham,  vol.  :i,  n.  271).  Walter  Calverly 
of  Calverly,  in  Yorkshire,  arraigned  at  the  York 
assizes  in  1605,  for  murdering  his  two  children  and 
stabbing  his  wife,  was  pressed  to  death  in  the  castle 
by  a  large  iron  weight  placed  on  his  breast  (Stows 
Chronicle).  Major  Strangways  Buffered  death  in  a 
similar  way  in  Newgate  in  1057,  for  refusing  to 
plead  when  charged  with  the  murder  of  his  brother- 
in-law,  Mr  Fussed.  In  1720,  a  person  of  the  name 
of  Phillips  was  pressed  in  Newgate  for  a  consider- 
able time,  till  he  was  released  on  his  submission  ;  and 
the  same  is  recorded  in  the  following  year  of  one 
Nathaniel  Hawes,  who  lay  under  a  weight  of  250  lbs. 
for  seven  minutes.  As  late  as  17-11,  a  person  is  said  to 
have  been  pressed  to  death  at  the  Cambridge  assL  es, 
the  tying  of  his  thumbs  having  been  first  tried 
without  effect. 

The  statute  12  Geo.  III.  c.  20  virtually  abolished 
the  peine  furte  et  dure,  by  enacting  that  any  person 
who  shall  stand  mute  when  arraigned  for  felony  or 
piracy  shall  be  convicted,  and  have  the  same  judg- 
ment and  execution  awarded  against  him  as  if  he 
had  been  convicted  by  verdict  or  confession. 

PEI'PUS,  Lake,  in  the  north-west  of  Russia,  is 
surrounded  by  the  government  of  St  Petersburg, 
and  the  provinces  of  Esthonia  and  Livonia.  On  the 
south-east  it  is  connected  with  Lake  Pskoff  by  a 
strait  16  miles  iu  length  and  from  14  to  44  miles 
broad  The  length  of  both  lakes  is  87  miles,  the 
greatest  breadth  about  40,  and  the  depth  from  14  to 
49  feet.  Lake  Pskoff  receives  the  waters  of  the 
river  Velekaia,  and  Lake  P.  is  supplied  by  Lake 
Pskoff,  and  by  the  Embach  from  the  west,  and  other 
rivers.  The  waters  of  the  lower  lake  are  carried  to 
the  Gulf  of  Finland  by  the  Narova.  The  lakes  are 
studded  with  several  picturesque  islands,  and 
surrouuded  with  banks  which  are  for  the  most  part 
marshy  and  abound  in  fish,  the  taking  of  which 
gives  employment  to  many. 

PEISI'STRATOS  (Lat.  Pisistratus),  a  famous 
•  tyrant '  of  Athens,  belonged  to  a  family  of  Attica, 
which  claimed  descent  from  Pylian  Nestor,  and  was 
born  towards  the  close  of  the  7th  c.  B.  c. — certainly 
not  later  than  612.  His  father's  name  was  Hip- 
pocrates, and  through  his  mother  he  was  pretty 
closely  related  to  the  great  lawgiver,  Solon,  between 
whom  and  P.  a  very  intimate  friendship  long 
existed  He  received  an  excellent  education ;  and 
the  charm  of  his  manners,  as  well  as  the  generosity 
of  his  spirit  was  so  great  that  (according  to  Solon) 
had  he  not  been  ambitious,  he  woidd  have  been  the 
best  of  Athenians ;  but  his  passion  for  the  exercise 
of  sovereign  power  led  him  to  adopt  a  policy  of 
artifice  and  dissimulation,  for  the  purpose  of 
attaining  his  ends,  which  prevents  us  from  regarding 
him  with  the  admiration  that  the  beneficent  char- 
acter of  his  government  might  seem  to  demand. 
At  first,  P.  co-operated  with  his  kinsman  Solon, 
and  in  the  war  against  the  Megarians,  acquired 
considerable  mditary  distinction  ;  but  afterwards, 
when  probably  his  ambitious  views  had  become 
more  matured,  he  came  forward  as  the  leader 
of  one  of  the  three  parties  into  which  Attica  was 
then  divided.  These  were,  the  Pediai  (party  of 
the  Plain),  or  the  landed  proprietors;   the  Par  all 


(party  of  the  Seaboard),  or  wealthy  merchant 
cusses;  and  the  Diacrii  (party  of  the  Highlands), 
chiefly  a  labouring  population,  jealous  of  the  rich, 
and  eager  for  equality  of  political  privileges.      It 

was  to  the  last  of  these  that  1*.  attached  himself; 
but  indeed  lie  assiduously  cultivated  the  good-will 
of  all  the  poorer  citizens,  to  whom  he  shewed  him- 
self a  most  liberal  benefactor.  At  last  1*.  took  a 
decided  step.  Driving  into  the  market-pl 
Athens  one  day,  and  exhibit  in-  certain  self-inflicted 
wounds,  he  called  upon  the  people  to  protect  him 
against  his  and  their  enemies,  alleging  that  he  had 
been  attacked  on  account  of  his  patriotism.  Solon, 
who  was  present,  accused  him  of  hypocrisy  ;  but 
the  crowd  were,  according  to  Plutarch,  ready  to 
take  up  arms  for  their  favourite  ;  and  a  general 
assembly  of  the  citizens  being  summoned,  Ariston, 
one  of  P.'s  partisans,  proposed  to  allow  him  a 
body-guard  of  fifty  men.  The  measure  was  carried 
in  spite  of  the  strenuous  opposition  of  Solon.  Gra- 
dually P.  increased  the  number,  and  in  560  B.C., 
when  he  felt  himself  strong  enough,  seized  the 
Akropolis.  The  citizens,  in  general,  seem  to 
have  tacitly  sanctioned  this  high-handed  act. 
They  were  sick  of  the  anarchic  broils  of  the 
different  factions,  and  probably  glad  to  see  their 
champion  and  favourite  usurp  supreme  authority. 
Megakles  and  the  Alkmreonids — the  heads  of  the 
rich  aristocratic  party — immediately  fled  from  the 
city.  Solon,  who  loved  neither  oligarchic  arrogance 
nor  military  despotism,  but  was  a  thorough  consti- 
tutionalist, tried,  but  in  vain,  to  rouse  the  Atheni- 
ans against  Peisistratos.  P.,  who  was  not  at  all 
vindictive  in  his  disposition,  did  not  attempt  to 
molest  Solon ;  he  even  maintained  the  legislation 
of  the  latter  almost  intact,  and  distinguished  him- 
self chiefly  by  the  vigour  of  his  administration. 
P.  himself  did  not  enjoy  his  first  'tyranny'  long. 
The  Pedicel  and  the  Parall  rallied  under  Lykurgos 
and  Megakles,  united  their  forces,  and  overthrew 
the  usurper,  who  was  forced  to  go  into  exile.  But 
the  coalition  of  the  two  factions  was  soon  broken 
up.  Megakles  hereupon  made  overtures  to  P., 
inviting  him  to  resume  his  tyranny,  which  he  did, 
but  a  family  quarrel  with  Megakles  induced  the 
latter  to  again  ally  himself  with  Lykurgos,  and  P. 
was  driven  from  Attica.  He  retired  to  Euboea, 
where  he  remained  for  ten  years,  ever  keeping  an 
eye,  however,  on  Athens,  and  making  preparations 
for  a  forcible  return.  How  he  managed  to  acquire 
so  much  influence  while  only  a  banished  man,  is 
difficult  to  ascertain ;  but  certain  it  is  that  many 
Greek  cities,  particularly  Thebes  and  Argos,  placed 
the  greatest  confidence  in  him,  and  finally  supplied 
him  abundantly  with  money  and  troops.  P.  at 
length  sailed  from  Euboea,  landed  in  Attica  at 
Marathon,  and  marched  on  the  capital.  His  par- 
tisans hurried  to  swell  his  ranks.  At  Pallene, 
he  encountered  his  opponents,  and  con  pletely 
defeated  them,  but  used  his  victory  with  admir- 
able moderation.  When  he  entered  the  city, 
no  further  resistance  was  made,  and  he  resumed  the 
sovereignty  at  once.  The  date  of  this  event,  as  of 
most  others  in  the  life  of  P.,  is  very  uncei  tain  ; 
perhaps  we  shall  not  err  far  if  we  place  it  about  543 
B.C.  He  lived  for  sixteen  years  afterwards  iu  un- 
disturbed* possession  of  power,  dying  527  B.C.,  and 
transmitting  his  supremacy  to  his  sons,  Hippias  and 
Hipparchus,  known  as  the  Peviistratidce.  His  rule 
was  mild  and  beneficent.  Although  the  pre  cau- 
tionary measures  that  he  adopted  to  establish  his 
authority  involved  at  first  a  certain  resolute  and 
stringent  policy  (e.  g.,  the  seizure  of  the  children  of 
his  leading  opponents,  and  the  detaining  them  as 
hostages) ;  yet  no  sooner  had  he  placed  himself  out  of 
danger,  than  he  began  to  display  that  wonderfultact, 

355 


PEKAN— PEKIN. 


moderation,  kindliness,  and  sympathetic  appreciation 
of  the  wishes  of  the  Athenians,  that  have  won  him 
the  praise  and  esteem  of  all  later  ages,  in  spite  of 
his  usurpation.  He  firmly,  but  not  harshly,  enforced 
obedience  to  the  laws  of  Solon  ;  emptied  the  city  of 
its  poorest  citizens,  and  made  them  agriculturists, 
supplying  such  as  had  no  resources  with  cattle  and 
seed;  secured  provision  for  old  and  disabled  sol- 
diers ;  bestowed  great  care  on  the  celebration  of 
the  religious  festivals  of  the  Atticans,  and  even 
introduced  some  important  changes ;  encouraged 
literature  more  than  any  Athenian  had  ever  done 
before — it  is  to  P.,  or  to  the  poets,  scholars,  and 
priests  about  him,  that  we  owe,  for  example,  the 
first  complete  edition  of  Homer  (q.  v.)  ;  and,  like 
his  still  more  brdliant  successor  in  the  following 
century,  Perikles,  he  adorned  Athens  with  many 
beautiful  buildings,  such  as  the  Lyceum,  a  temple 
to  the  Pythian  Apollo,  another  to  Olympian  Zeus,  &c. 

PEKAN,  or  WOOD-SHOCK  (Maries  Canadensis), 
a  species  of  Marten  (q.  v.),  very  nearly  allied  to  the 
sable,  a  native  of  the  northern  parts  of  North 
America.  It  is  twice  the  size  of  the  pine  marten, 
and  is  generally  of  a  grayish  brown  colour  ;  the  legs, 
tail,  and  back  of  the  neck  marked  with  darker 
brown.  The  fur,  although  not  so  valuable  as  sable, 
nor  even  as  that  of  the  pine  marten,  is  useful,  and 
large  quantities  are  sent  to  the  market.  The  P. 
lives  in  burrows,  which  it  excavates  in  the  banks 
of  rivers;  and  feeds  chiefly  on  fish  and  other  aquatic 
animals. 

PEKI'N,  or  PE-KI'NG  (i.  e.,  Northern  Capital), 
the  capital  of  the  Chinese  empire  since  1408  a.  d..  is 
situated  in  lat.  39°  54'  13"  N.,  and  long.  116°  28'  54" 
E.,  in  the  northern  province  of  Chih-le,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  nearly  100  miles  from  the  sea,  and  about 
60  miles  from  the  great  Chinese  Wall.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  city  is  estimated  at  about  2,000,000; 
the  entire  area,  in  which  is  included  much  vacant 
space,  at  27  square  miles,  and  the  circuit  of  the 
walls  is  said  to  be  about  25  miles.  These  walls 
are  made  of  earth,  with  an  outer  casing  of  brick, 
having  embrasures  for  musketry  or  ordnance  every 
50  feet ;  their  height  is  about  40  feet ;  thickness 
at  the  base  about  30  feet,  and  at  the  top  12 
feet,  which  is  paved  with  stone,  and  where  horse- 
men can  ascend  by  a  ramp  or  sloping  way.  At 
intervals  of  60  yards  are  square  towers,  projecting 
outwards  from  the  walls  50  or  60  feet.  The  gates 
which  give  access  to  the  city  from  the  surrounding 
country  are  16  in  number,  nine  of  which  belong 
to  the  Northern  or  Tartar  City,  and  seven  to  the 
Southern  or  Chinese  City.  Over  each  gate  is  a 
watch-tower  nine  stories  in  height,  and  loopholed 
for  cannon. 

The  city  of  P.  is  divided  into  two  parts,  separated 
by  a  wall  with  three  gates.  These  two  sections 
form  respectively  the  Northern,  Interior,  or  Tartar 
City,  called  Nei-tching ;  and  the  Southern,  Exterior, 
or  Chinese  City,  called  Wai-tchmg* 

I  Nei-tching,  or  the  Northern  City,  has  three 
distinct  divisions  or  enclosures — viz.,  the  Prohibited 
City,  the  Hwang-Ching,  or  Imperial  City,  and  the 
General  City.     The  first  of  these — the  innermost  or 

*  Northern  City  and  Southern  City  are  the  most 
correct  terms.  The  latter  was  added  to  the  more 
ancient  Northern  City,  and  was  originally  designed 
to  encircle  it ;  hence  it  was  called  the  Exterior  City,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  Northern  or  Interior  City.  It 
was  also  intended  to  reserve  the  Northern  City  for  the 
Tartars,  and  the  Southern  City  for  the  Chinese,  as  the 
names  still  imply ;  but  in  point  of  fact,  the  Tartar 
City  contains  as  many  Chinese  as  Tartars ;  and  it  is 
not  surrounded  by  the  so-called  Chinese  City,  which 
latter  has  only  been  added  on  the  south  side. 


central  block — is  surrounded  by  a  yellow  wall  about 
two  miles  in  circumference,  which  shuts  in  the 
palaces,  pleasure-grounds,  and  temples  of  the  sacred 
city.  Here  live  the  emperor  and  his  family,  the 
ladies  of  the  court,  and  the  attendant  eunuchs. 
' Keen-tsing-Kung,'  or  'the  Tranquil  Palace  of 
Heaven,'  the  emperor's  private  palace,  is  the  most 
magnificent  of  the  royal  residences.  Other  notable 
buildings  of  the  prohibited  city  are  'Fung-seen- 
teen,'  the  Temple  of  Imperial  Ancestors ;  Ching- 
hwang-meaou,  the  Temple  of  the  Guardian  Deity  of 
the  city;  Nan-heun-teen,  the  Hall  of  Portiaits  of 
the  Chinese  emperors  and  sages  ;  and  Wan-yuen  Ko, 
the  Imperial  Library.  The  Imperial  City  is  built 
around  this  central  block,  and  contains  the  palaces 
of  the  princes,  temples,  some  of  the  government 
offices,  and  spacious  pleasure-grounds.  From  Woi,- 
ying-teen,  the  Imperial  Printing-office,  the  Imperial, 
or  Pe-king  Gazette  is  issued  daily  for  all  govern- 
ment officials  throughout  the  empire.  This  ia 
the  only  publication  in  China  approaching  to  a 
newspaper,  and  is  named  King  Paou,  or  '  Groat 
Report.'  It  is  not  merely  a  report  for  official 
information,  but  forms  the  basis  of  the  national 
annals,  and  is  compiled  from  the  daily  records  of 
the  Supreme  Conned.  Besides  the  daily  edition, 
there  is  one  published  every  two  days,  which  is 
sold  to  the  public,  and  from  which  are  withheld 
decrees  and  reports  of  a  secret  character.  The 
journal  itself  is  a  miserable  production  even  for 
China,  and  consists  of  from  15  to  20  pages,  "not 
so  large  as  common  note-paper.  The  General 
City — the  third  division  or  enclosure — lies  between 
the  Imperial  City  and  the  outside  walls ;  it  is  more 
densely  populated  than  either  of  the  preceding  divi- 
sions, and  contains  the  most  important  of  the  public 
offices,  including  the  six  supreme  tribunals  or 
boards;  the  Le-fan-yuen,  or  the  Office  of  Foreign 
Affairs ;  Too-cha-yuen,  or  the  Imperial  Censorate,  &c, ; 
Han-lin-yuen,  or  the  Grand  National  College;  the 
Great  Medical  College;  the  Observatory ;  the  Police- 
office  ;  and  the  British,  French,  and  Austrian  lega- 
tions, which  are  close  to  the  south  wall.  The 
British  minister  resides  in  the  Leang-kung-foo,  or 
the  Palace  of  Leang,  a  gorgeous  building,  consisting 
of  four  or  five  large  halls,  and  covering  many  acres 
of  land.  The  principal  streets  of  the  general  city 
— from  140  to  200  feet  wide  and  unpaved — are  con- 
tinuous lines  of  shops  painted  red,  blue,  and  green, 
decorated  with  staring  signs  and  resplendent  with 
Chinese  characters  highly  gilt.  By  day  and  by 
night,  by  the  light  of  the  sun,  or  by  the  illumination 
of  torches  and  paper  lanterns,  the  roar  of  these  great 
thoroughfares  is  incessant ;  shopkeepers,  pedlars, 
mountebanks,  quack-doctors,  passengers  on  foot  or 
on  horseback,  each  and  all  contributing  to  the 
general  hubbub.  The  minor  streets  and  lanes,  where 
the  houses  of  the  populace  are  mingled  with  public 
offices,  temples,  stores,  and  manufactories,  are  by  no 
means  pleasant  places,  their  general  characteristics 
being  an  '  insupportable  odour,'  and  one-storied 
brick  houses  with  roofs  of  a  gray  colour.  There  is 
'  Fetid  Hide  Street,'  'Dog's-tooth  Street,'  'Dog's-tail 
Street,'  'Barbarian  Street,'  and  many  others  with 
names  equally  uninviting. 

2.  Wai-tching,  or  the  Southern  City,  is  the 
second  great  division  of  Pekin.  It  measures 
about  four  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  two  miles, 
or  less,  from  north  to  south ;  but  a  great  portion 
of  the  enclosed  space  is  laid  out  in  parks  and 
gardens.  Teen-Tan,  or  the  Temple  to  Heaven,  and 
Tec-Tan,  or  the  Temple  to  Earth,  with  their  grounds, 
occupy  a  considerable  space ;  the  theatres  and 
places  of  public  amusement  arc  likewise  situated 
in  the  Southern  or  Chinese  City.  Robert  Fortune, 
who  has  lately  visited  P.,  describes  its  most  peculiar 


PEKIN-PELAGIANISM. 


and  striking  features  as  follows  :  '  As  an  eastern 
city,  it  is  remarkable  fox  its  great  size,  and  for  its 
high   massive  walls,  ramparts,  and  watch-towen. 

Its  straight  and  wiile  streets  are  different  from 
those  of  any  other  Chinese  town  whieh  has  come 
under  my  observation.  Its  imperial  palaces,  summer- 
houses,  and  temples,  with  their  quaint  rooffl  and 
yellow  tiles,  are  very  striking  objects  ;  and  the 
number  of  private  dwellings  situated  amongst  trees 
and  gardens,  surrounded  with  high  walls,  give  a 
country  or  park-like  appearance  to  the  great  city. 
The  trees  and  gardens  of  the  palace,  with  King- 
shan,  or  Prospect  Hill,  are  objects  of  considerable 
interest,  as  is  also  Lama  Mosque,  suggesting  as  it 
does  some  connection,  iu  times  long  gone  by,  with 
Tibet  or  India.' 

Outside  the  city,  there  are  unwalled  suburbs,  as 
about  every  walled  town  in  China.  These  are  of 
considerable  extent,  but  straggling,  and  consist 
principally  of  an  agricultural  population,  the  land 
being  everywhere  in  a  state  of  cultivation,  producing 
chiefly  maize  and  millet,  a3  it  is  not  so  suitable  for 
the  staple  products  of  rice  and  wheat.  The  land 
is  badly  watered,  but  well  timbered,  which  gives  a 
pleasing  aspect  to  the  landscape  ;  and  when  viewed 
towards  the  range  of  mountains  extending  from  the 
west  of  P.  to  the  north-east,  presents  a  pictm-esque 
panorama.  It  is  in  the  former  direction,  towards 
the  north,  that  the  famous  Yuen-ming-yuen  palaces 
are  situated,  which  were  sacked  and  destroyed  by 
the  allies  in  October  18G0.  These  were  30  in 
number,  surrounded  by  every  variety  of  hill  and  dale, 
woodland  and  lawn,  interspersed  with  canals,  pools, 
rivulets,  and  lakes,  with  numerous  temples  and 
pagodas  containing  statues  of  men  and  gods  in  gold, 
silver,  and  bronze.  Here  had  been  heaped  up  for 
centuries  all  the  movable  riches  and  presents  of  the 
emperors  of  China,  amongst  which'  were  found 
many  sent  by  the  English  embassies.  At  the 
approach  of  the  allies,  Hien-fung  fled  in  haste  ;  and 
when  Lord  Elgin  learned  that  it  was  in  those 
grounds  that  the  British  and  French  prisoners, 
captured  by  treachery,  had  been  tortured,  he  gave 
the  order  to  sack  and  destroy  this  favourite  resi- 
dence of  the  emperor's,  'as  it  could  not  fail  to  be  a 
blow  to  his  pride  as  well  as  his  feelings  ;  and  it 
became  a  solemn  act  of  retribution.'  The  palaces 
were  cleared  of  every  valuable,  and  their  walls 
destroyed  by  fire  and  sword  ;  while  the  fugitive 
monarch  died  at  his  stronghold,  ZehoL  among  the 
Tartarian  Alps. 

P.  has  thus  been  rendered  memorable  by  this 
march  of  the  British  and  French  forces  (18G0)  to 
the  walls  of  the  city,  on  which  the  British  and 
French  fines  were  raised.  The  provisions  of  the 
treaty  of  Tien-tsin  (1858,  see  China)  were  subse- 
quently ratified  and  supplemented  by  the  Convention 
of  /*.,  which  was  signed  in  the  English  and  French 
languages  at  P.,  October  24,  1860.  The  following 
is  an  abstract  of  this  important  document.  By 
Article  4,  it  is  agreed  that  on  the  day  on  which 
this  convention  is  signed,  the  port  of  Tien-tsin 
shall  be  opened  to  trade,  and  British  subjects 
shall  reside  and  trade  there  under  the  same  con- 
ditions as  tt  any  other  port  of  China  by  treaty 
open  to  trade.  Article  5  confers  full  liberty  on 
the  Chinese  to  emigrate,  together  with  their 
families,  to  British  colonies  or  other  foreign  parts. 
Article  6  cedes  to  Her  Majesty  the  Queen  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  to  her  heirs,  the 
township  of  O>wloon,  in  the  province  of  Kwang-  ■ 
tung,  as  a  dependency  of  Her  Britannic  Majesty's ' 
roiony  of  Honp-kong,  with  a  view  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  law  and  order  in  and  about  the  harbour 
of  Ilong-kong.  But  the  most  important  article  of 
this  Convention  is  that  which  allows    the   residence 


of  a  British  envoy  at  1'.,  a  privilege  whieh  was  alone 
accorded  in  Russia.  In  1867  Anson  Burluigame  was 
appointed  in  Pekin  the  first  ambassador  from  China 
to  the  United  States.  <>,,  July  4,  1868.  a  treaty  was 
concluded  at  Washington  between  the  I'.  States  an.; 
Chinese  Plenipotentiaries,  which  was  received  with 
great  satisfaction  in  America,  hut  was  regarded  by  the 
English  press  as  a  triumph  of  American  over  English 
diplomacy.— See  )'<>/■>  »»,/  Peking,  by  Robert  Pjrtuna 
(London,  1863),  Chinese  Repository  fMirn,  1831), 
Lord  Elgin's  Despatches  (October,  I860),  Dennys,  <\'. 
15.,  and  Mayers,  \V.  T.,  China  "i,,i  Japan,  a  guide  to 
the  open  ports,  &C  (London,  1867),  and  Courcy,  Mar- 
quis dc,  I! Empire  du  Milieu,  &c  (Paris,  1867). 

PELA'GIANISM,  the  doctrinal  system  of  Pela- 
gius  (q.  v.),  especially  on  the  subjects  of  the  natural 
condition  of  man,  original  sin,  grace,  free-will,  and 
redemption.  Under  the  head  PBLAOITJS  will  be 
found  what  may  be  called  the  external  history  of 
the  controversy  to  which  the  opinions  of  that 
remarkable  man  gave  occasion.  The  movement, 
considered  in  itself,  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  in 
the  history  of  the  human  mind.  At  the  close  of  the 
great  controversies  on  the  Trinity  and  Incarnation, 
the  speculation,  which  for  nearly  a  century  had 
wearied  itself  in  vain  endeavours  to  make  plain  the 
inscrutable  mysteries  of  the  divine  nature,  at  length 
turned  inwards  upon  itself ;  and  no  one  at  all 
familiar  with  the  controversy  on  P.  can  doubt  that 
that  prouder  view  of  the  capabilities  of  human 
nature,  which  lies  at  the  root  of  all  the  theories  of 
which  P.  was  but  the  exponent,  was  a  reaction 
against  the  crude  and  degrading  conceptions  of  the 
nature  and  origin  of  the  soul  which  characterised 
the  philosophy,  not  alone  of  the  Manichaean  teachers, 
but  of  all  the  dualistic  religions  which  sprung  from 
the  prolific  soil  of  Gnosticism.  To  the  Manieluean, 
and  to  all  in  general  who  adopted  the  Gnostic 
views  as  to  the  evil  origin  and  nature  of  matter  and 
material  substances,  man  was,  in  his  psychical  nature, 
evd  and  incapable  of  good.  The  Christian  teacher, 
in  combating  this  view,  easily  passed  into  an  opposite 
extreme,  and  overlooking  or  explaining  away  the 
strong  language  of  the  Scripture,  was  led  to  repre- 
sent man  as  endowed  with  full  capacity  for  all  good  ; 
and  so  long  as  the  only  adversaries  to  be  contro- 
verted were  those  who  urged  the  views  of  the 
Gnostic  school,  the  line  taken  by  Christian  writers 
was  but  little  guarded  by  any  of  those  limitations 
and  reserves  which  have  arisen  in  later  controversy  ; 
and  thus  the  earlier  Fathers,  especially  those  of  the 
Eastern  Church,  where  Gnosticism  was  chiefly  to  be 
combated,  are  found  to  press  earnestly  the  power 
for  good  which  man  possesses,  without  entering  nicely 
into  the  origin  or  the  motive  principle  of  that  power. 
But  whatever  of  vagueness  hung  over  this  important 
subject  was  dispelled  by  the  bold  and  precise  state- 
ments of  Pelagius,  or  at  least  by  the  discussion  which 
at  once  arose  thereupon,  throughout  the  entire 
church.  His  teaching  on  the  subject  of  original  sin 
and  on  the  primitive  state  of  man,  has  been  already 
detailed.  See  Original  Sin.  The  earliest  formal 
embodiment  of  these  doctrines,  for  the  purpose  nt 
obtaining  upon  them  the  public  judgment  of  tLe 
church,  was  in  a  number  of  articles  presented  to 
the  council  of  Jerusalem,  in  415,  by  Orosius.  See 
Pelagius.  Of  these,  the  first  five  regarded  the 
doctrines  already  noticed  under  Original  Sin.  The 
latter  portion  of  the  articles  alleged  that  no  grace  or 
aid  from  God  was  needed  for  particular  actions,  but 
that  free-will  and  the  teaching  of  the  law  sufficed  ; 
that  God's  grace  is  given  in  proportion  to  our 
merits  ;  that  free-wdl  would  not  be  free,  if  it  stood 
in  need  of  aid  from  God  ;  that  the  pardon  of  peni- 
tents is  not  granted  according  to  God's  grace  and 
mercy,  but  according  to  their  own  merit  and  labour j 


PELAGIANISM— PELAGIUS. 


and  that  our  victory  does  not  come  from  God's 
assistance,  hut  from  our  free-will.  Although  the 
final  sentence  condemnatory  of  these  doctrines  (see 
PELAGIUS)  was  very  generally  accepted,  yet  the 
recusant  party  was  not  wanting  in  energy  and 
ability.  The  great  champions  on  each  side  were 
Augustine  for  the  orthodox,  and  Jnlianns,  Bishop 
of  Eclannra,  for  the  Pelagians.  Of  so  much  of 
the  controversy  as  regards  original  sin,  the  history 
has  been  already  related  ;  that  on  grace  and  free- 
will was  more  subtle,  and  has  led  to  more  numer- 
ous divisions  on  the  side  of  orthodoxy  as  well 
as  of  dissent.  In  order  to  evade  the  condemna- 
tion of  the  doctrine  originally  ascribed  to  them  as  to 
grace,  Pelagius  and  his  followers  declared  that  they 
did  not  deny  the  necessity  of  grace ;  but  by  this  name 
they  did  not  understand  any  real  and  internal  super- 
natural aid  given  by  God  in  each  particular  action, 
hut  only  either  some  general  external  assistance,  such 
as  preaching,  the  Scriptures,  good  example,  &c,  or 
an  aid  given  which  might  facilitate  and  secure  the 
particular  work,  but  which  was  by  no  means  neces- 
sary for  its  accomplishment.  "Whether,  indeed,  they 
at  any  time  admitted  any  real  internal  grace,  is  a 
question  much  disputed.  Grace  is  of  two  kinds — 
that  which  moves  the  will,  and  that  which  enlightens 
the  understanding.  It  is  necessary,  too,  to  distin- 
guish two  periods  in  the  history  of  P. — one  before 
the  appearance  of  the  Epistola  Tractoria  of  Pope 
Zosimus  ;  the  other,  subsecpient  to  that  decree.  In 
the  first  period,  it  would  seem  that  the  Pelagians 
did  not  admit  the  necessity  of  any  internal  grace 
■whatever ;  in  the  latter,  they  admitted  the  necessity 
of  a  grace  of  the  intellect,  but  not  of  the  will ;  or  if 
they  seemed  to  speak  of  any  iuternal  grace  of  the 
will,  it  was  only  as  facilitating  man's  act,  not  as  at 
all  necessary  to  his  doing  it.  The  Pelagian  theory,  in 
a  word,  was,  that  man,  as  coming  from  his  Creator's 
hand,  possessed  in  himself,  and  as  constituents  of 
his  own  nature,  all  the  powers  which  are  necessary 
for  the  attainment  of  salvation  ;  that  by  the  faithful 
employment  of  these  natural  powers,  without  any 
further  aid  whatever  from  God,  he  merits  eternal 
life,  and  all  other  rewards,  by  a  strict  title  of  justice ; 
and  that,  to  suppose  grace  to  be  necessary,  is  in 
truth  to  destroy  the  essence  of  free-will.  This 
doctrine  was  somewhat  modified  in  the  Semi-Pela- 
gian System  (q.  v.).  The  Catholic  schools,  all  without 
exception,  maintain  the  necessity  of  grace  for  the 
performance,  not  only  of  all  meritorious,  but  of  all 
supernatural  good  works  ;  and  they  are  equally 
unanimous  in  maintaining  that  the  grace  so  given, 
even  that  which  is  called  'efficacious,'  does  not 
destroy  the  freedom  of  the  will.  They  distinguish 
between  the  •  natural '  and  the  '  supernatural '  order, 
and  between  the  powers  and  gifts  which  are  proper 
to  the  one  and  to  the  other.  For  the  attainment  of  all 
the  ends  of  the  natural  order,  man  possesses,  by  his 
very  constitution,  all  the  powers  and  all  the  gifts 
which  are  necessary ;  and  by  the  proper  use  of  these 
powers,  he  is  able  to  merit  all  the  rewards  which 
belong  to  the  natural  order.  He  is  able,  therefore, 
without  any  supernatural  grace,  to  perform  morally 
good  works  (as  acts  of  natural  benevolence,  the 
fulfilment  of  the  ordinary  duties  to  his  neigh- 
hour,  &c),  and  to  fulfil  the  purely  natural  obliga- 
tions. But  in  order  to  works  in  the  supernatural 
order  (such  as  the  love  of  God  above  all  things  for 
His  own  sake,  faith  in  Him  as  the  author  of  all 
good,  &c),  and  the  rewards  which  are  promised  for 
such  works,  the  will  of  man  must  be  moved  and 
strengthened  by  supernatural  grace,  with  which 
the  will  freely  co-operates,  but  which  is  a  purely 
gratuitous  gift  of  God — so  purely  gratuitous,  that 
although  God  has  promised  eternal  life  as  the 
reward  of  man's  co-operation,  yet  the  merit  arises 

S68 


entirely  from  God's  gift  and  promise,  and  not  from 
the  natural  powers  of  the  human  will. 

Without  going  into  the  details  of  the  teaching  of 
the  Catholic  schools,  it  will  be  enough  to  particularise 
the  most  remarkable  among  them.  Of  these,  tlie 
chief  are  the  Molinist,  which,  giving  most  to  liberty 
lies  nearest  to  the  border  of  P.,  but  is  clearly  distin- 
guished from  it  by  maintaining  the  necessity  of 
grace  for  every  supernatural  act ;  and  the  Thomist 
and  Augustinian,  which  give  most  to  grace,  but  at 
the  same  time  expressly  preserve  the  freedom  of 
man's  will.  The  Thomists  are  often  represented  as 
denying  the  freedom  of  man's  actions  under  grace  ; 
but  although  it  is  difficult  to  explain,  in  popular 
language,  their  method  of  reconciling  both,  yet,  to 
those  acquainted  with  the  scholastic  terminology, 
their  distinction  between  the  infallible  efficacious- 
ness of  grace,  and  its  imposing  necessity  on  the  will, 
is  perfectly  appreciable.  In  this  they,  as  well  as  the 
Augustinian  school,  differ  from  the  Jansenists  (q.  v.). 
The  Jansenists,  indeed,  regard  the  Molinist  scliool 
as  a  plain  revival  of  P.,  and  they  profess  that 
they  alone  represent  fully,  in  their  own  system,  the 
very  same  position  which  St  Augustine  formerly 
maintained  against  that  heresy  in  its  first  origin. 

In  the  Reformed  Church,  the  Arminian  doctrine 
may  he  said  to  correspond  in  the  main  with  the 
Molinist  system  in  the  Roman  Church.  The 
Gomarists,  in  most,  although  not  in  all  parti- 
culars, fall  in  with  the  Jansenistic  views.  The 
Pelagian  views  are  distinctly  represented  in  modern 
controversy  by  the  Socinians  and  Rationalists  ;  and 
indeed  very  many  of  those  who,  outside  of  the  Roman 
Church,  have  at  various  times  engaged  in  the  pre- 
destinarian  controversy  on  the  side  of  free-will,  have 
leaned  towards,  if  they  have  not  fully  adopted,  the 
Pelagian  view.  In  this  controversy,  however,  the 
practice,  which  is  not  uncommon  in  polemics,  of 
imputing  to  an  antagonist  the  extremest  views  of 
the  particular  side  to  which  he  leans,  has  been 
specially  noticeable.  The  Jesuits  have  been  stig- 
matised, eveu  by  their  Catholic  antagonists,  as 
Pelagians  ;  the  Thomists  are  called  by  the  Jesuits 
indiscriminately  Jansenists  and  Calvinists  ;  while 
both  unite  in  representing  Calvin  and  his  school  as 
in  substance  Manichsean. 

Hardly  one  among  the  many  Christian  contro- 
versies has  called  forth  a  greater  amount  of  subtlety 
aud  power,  and  not  one  has  so  long  and  so  per- 
sistently maintained  its  vitality.  Within  the 
twenty-five  years  which  followed  its  first  appear- 
ance, upwards  of  thirty  councils  (one  of  them, 
the  General  Council  of  Ephesus)  were  held  for  the 
purpose  of  this  discussion.  It  lay  at  the  bottom  of 
all  the  intellectual  activity  of  the  coullicts  in  the 
medieval  philosophic  schools  ;  and  there  is  hardly  a 
single  subject  which  has  come  into  discussion  under 
so  many  different  forms  in  modern  controversy. 
See  Jansen,  Arminius,  Grace,  Predestination, 
Reprobation,  Original  Sin,  Traductanism. 

PELA'GIUS,  a  celebrated  heresiarch  of  the  5th 
c,  author  or  systematiser  of  the  doctrine  known 
as  Pelagianism  (q.  v. ).  Of  his  early  life,  little  is 
known.  He  was  probably  born  about  or  before  the 
middle  of  the  4th  c,  in  Britain,  or  according  to 
some,  in  Bretagne,  his  name  being  supposed  to  be 
a  Greek  rendering  (Pelagios,  of  or  belonging  to  the 
sea)  of  the  Celtic  appellative  Morgan,  or  sea-born. 
He  was  a  monk,  but  the  time  and  place  of  his 
entering  that  state  are  unknown  ;  it  is  certain, 
however,  that  he  never  entered  into  holy  orders. 
He  settled  in  Rome,  and  at  the  end  of  the  4th  c,  he 
had  already  acquired  a  considerable  reputation  for 
sanctity  and  for  knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
and  the  spiritual  life.  P.  doe3  not  appear  to  have 
himself  been  a  very  active  propagandist ;  but  he  had 


PELARGONIC  ACID-PELASGIANS. 


attached  to  his  views  a  follower  of  great  energy, 
and  a  bold  ami  ardent  temper,  named  Celestius, 
who  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  a  Scot* 
which,    iii    the    vocabulary    of    that    age,    mesne 

a  native  of  Ireland.  At  Rome,  however,  they 
attracted  hut  little  notice,  although  they  began 
fa)  make  their  doctrine  public  about  4u.">  ;  and  in 
41o,  after  tbd  sack  of  the  city  by  the  Goths,  they 
withdt  ;w  to  Africa.  After  Bome  time,  P.  made  a 
pilgrimags  u  Jerusalem,  where  he  met  St  Jerome, 
and  for  *  time  enjoyed  the  regard  and  confi- 
dence o*  that  eminent  but  hot-tempered  scholar. 
His  opinions,  however,  becoming  known,  Jerome 
withdrew  from  this  association.  Celestius  having 
remained  at  Cartilage,  and  Bought  to  be  admitted  to 
ordination,  his  doctrines  became  the  subject  of 
discussion,  and  in  a  synod  several  opinions  ascribed 
to  him  wore  condemned.  He  appealed  to  Home,  but 
leaving  Carthage  without  prosecuting  the  appeal,  he 
passed  to  Ephesus  ;  and  the  proceedings  taken  in 
Carthage  regarding  him  are  chiefly  importaut  as 
having  first  introduced  St  Augustine  into  the  con- 
troversy. Meanwhile  P.  remained  at  Jerusalem, 
and  news  of  the  proceedings  at  Carthage  having 
been  carried  to  Palestine,  P.,  in  415,  was  accused  of 
heresy  before  the  synod  of  Jerusalem,  by  a  Spaniard 
named  Orosius.  The  impeachment  failed,  probably 
from  the  fact  that  Orosius  was  unable  to  speak 
Greek,  the  language  of  the  synod  ;  and  in  a  synod 
subsequently  held  at  Diospolis  in  the  same  year,  P. 
evaded  condemnation  by  accepting  the  decrees  of 
the  synod  of  Carthage  already  referred  to,  and  even 
obtained  from  the  synod  an  acknowledgment  of  his 
orthodoxy.  The  West,  however,  was  more  sharp- 
sighted  or  less  indulgent.  A  synod  of  Carthage,  in 
416,  condemned  P.  aud  Celestius,  and  wrote  to  Pope 
Innocent  I.,  requesting  his  approval  of  the  sentence, 
with  which  request  Innocent  complied  by  a  letter 
which  is  still  extant.  On  the  death  of  Innocent, 
Celestius  came  to  Pome  in  person,  and  P.  at  the 
same  time  addressed  a  letter  to  Zosimus,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Innocent ;  and  in  a  council  which  Zosimus 
held,  Celestius  gave  such  explanations  that  the  pope 
was  led  to  believe  that  the  doctrines  of  P.  had 
been  misunderstood,  and  wrote  to  call  the  African 
bishops  to  Pome,  A  council  of  214  bishops,  how- 
ever, was  held  in  Carthage,  in  which  the  doctrines 
of  P.  were  formally  condemned  in  nine  canons, 
which  were  sent  to  Pome  with  full  explanations; 
and  on  receipt  of  these  decrees,  Zosimus  re-opened 
the  cause,  cited  and  condemned  Celestius  and  P., 
and  published  a  decree,  called  E/Astula  Tractoria, 
adopting  the  canons  of  the  African  council,  and 
requiring  that  all  bishops  should  subscribe  them, 
under  pain  of  deposition.  Nineteen  Italian 
bishops  refused  to  accept  these  canons,  and 
were  deposed.  Their  leader,  and  the  person 
who  may  be  regarded  as  the  greatest  theological 
advocate  of  P.  in  the  ancient  controversy,  was 
the  celebrated  Julian,  bishop  of  Eclanum,  near 
Beneventum,  who  is  well  known  to  every  reader  of 
his  great  antagonist,  St  Augustine.  P.  himself 
was  banished  from  Pome,  in  418,  by  the  Emperor 
Honorius.  From  this  date,  P.  disappears.  Of  his 
after-life,  nothing  is  known  in  detail.  Orosius  gives 
an  unfavourable  account  of  his  later  career,  but 
in  a  penod  of  such  excitement,  we  may  not  accept 
implicitly  the  judgment  of  an  adversary.  The  con- 
troversy, considered  as  an  exercise  of  intellectual 
energy,  is  the  most  remarkable  in  the  ancient  history 
of  the  church.  But  the  most  important  of  the 
writings  on  the  Pelagian  side  have  been  lost.  Julian 
is  chiefly  known  through  the  replies  of  Augustine. 
P.'s  Fourteen  Books  of  a  Commentary  on  St  PauFs 
Epistles,  his  Epistle  to  Demetrius,  and  his  Memorial 
to  Pope  Innocent,  have  escaped  destruction  probably 


from  their  1k-I u«r  included  by  collectors  in  the  works 
of   Si  Jerome,     They  are  much  mutilated,  I  I 

almosl  certainly  genuine.  All  his  other  work-  h.-i\e 
been  lost,  except  gome  further  portions,  chief!; 
mentary,  which  (with  the  above)  have  been  published 
under  the  title  of  Appendix  Augu»tiniana.  After 
bis  banishment,  ]'.  is  supposed  to  have  returned  to 
bis  native  country,  and  to  have  died  there.     Others, 

however,    represent    him   as    having   died    in   Palestine 

Of  his  doctrines  in  detail,  an  account  will  be  found 
under  Pelaoiakish, 

PELARGO'NIC  ACID  (C.JI,jm  is  one  of  the 
volatile  fatty  aeids  of  the  general  formula  <  ',  I! .,.<  )-... 
It  is  an  oily  fluid,  nearly  insoluble  in  water.  I 
nble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  It  derives  its  name  from 
its  having  been  originally  obtained  from  the  leave 
oi Pelargonium  roseum  (see  next  article),  by  distilling 
them  with  water.  It  may  also  he  obtained  In  the 
oxidation  of  oleic  acid  or  of  oil  of  rue  h\  nitric  a<  id. 
The  pelargonate  of  ethyl,  Pelargonic  ether  i(  'n I !....<  >»), 
is  an  oily  fluid  of  a  very  peculiar  smell.  Accoi 
Frankland,  it  is  to  this  compound  that  old  w\  i-ky 
owes  its  peculiar  flavour;  and  its  addition  to  new 
whisky,  with  a  view  of  giving  it  an  old  flavour,  is  not 
uncommon. 

PELARGO'XIUM,   a   genus   of  plants   of    tne 
natural  order  Qeraniacece,  including   many   of   the 

most  favourite  greenhouse  flowers,  to  which  the  old 
generic  name,  Geranium,  is  often  popularly 
The  characters  which  distinguish  P.  from  gt  i 
as  now  restricted  by  botanists,  are  given  iu  the 
article  Geranium.  The  species  are  numerous,  and 
mostly  South  African  ;  Australia  also  producing 
a  few.  Some  of  them  are  herbaceous,  and  some  are 
stemless ;  most  of  them  are  halt-shrubby.  Some 
have  tuberous  root-stocks.  The  leaves  exhibit 
great  variety  in  form,  division,  &c.  The  flowers 
always  adhere  to  a  certain  type  in  form,  but 
with  great  variety  in  size,  colour,  &c.  ;  they  are 
always  in  stalked  umbels,  which  arise  from  the 
axils  of  the  leaves,  or  in  the  stemless  kinds  from  the 
midst  of  the  leaves.  In  no  genus  has  the  art  of  the 
gardener  produced  more  striking  results  than  in 
this;  and  the  number  of  beautiful  hybrids  and 
varieties  is  very  great,  some  of  them  excelling  in 
beauty  any  of  the  original  species.  Some  species, 
not  possessing  much  beauty  of  flower,  are  cultivated 
for  the  grateful  odour  of  their  leaves,  which  in  some 
resembles  that  of  roses;  in  others,  that  oi  apples, 
lemons,  &c. ;  whilst  that  of  many  species  is  rather 
unpleasant.  The  cultivation  of  pelargoniums  is 
similar  to  that  of  other  Qeraniacece.  See  Gera.n  h-m. 
A  few  of  the  species  endure  the  open  air  in  the 
south  of  England ;  many  are  planted  out  in  summer 
even  in  Scotland.  Water  must  be  liberally  supplied 
to  pelargoniums  during  the  time  of  flowering;  but 
no  plants  more  strongly  require  a  period  of  rest,  and 
water  must  then  be  very  sparingly  given.  Many 
of  the  ohrubby  kinds  may  be  taken  out  of  the  soil, 
hung  up  by  the  roots  in  a  dry  dark  cellar,  or  covered 
with  hay,  and  put  aside  in  a  box,  in  a  cool  dry  loft 
or  garret,  care  being  taken,  however,  to  protect 
them  from  frost.  Every  leaf  should  be  removed 
before  they  are  taken  up,  and  young  watery  shoots 
should  be  cut  off.  Another  method  of  treating 
them  is  to  cut  off  every  leaf  before  frost  comes,  and 
to  keep  the  plants  all  winter  in  their  pots  in  a  dry 
cool  room,  without  giving  them  a  drop  of  water.  By 
such  means,  many  of  this  beautiful  genus  are 
successfully  cultivated  by  persons  who  have  no 
greenhouse. 

PELA'SGIANS,  variously  explained  as  denoting 
either  '  Swarthy  Asiatics '  (Pell-Aski)   or  '  Storks 
(Pelargoi) — significative  of  wandering  habits  ;  or  as 
being  derived  from  the  biblical  Ptleg  (Gen    x.  25), 

358 


PELASGIAN3. 


from  the  Greek  Pelagos  (the  Sea),  pelazo  (to  ap- 
proach), or  pelein  and  aijros  (to  till  the  field),  &c. — 
'  a  name,  in  fact,'  as  Niebuhr  says,  '  odious  to  the 
historian,  who  hates  the  spurious  philology  out  of 
which  the  pretences  to  knowledge  on  the  subject  of 
such  extinct  people  arise' — designates  a  certain  tribe 
or  number  of  tribes  who  inhabited  Italy,  Thracia, 
Macedonia,  a  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  many  other 
regions  of  Southern  Europe,  in  prehistoric  times. 
Ethnologically,  they  belong  to  the  same  race  as  the 
great  stock  of  the  earliest  known  settlers,  that 
reached  from  the  Po  and  the  Arno  to  the  Rhyn- 
dakus  (near  Kyzikus).  Yet  no  Pelasgian  town  or 
village  existing  in  Greece  Proper  after  776  B.  c, 
speculation  has,  ever  since  the  commencement  of 
European  historiography,  been  busy  trying  to  supply 
the  facis  that  were  wanting  to  ascertain  the  exact 
origin  and  history  of  these  predecessors  of  the 
Hellenes  and  Romans  ;  and  so  futile  have  all  efforts 
in  this  direction  remained,  that  the  very  term  Pelasgi 
has,  from  the  days  of  Homer  to  our  own,  been  used 
almost  arbitrarily  to  designate  either  a  single  obscure 
division  of  a  tribe  like  the  Leleges  and  the  Dolopes, 
or  as  an  equivalent  for  all  the  Greeks  of  a  very 
early  period.  In  this  latter  sense,  they  are  spoken 
of  by  ^Eschylus,  Herodotus,  Homer ;  while  they 
are  considered  one  of  the  branches  of  the  race  or 
races  that  peopled  Greece,  by  Thucydides,  Strabo, 
and  most  modern  writers,  the  word  thus  not  being 
a  comprehensive  term,  like  Aryan,  but  a  narrowly 
circumscribed  one,  like  Hindu.  Recent  investigation 
seems,  as  regards  their  previous  history,  to  lead  to 
the  result,  that  soon  after  the  first  immigration  of 
Turanians,  they,  like  other  tribes,  left  their  Asiatic 
homes,  and  proceeded  towards  Europe.  They  are 
found  at  a  very  early  period  settled  in  Asia  Minor ; 
and  Homer  speaks  of  them  as  allies  of  the  Trojans. 
They  then  seem  to  have  spread  themselves,  by  way 
of  the  Propontis  and  ^Egean,  and  again  by  Crete, 
over  many  of  the  islands  between  the  two  con- 
tinents ;  and  finally,  came  to  occupy  a  great  part 
of  the  Hellenic  mainland — Thessaly,  Epirus,  the 
Veloponnese,  Attica,  Macedonia,  Arcadia,  provinces 
which,  one  and  all,  up  to  the  latest  period,  bore 
distinct  traces  of  the  once  undisputed  sway  of  the 
Pelasgians.  According  to  Herodotus,  the  Hellenes 
themselves  sprang  from  them  ;  and  there  can  hardly 
be  a  doubt  that  they  formed  a  most  important 
element  in  the  formation  as  well  of  that  most  gifted 
of  nationalities,  as  of  the  Latin  people.  The  early 
Etruscans  (q.  v.)  were  P.  to  a  certain  extent ;  and 
the  southern  tribes  of  the  Peucetians,  (Enotrians, 
and  Iapygiaus  are  distinctly  declared  by  ancient 
writers  to  belong  to  their  race.  The  step  from  Greece 
into  Italy  is  natural  enough.  What  caused  their 
wanderings  originally,  is  difficult  to  conjecture  ;  but 
it  may  not  unreasonably  be  assumed,  that  they  were 
caused  to  a  certain  extent  by  immigrations  of  eastern 
tribes,  such  as  the  Lydians,  Phrygians,  Carians,  who 
pushed  them  further  and  further  west,  as  they  took 
possession  of  their  old  homes.  A  special  stock  was 
formed  by  the  Tyrrhenian  Pelasgi,  whose  gradual 
advance  in  Greece  may  be  traced  from  Acaruania  to 
Bceotia,  thence  to  Attica,  and  later  still,  to  the  Hel- 
lespont, Lemnos,  &c.  A  strong  protest,  however, 
must  be  recorded  here  on  the  part  of  some  modern 
writers  against  the  assumption  of  others,  that  the  P. 
were  in  reality  the  original  population  of  all  Italy,  as 
they  were  of  the  greatest  part  of  Greece  (Pelasgia). 
It  is  absurd,  they  argue,  to  suppose  that  a  rich  and 
populous  nation,  which  had  held  a  country  like  Italy 
for  many  centuries,  should  suddenly,  just  at  the 
approach  of  historical  times,  die  out  without  leaving 
eveu  such  single  remnants  as  the  Pelasgio  settle- 
ments in  Greece  mentioned  by  Herodotus.  These 
aboriginal  Italian  P.  are,  according  to  them,  1  nther 

360 


more  nor  less  than  a  mere  hypothesis  of  ignorant 
ancient  writers,  who  wished  to  explain  the  eth- 
nological and  philological  affinity  between  the  two 
classical  nations  in  an  easy  manner,  and  who,  antici- 
pating the  questions  about  a  contemporary  colon j, 
kdl  the  whole  nation  off  by  pestilence  and  famine. 

The  Pelasgians,  from  what  we  can  glean  about 
them,  would  appear  to  have  been  a  highly  intel- 
lectual, receptive,  active,  and  stirring  people,  ox 
simple  habits  withal,  chiefly  intent  upon  agricul- 
tural pursuits.  Several  improvements  in  this  pro- 
vince were  distinctly  traced  back  to  them,  such  aa 
the  ploughing  with  oxen — for  which  purpose  they 
had  to  invent  the  special  goad ;  further,  the  art 
of  surveying,  and  the  like.  Yet  they  were  no  less 
warlike  when  attacked  and  driven  to  self-defence ; 
and  the  trumpet,  which  calls  the  widely  scattered 
troops  to  the  attack,  was  supposed  to  have  been 
first  used  by  them.  That  the  art  of  navigation  was 
well  known  to  them,  is  shewn  sufficiently  by  their 
incessant  migrations  over  sea  and  land.  Of  their 
architecture,  iu  that  style  which,  in  defaidt  of  a 
better  name,  has  been  called  Cyclopean  (q.  v.), 
remnants  are  still  existing.  The  names  Larissa, 
Argos,  Ephyra,  frequently  met  in  ancient  Greece, 
were  bestowed  by  them  upon  their  fortified  cities, 
and  are  only  generic  names,  expressive  of  either 
mountain  fortresses  or  strongholds  in  plains.  Wish- 
ing to  remain  in  peace,  they  endeavoured  to  keep 
off  the  invader  by  walls  so  enormously  strong, 
that  it  really  seems  most  surprising  how  they 
ever  could  have  been  taken.  Besides  these,  they 
built  canals,  dams,  and  subterranean  water-works 
of  astounding  strength  and  most  skilful  construc- 
tion.     The  accompanying  woodcut  represents  the 


M,iii^*^'fe. 


Fig.  1. — Section  of  Tomb  of  Atreus  at  Mycenae. 

tomb  or  treasury  of  Atreus  at  Mycenae,  vaulted 
with  a  fine  pointed  '  horizontal  arch,'  48g  feet  in 
diameter.  Of  their  scidpture,  which  they  no  doubt 
likewise  cultivated  to  a  certain  degree,  we  have  but 
very  small  relics,  such  as  a  head  of  Medusa,  and  a 


Fig.  2. — Plan  of  Tomb  of  Atreus  at  Mycen». 

Xoanon  (Divine  Image)  of  Orpheus  ;  besides  these, 
certain  traces  of  their  special  mystic  worship 
are    to     be    found     in    archaic     representations, 


PELAYO— PELEW  ISLANDS. 


which,  though  not  hitherto  ascribed  to  them,  hear 
kheit  tlirect  influence  upon  their  very  face.  How 
far  they  were  either  the  inventors  of  the  so-called 
Cadmean    or   Phoenician    writing-characters,   from 

which  all  European  characters  are  derived,  or 
nierely  their  '  improvers,'  is  not  to  be  decided  by 
the  contradictory  evidence  to  be  found  on  the  sub- 
ject:  'mt  this,  at  all  events,  is  certain,  that  they 
were  acquainted  with  the  art  of  writing,  and  had 
thus  a  vast  element  of  culture  in  their  posses- 
sion before  the  dawn  of  history.  Respecting  tin  ir 
religion  and  worship,  there  is  this  only  to  be  held 
with  certainty,  that  it  originally  consisted  in  a 
mystic  service  of  those  natural  powers,  whose 
influence  is  chiefly  visible  in  the  growth  of  the 
fruits  of  the  earth.  From  Egypt  they  obtained 
names  for  their  till  then  nameless  gods,  generally 
called  by  them  the  Theoi  ;  and  they  proceeded 
— by  permission  of  the  Dodouic  oracle,  which, 
together  with  the  Pythian,  they  first  founded — 
to  bestow  them  upon  them  individually.  Their 
deities  were,  besides  the  Phoenician  Kabiri,  Demeter, 
Persephone  Kora,  Dionysos,  Hermes,  Zeus  of  Dodona, 
Apollo,  Hephasstus,  Themis,  Pan,  &c.  Whether 
those  P.  who  inhabited  Lemnos  and  Imbros,  and 
who  were  conquered  by  Darius,  offered  up  human 
sacrifices  or  not,  13  doubtful.  An  ambiguous  term 
of  Herodotus  respecting  the  language  of  those  small 
Pelasgian  remnants  who  had  survived  to  his  day, 
has  given  rise  to  endless  and  most  unsatisfactory 
discussions.  He  speaks  (i.  57)  of  their  *  barbarous 
language;'  and  the  question  is,  whether  he  meant 
that  it  completely  differed  from  Greek,  or  that 
there  was  only  so  vast  a  divergence  of  dialect,  that 
it  had  become  unintelligible  to  his  contemporaries. 
Grote  inclines  to  the  former  opinion ;  Niebuhr, 
Thirhvall,  T.  0.  Miiller,  followed  by  G.  Rawlinson 
and  others,  hold,  with  more  apparent  show  of 
reason,  that  the  term  '  barbarous  language '  merely 
indicates  a  corruption  or  alteration  of  idiom,  such 
as  a  long  lapse  of  time  would  infallibly  produce, 
and  that  it  bore  the  same  relation  to  the  Greek 
of  the  day  as  the  Gothic  does  to  the  German,  or 
the  Latin  to  any  of  the  Itomance  languages,  not 
to  instance  the  forlorn  patois  of  out-of-the-way 
places  in  Switzerland  and  elsewhere,  supposed 
to  be  inhabited  by  unmixed  descendants  from 
Roman  legions.  That  other  phenomenon  of  the 
vast  number  of  roots  common  both  to  Greek  and 
Latin — the  latter,  it  must  be  remembered,  having 
been  proved  to  be  derived,  not  from  the  former,  but 
from  the  Oscan — would  thus  easily  be  explained  by 
the  assumption  of  a  common  Pelasgian  linguistic 
(as  well  as  ethnical)  stock  in  both  nationalities. 

Their  political  circumstances  are  as  unknown  to 
us  as  the  whole  process  of  transition  between  them 
and  the  real  Greek  period.  From  a  few  scattered 
allusions,  we  may  conclude,  that  they  were  not 
uniformly  governed  ;  that  some  of  their  multifarious 
tribes  were  rided  by  priests,  while  others  stood 
under  the  patriarchal  rule  of  the  head  of  the  clan 
or  family. 

How  they  gradually  disappeared  from  the  rank 
ot  nations,  by  being  either  'absorbed'  by  superior 
races  (Hellenes,  Italici,  Carians,  Lydians,  Phrygians), 
or  beiug  reduced  to  nameless  serf-populations,  does 
not  seem  so  difficult  to  understand  as  some  writers 
would  have  it.  Hundreds  of  nations  have  dis- 
appeared in  the  same  manner,  and  we  may  even 
watch  the  process  with  our  own  eyes.  Interesting 
as  it  might  be  to  dwell  more  minutely  on  some  of 
the  widely  divergent  theories  and  speculations  upon 
the  P.  on  the  part  of  historians,  philologists,  ethnolo- 
gists, antiquaries,  and  investigators  generally,  to 
whom,  at  all  times,  this  people  proved  exceedingly 
attractive,  we  cannot  enter  any  further  upon  them 


here,  but  we  shall  conclude  with  Grote's  dictum: 
'  If  any  man  is  inclined  to  call  the  unknown  ante- 
Hellenic  period  of  Greece  by  the  name  of  Pelasgic,  it 
is  open  to  him  to  do  go.  But  this  is  a  name  carry- 
ing with  it  no  assured  predicates,  noway  enlarging 
our  insight  into  real  history,  nor  enabling  us  to 
explain  what  would  be  the  real  historical  problem- 
how,  or  from  whom,  the  Hellenes  acquired  that  stock 
of  dispositions,  aptitudes,  arts,  &c.,  with  which  they 
begin  their  career.' 

PELA'YO,  said  by  historians  to  have  been  the 
first  Christian  king  in  Spain,  after  the  conquest  of 
that  country  by  the  Arabs.  Contemporary  his- 
torians make  no  mention  of  him,  but  this  may 
be  accounted  for  on  the  ground  of  the  insignificant 
size  of  his  kingdom,  which  comprised  only  the 
mountainous  district  of  Asturias.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  a  scion  of  the  royal  Visigothie  line,  and 
to  have  retired  before  the  conquering  Arabs  to  the 
mountains  of  Asturias,  where  he  maintained  him- 
self against  the  armies  which  were  sent  to  attack 
him,  defeating  them  in  various  pitched  battles,  and 
in  numberless  minor  engagements.  One  of  his  most 
famous  exploits  was  the  destruction  of  a  large  army 
sent  against  him  by  Tarik,  near  Cangas-de-Ouis. 
His  men  were  posted  on  the  heights  bounding  the 
valley  through  which  the  Arabs  were  to  pass,  and, 
waiting  till  the  enemy  had  become  involved  in  the 
defile,  at  a  given  signal,  overwhelmed  them  wTith 
enormous  masses  of  rock.  This  great  success  caused 
P.  to  be  recognised  as  sovereign  by  the  surrounding 
districts,  and  the  Christians  nocked  to  him  from  all 
parts  of  Spain.  He  was  much  engaged  in  contests 
with  the  Arabs,  but  nevertheless  found  time  to 
reanimate  agriculture,  superintend  the  reconstruc- 
tion of  churches,  and  the  establishment  of  a  civil 
administration.  He  died  in  737.  Such  is  the  account 
given  us  by  later  historians,  who  trace  from  him  the 
genealogy  of  the  royal  family  of  Spain. 

PELECA'NID^E,  a  family  of  palmiped  birds,  the 
Totipalmati  of  Cinder ;  characterised  by  a  long, 
straight,  compressed  bill,  broad  at  the  base,  often 
with  a  pouch  beneath  the  lower  mandible ;  long 
wings,  of  which  the  first  quill  is  the  longest ;  short 
strong  legs,  and  all  the  toes — including  the  hind 
toe — united  by  a  membrane.  They  are  generally 
excellent  swimmers,  expert  divers,  and  birds  of 
powerfid  flight.  Some  of  them  often  perch  on  trees, 
which  few  other  web-footed  birds  do.  To  this 
family  belong  pelicans,  cormorants,  frigate-birds, 
tropic-birds,  and  darters. 

PELEW  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  islands  in  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean,  450  miles  east  of  the  Phdip- 
pines,  in  lat.  7°— 8°  30'  N.,  long.  134  — 136  E., 
at  the  western  extremity  of  the  Caroline  Archi- 
pelago. The  group  includes  about  20  islands, 
which  form  a  chain  running  about  120  miles  from 
south-south-west  to  north-north-east.  The  princi- 
pal island  is  Babelthouap,  28  miles  by  14,  con- 
taining a  mountain  from  whose  summit  a  view  oi 
the  whole  group  is  obtained.  As  seen  from  the  sea, 
the  islands  appear  mountainous  and  rugged ;  but 
the  soil  is  rich  and  fertde,  and  water  is  abundant. 
Bread-fruit,  cocoa-nuts,  bananas,  sugar-cane,  lemons, 
oranges,  and  other  tropical  trees  and  fruits,  are 
grown.  Cattle,  fowls,  and  goats  thrive,  ami  fish 
abound  on  the  coasts.  The  inhabitants,  who  are 
estimated  at  about  10,000  in  number,  are  of  the 
Malay  race.  They  shew  considerable  ingenuity  in 
building  their  canoes,  are  active  agriculturists,  and 
entertain  exceedingly  primitive  notions  regarding 
dress,  as  the  men  go  entirely  naked,  and  the  women 
nearly  so.  In  1783,  the  Antelope  was  wrecked 
upon  the  P.  I.,  and  the  crew  were  treated  by  the 
natives    with    the    greatest    kindness.       Furthei 


PELICAN— PELLA. 


acquaintance  with  white  men,  however,  seems  to 
have  altered  their  disposition,  and  several  vessels, 
while  visiting  these  islands,  within  comparatively 
recent  years,  have  narrowly  escaped  being  cut  off. 
The  islands  are  said  to  have  been  discovered  by 
tLd  Spaniards  in  1545. 

PE'LICAN  (Pelecanus),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Pelecanidce  (q.  v.),  having  a  very  long,  large, 
flattened  bill,  the  upper  mandible  terminated  by  a 
strong  hook,  which  curves  over  the  tip  of  the  lower 
one ;  beneath  the  lower  mandible,  which  is  composed 
of  two  flexible  bony  branches  meeting  at  the  tip,  a 
great  pouch  of  naked  skin  is  appended  ;  the  tongue 
is  very  short,  and  almost  rudimentary;  the  face  and 
throat  are  naked ;  the  wings  of  moderate  length, 
the  tail  rounded.  The  species  are  widely  distributed, 
frequenting  the  shores  of  the  sea,  lakes,  and  rivers, 
and  feeding  chiefly  on  fish.  Although  birds  of 
powerful  wing,  they  are  seldom  seen  at  a  great 
distance  from  land.  All  of  them  are  birds  of  large 
Bize.  They  take  their  prey  by  hovering  over  the 
water,  and  plunging  upon  it  when  it  appears.  They 
often  fly  in  large  flocks,  and  the  sudden  swoop  of  a 
flock  of  pelicans  at  a  shoal  of  fish  is  a  striking  and 
beautiful  sight.  They  store  up  their  prey  in  their 
pouch,  from  which  they  bring  it  out  at  leisure,  either 
for  their  own  eating,  or  to  feed  their  young.  The 
pouch  is  capable  of  being  wrinkled  up  into  small 
size,  and  of  being  greatly  distended. — The  Common 
P.  (P.  onocrotalus)  is  as  large  as  a  swan,  white, 
slightly  tinged  with  flesh  colour,  and  in  old  birds, 


Pelican  (Pelecanus  onocrotalus). 

the  breast  golden  yellow.  The  quill -feathers  are 
black,  but  are  scarcely  seen  except  when  the  wiu^s 
are  expanded.  It  is  a  native  of  the  eastern  parts  of 
Europe,  and  of  many  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  and 
frequents  both  the  sea-coast  and  also  rivers  and 
lakes.  It  makes  a  nest  of  grass  on  the  ground  in 
some  retired  spot  near  the  water,  often  on  an  island, 
and  lays  two  or  three  white  eggs.  The  parents  are 
*aid  to  carry  water  to  their  young,  as  well  as  food, 
In  their  pouch.  During  the  night,  the  P.  sits  with 
Its  bill  resting  on  its  breast.  The  nail  or  hook 
which  terminates  the  bill  is  red,  and  Mr  Broderip 
supposes  that  the  ancient  fable  of  the  P.  feeding  its 
young  with  blood  from  its  own  breast  has  originated 
from  its  habit  of  pressing  the  bill  upon  the'breast, 
in  order  the  more  easily  to  empty  the  pouch,  when 
the  red  tip  might  be  mistaken  for  blood.— The 
Rufous-necked  P.  (P.  fuscus)  abounds  in  the  West 
Indies  and  in  many  parts  of  America.  Other 
species  are  found  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  and 
in  some  places  the  number  of  pelicans  is  prodigious, 
particularly  in  some  of  the  most  southern  parts  of 
the  world. 

In  Heraldry,  the  Pelican  is  drawn  with  her  wines 
362  ° 


Pelican,  in  Heraldry, 


endorsed,  and  wounding   her  breast  with    her    beak. 
When    represented    in    her    nest    feeding    her   young 
with  her   blood,  she  is   called 
a  pelican  in  her  piety. 

PE'LION,  the  ancient 
name  of  a  wooded  mountain 
range  in  Thessaly,  extending 
along  the  east  coast.  Its 
eastern  side  descends  in  steep 
and  rugged  precipices  to  the 
sea.  Further  to  the  north, 
near  the  mouth  of  the 
Peneus,  is  the  steep  conical 
peak  of  ( )ssa  (q.  v.),  which, 
according  to  the  classic  myth, 
the  Titans  placed  upon  the 
summit  of  P.,  in  order  to  scale  Olympus,  the  abode 
of  the  gods.  The  modem  name  is  Zagorfi,  and  a* 
of  old,  its  sides  and  summit  are  clothed  with 
venerable  forests  of  oak,  chestnut,  beech,  elm,  and 
pine. 

PELISSIER,  Aimable  Jean  Jacques,  Marshal 
of  France,  Due  de  Malakhoff,  born  in  1794  at 
Maromme,  near  Rouen.  His  father  was  a  small 
farmer,  little  above  the  degree  of  a  peasant.  P.  was 
first  sent  to  the  Lyceum  at  Brussels.  At  twenty,  he 
gained  admission  to  the  celebrated  French  artillery 
college  of  La  Fleche,  and  was  soon  transferred  to 
the  special  school  of  St  Cyr.  He  entei-cd  the 
artillery  of  the  Royal  Guard  as  sub-lieutenant  in 
1814,  and  being  transferred  to  the  57th  Regiment  of 
the  line,  which  was  not  called  upon  to  do  duty  after 
the  return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  he  escaped  the 
dilemma  of  declaring  either  for  or  against  the 
Emperor.  He  served  on  the  staff  in  Spain  in  1823; 
made  the  campaign  of  the  Morea  in  1828;  joined 
the  first  expedition  to  Algiers  in  1830  as  major 
of  cavalry;  and  in  1839  returned  to  Algeria  with 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  He  commanded  the 
left  wing  of  the  French  army  at  the  battle  of  Isly. 
In  1845,  he  acquired  an  unenviable  notoriety  by 
suffocating  more  than  500  Arabs  who  took  refuge 
in  the  caves  of  Ouled-Rijah  in  the  Dahra.  Marshal 
Soult,  then  Minister  of  War,  did  not  venture  to 
approve  this  atrocity,  but  Marshal  Bugeaud,  com- 
mander-in-chief in  Algeria,  declared  that  P.  only 
carried  out  his  positive  orders.  By  1850,  he  had 
attained  the  rank  of  General  of  Division.  When 
the  news  of  the  coup  d'etat  reached  Algiers,  he 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  emperor,  and  placed  the 
province  of  Algiers  under  martial  law  until  order 
was  restored  In  the  war  with  Russia,  he  obtained 
in  1855  the  command  of  the  first  corps  of  the 
Crimean  army,  and  soon  succeeded  Marshal  Can- 
robert  in  the  chief  command,  when  a  change  came 
over  the  fortunes  of  the  campaign.  The  Russians 
were  defeated  on  the  Tchernaya,  and  on  the  8th 
September  the  Malakhoff,  the  key  of  Sebastopol, 
was  carried.  After  the  fall  of  Sebastopol,  P.  re- 
ceived a  marshal's  baton,  anil  on  his  return  to  France, 
was  created  Due  de  Malakhoff  and  a  senator,  and 
received  a  donation  of  100,000  francs.  He  also  re- 
ceived the  order  of  a  G.C.B.  from  Queen  Victoria.  In 
1858,  he  came  to  London  as  the  French  ambassador, 
but  resigned  his  post,  for  which  he  had  little  relish, 
in  the  following  year.  He  was  then  named  Governor- 
general  of  Algeria,  where  he  died  (May,  1864)  of  con- 
gestion of  the  lungs. 

PE'LLA,  the  ancient  capital  of  Macedonia  and 
the  birthplace  of  Alexander  the  Great,  was  situated 
on  a  hill,  and  surrounded  by  marshes.  It  was  a 
wealthy  and  powerful  city,  but  declined  under  the 
Romans  until  it  became  a  place  of  no  consequence, 
and  in  the  middle  ages  there  remained  only  a  strong 
castle   called  Bodena.      Its  site  has   been  identified 


PELLAGRA— PELLITORY  OF  SPAIN. 


with  that  of  the  village  of  Xeakhori  or  Yenikiuy, 
near  which  is  a  spring  called  Telle. 

PE'LLAORA,    at    one    time,    the   name    of    a 
'  ime  skin-disease,  supposed  to  !>'■  endemic  t<> 

the  ii  :e- producing  part  <>f  the  north  of  Italy,  is  now 
employed  to  designate  a  group  of  phenomena!  of 
which  the  most  prominent  and  significant  are 
mentaL  Allied  affections  have  recently  been 
described  in  various  continental  countries;  but  aa 
presented   in    its   must  intense  form  in    Lombardy, 

fellagra  sonsists  in  the  skin  being  covered  with 
uheivlea  and  rough  scales,  in  debility,  vertigo, 
Inability  to  preserve  the  equilibrium,  epilepsy,  and 
great  depression  of  spirits.  The  melancholia  which 
Constituted  the  latter  Btage  often  led  to  suicide,  and 
so  frequently  to  destruction  by  drowning,  that  it  was 
distinguished  aa  a  special  form  of  the  tendency  by 
the  appellation  of  Hydromania.  The  extent  of  the 
ravages  of  this  affection  may  be  estimated  from  the 
facts,  that  of  500  patients  in  the  Milan  Lunatic 
Asylum  in  1827,  one  third  were  pellagrins  ;  that 
when  Stratnbio  wrote  (1734),  one  of  every  twenty, 
and  when  Holland  (1S17),  one  of  every  five  or  six 
of  the  population  presented  symptoms  of  the 
disease.  The  belief,  so  long  current,  that  this 
malady  was  the  result  of  the  use  of  rice  or  maize 
as  the  chief  article  of  diet,  must  now  be  greatly 
ruoditicd,  as  it  has  been  observed  in  districts  and 
under  circumstances  where  the  food  is  of  a  different 
description,  but  where  poverty,  insufficient  nourish- 
ment, tilth,  toil,  and  the  ordinary  agents  in  human 
degeneration  are  at  work. 

PE'LLET,  or  OGItESS,  in  English  Heraldry,  a 
Rouudle  (q.  v.)  sable. 

PE'LLICO,  Silvio,  an  Italian  poet,  celebrated 
for  his  long  and  cruel  imprisonment  by  the  Austrians, 
more,  perhaps,  than  for  his  verses,  was  born  in 
I78S  at  Saluzzo,  in  Piedmont,  and  was  educated  in 
Pignerol,  where  his  father,  Onorato  Pellico,  also 
favourably  known  as  a  lyric  poet,  had  a  silk-factory. 
In  his  10th  year,  he  accompanied  his  sister  Rosina 
(on  her  marriage)  to  Lyon,  where  he  remained  until 
Foscolo's  Carme  de'  Sepolcri  awakened  in  him  a 
strong  patriotic  feeliug  and  an  irresistible  desire  to 
return  to  Italy.  Coming,  about  1S10,  to  Milan, 
where  his  family  were  now  settled,  he  was  warmly 
received  by  Ugo  Foscolo  and  Vinceuzo  Monti,  and 
was  employed  as  tutor  in  the  family  of  Count  Porro, 
in  whose  house  all  the  most  distinguished  men  in 
Milan  were  accustomed  to  meet.  His  tragedies  of 
Laodamia  and  Francesco,  da  Rimini  gained  him  an 
honourable  name  amongst  Italian  poets.  He  also 
translated  the  Manfred  of  Byron,  with  whom  he 
had  become  acquainted.  He  lived  in  great  intimacy 
with  the  most  eminent  patriots  and  authors  of 
liberal  views,  and  took  an  active  part  in  a  periodi- 
cal called  II  Conciliatore,  which  after  a  time  was 
suppressed  on  account  of  its  liberal  tone.  Having 
become  connected  with  the  secret  society  of  the 
Carbonari,  then  the  dread  of  the  Italian  govern- 
ment, P  vas  apprehended  in  IS'20,  and  sent  to  the 
Snson  of  Sta  Margherita,  where  hi3  friend,  the  poet 
f  H'ORcelli,  was  also  confined.  In  the  beginning  of 
ibs  following  year,  he  was  carried  to  Venice,  and 
in  January  1S22,  to  the  prison  on  the  isle  of  San 
Michele,  near  Venice;  and  Maroncelli  and  he  were 
at  last  condemned  to  death  ;  but  the  emperor  com- 
muted the  sentence  to  20  years'  imprisonment  for 
Maroncelli,  and  15  years  for  Pellico.  In  March 
1822,  they  were  both  conveyed  to  the  subterranean 
dungeons  of  the  Spielberg.  In  August  1830,  how- 
ever, they  were  set  at  liberty.  P.  published  an 
account  of  his  sufferings  during  his  ten  years' 
imprisonment,  under  the  title  Le  mie  Prigioni 
(Paris,  1833),  which  has  been  translated  into  other 


languages,  and  has  made  his  name  familiar  where  it 
would  not  have  bo  0  known  on  account  of  his 
poetry,  l'.'s  health,  never  robust,  was  permanently 
injured.  The  Marchioness  of  liarolo  received  linn 
into  her  house  at  Turin  as  her  secretary.  P.  sub- 
sequently  published  numerous  tragedies  and  ether 
poems,  and  a  little  catechism  on  the  bities  of  man. 
His  death  took  place  January  31,  1  S.~  4. 

PE'LLITOBY.or  PELLITORY  OF  THE  WALL 
{Parietaria),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Urticacea,  having 
both      unisexual 

and  hermaphro- 
dite flowers  on 
the  same  plant, 
the  perianth  of 
both  kinds  4-rid. 
The  Common  P. 
{P.  officinalis), 
which  grows  on 
old  walls  and 
heaps  of  rubbish 
in  Britain  and 
many  parts  of 
Europe  and  Asia, 
is  a  herbace- 
ous perennial, 
with  prostrate 
branched  stems, 
more  rarely  with 
erect  stems,  ovate 
leaves,  and  incon- 
spicuous flowers. 
It  sometimes 

attracts  atten- 
tion from  the 
manner  in  which 
the  pollen  is 
copiously  dis- 
charged in  hot 
summer  days  by  an  elastic  movement  of  the  fila- 
ments.  It  was  formerly  much  esteemed  as  a 
diuretic,  refrigerant,  and  lithontriptic  Its  properties 
depend  on  nitre,  which  it  contains. 

PE'LLITORY  OF  SPAIN  (Anacyclus  pyre- 
thrum),  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Composite,  of  a 
genu3  nearly  allied  to  Chamomile  (q.  v.),  a  native  ol 
the  Levant  and  of  Barbary,  and  cultivated  to  some 
extent  in  Germany  and  other  countries.  It  haa 
procumbent,  branched,  downy  stems ;  each  branch 
one-tlowered ;  the  root-leaves  pinnate,  with  pinna- 
tirid  segments  and  linear-subulate  lobes.  The 
flowers  (heads  of  flowers)  have  a  white  ray,  purplish 
beneath,  and  a  yellow  disc.  The  root  is  spindle- 
shaped  and  fleshy,  and  when  dried,  is  about  the 
thickness  of  the  little  finger,  inodorous,  breaking 
with  a  resinous  fracture.  It  has  a  very  peculiar 
taste,  alight  at  first,  but  becoming  acidulous,  saline, 
and  acrid,  with  a  burning  and  tingling  sensation  in 
the  mouth  and  throat,  which  continues  for  some 
time.  It  is  valued  in  medicine,  and  is  chewed  or 
administered  in  the  form  of  a  tincture  to  relieve 
toothache,  also  in  cases  of  paralysis  of  the  tongue, 
as  a  sialogogue  in  certain  kinds  of  headache,  and 
of  rheumatic  and  neuralgic  affections  of  the  face, 
and  is  used  as  a  gargle  in  relaxation  of  the  uvula. 
The  powder  of  it  enters  into  the  composition  of 
certain  cephalic  snuffs,  and  is  rubbed  on  the  skia 
in  some  eastern  countries,  to  promote  perspiration. 
It  is  the  Railix  pyrethri  of  the  pharmacopoeias.  It  is 
a  powerful  local  irritant  The  plant  cultivated  in 
Germany  has  more  slender  roots  than  that  of  the 
Levant,  and  has  sometimes  been  described  as  a 
distinct  species  (A.  officinarum),  but  is  probably  a 

mere  variety. 

4  363 


Pellitory  (Parietaria  officinalis). 


PELLS— PELTRY. 


PELLS,  Clerk  of  the  (Lat.  pellis,  a  skin),  a 
clerk  belonging  to  the  Court  of  Exchequer  in 
Englaud  and  Ireland,  whose  office  was  to  enter 
every  teller's  bill  into  a  parchment  or  skin,  called 
pellis  receptorum,  and  also  to  make  another  roll  of 
payments,  which  was  called  pellis  exituum,  and 
which  shewed  the  warrant  under  which  the  money 
was  paid.  The  office  was  abolished  in  1834  by  the 
statute  4  and  5  Will.  IV.  c.  15,  which  transferred 
the  duties  to  the  comptroller-general,  who  there- 
upon assumed  the  custody  of  the  records  ;  and  the 
Treasury  thereafter  established  new  forms  of  book/3, 
accounts,  and  warrants. 

PELO'PIDAS,  a  celebrated  Theban  general  of 
noble  descent,  noted  among  his  fellow-citizens  for 
his  disinterested  patriotism.  The  inviolable  friend- 
ship between  himself — one  of  the  richest  men  in 
Thebes — and  Epaminondas — one  of  the  poorest — 
is  among  the  most  beautiful  things  recorded  in 
Greek  history.  In  382  b.  c.  he  was  driven  from 
Thebes  by  the  oligarchic  party,  who  were  sup- 
ported by  the  Spartans,  and  forced  to  seek  refuge 
at  Athens,  whence  he  returned  secretly  with  a 
few  associates,  379  B.C.,  and  recovered  possession  of 
the  Kadmeia,  or  citadel,  slaying  the  Spartan  leader, 
Leontiades,  with  his  own  hand.  Plutarch  gives  us 
a  vivid  picture  of  the  adventurous  exiles  gliding 
quietly  in  disguise  into  the  city  on  a  winter  after- 
noon, amid  bitter  wind  and  sleet.  Having  been 
elected  Bceotarch,  in  conjunction  with  Melon  and 
Charon,  he  set  about  training  and  disciplining 
his  troops,  so  that  they  soon  became  as  formidable 
as  the  Lacedemonians,  and  were  successful  in 
several  small  encounters  with  the  latter.  His 
*  sacred  band'  of  Theban  youth  largely  contributed 
to  the  victory  of  Epaminondas  at  Leuctra  (371  B.C.), 
but  failed  in  a  subsequent  attack  on  Sparta  itself. 
In  the  expedition  of  the  Thebans  against  the  cruel 
tyrant,  Alexander  of  Pherse  (368  b.  a),  he  was,  after 
several    important    successes,    treacherously  taken 

Erisoner,  when  in  the  character  of  an  ambassador ; 
ut  was  rescued  by  Epaminondas  in  the  expedition 
of  the  following  year.  He  was  then  sent  to  Susa,  as 
ambassador  from  Thebes,  to  counteract  the  Spartan 
and  Athenian  intrigues  going  on  at  the  court  of 
Persia,  and  behaved  himself  very  nobly  while 
there.  His  diplomacy  was  successful.  In  364  B.  c, 
a  third  expedition  was  planned  against  Alexander 
of  Pheraa,  who,  as  usual,  was  threatening  the  Thes- 
salian  towna.  The  command  was  given  to  P.,  and 
in  the  summer  he  marched  into  Thessaly,  where  he 
won  the  battle  of  Kynoskephalse,  but  was  himself 
killed  while  too  eagerly  pursuing  the  foe.  He  was 
buried  by  the  Thessalians  with  great  pomp. 

PELO'PIUM  was  the  name  given,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century  (1802),  by  Rose  to 
a  new  metal,  which  he  thought  he  had  discovered 
in  the  mineral  Columbite.  It  was  subsequently 
ascertained  that  it  was  identical  with  Niobium. 

PELOPONNE'SIAN  WAR,    See  Greece. 

PELOPONNESUS  (Le.,  the  isle  of  Pelops),  now 
called  the  Morea  (q.v.),  a  peninsula,  which  formed 
the  southern  part  of  ancient  Greece,  Hellas  Proper 
being  situated  to  the  northward  of  the  isthmus,  on 
which  stood  the  city  of  Corinth.  See  Greece.  The 
whole  area  is  less  than  9000  square  miles.  In  the 
most  flourishing  periods  of  Grecian  history,  the  P. 
had  a  population  of  more  than  two  millions, 
although  at  present  it  has  little  over  half  a 
million.  Among  its  most  important  cities  were 
Sparta  in  Laconia,  and  Argos  the  capital  of 
Argolis.  Sparta  acquired,  after  the  Messenian 
War,  a  decided  supremacy  over  the  other  states, 
and  disputed  the  supremacy  with  Athens  in  a  war 
of  almost  thirty  years'  duration  (431 — 404  B.c.) — 


the  famous  '  Peloponnesian  War,'  of  which  the 
history  has  been  written  by  Thucydides.  After  the 
Roman  conquest,  the  P.  formed  part  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Achaia,  and  subsequently  belonged  to  the 
Byzantine  empire.   Eor  its  later  history,  see  Morea, 

PE'LOPS,  in  Greek  Mythology,  the  grandson 
of  Zeus,  and  the  son  of  Tantalus,  was  slain  by  his 
father,  and  served  up  at  an  entertainment  which  he 
gave  to  the  gods,  in  order  to  test  their  omnisi  ience. 
They  were  not  deceived,  and  would  not  touch  the 
horrible  food ;  but  Ceres,  being  absorbed  with  grief 
for  the  loss  of  her  daughter,  ate  part  of  a  shoulder 
without  observing.  The  gods  then  commanded  the 
members  to  be  thrown  into  a  cauldron,  out  of  which 
Clotho  brought  the  boy  again  alive,  and  the  want  of 
the  shoulder  was  supplied  by  an  ivory  one.  Accord- 
ing  to  the  legend  most  general  in  later  times,  P. 
was  a  Phrygian,  who,  being  driven  by  Ilos  from 
Sipylos,  came  with  great  treasures  to  the  peninsula, 
which  derived  from  him  the  name  of  Peloponnesus, 
married  Hippodamia,  obtained  her  fathers  kingdom 
by  conquering  him  in  a  chariot  race,  and  became  the 
father  of  Atreus,  Thyestes,  and  other  sons. 

PELTRY,  a  general  term  applied  to  the  trade  in 
the  skins  of  wild  animals,  to  the  undressed  skins 
themselves,  and  chiefly  to  furs,  the  product  of  North 
America.  The  Hudson's  Bay  Conipanj',  which  en- 
joyed an  almost  complete  monopoly  of  the  traffic  in 
furs,  ceased  to  exist  in  1859.  The  fur  trade  has  long 
been  conducted  by  American  companies,  associated  in 
the  well-known  Missouri  Fur  Company,  the  North- 
west Fur  Company,  and  the  enterprises  of  John 
Jacob  Astor.  In  1867,  the  Russian  Fur  Company 
transferred  its  properties  to  the  United  States,  and  a 
company  was  incorporated  at  San  Francisco  to  take 
and  deal  in  the  furs  of  the  Alaska  seal  and  other 
animals,  and  their  imports  for  1870  are  stated  at 
$2,000,000.  London  and  Leipsic  are  becoming  the 
best  markets  for  American  furs. 

The  fur  now  most  highly  esteemed  and  the  most 
costly  is  that  of  the  silver  fox,  a  very  rare  animal, 
found  only  in  extreme  northern  latitudes.  It  is  sold 
almost  exclusively  to  the  nobles  of  Europe,  and  541 
skins  were  sold  in  1865;  in  1869,  2420  were  offered, 
and  in  1870,  910  were  sold.  The  cross-fox  is  a  very 
beautiful  animal,  and  also  rare,  the  highest  number 
of  skins  sold  being  6291  in  1869,  in  1865,  2305,  and 
the  sales  neither  rose  above  nor  fell  below  these 
numbers  from  1859  to  1870.  During  the  same  time, 
the  sales  of  bear-skins  ranged  from  7000  to  nearly 
13,000,  and  of  wolf-skins  from  4000  to  12,600.  Sales 
of  mink-skins  exceeded  100,000  in  1860  and  1869,  and 
during  the  remaining  1 1  years  ranged  from  50,000  to 
90,000.  Marten-skins,  pine,  stone,  and  perhaps  the 
fitch  marten,  ranged  from  78,838  in  1870  to  147,091 
in  1859.  Muskrat,  or  musquash,  is  the  most  abun- 
dant fur-bearing  animal,  and  sales  amount  to  about 
2,000,000  a  year.  The  skunk  or  polecat — now  gen- 
erally called  the  black  marten,  or  Alaska  sable — is  very 
abundant,  has  been  introduced  as  a  fashionable  fur, 
and  is  really  elegant.  The  sale  of  skunk-skins  in 
London  in  1860  reached  145,679,  and  in  1864  alout 
140,000  were  sold;  in  1865,  78,000;  in  1866,  61,000; 
in  1867,  109,600;  in  1868,  70,400;  in  1869,  84,300; 
in  1870,  55,639.  Vast  numbers  are  sold  in  ihe  United 
States  that  are  not  designed  for  Europe.  Of  rac- 
coon-skins, half  a  million  are  annually  sold  in  Lon- 
don. Of  the  skins  of  the  beaver,  which  we  had 
deemed  almost  extinct,  there  have  been  sold  during 
the  last  11  years  an  average  number  of  150,000 
a  year,  and  in  1867,  176,788;  in  1870,  165,232.  Of 
lynx-skins  (wild-cat),  there  Mere  sold  in  1863—4—5 
an  average  of  5500;  in  1868  and  1869,  nea^y  80,000. 
Of  opossum-skins,  there  were  sold  in  1863,  23,065,  and 
in  1867,  214,177.      Of  buffalo-robes,  in  1856  more 


PELUSIUM-PELVIS. 


than    100,000  were   sold,   but   in    1864   the  sales  hail 
dwindled  to  60,000,  and  are  dow  probably  much  Less. 
The  pelta  of  many  animals  in  their  original  Btate  are 
in  it  well  fitted  for  decorative  apparel.    The  recent  dis- 
covery, that  the  long  hairs  which  project  Over  the  tine 

nnder-fur  of  main-  apeciea,  are  also  deeper  runted  in  the 
skin,  lias  given  rise  to  an  easy  and  admirable  method 
of  removing  them  very  completely.  The  pelts  are 
stretched  and  passed  through  a  paring-machine,  which 

pares  the  flesh-side  with  sneh  nicety  that  it  takes  off  a 

thin  layer,  and  cnta  only  through  the  roots  of  the  coarse, 
deep-seated  hairs,  which  are  consequently  easily  shaken 
or  brushed  out.  In  this  way,  and  by  dyeing  the  fur, 
beantiful  imitations  of  the  COStly  seal-skins,  &c,  are 
prepared  from  muskrat  and  other  common  pelts.  See 
Appletona'  Journal,  Dee.  24,  1870,  and  Jan.  21,  1871. 

PELU'SIUM,  the  Greek  name  of  an  ancient 
Egyptian  city,  situated  at  the  north-eastern  angle 
of  the  Delta,  and  important  as  the  key  of 
Egypt  on  the  Asiatic  side.  The  eastern  mouth 
of  the  Nile  derived  from  it  the  epithet  Pelusian 
{Ostium  Pelusiacu m).  P.  is  called  Sin  in  the  Old 
Testament;  and  both  words,  as  well  as  the  native 
Coptic  or  Egyptian  name  Peremoun,  or  Peromi, 
signify  the  mud-city.  The  Ostium  Pelusiacum  was 
choked  up  with  sand  as  long  ago  as  the  1st  c.  B.  c, 
and  its  distance  from  the  sea  has  ever  since  been 
increasing.  P.  appears  to  have  originally  borne  the 
name  of  Anaris,  or  Abaris.  It  is  so  called  by 
Manetho,  who  attributes  its  foundation  to  the 
Hyksos  about  2000  b.  c.  ;  but  it  first  figures  in 
semi-authentic  history  as  the  scene  of  Sennacherib's 
defeat,  when  (according  to  the  Egyptian  tradition, 
as  reported  by  Herodotus),  the  camp  of  the 
Assyrians  was  invaded  at  night  by  a  host  of 
field-mice,  who  gnawed  their  bowstrings  and 
shield-straps,  so  that  in  the  morning,  when  the 
Egyptians  fell  upon  them,  they  were  defenceless. 
For  the  Hebrew  account  of  Sennacherib's  defeat 
see  2  Kings,  chaps.  IS  and  19.  In  525  B.  c,  Cam- 
byses  overthrew,  near  P.,  the  forces  of  Pharaoh- 
Psammetichus.  The  city  was  also  taken  by  the 
Persians  in  309  B.  c. ;  and  in  173  B.  c,  it  was  the 
scene  of  the  defeat  of  Ptolemy  Philometor  by 
Antiochus  Epiphanes.  Mark  Antony  captured  it, 
55  B.C.,  and  it  opened  its  gates  to  Octavian  after 
his  victory  at  Actium,  31  B.  c.  Its  later  history  is 
unimportant,  and  its  ruins — at  Tineh,  near  Damietta 
— possess  little  interest. 

PE'LVIS,  Thk  (from  the  Latin  pelvis,  a  basin),  is 
a  bony  ring  interposed  between  the  spinal  column 
and  the  lower  extremities,  so  as  to  transmit  the 
weight  of  the  former  to  the  latter.  Before  consid- 
ering the  pelvis  as  a  whole,  it  will  be  expedient  to 
consider  the  individual  bones  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed. These,  in  the  adult,  are  four  in  number, 
viz.,  the  two  ossa  innominata  which  constitute 
its  sides  and  front,  and  the  sacrum  and  coccyx, 
which  complete  it  behind.  The  os  innominatum 
receives  its  name  from  its  bearing  no  resemblance 
to  tny  known  body,  and  is  a  large  irregular-shaped 
bone.  In  the  young  subject,  it  consists  of  three 
separate  bones,  which  meet  and  form  the  deep, 
cup-shaped  cavity  (the  acetabulum),  situated  a  little 
below  the  middle  of  the  outside  of  the  bone, 
and  in  which  the  head  of  the  thigh-bone  rests. 
Hence  it  is  usual  to  describe  this  bone  as  consisting 
of  the  ilium,  the  ischium,  aud  the  pubes.  The  ilium 
is  the  superior,  broad,  and  expanded  portion  which 
forms  the  prominence  of  the  hip,  and  articulates 
with  the  sacrum.  This  bone  may  be  described  as 
divisible  into  an  external  and  an  internal  surface, 
a  crest,  and  an  anterior  and  posterior  border.  The 
external  surface  (see  fig.  I.)  is  convex  in  front,  and 
concave  behind ;  it  is  bounded  above  by  the  crest, 


below  by  the  upper  border  of  the  acetabulum  (sea 
fig.  II.),  and  in  front  and  behind  by  the  anterior  and 
posterior  borders.  It  presents  various  curved  lines 
and  rough  surfaces  for  the  attachment  of  the  glutcei 
and  other  powerful  muscles  connecting  the  pelvis 
and  the  lower  extremities.  The  internal  surface, 
which  is  smooth  and  concave,  has  the  same  boun- 
daries as  the  external,  except  interiorly,  win  n-  it 
terminates  in  a  prominent  line,  termed  the  linea 
ilio-pectinea.  The  surface  of  the  crest  is  convex, 
roughened,  and  sufficiently  broad  to  admit  of  the 
attachment  of  three  planes  of  muscles.  The  bor- 
ders will  be  sufficiently  understood  by  a  reference 
to  fig.  L     The  ischium  is  the  inferior  and  stronf est 


Fig.  L 
The  Os  Innominatum  of  the  right  side. 
1,  the  ilium,  its  external  surface;  2,  the  ischium  ;  3,  the  OS 
pubis ;  4,  the  crest  of  the  ilium  ;  5,  6,  upper  ami  lo  w»r 
curved  lines  for  attachment  of  muscles  ;  7.  the  surface  for 
attachment  of  the  glutieus  maximus ;  8,  9,  the  anterior 
superior  and  inferior  spinous  processes  ;  10,  11,  the  posterior 
spinous  processes;  12,  the  spine  of  the  ischium;  13,  14,  the 
greater  and  lesser  sacro-isctiiatic  notches;  15,  the  tuberosity 
of  the  ischium  ;  16,  ita  ramus  ;  17,  the  body  of  the  os  pubis; 
18,  its  ramus  ;  19,  the  acetabulum  ;  20,  the  thyroid  or  obtur- 
ator foramen. — (From  Wilson.) 

portion  of  the  bone.  It  consists  of  a  thick  and 
solid  portion,  the  body  (whose  inferior  border  ia 
termed  the  tuberosity) ,  and  a  thin  ascending  portion, 
the  ramus.  In  the  ordinary  sitting  position,  the 
whole  weight  of  the  body  rests  on  the  ischium  ;  and 
by  sitting  on  the  hands,  we  can  usually  feel  the 
part  (the  tuberosity,  see  fig.  I.  15)  through  which 
the  weight  is  transmitted.  The  pubes  is  that 
portion  which  runs  horizontally  inwards  from  the 
inner  side  of  the  acetabulum  for  about  two  inches, 
and  then  descends  obliquely  outwards  for  about 
the  same  length,  thus  making  an  acute  angle  with 
its  original  direction.  The  former  part  is  called  the 
body,  and  the  latter  the  ramus,  of  the  pubes.  The 
ramus  is  continuous  with  the  ramus  of  the  ischium. 
Between  the  ischium  and  pubes  is  a  large  aperture, 
known  as  the  thyroid  or  obturator  foramen,  which 
in  the  living  body  is  closed  by  a  membrane  termed 
the  obturator  li(jament.  The  object  of  this  large 
foramen  is  probably  to  give  lightness  to  the  parts, 
without  materially  diminishing  their  strength. 

The  development  of  the  os  innominatum  afford? 
an  excellent  example  of  the  general  principles  laid 
down  in  the  article  Ossification.  There  are  no 
less  than  eight  centres  of  ossification  for  this  bone ; 
three    primary — one    for    the    ilium,  one   for  the 

365 


PELVIS. 


ischium,  and  one  for  the  pubes — and  five  secondary 
ones  for  various  processes,  &c.  The  first  centre 
appears  in  the  lower  part  of  the  ilium,  at  about  the 
game  period  that  the  development  of  the  vertebrae 
commences,  viz.,  at  about  the  close  of  the  second 
month  of  fetal  life  ;  the  second  in  the  body  of  the 
ischium,  just  below  the  acetabulum,  at  about  the 
third  month  ;  and  the  third  in  the  body  of  the  pubes, 
near  the  acetabulum,  during  the  fourth  or  fifth 
month.  At  birth,  the  crest  of  the  ilium,  the  bottom 
of  the  acetabulum,  and  the  rami  of  the  ischium  and 
puhes,  are  still  cartilaginous.  At  about  the  sixth  or 
seventh  year,  these  rami  become  completely  ossi- 
fied ;  next,  the  ilium  is  united  to  the  ischium  ;  and 
lastly,  the  pubes  is  joined  to  the  other  two  in  the 
acetabulum.  The  complete  ossification  of  the  bone, 
from  the  secondary  centres  in  the  crest  of  the 
ilium,  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium,  &c,  is  not 
completed  till  about  the  twenty-fifth  year. 

Each  os  innominatum  articulates  with  its  fellow  of 
the  opposite  side  (through  the  intervention  of  the 
interosseous  Jibro-cartilage,  which  unites  the  two 
surfaces  of  the  pubic  bones,  see  fig.  II.  /),  with  the 
sacrum,  and  with  the  femur  (at  the  acetabulum). 
No  less  than  thirty-five  muscles  are  attached  to  this 
bone,  some  proceeding  to  the  region  of  the  back, 
others  forming  the  walls  of  the  abdomen,  others 
forming  the  floor  of  the  pelvis,  others  passing  down- 
wards to  the  lower  extremities,  &c     As  the  other 


rig.  n. 

Pelvis  (with  Fifth  Lumbar  Vertebra)  of  European  Female 
*dult.  Transverse  diameter,  6  7 ;  anteroposterior  diameter, 
4-o  inches. 

1,  the  last  lumbar  vertebra;  2,  the  inter-vertebral  substance 
connecting  it  with  the  sacrum ;  3,  the  promontory  of  the 
sacrum;  4,  its  anterior  surface;  5,  the  coccyx;  6,  6,  the 
iliac  fossae;  9,  the  acetabulum;  c,  the  tuberosity,  and  b  the 
body  of  the  ischium;  e,  the  os  pubis;  /,  the  symphysis 
pubis;  g,  the  arch,  i,  the  spine,  and  k  the  pectineal  line  of 
the  pubis ;  k,  I,  k,  I,  the  ileo-pectineal  lines. — (From  Humphry.) 

bones  entering  into  the  formation  of  the  pelvis,  the 
sacrum,  and  the  coccyx,  belong  essentially  to  the 
vertebral  column,  and  will  be  ~  described  in  the 
article  on  that  subject,  it  is  sufficient  here  to  remark 
that,  collectively,  they  form  a  triangular  bony  mass 
(with  the  base  upwards,  and  with  a  concave  ante- 
rior surface),  which  constitutes  the  posterior  part  of 
the  pelvic  ring.     See  fig.  II.  4,  5. 

The  pelvis,  considered  as  a  whole,  is  divisible  into 
a  false  and  true  pelvis.  The  false  pelvis  is  all  that 
expanded  portion  which  is  bounded  laterally  by  the 
iliac  bones,  and  lies  above  the  prominent  line  termed 
the  Unea  ileo-pectinea  (see  fig.  II.  k,  I) ;  while  the  true 
pelvis  is  all  that  part  of  the  general  pelvic  cavity 
which  is  situated  below  that  line.  The  broad, 
Bhallow  cavity  of  the  false  pelvis  serves  to  support 
the  weight  of  the  intestines ;  while  the  rectum, 
bladder,  and  part  of  the  generative  organs,  lie  in 
the  cavity  of  the  true  pelvis.  The  upper  aperture  of 
the  true  pelvis  is  termed  the  inlet.  It  is  somewhat 
366 


heart-shaped  in  form,  and  has  three  principal  dia- 
meters—an antero-posterior  (or  sacro-pubic),  which 
extends  from  the  angle  formed  by  the  sacrum  with 
the  last  lumbar  vertebra  to  the  symphysis  pubis, 
or  point  of  union  of  the  two  pubic  bones ;  the 
transverse,  at  right  angles  to  the  former,  and 
extending  across  the  greatest  width  of  the  pelvis; 
and  the  oblique,  extending  from  the  sacro-iliac 
symphysis  (or  union),  on  one  side,  to  the  margin 
of  the  brim  corresponding  with  the  acetabulum  on 
the  other.  The  diameters  of  the  outlet  are  tw  o — 
an  antero-posterior,  extending  from  the  tip  of  the 
coccyx  to  the  lower  part  of  the  symphysis  pubis; 
and  a  transverse,  from  the  posterior  part  of  one 
ischiatic  tuberosity,  to  the  same  point  on  the 
opposite  side.  As  the  precise  knowledge  of  the 
diameter  and  depth  of  the  pelvis  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  the  practice  of  midwifery,  we  give 
the  average  numbers  representing  the  dimensions 
of  a  well-formed  adult  female  pelvis.  Diameters  of 
inlet  or  brim — antero-posterior,  44  inches  ;  trans- 
verse, 5'4 inches;  oblique,  4-8  inches.  Diameters  of 
outlet — antero-posterior,  5  inches  ;  transverse,  4'3 
inches.  Dejith  of  the  true  pelvis — posteriorly,  4'5 
inches;  in  the  middle,  35  inches;  anteriorly,  1*5 
inches. 

The  pelvis  is  placed  obliquely  with  regard  to  the 
trunk  of  the  body  ;  the  plane  of  the  inlet  to  the  true 
pelvis  forming  an  angle  of  from  60°  to  65°  with 
the  horizon.  According  to  Naegele  (Ueber  das 
weibliche  Becken),  the  extremity  of  the  coccyx  is 
in  the  female,  when  standing  upright,  about  seven 
lines  higher  than  the  lower  edge  of  the  symphysis 
pubis  ;  the  upper  edge  of  the  symphysis  being  at 
the  same  level  as  the  lower  edge  of  the  second 
segment  of  the  coccyx.  By  attention  to  these  data, 
a  detached  pelvis  may  readily  be  placed  at  the  angle 
at  which  it  normally  lies  in  the  skeleton.  The 
shape  of  the  human  pelvis  is  much  affected  by  the 
curving  forward  of  the  lower  part  of  the  sacrum. 
This  bend  of  the  sacrum  forward  serves  to  support 
the  viscera,  when  the  body  is  in  an  erect  posture ; 
but  it  is  of  much  more  importance  in  its  relation  to 
the  act  of  parturition.  If  all  the  antero-posterior 
diameters  of  the  true  pelvis  from  the  brim  to  the 
outlet  were  bisected,  the  points  of  bisection  would 
form  a  curved  line,  similar  to  the  curve  of  the 
sacrum,  and  termed  the  axis  of  the  pelvis.  As  the 
head  of  the  child  has  to  follow  this  curve,  the  diffi- 
culties of  parturition  are  much  greater  than  if  the 
axis  of  the  pelvis  had  been  straight,  as  in  the  other 
vertebrata.  Without  entering  into  unnecessary 
details,  we  may  remark  generally,  that  the  foetal 
head  is  of  oval  shape,  with  its  greatest  diameter  from 
before  backwards,  and  that  in  its  passage  through 
the  pelvis  it  is  so  placed  that  its  longest  diameter  at 
each  stage  of  labour  coincides  with  the  longest 
diameter  of  the  pelvis.  The  head  enters  the  pelvis 
with  the  occiput  (or  back  of  the  skull)  being  directed 
towards  one  ihum,  and  the  face  towards  the  other, 
while,  at  its  final  emergence,  the  face  is  turned 
towards  the  sacrum  and  coccyx.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  screw-like  or  rotatory  motion  which 
is  thus  given  to  the  fetal  head,  renders  its  passage 
through  the  pelvis  more  easy  than  it  woidd  other- 
wise have  been. 

There  are  well-marked  differences,  chiefly  having 
reference  to  the  act  of  parturition,  between  the  male 
and  female  pelvis.  In  the  female,  the  bones  are 
lighter  and  more  delicate  than  in  the  male,  and  the 
muscular  impressions  and  eminences  are  less  dis- 
tinctly marked.  The  iliac  fossae  are  large  and 
expanded,  and  hence  the  great  prominence  of  the 
hips.  The  several  diameters  (particidarly  the  trans- 
verse diameter  of  the  brim,  which  measures  only  51 
inches  in  the  male)  are  somewhat  greater ;  and  the 


PEMRROKE-PEMBROKFSinRE. 


Fig.  III. 
Peht\  with  two  Lumbar  Ver- 
tebras Jt  a  Urge  Monkey. 
TraiiKTi  i  Be  diameter,  -"7,  and 
antero-postetior  diameter,  3 
inches.— vFrom  Humphry.) 


pubic    arch    is    wider  by    about   ten    degrees ;    the 
sac  mm  also  is  wider  and  less  curved. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  pelvis  of  the  negro 
is  smaller  in.  all  its  dimensions  than  that  of  the 
European,  and  presents 
a  partial  approximation 
to  that  of  the  monkey 
(fig,  III.),  especially  in 
the  deficiency  of  its 
width.  This  difference 
is  very  much  more 
obvious  in  the  male  than 
in  the  female  negro;  and 
parturition  in  the  black 
races  is  facilitated  both 
by  the  sacrum  being  less 
curved,  and  by  the  foetal 
head  being  of  smaller 
dimensions.  In  the  apes 
and  nvmkeys,  which 
approach  most  nearly  to 
man,  the  pelvis  is  longer 
and  narrower,  and  much 
less  curved  than  in  the 
human  subject.  In  other 
mammals,  the  differences 
are  for  the  most  part 
the  same  in  kind,  but 
greater  in  degree.  In  many  of  the  Cheiroptera  (bats) 
and  Inseerivora  (as  the  mole),  the  pubic  bones  are 
only  loosely  connected  by  a  small  ligament,  or  there 
is  a  complex  opening  between  the  bones  (as  occurs 
normally  in  birds),  an  arrangement  by  which  the 
act  of  parturition  in  these  animals  is  much  facilitated. 
The  pelvic  bones  are  very  simple  in  the  Cetacea,  in 
6ome  cases  being  represented  by  two  simple  elong- 
ated bones  lying  near  the  anus,  and  converging 
from  opposite  sides  (a  transverse  connecting  piece 
being  sometimes  but  not  always  present)  ;  in  others, 
by  a  small  V-shaped  bone,  while  sometimes  (as  in 
Manatus)  they  seem  to  be  entirely  wanting.  The 
additional  pelvic  bones  in  the  non-placental  mam- 
mals have  been  already  noticed  in  the  articles  on  the 
Marsupiata  and  Monotremata.  In  the  echidna 
(belonging  to  the  latter  order),  the  acetabulum  is 
perforated,  as  occurs  normally  in  birds.  In  birds,  in 
addition  to  the  peculiarity  just  noticed,  we  find  the 
pelvis  open  in  front  (or,  more  correctly,  interiorly), 
there  being  no  union  of  the  pubic  bones  in  any  bird 
except  the  ostrich.  This  normal  incompleteness  of 
the  pelvic  ring  is  obviously  for  the  purpose  of  facili- 
tating the  passage  of  the  eggs.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
trace  the  further  degradation  of  the  pelvic  bones  in 
the  Reptiles  and  Fishes. 

PE'M  BROKE,  a  seaport  of  South  Wales,  a 
market-town,  and  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough,  in  the  county  of  the  same  name,  occupies 
a  rocky  ridge  on  a  navigable  creek  of  Milford 
Haven,  7  miles  south-east  of  Milford.  On  the 
extremity  of  the  ridge  on  which  the  town  is  built, 
are  the  remains  of  its  once  extensive  castle.  In 
1648,  the  castle  was  beleaguered  by  Cromwell,  and 
taken  after  a  siege  of  six  weeks.  Within  this 
ancient  stronghold,  Henry  VII.  was  born  in  1457. 
The  keep,  the  principal  building  in  the  inner  court, 
is  75  feet  high,  and  163  feet  in  circumference,  and  is 
surmounted  by  a  cone-shaped  roof  of  masonry,  still 
perfect.  Pater,  otherwise  called  Pembroke  Dock, 
which  is  rather  a  ship-building  than  a  commercial 
centre,  is  two  miles  from  the  town,  and  has  12  build- 
ing-slips and  a  dry-dock.  The  entire  naval  establish- 
ment em  Graces  an  area  of  80  acres,  and  is  surrounded 
by  a  high  wall,  flanked  by  two  martello  towers. 
Within  P.  are  St  Michael's,  a  church  of  Norman 
date,  and  numerous  ecclesiastical  and  educational 
institutions.     Pop.  (1871)  of  parliamentary  borough, 


15.4T.o;  of  municipal  borough,  18,704.  I',  unites 
with  Tenby,  Milford,  and  Wiaton  in  sending  a  mem- 
ber to  parliament. 

PEMBROKE  COLLEGE,  Oxford.  Broadoatf.s 
Hall,  a  place  of  education,  originally  belonging  in 
part  to  St  Frydeswyde's  Priory,  and  in  part  to  the 
monastery  of  Abingdon,  was,  on  the  dissolution 
of  the  religious  houses,  given  to  Christ  Chinch  by 
Henry  VIII.  In  1(>2!>,  it  was  made  a  College  by 
dames  I.,  and  took  its  name  from  the  Ear]  of 
Pembroke,  then  chancellor  of  the  university.  By 
the  ordinances  of  the  commissioners  under  17  and 
18  Vict.  c.  81,  the  constitution  of  the  college  is  now 
as  follows  :  There  are  to  be  not  less  than  It)  fellow* 
ships,  open  to  all,  not  to  exceed  £200  a  year  in 
value,  so  long  as  the  number  of  the  fellowship  is 
less  than  16.  There  are  not  to  be  less  than  10 
incorporated  scholarships,  value  £50  a  year,  and 
rooms  free ;  of  these,  5  are  open,  5  tilled  up  from 
Abingdon  School.  There  are  besides  11  other 
scholarships,  subject  to  various  conditions.  This 
college  presents  to  8  benefices,  of  which  6  have  been 
purchased  since  1812. 

PEMBROKE  COLLEGE,  Cambridge,  was 
founded  in  1347  by  Mary  de  St  Paul,  the  widow  of 
Aymer  de  Valence,  Earl  of  Pembroke.  She  was 
maid,  wife,  and  widow  all  in  one  day,  her  husband 
being  slain  at  a  tilting-match  held  in  honour  of  her 
nuptials.  On  this  sad  event,  she  sequestered  herself 
from  all  worldly  delights,  and  bequeathed  her  estate 
to  pious  uses.  Henry  VI.  was  so  liberal  a  bene- 
factor to  this  college  as  to  obtain  the  name  of  a 
second  founder.  There  are  16  fellowships  and  24 
scholarships  of  different  values. 

PEMBROKESHIRE,  a  maritime  county  of 
South  Wales,  and  the  westernmost  county  of  the 
Principality,  is  bounded  on  the  S.  by  the  Bristol 
Channel,  and  on  the  W.  and  N.  by  St  George's 
Channel.  Area  (census  of  1871),  393.682  acres. 
Population,  91,998.  The  river  Teivy  separates  the 
county  on  the  north-east  from  that  of  Cardigan.  On 
the  north  are  Newport  and  Fishguard  Bays,  the 
latter  3  miles  in  width,  from  30  to  70  feet  in  depth, 
and  with  good  anchoring-ground.  Off  St  David's 
Head,  on  the  west  coast,  are  a  number  of  rocky 
islets,  called  the  Bishop  and  his  Clerks.  St  Bride's 
Bay,  the  widest  inlet,  is  8  miles  in  width,  and  has 
an  inland  sweep  of  7  miles.  Milford  Haven  (q.  v.) 
is  the  most  important  estuary.  The  shores  on  the 
south  are  wild  and  inhospitable,  and  fronted  by 
high  precipitous  cliffs.  The  surface  is  undulating ; 
green  hills  alternate  with  fertile  valleys.  The  prin- 
cipal elevations  occur  in  the  Precelly  Hills,  which 
traverse  the  north  of  the  county  from  ea3t  to  west, 
and  rise  in  their  highest  summit  to  the  height  of 
1754  feet.  The  rivers  of  the  greatest  importance 
are  the  Eastern  and  Western  Cleddau,  which  unite 
and  form  a  navigable  portion  of  Milford  Haven. 
None  of  the  rivers,  of  which  the  Western  Cleddau 
is  the  principal,  are  important.  The  climate  is 
mild,  but  damp  in  the  south  of  the  county ;  while 
in  the  north,  the  temperature  is  considerably  lower. 
There  are  excellent  and  productive  soils  in  the 
south,  and  along  the  north-west  coast  the  barley 
districts  are  famous ;  but  the  land  on  the  Precelly 
Mountains  and  in  the  coal  districts  is  inferior 
Coal,  slate,  lead,  and  iron  are  the  only  minerals 
worked  The  county  is  penetrated  by  the  great 
coal-field  of  South  Wales,  which,  entering  from  the 
east,  narrows  as  it  approaches  St  Bride's  Bay.  The 
coal,  which  is  anthracite,  and  is  contained  in  beds 
of  shale  and  sandstone,  occurs  in  seams,  varying 
in  thickness  from  a  few  mches  to  6  feet,  and  some- 
times more.  Oats,  barley,  and  potatoes  are  the 
principal  crops.     The  county  returns  one  member 


PEMMICAN— PEN. 


fco  parliament.     The  chief  towns  are  Haverfordwest, 
St  Davids,  Pembroke,  and  Tenby. 

PE'MMICAN.  This  was  originally  a  North 
American  Indian  preparation  only,  but  it  was  intro- 
duced into  the  British  navy  victualling-yards,  in 
order  to  supply  the  arctic  expeditions  with  an  easily- 
preserved  food,  containing  the  largest  amount  of 
nutriment  in  the  smallest  space.  As  made  by  the 
Indians,  it  consists  of  the  lean  portions  of  venison 
dried  by  the  sun  or  wind,  and  then  pounded  into  a 
paste,  and  tightly  pressed  into  cakes ;  sometimes 
a  few  fruits  of  Amelanchier  ovata  are  added,  to 
improve  the  flavour.  It  wdl  keep  for  a  very  long 
time  uninjured.  That  made  for  the  arctic  voyagers 
was  chiefly  of  beef.  In  making  pemmican,  it  is 
necessary  to  remove  the  fat  completely. 

PE'MPHIGUS,  or  PO'MPHOLYX,  belongs  to 
that  order  of  skin-diseases  which  is  characterised 
by  an  eruption  of  large  vesicles,  filled  with  serous 
fluid,  and  known  as  bulla?.  The  disease  occurs  both 
in  the  acute  and  in  the  chronic  form.  In  a  mild 
case  of  acute  pemphigus,  bullae,  or  blisters,  from 
the  size  of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  chestnut  appear  in 
succession  (chiefly  on  the  extremities),  and  having 
continued  three  or  four  days,  break,  form  a  thin 
scab,  and  soon  heal,  unaccompanied  with  febrile  or 
inflammatory  symptoms.  In  severe  cases,  there  is 
considerable  constitutional  disturbance ;  the  bullce 
are  larger,  and  the  scabs  heal  with  difficulty.  The 
chronic  form  differs  mainly  from  the  acute  by  its 
prolonged  continuance.  The  acute  variety  chiefly 
affects  children,  and  has  been  ascribed  to  dentition, 
errors  of  diet,  &c. ;  while  the  chronic  form  chiefly 
attacks  aged  persons,  and  is  probably  due  to  debility 
and  impaired  nutrition.  The  acute  form  usually 
requires  nothing  but  cooling  medicines  and  diet,  and 
mild  local  dressings,  such  as  simple  cerate,  to  protect 
the  raw  surfaces  from  exposure  to  the  air.  In  the 
chronic  form,  a  nutritious  diet,  with  the  judicious 
use  of  tonics  (iron,  bark,  &c),  is  most  commonly 
successful.  In  obstinate  cases,  arsenic  is  sometimes 
of  use. 

PEN,  an  instrument  for  writing  with  a  fluid.  In 
ancient  times,  a  kind  of  reed  (Lat.  Calamus)  was 
chiefly  used,  though  sometimes  the  letters  were 
painted  with  a  line  hair-pencil,  as  among  the  Chinese 
at  the  present  day.  Quill-pens  (see  Quills)  pro- 
bably came  into  use  after  the  introduction  of 
modern  paper.  The  English  name  pen  is  from 
Lat.  penna,  a  feather ;  but  the  old  form  of  penna 
was  pesna  or  petna  (  =  Gr.  peteron),  from  the  root 
pet,  to  fly ;  and  just  as  Lat.  ped  is  identical 
with  Eng.  foot  (see  letter  F),  so  petna  or 
peteron  corresponds  to  feather  (Ger.  feeler).  Dur- 
ing last  century,  many  efforts  were  made  to 
improve  the  quill-pen,  the  great  defect  of  which 
was  its  speedy  injury  from  use,  and  the  conse- 
quent trouble  of  frequent  mending ;  moreover, 
even  the  most  skilful  maker  could  not  insure  uni- 
formity of  quality,  and  any  variation  affected  the 
writer's  work.  These  efforts  were  chiefly  directed 
to  fitting  small  metal  or  even  ruby  points  to  the 
nib  of  the  quill-pen ;  but  the  delicacy  of  fitting  was 
so  great,  that  but  very  little  success  attended  the 
experiments.  At  the  beginning  of  this  century, 
pens  began  to  be  made  wholly  of  metal ;  they  con- 
sisted of  a  barrel  of  very  thin  steel,  and  were  cut 
and  sht  so  as  to  resemble  the  quill-pen  as  closely 
as  possible.  They  were,  however,  very  indifferent, 
and  being  dear  (the  retail  price  at  first  was  half-a- 
crown,  and  subsequently  sixpence),  they  made  but 
little  way;  their  chief  fault  was  hardness,  which 

Eroduced  a   disagreeable  scratching  of  the  paper, 
n  1820,  Mr  Joseph  Gillott,  who  dealt  in  the  metal 
pens  then  made,  hit  upon  an  improvement,  which, 
368 


by  removing  this  great  defect,  gave  a  stimulus  to 
the  manufacture,  which  has  caused  it  to  be  developed 
to  an  extent  truly  marvellous.  This  consisted  in 
making  three  slits  instead  of  the  single  one  formerly 
used,  and  by  this  means  much  greater  softness  and 
flexibility  were  acquired.  Mr  Gillott  also  introduced 
machinery  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  his 
improvements,  and  thereby  so  reduced  the  cost  of 
production,  that  he  was  enabled  to  sell  his  im- 
proved pens  in  1821  at  £7,  4s.  per  gross,  which 
was  then  considered  a  remarkable  success.  Better 
pens  are  now  sold  at  twopence  per  gross  by  the 
same  manufacturer ;  or,  in  other  words,  864  pens 
for  the  same  price  as  one  pen  in  1821.  Nor  is  this 
to  be  wondered  at,  when  we  are  acquainted  with 
the  wonderful  ingenuity  of  the  machinery  by 
which  it  is  effected.  The  lowest-priced  pens  are 
made  almost  entirely  by  machinery,  but  the  better 
ones  require  much  hand-labour  for  their  completion ; 
nevertheless,  in  the  works  of  Mr  Gillott  alone,  who 
is  only  one  of  several  large  manufacturers  in  Bir- 
mingham, the  annual  production  is  now  nearly 
150,000,000  pens,  requiring  a  supply  of  five  tons  per 
week  of  the  fine  sheet-steel  made  for  the  purpose  in 
Sheffield,  a  portion  of  which  is  returned  as  scrap  or 
waste  for  re-manufacture.  From  Sheffield  the  steel 
is  sent  in  sheets  about  eight  feet  long  by  three  feet 
broad  ;  it  is  prepared  from  the  best  iron,  generally 
Swedish  blooin.  The  manufacturer  then  prepares  it 
by  dipping  for  a  short  time  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
which  removes  the  scale  or  black  surface  ;  the  acid 
itself  is  also  carefully  removed  by  immersion  in 
clean  water  ;  the  sheets  are  then  passed  backward* 
and  forwards  through 
a  rolling-mill  with 
smooth  rollers,  which 
condense  the  steel,  and 
reduces  it  to  the  exact 
thickness  required,  it 
having  been  previous- 
ly cut  into  strips 
of  various  widths,  ac- 
cording to  the  kind 
of  pen  to  be  made ;  for 
the  ordinary  kind  its 
width  is  seen  in  fig.  1. 
This  is  then  passed 
through  a  cutting- 
machine,  which  rapidly 
punches  out  pieces  of 
the  shape  shewn  in 
fig.  2,  and  in  the  order 
shewn  in  fig.  1,  which 
is  a  portion  of  the 
strip  with  the  pieces 
or  blanks,  as  they  are 
called,  cut  out ;  that 
which  is  represented 
is  the  waste  or  scrap 
previously  referred  to.  The  blanks  are  now  passed 
through  a  succession  of  operations,  each  conducted 
by  a  separate  person :  women  or  girls  are  chiefly 
employed.  By  the  first  process  after  the  cutting, 
they  are  passed  one  by  one  into  a  machine  worked 
by  a  small  hand-lever,  which  makes  the  two  side- 
slits,  as  seen  in  fig.  3.  Piercing  is  sometimes  per- 
formed by  the  same,  but  more  frequently  by  a  similar 
machine,  in  which,  however,  only  one  punch  may 
act,  and  cut  out  the  small  hole  seen  in  fig.  4.  Thn 
repeated  rolling  and  stamping  of  the  metal  have  bj 
this  time  made  it  hard  and  brittle,  and  it  is  neces- 
sary to  anneal  it,  for  which  purpose  some  thousands 
of  the  slit  and  pierced  blanks  are  put  into  an  iron 
box,  and  placed  in  the  fire  for  a  time,  which  softens 
them  considerably ;  this  is  the  third  process.  When 
cold,    another    operator    receives    them     and    wiib 


Fig.L 


PEN  HOLDERS— PENALTY. 


another  hand-press  and  a  punch  stamps  or  marks, 
as  it  is  called,  the  name  of  the  maker,  fig.  5,  which 
constitutes  the  fourth  process.  The  fifth  is  some- 
what  similar,  and  is  sometimes  omitted  ;  it  consists 


in  placing  it  under  another  press,  which  has  a  pnnch 
and  die  for  embossing  any  ornamental  mark  or  number. 
The  sixth  process,  called  raising,  (-(insists  in  passing 
it  into  another  press,  which  lias  a  sinker  and  grooved 
•'■e,  as  in  rig.  6.     The  flat  blank  a  is  pushed  under 


Fig.  6. 

the  sinker  c,  is  pressed  by  the  action  of  the  lever  into 
the  groove  d,  and  comes  out  with  its  edges  curved 
up,  as  in  b.  The  seventh  process  consists  in  harden- 
ing, which  is  done  by  placing  the  pens  in  an  iron 
box  or  muffle,  and  when  they  are  at  a  red  heat, 
throwing  them  into  oil ;  this  renders  them  exceed- 
ingly brittle  and  hard,  too  much  so,  indeed,  for  they 
have  now  to  pass  through  the  eighth  or  tempering 
process,  which  brings  them  to  the  required  temper 
or  hardness  and  elasticity.  The  ninth  operation  is 
scouring ;  this  consists  in  putting  a  large  number 
into  a  tin  cylinder,  which  is  kept  revolving  by 
machinery  ;  sand  and  coarse  emery- 
powder  are  mixed  with  them;  and 
the  friction  of  these  materials  and  of 
the  pens  themselves  cleanses  them 
from  all  impurities,  and  brings  out 
the  natural  colour  of  the  metal.  The 
tenth  and  eleventh  processes  consist 
in  grinding  the  outside  of  the  nib, 
first  lengthwise  (fig.  7),  and  then 
crosswise  (fig.  8),  which  are  done  by 
different  persons  at  separate  grinding- 
wheels.  Next  follows  the  most  im- 
portant operation,  constituting  the 
twelfth  process  or  slitting — that  is, 
making  the  central  slit,  upon  the  nicety  of  which 
the  whole  value  of  the  pen  depends.  This  is 
done  in  a  hand-press  similar  to  the  others,  but 
the  cutting  part  consists  of  two  chisels,  one 
fixed  on  the  table,  the  other  coming  down  on 
336 


the  depression  of  the  lever,  and  so  accurately 
adjusted  as  to  just  clear  each  other.  The  operate 
then  skilfully  holds  the  pen  lengthwise  on  the 
fixed  chisel,  and  bringi  down  the  movable  one, 
so  as  to  effect  the  beautifully  clean  cut  which  con- 
stitutes so  important  a  feature  in  the  manufacture. 
Two  other  processes,  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth, 
finish  the  series :  the  fir>t  is  colouring,  by  heating 
them  in  a  revolving  cylinder  over  a  charcoal 
stove,  which  gives  them  a  blue  or  yellowish  colour, 
according  to  the  time  employed  ;  and  the  last  is 
varnishing  them  with  a  varnish  composed  of  Ian 
and  naphtha. 

1'nril  within  the  Inst  ten  years  the  writing-  public 
of  America  has  been  almost  wholly  dependent  upon  the 
foreign  manufacturers  for  its  pens.  American-made 
pens  are  now  rapidly  taking  the  place  of  the  foreign 
article.  'Hie  manufactory  of  Esterbrook  &  Co.  is  the 
most  extensive,  and  they  have  succeeded  in  obtaining; 
a  very  high  reputation  for  their  pens  throughout  the 
United  States.  They  employ  from  150  to  200  hands 
in  their  works,  and  annually  consume  40  tons  i 
and  other  metals,  making  about  300,000  gross  of  ]>ens. 
Since  their  establishment,  they  have  distributed  up- 
wards of  $ 400,000  among  the  mechanics,  &c.  of  Cam- 
den, X.  J.,  and  have  thus  exhibited  the  advanti  _  -  I 
home  industry,  even  when  employed  in  the  production 
of  an  article  so  diminutive  as  a  steel  pen. 

Gold  pens  are  extensively  made,  and  are  rendered 
very  durable  by  soldering  to  their  points  minute  par 
tides  of  the  extremely  hard  metal,  iridium. 

PEN  HOLDERS  are  small  turned  sticks,  usually 
of  cedar,  and  generally  with  a  steel  cylinder  to  fix 
the  pen.  They  are  used  only  for  metal  pens,  and 
are  now  made  by  machinery,  which  is  so  ingenious, 
that  it  turns  the  cedar,  previously  cut  into  square 
sticks,  round,  often  in  a  spiral  or  otherwise  orna- 
mental style,  cuts  them  to  the  required  length,  and 
polishes  and  varnishes  them. 

PENAL  SERVITUDE  is  a  sentence  for  criminal 
offences,  which  was  recently  introduced  in  lieu  of 
the  sentence  of  transportation  beyond  the  seas.  See 
Convict  ;  Transportation. 

PE'NALTY  is  a  sum  of  money  declared  by  some 
statute  or  contract  to  be  payable  by  one  who  com- 
mits an  offence  or  breach  of  contract.  It  is  con- 
sidered as  a  kind  of  punishment,  and  constituting 
indirectly  a  motive  to  the  party  to  avoid  the  com- 
mission of  the  act  which  induces  such  a  consequence. 
Many  contracts  executed  between  parties  contain  a 
clause  that  one  or  other  of  them  who  fails  to 
perform  his  part  of  the  contract,  will  incur  a  penalty, 
L  e.,  will  be  liable  to  pay  a  fixed  sum  of  money  to 
the  other  party.  In  such  cases,  a  distinction  is 
drawn  between  a  liquidated  and  unliquidated 
penalty ;  and  whether  it  is  of  the  one  kind  or  the 
other,  depends  on  the  language  used  in  the  contract. 
If  it  is  a  liquidated  penalty,  then,  when  the  breach 
of  contract  is  committed,  the  party  in  defaidt  must 
pay  that  precise  sum,  neither  more  nor  less  ;  bat  if 
it  is  unliquidated,  then  he  is  not  to  pay  the  whole 
sum,  but  merely  such  part  of  it  as  corresponds  to 
the  amount  of  injury  or  damage  done,  and  of  which 
proportion  a  jury  is  the  sole  judge  in  an  action 
of  damages.  In  statutes,  when  penalties  are  declared 
to  follow  on  certain  illegal  acts,  the  sum  is  some- 
times fixed,  but  in  many  cases  only  a  maximum  sum 
is  stated  it  being  left  to  the  court  or  the  justices 
who  enforce  the  penalty  what  is  a  sufficient 
punishment  for  the  offence.  Sometimes  penalties 
can  only  be  sued  for  by  the  parties  immediately 
injured  ;  but,  as  a  general  ride,  and  unless  it  is 
otherwise  restricted,  anybody  may  sue  for  the 
penalty,  for  in  an  offence  against  public  la  w,  where 
there  is  no  public  prosecutor,  any  person  who  chooses 

369 


PENANCE. 


may  set  the  law  in  motion.  Accordingly,  not  only 
may  anybody  in  general  sue  for  the  penalty,  but  an 
inducement  is  offered  by  declaring  the  party  who 
does  so  to  be  entitled  to  the  whole  or  a  half  of  the- 
penalty.  Without  such  inducement,  many  offences 
would  be  unpunished.  The  party  who  so  sues  is 
generally  called  the  informer.  Thus,  in  offences 
against  the  game  laws,  anybody  may  sue  for  the 
penalty,  and  he  is  entitled  to  half  of  it.  Sometimes 
the  penalty  can  only  be  sued  for  in  the  superior 
courts  of  law ;  but  in  the  great  majority  of  instances, 
the  enforcing  of  penalties  is  part  of  the  administra- 
tion of  justice  before  justices  of  the  peace.  It  is  for 
the  justices  to  fix  the  amount  if  they  have  (as  they 
generally  have)  a  discretion  to  do  so.  If  it  is  not 
paid,  the  justices  may  issue  a  distress-warrant, 
authorising  a  constable  to  seize  and  sell  the  goods 
of  the  party  to  pay  the  fine ;  and  if  there  are  no 
goods,  then  the  justices  may  commit  the  party  to 
prison  as  a  substitutionary  punishment.  Sometimes 
justices  have  a  discretion  either  to  impose  a  penalty 
or  commit  the  party  to  prison  as  an  alternative 
punishment.  All  these  matters  depend  on  the 
construction  of  particular  statutes. 

PE'NANCE  (Lat.  poenitentia),  in  Roman  Catholic 
theology,  means  the  voluntary  or  accepted  self- 
inflicted  punishment  by  which  a  repentant  sinner 
manifests  his  sorrow  for  sin,  and  seeks  to  atone  for 
the  sin,  and  to  avert  the  punishment  which,  even 
after  the  guilt  has  been  remitted,  may  still  remain 
due  to  the  offence.  Penance  is  believed  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  to  be  one  of  the  sacraments 
of  the  New  Law.  It  will  be  necessary  to  explain 
it  briefly  both  under  its  relations  as  a  sacrament, 
and  as  a  private  personal  exercise. 

Penance  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
repentance,  which  is  simply  sorrow  for  evil-doing, 
accompanied  with  a  purpose  of  amendment.  Pen- 
ance is  the  fruit  or  the  manifestation  of  this 
sorrow,  and  it  is  commonly  accompanied  or  ex- 
pressed by  some  of  those  external  acts  which  are 
the  natural  manifestations  of  any  deep  sorrow, 
either  negative,  as  the  neglect  of  ordinary  attention 
to  dress,  to  the  care  of  the  person,  to  the  use  of 
food;  or  positive,  as  the  direct  acts  of  personal 
mortification  and  self -inflicted  pain,  such  as  fasting, 
wearing  haircloth,  strewing  the  head  with  ashes, 
watching  of  nights,  sleeping  hard,  &c.  Such  mani- 
festations of  sorrow,  whether  from  motives  of 
religion  or  from  merely  natural  causes,  are  common 
among  the  eastern  races,  and  are  frequently  alluded 
<to  in  the  Scripture.  In  the  personal  practice  of 
the  early  Christians,  penance  found  a  prominent 
place,  and  the  chief  and  acknowledged  object  of 
the  stated  Fasts  (q.  v.),  and  other  works  of  morti- 
fication which  prevailed,  was  that  of  penitential 
correction,  or  of  the  manifestation  of  sorrow  for  sin. 

A  still  more  striking  use  of  -  penance,  however, 
in  the  early  church,  was  the  disciplinary  one ; 
and  this,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  view,  is  con- 
nected with  the  sacramental  character  of  pen- 
ance. Any  discussion  of  this  purely  theological 
question  would  be  out  of  place  here,  and  it  will 
be  enough  to  state  briefly  that  Roman  Catholics 
number  penance  among  the  Seven  Sacraments 
(q.  v.),  and  believe  it  to  be  of  direct  divine 
institution  (Matt.  xvi.  19,  xviii.  18;  John  xx. 
21).  The  matter  of  this  sacrament  consists,  in 
their  view,  of  the  three  acts  of  the  penitent — 
contrition,  or  heartfelt  sorrow  for  sin,  as  being  an 
offence  against  God ;  confession,  or  detailed  accusa- 
tion of  one's-self  to  a  priest  approved  for  the 
purpose;  and  satisfaction,  or  the  acceptance  and 
accomplishment  of  certain  penitential  works,  in 
atonement  of  the  sin  confessed;  and  the  form  of 
the  sacrament  ia  the  sentence  of  absolution  from 
870 


sin  pronounced  by  the  priest  who  has  received 
the  confession,  and  has  been  satisfied  of  the  peni- 
tential disposition  of  the  self-accusing  sinner.  In 
all  these  points,  of  course,  they  are  at  issue  with 
Protestants.  Even  in  the  apostolic  times,  the 
practice  prevailed  of  excluding  persons  of  scandal- 
ous life  from  the  spiritual  fellowship  of  the 
Christian  community  (see  Excommunication)  ;  and 
without  attempting  to  fix  the  date,  it  may  be 
stated  as  certain,  from  the  authority  of  Tertuilun 
and  other  writers,  that  from  a  very  early  time  the 
persons  so  excluded  were  subjected  to  ceitam 
penitential  regulations.  The  class  of  offenders  so 
treated  were  those  who  had  been  notoriously  guilty 
of  the  grievous  crimes  of  idolatry  or  apostasy, 
murder,  adultery,  and  other  scandalous  offences. 
The  period  of  penitential  probation  differed  in 
different  times  and  places,  but  in  geueral  waa 
graduated  according  to  the  enormity  of  the  sin, 
some  going  so  far  in  their  rigour  (see  Novatian) 
as,  contrary  to  the  clearly-expressed  sense  of  the 
church,  to  carry  it  even  beyond  the  grave.  In  the 
earlier  ages,  much  depended  upon  the  spirit  of  each 
particular  church  or  country;  but  about  the  4th  c, 
the  public  penitential  discipline  assumed  a  settled 
form,  which,  especially  as  established  in  the  Greek 
Church,  is  so  curious  that  it  deserves  to  be  briefly 
described.  Sinners  of  the  classes  already  referred 
to  had  their  name3  enrolled,  and  were  (in  some 
churches,  after  having  made  a  preliminary  con- 
fession to  a  priest  appointed  for  the  purpose) 
admitted,  with  a  blessing  and  other  ceremonial,  by 
the  bishop  to  the  rank  of  penitents.  This  enrol- 
ment appears  to  have  commonly  taken  place  on 
the  first  day  of  Lent.  The  penitents  so  enrolled 
were  arranged  in  four  grades,  called — 1.  (Gr. 
prosklaiontes,  Lat.  flent.es)  '  Weepers ; '  2.  (Gr. 
akroomenoi,  Lat.  audientes)  '  Hearers  ; '  3.  (Gr.  hypo- 
piptontes,  Lat.  prosternentes)  '  Prostraters  ; '  4.  (Gr. 
systantes,  Lat.  consistentes)  '  Standers.'  Of  these 
classes,  the  first  were  obliged  to  remain  outside  of 
the  church  at  the  time  of  public  worship,  and  to 
ask  the  prayers  of  the  faithful  as  they  entered. 
The  second  were  permitted  to  enter  and  to  remain 
in  the  place  and  during  the  time  appointed  for  the 
Catechumens  (q.  v.)  ;  but,  like  them,  were  required 
to  depart  before  the  commencement  of  the  solemn 
part  of  the  Liturgy  (q.  v.).  The  third  were  per- 
mitted to  pray  with  the  rest,  but  kneeling  or 
prostrate,  and  for  them  were  prescribed  many  other 
acts  of  mortification.  The  fourth  were  permitted 
to  pray  with  the  rest  in  a  standing  posture,  although 
apparently  in  a  distinct  part  of  the  church;  but 
they  were  excluded  from  making  offerings  with  the 
rest,  and  still  more  from  receiving  the  communion. 
The  time  to  be  spent  in  each  of  these  grades  at  first 
differed  very  much  according  to  times  and  circum- 
stances, but  was  afterwards  regulated  by  elaborate 
laws,  called  penitential  canons.  Still  it  was  in  the 
power  of  the  bishop  to  abridge  or  to  prolong  it ;  a 
power,  the  exercise  of  which  is  connected  with  the 
historical  origin  of  the  practice  of  Indulgence  (q.  v.). 
Of  these  four  grades,  the  first  two  hardly  appear  in 
the  Western  Church.  It  is  a  subject  of  controversy 
whether,  and  how  far,  this  discipline  was  extended 
to  other  than  public  sinners;  but  it  seems  certain 
that  individuals,  not  publicly  known  as  sinners, 
voluntarily  enrolled  themselves  among  the  penitents. 
All  four  grades  wore  a  distinguishing  penitential 
dress,  in  which  they  appeared  on  all  occasions  of 
public  worship,  and  were  obliged  to  observe  certain 
rules  of  life,  to  renounce  certain  indulgences  and 
luxuries,  and  to  practise  certain  austerities.  In 
some  churches,  they  were  employed  in  the  care  of 
the  sick,  the  burial  of  the  dead,  and  other  of  the 
more  laborious  works  of  charity.     The  penitent,  in 


TEX.  \NG  -PENCILS. 


ordinary  cases,  conM  only  be  restored  to  communion 
l>y  the  bishop  who  had  excluded  him,  ami  tins  only 
at  the  expiration  of  the  appointed  time,  nnlen  the 
l>ishoj>  himself  had  shortened  it;  but,  in  i 
dangerous  illness,  he  might  he  restored,  with  the 
condition,  however,  that,  if  he  recovered  from  the 
illness,  the  whole  course  of  penance  should  lie 
completed.  The  reconciliation  of  penitents  took 
place  commonly  in  Holy  Week,  ami  was  pnblicly 
performed  by  the  bishop  in  the  church,  with  prayer 
ami  imposition  of  hands.  It  was  followed  by  the 
administration  of  communion.  If  any  of  the  clergy 
Were  guilty  of  a  crime  to  which  public  penance  was 
annexed,  they  were  first  deposed  from  the  rank  <>f 
the  clergy,  and  then  subjected  to  the  ordeal,  like 
the  laity  themselves.  This  public  discipline  con- 
tinued in  force  with  greater  or  less  exactness  in 
the  5th,  Cth,  and  7th  centuries,  gradually,  however, 
.being  replaced  by  semi-public,  and  ultimately  by 
private  penance.  In  the  11th  and  12th  centuries, 
the  public  penance  had  entirely  disappeared.  The 
nature  and  origin  of  private  penance  is  a  subject 
of  controversy  between  Catholics  and  Protestants; 
the  former  contending  that  it  had  existed  from  the 
first,  and  that  it  held  the  same  place  even  in  the 
ages  of  public  penance  for  secret  sins  which  the 
public  penance  did  for  public  offences.  At  all 
events,  from  the  date  of  the  cessation  of  the 
public  discipline,  it  has  existed  universally  in 
the  Roman  Church.  The  priest,  in  absolving  the 
penitent,  imposes  upon  him  the  obligation  of 
reciting  certain  prayers,  undergoing  certain  works 
of  mortification,  or  performing  certain  devotional 
exercises.  These  acts  of  the  penitent  are  held 
to  form  an  integral  part  of  the  sacrament  of 
penance. 

According  to  Protestants,  penance  has  no  coun- 
tenance whatever  from  Scripture,  and  is  contrary 
to  some  of  the  most  essential  principles  of  the 
Christian  religion;  particularly  to  the  doctrine  of 
justification  by  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  alone,  on 
the  ground  of  his  complete  or  '  finished '  work ; 
penance  being,  in  fact,  founded  on  a  doctrine  of — 
at  least — supplementary  atonement  by  the  works 
or  sufferings  of  man — the  sinner — himself.  The 
outward  expressions  of  humiliation,  sorrow,  and 
repentance  common  under  the  Jewish  dispensation, 
are  regarded  as  very  consistent  with  the  character 
of  that  dispensation,  in  which  so  many  symbols  were 
employed.  It  is  also  held,  that  the  self-inflicted 
austerities,  as  fasting,  sackcloth  and  ashes,  &c, 
of  Jewish  and  earliest  Christian  times,  had  for  their 
sole  purpose  the  mortification  of  unholy  lusts  and 
sinful  passions  in  the  people  of  God  ;  or  the  expres- 
sion of  sorrow  for  sin,  so  that  others  beholding 
might  be  warned  of  its  evil  and  restrained  from 
it;    all    which     is    perfectly   consistent   with    the 

Erinciples  of  Christianity,  if  kept  within  the 
ounds  of  moderation  and  discretion.  But  penance 
in  any  other  view,  as  a  personal  exercise,  is  utterly 
rejected.  Arguments  founded  on  the  meaning  of 
the  two  Greek  words  mefanoeo  and  metameleomai, 
both  translated  in  our  English  version  repent,  are 
much  urged  by  many  Roman  Catholic  contro- 
versialists— the  former  being  represented  as  equiva- 
lent to  the  English  Bo  Penance;  but  this  is 
condemned  by  Protestants  as  inconsistent  with  the 
very  use  of  the  words  in  the  New  Testament  itself. 
That  penance  began,  as  a  practice,  very  early 
in  the  Christian  church,  is  not  only  admitted  by 
Protestants,  but  alleged  in  proof  of  the  very  early 
growth  of  those  corruptions  which  finally  developed 
themselves  in  the  doctrines  and  practices  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  of  which  Protestants 
also  hold  that  there  are  plain  intimations  in  the 
New  Testament,  not  only  prophetical,  but  shewing 


the    development  of  their   germs  to   have  already 
begun  during  the  age  of  the  apostle* 

In    the     discipline    of    the     1'iotestant    cliur  lies, 
penance  is  now  unknown.     The  nearest  appr 
the  Roman  Catholic  polity  on  the  subject  « 
in  us,-  among  the  English  Puritans  of  the  17th  c, 
ami    imnc    particularly    in   the   Churoh   of    Scotland 
that  ami  the  sue  ntury,  when  it  was 

common  'to  make  satisfaction  publicly  on  Um 
of  Repentance'  (q.  v.).  It  does  not  seem  to  have 
occurred  to  the  Reformers  or  their  more  immediate 
successors  in  the  Protestant  churches,  that  their 
system  of  discipline,  with  its  public  rebukes  and 
enforced  humiliations  of  various  kinds — aa  thi 
ing  of  a  sackcloth  robe,  and  sitting  on  a  particular 
Beat  in  church— was  liable  to  be  interpreted  in  a 
sense  very  different  from  that  of  a  mere  expressic  i 
of  sorrow  for  sin;  but  the  belief  is  now  vny 
general  among  the  most  zealous  adherents  of  their 
doctrinal  opinions,  that  in  all  this  they  a 
practices  incongruous  with  their  creed,  and  in 
harmony  rather  with  that  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 
Nor  do  they  seem  to  have  perceived  that  Church- 
Discipline  (q.  v.),  in  its  proper  sense,  as  relating  to 
ecclesiastical  rights  and  privileges,  is  wholly  distinct 
from  the  imposition  of  penalties  by  churches  or 
church  courts.  Penitential  humiliations,  imposed 
by  ecclesiastical  authority,  are  now  no  more  in 
favour  where  church  discipline  is  most  strict,  than 
where  the  utmost  laxity  prevails.  The  commuta- 
tion of  penalties  deemed  shameful,  for  a  fine  to  the 
poor  of  the  parish,  was  an  abuse  once  prevalent  in 
•Scotland,  but  never  sanctioned  by  the  higher 
ecclesiastical  authorities. 

PENANG.     See  Pclo-Pexaxg. 

PENA'NG  LAWYERS,  the  commercial  name 
for  the  stems  of  a  species  of  palm  imported  from 
Penang  for  walking-sticks.  They  are  small  and 
hard,  and  have  a  portion  of  the  root-stock  attached, 
which  is  left  to  form  the  handle. 

PENATES.     See  Lares,  Maxes,  and  Pexates. 

PE'NCILS  are  instruments  for  writing,  drawing, 
and  painting,  and  they  differ  as  much  in  their  con- 
struction as  in  the  uses  to  which  they  are  applied. 
Probably  the  pencil  was  the  first  instrument  used 
by  artists,  and  consisted  then  of  lumps  of  coloured 
earth  or  chalk  simply  cut  into  a  form  convenient 
for  holding  in  the  hand.  With  such  pencils  were 
executed  the  line-drawings  of  Aridices  the  Corin- 
thian, and  Telephanes  the  Sicyonian,  and  also  the 
early  one-coloured  pictures,  or  monochromata,  of 
the  Greeks  and  Egyptians ;  but  as  wet  colours 
began  to  be  used,  small  fine-pointed  brushes 
would  be  required,  and  we  find  it  recorded  that 
as  early  as  the  4th  c.  B.  c,  several  Greek  artists 
had  rendered  the  art  of  painting  with  hair-pencils 
so  famous,  that  some  of  their  pictures  sold  for 
vast  sums  of  money.  There  are  now  in  use  the 
following  kinds  of  pencils:  hair-pencils,  black-lead 
pencils,  chalk -pencils,  and  slate-pencils.  The  first 
are  used  for  painting  or  writing  with  fluid  colours, 
either  oil  or  water,  and  in  China  and  Japan  are 
employed  almost  entirely  instead  of  pens  for  writing ; 
the  colour  used  being  the  black  or  brown  pigment 
obtained  from  various  species  of  sepia  or  cuttle- 
fish. The  manufacture  of  hair-pencils  is  of  great 
importance,  and  requires  much  care  and  skill.  The 
hairs  employed  are  chiefly  those  of  the  camel, 
badger,  sable,  mink,  kolinski,  fitch,  goat,  and  the 
bristles  of  hogs;  and  the  art  of  pencil-making 
requires  that  these  hairs  shall  be  tied  up  in 
cylindrical  bundles,  so  nicely  arranged  that  all 
their  naturally  fine  points  shall  be  in  one  direc- 
tion, and  that  the  central  one  shall  project  the 
ftirthest,  and  the  others  in  succession  shall  recede, 

371 


PENDANT— PENDENTIVE. 


bo  that,  collectively,  the  whole  shall  form  a  beauti- 
fully smooth  cone,  the  apex  of  which  is  a  sharp 
point.  Black-lead  pencils  are  made  of  graphite 
or  plumbago,  which  contains  no  lead  whatever  in  its 
comj  osition,  but  is  in  reality  almost  pure  carbon. 
See  Black-lead.  The  misnomer  ia  probably 
owing  to  the  fact,  that,  previous  to  the  employment 
of  graphite  for  making  pencils,  common  lead  was 
used,  aud  this  was  the  case  even  within  the  present 
century.  Consequently,  as  the  plumbago,  with  its 
black  streak,  offered  a  contrast  to  the  pale  one 
of  the  lead,  it  was  called  in  contradistinction 
black-lead. 

The  best  graphite  for  drawing-pencils  was  for- 
merly obtained  in  the  Cumberland  mines,  which  were 
celebrated.  Within  the  last  few  years,  however, 
vast  deposits  of  this  mineral,  of  a  very  tine  quality, 
have  been  discovered  in  Siberia  and  other  parts 
of  the  Russian  empire.  Large  quantities  are  found 
in  Austria  and  Prussia,  in  Ceylon,  and  in  various 
parts  of  North  America ;  and  they  are  now  used  in 
pencil-making,  both  for  superior  and  inferior  kinds. 
Black-lead  is  rarely  sufficiently  free  from  sand  and 
other  foreign  ingredients  to  be  used  without  pre- 
paration ;  it  is  therefore  generally  ground  fine,  and 
levigated  or  washed  until  it  is  pure,  and  again 
formed  into  solid  blocks  by  means  of  enormous 
pressure,  generally  in  hydraidic  presses ;  these 
blocks  are  then  sawn  into  thin  plates  about  the 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  which  are  again 
cut  across,  so  as  to  form  them  into  small  square 
sticks. 

It  may  appear  a  very  simple  process  to  press 
the  powdered  graphite  into  blocks,  but  it  was 
found  so  difficult  in  practice  as  almost  to  prevent 
the  employment  of  this  method,  which  has  led  to 
immense  improvement  in  pencil- making.  It  was 
found  at  first  that  the  difficulty  of  pressing  out  the 
contained  air  was  so  great  that  the  presses  were 
broken  under  the  weight  required ;  pressure  in  a 
vacuum  was  then  tried,  but  the  difficulty  of  apply- 
ing it  was  found  almost  insurmountable,  and  it  was 
ceitainly  unprofitable.  Mr  Brokedon  of  London, 
who  has  long  been  famous  for  his  pencils,  at  last 
surmounted  the  difficulty  by  an  ingenious  and  very 
simple  process.  This  consists  in  compressing  the 
black-lead  into  blocks  two  or  three  inches  square, 
with  only  moderate  pressure ;  these  are  then  coated 
over  with  paper,  well  glued,  so  that,  when  dry, 
the  covering  is  air-tight.  A  small  hole  is  now 
made  through  this  coating  on  one  side,  and  several 
of  these  cubes  of  black-lead  are  put  under  the 
receiver  of  an  air-pump,  and  the  air  being  exhausted 
completely  from  them,  the  orifice  in  each  is  closed 
by  an  adhesive  wafer,  which  prevents  the  return  of 
the  air  when  they  are  taken  out  of  the  receiver. 
They  are  next  placed  under  the  hydraulic  press, 
and  a  well-sustained  and  regular  pressure  is  brought 
to  bear  upon  them  for  twenty-four  hours,  after 
which  they  are  found  to  be  so  completely  conso- 
lidated, that  in  cutting  them  the  substance  is  equal 
in  density  to  the  best  specimens  of  unprepared 
graphite.  There  is  so  large  a  variation  in  the 
colour  of  various  qualities  of  black-lead,  that,  by  a 
judicious  mixture  of  them,  when  in  the  powdered 
state,  almost  any  shade  of  darkness  can  be  pro- 
cured ;  but  instead  of  thus  carefully  combining 
different  qualities  of  graphite,  it  is  a  common 
practice  to  add  sulphur  or  sulphuret  of  antimony, 
and  by  heating  to  procure  the  desired  degree  of 
blackness.  For  very  inferior  pencils,  the  worst 
quality  of  black-lead  is  mixed  with  black  chalk 
and  size,  or  gum-water,  and  formed  into  a  paste, 
of  which  the  pencil  is  made. 

It  is  usual  to  enclose  the  material  constituting 
the  essential  part  of  the  pencd  in  a  case  of  wood,  for 
372 


its  protection  from  breakage,  and  to  prevent  its 
soiling  the  hands.  The  wood  (generally  cedar)  is 
first  sawn  into  thin  boards,  about  half  the  thick 
ness  of  the  intended  pencils;  these  are  then  cut 
into  small  pieces  about  ten  inches  long,  by  six  in 
width,  which  are  placed  in  the  cutting  and  grooving 
machine.  This  machine  consists  principally  of  two 
circular  saws — one  very  thin,  and  so  set  that  it  will 
cut  through  the  board;  the  other  revolving  within 
the  eighth  of  an  inch  of  it,  so  set  as  only  to  cut  a 
fine  square  groove  in  the  wood.  By  means  of  this 
machine,  the  little  boards  are  cub  into  straight 
square  sticks,  each  having  a  groove  on  one 
surface.  Into  these  grooves,  the  little  prepared 
sticks  of  black-lead  are  laid  and  covered  with  a 
similar  piece  of  wood,  but  not  grooved.  A  workman, 
who  is  called  the  '  fastener-up,'  having  glued  the 
inner  faces  of  the  two  pieces  of  wood,  presses  them 
together,  and  sets  them  to  dry  ;  after  which  they 
are  passed  through  the  ronnding-machine,  dressed* 
with  a  semi-circular  smoothing-plane,  cut  at  the 
ends,  and  then  polished  by  rubbing  them  with 
a  piece  of  shark-skin.  The  last  process  is  stamping 
them  with  the  maker's  name  and  the  letter  which 
designates  their  peculiar  quality.  These  letters  are 
H,  HH,  HHH,  B,  BB,  BBB,  HB,  FS.  H  signifies 
hard;  repeated  twice  and  thrice,  it  means  harder 
and  very  hard.  B  means  black,  HB  hard  and  black, 
and  so  on.     FS  signifies  fine  stroke. 

Chalk-pencils  are  made  in  a  similar  manner,  only 
that  finely-powdered  coloured  chalks,  such  as  are 
used  for  crayons,  are  substituted  for  the  black-lead. 
Previous  to  pressing  and  cutting  the  chalk,  it  is 
mixed  with  a  little  hot  melted  wax,  which  gives  it 
softness  and  adhesiveness. 

Slate-pencils  for  writing  on  slate  are  made  either 
by  cutting  slate  into  thin  sticks,  and  rounding 
them,  or  by  cutting  it  into  fine  square  slips,  and 
encasing  them  in  wood,  as  in  the  case  of  black- 
lead,  &c 

PE'NDANT,  or  PENNANT,  is  a  narrow  flag  of 
great  length,  tapering  to  a  point,  and  carried  at  the 
head  of  the  principal  mast  in  a  royal  ship,  to  shew 
that  she  is  in  commission.  In  the  British  navy,  the 
pendants  are  borne  of  three  colours— red,  white,  or 
blue — according  to  the  colour  to  which  the  admiral 
commanding  the  fleet  pertains.  See  Flag-officer. 
A  broad-pennant  is  a  blue  pennant,  shorter  and 
broader  than  the  above, 
carried  at  the  mast-head 
of  a  commodore's  ship, 
to  denote  that  her  captain 
is  the  commodore  on 
the  station.  A  first-class 
commodore  hoists  his  broad- 
pennant  at  the  fore ;  if  of 
the  second-class,  his  flag 
flies  at  the  mizzen. 

The  rudder-pendants  are 
strong  ropes  spliced  in  the 
rings  of  the  rudder-chain, 
to  prevent  the  loss  of  the 
rudder,  should  it  by  any 
accident  become  unshipped. 

PENDANT,  a  hanging 
ornament,  used  in  ceilings, 
vaults,  staircases,  timber- 
roofs,  &c.  It  is  sometimes 
a  simple  ball,  and  sometimes 
elaborately  ornamented,  and 
is  chiefly  used  in  the  later  Gothic  and  Elizabethan 
styles 

PENDE'NTIVE,  the  portion  of  a  vault  resting 
on  one  pier,  and  extending  from  the  springing  to 
the  apex. — The  word  pendentive   is    also   applied  to 


Pendant. 


PENDLETON— PENDULUM 


the  portions  of  vaults  introduced  in  the  angles  of 
rectangular  oompartments,  in  order  t<>  reduce  them 
to  a  circular  or  other  suitable  form  to  receive 
a  dome. 

PE'NDLETON,  a  township  of  Lancashire,  with  a 
station  on  tin-  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  Railway,  is 
a  suburb  of  Manchester,  and  is  2A  miles  west-north- 
west of  the  town  of  that  name.  In  1851,  it  contained 
14,224;  m  1861.  20,900;  and  in  1*71  it  luul  increased 
to  2.").4S'.»  inhabitants.  Pendleton  is  part  of  the 
parliamentary  borongh  of  Salford,  and  since  1852 
it  has  been  incorporated  with  the  municipality  of  the 
same  borough.  The  rapid  increase  of  its  population 
is  due  to  the  immense  industry  of  the  locality.  The 
inhabitants  are  employed  in  the  numerous  cotton 
and  flax  mills,  print  and  dye-works,  iron  foun- 
dries, soap,  and  chemical  works,  in  operation  here. 
Hundreds  of  the  population  are  also  employed  in 
the  well-known  P.  collieries,  which  are  conducted 
with  much  enterprise  by  the  lessees.  P.  is  also  the 
residence  of  a  portion  of  the  mercantile  community 
from  Manchester,  whose  large  mansions,  with  their 
parks  and  gardens,  are  dotted  at  intervals  along  the 
two  roads  leading  from  the  township  westward  to 
Eccles. 

PE'NDULUM,  in  its  widest  scientific  sense, 
denotes  a  body  of  any  form  or  material  which,  under 
the  action  of  some  force,  vibrates  about  a  position 
of  stable  equilibrium.  In  its  more  usual  application, 
however,  this  term  is  restricted,  iu  conformity 
with  its  etymology  (Lat.  pendeo,  to  hang),  to  bodies 
suspended  from  a  point,  or  oscillating  about  an  axis, 
under  the  action  of  gravity,  so  that,  although  the 
laws  of  their  motion  are  the  same,  Hocking  Stones 
(q.v.),  Magnetic  Needles,  Tuning-forks,  Balance 
wheel  of  a  watch,  &c,  are  not  included  in  the 
definition. 

The  simple  pendulum  consists  (in  theory)  of  a  heavy 
point  or  particle,  suspended  by  a  flexible  string 
without  weight,  and  therefore  constrained  to  move 
as  if  it  were  always  on  the  inner  surface  of  a  smooth 
spherical  bowL  If  such  a  pendulum  be  drawn  aside 
into  a  slightly-inclined  position,  and  allowed  to  fall 
back,  it  evidently  will  oscillate  from  side  to  side  of 
its  position  of  equilibrium,  the  motion  being  confined 
to  a  vertical  plane.  If,  instead  of  being  allowed  to 
fall  back,  it  be  projected  horizontally  in  a  direction 
perpendicular  to  that  in  which  gravity  tends  to 
move  it,  the  bob  will  revolve  about  its  lowest  posi- 
tion ;  and  there  is  a  particular  velocity  with  which, 
if  it  be  projected,  it  describes  a  circle  about  that 
point,  and  is  then  called  a  conical  pendulum.  As 
the  theory  of  the  simple  pendulum  can  be  very  easily 
0  explained,  by  refer- 

ence to  that  of  the 
conical  pendulum, 
we  commence  with 
the  latter,  which  is 
extremely  simple. 
To  find  the  requisite 
velocity,  we  have 
only  to  notice  that 
the  (so-called)  Cen- 
trifugal Force  (q.v.) 
must  balance  the 
tendency  towards 
the  vertical.  This 
i^p  tendency  is  not 
directly  due  to 
gravity,  but  to  the 
tension  of  the  sus- 
T"i<y  x  pending   cord.      In 

the  fig.  let  0  be  the 
point  of  suspension,  0  V  the  pendulum  in  its  lowest 
position,  P  the  bob  in  any  position  in  the  (dotted) 


circle  which  it  describes  when  revolving  as  a 
coined  pendulum;  PB,  a  radius  of  the  dotted 
circle,  is  evidently  perpendicular  to  OA.  Now,  the 
centrifugal  force  is  directly  as  the  radius  PB  of 
the  circle,  and  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  time 
of  revolution.  Also  the  radius  1'li  is  1J0  sin. 
BOP,  the  length  of  the  string  multiplied  by  tl 
of  the  angle  it  makes  with  the  vertical  ;  and  the  force 
towards  the  vertical  is  proportional  to  the  earth's 
attraction,  and  to  the  tangent  of  the  above  angle — 
as  may  be  at  once  seen  from  the  consideration  that 
the  three  forces  acting  on  the  boh  at  P  are  parallel, 
and  therefore  proportional,  to  the  sides  of  the  tri- 
angle OBI'.  Hence  the  square  of  the  time  of  revo- 
lution is  directly  as  the  length  of  the  string  and  the 
sine  of  the  angle  BOP,  and  inversely  as  the  earth's 
attraction  and  the  tangent  of  the  same  angle ;  or 
(what  is  easily  seen  to  be  equivalent)  to  the  length 
of  the  string  and  the  cosine  of  its  inclination  to  the 
vertical  directly,  and  to  the  earth's  attraction 
inversely.  Hence,  in  any  given  locality,  all  conical 
pendulums  revolve  in  equal  times,  whatever  be  the 
lengths  of  their  strings,  so  long  as  their  heights  are 
equal  ;  the  height  being  the  product  of  the  length 
of  the  string  by  the  cosine  of  its  inclination  to  the 
vertical.  Also  the  squares  of  the  times  of  revolu- 
tion of  conical  pendulums  are  as  their  heights 
directly,  and  as  the  earth's  attraction  inversely. 

Now,  so  long  as  a  conical  pendulum  is  deflected 
only  through  a  very  small  angle  from  the  vertical,  the 
motion  of  its  bob  may  be  considered  as  com- 
pounded of  two  equal  simple  pendulum  oscilla- 
tions in  directions  perpendicular  to  each  other,  such 
as  it  appears  to  make  to  an  eye  on  a  level  with  it 
and  viewing  it  at  some  distance,  first  from  one 
point,  say  on  the  north,  and  then  from  another  90° 
round,  say  on  the  east.  And  these  motions  take 
place,  by  Newton's  second  law  (see  Motion,  Laws 
of),  independently.  Also  the  time  of  a  (double) 
oscillation  in  either  of  these  directions  is  evidently 
the  same  as  that  of  the  rotation  of  the  conical  pen- 
dulum. Hence,  for  small  arcs  of  vibration,  the  square 
of  the  time  of  oscillation  of  a  simple  pendulum  is 
directly  as  its  length,  and  inversely  as  the  earth's 
attraction.  Thus,  "the  length  of  the  second's  pen- 
dulum at  London  being  391393  inches,  that  of  the 
half-second's  pendulum  is  9*7848  inches,  or  one- 
fourth;  that  of  the  two  seconds'  pendulum  156-5572 
inches,  or  four  times  that  length.  It  follows  from 
the  principle  now  demonstrated,  that  so  long  as  the 
arcs  of  vibration  of  a  pendulum  are  all  small  rela- 
tively to  the  length  of  the  string,  they  may  differ 
considerably  in  length  among  themselves  without 
differing  appreciably  in  time.  It 
is  to  this  property  of  pendulum 

oscillations,  known  as  Isochron- 

ism  (q.  v.),  that  they  owe  their 

value   in   measuring  time.      See 

Horology. 

That  the  times  of  vibration  of 

different   pendulums   are   as  the 

square  roots  of  their  lengths,  may 

be  demonstrated  to  the  eye  by 

a  very  simple  experiment.     Sus- 
pend   three    musket    balls    on 

double  threads  as  in  the  figure, 

so  that  the  heights  in  the  dotted 

line  may  be  as  1,  4,  and  9.   When 

they  are  made  to  vibrate  simul- 
taneously, while  the  lowest  ball 

makes  one  oscillation  the  highest 

will  be  found  to  make  three,  and 

the  middle  ball  one  and  a  half. 


Kg.  2. 


A  pendulum  of  given  length  is  a  most  delicate 
instrument  for  the  measurement  of  the  relative 
amounts    of    the    earth's    attraction    at    different 

373 


PENDULUM. 


places.  Practically,  it  gives  the  kinetic  measure- 
ment of  gravity,  which  is  not  only  by  far  the  most 
convenient,  but  also  the  true  measure.  By  this 
application  of  the  pendulum,  the  oblateness  of  the 
earth  has  beeu  determined,  in  terms  of  the  law 
of  decrease  of  gravity  from  the  poles  to  the  erpiator. 
The  instrument  has  also  been  employed  to  determine 
the  mean  density  of  the  earth  (from  which  its  mass 
is  directly  derivable),  by  the  observation  of  its  times 
of  vibration  at  the  mouth  and  at  the  bottom  of  a 
coal-pit.  It  was  shewn  by  Newton,  that  the  force  of 
attraction  at  the  bottom  of  a  pit  depends  only 
upon  the  internal  nucleus  which  remains  when  a 
shell,  everywhere  of  thickness  equal  to  the  depth  of 
the  pit,  has  been  supposed  to  be  removed  from  the 
whole  surface  of  the  earth.  The  latest  observations 
by  this  method  were  made  by  Airy,  the  present  astro- 
nomer-royal, in  the  Harton  coal-pit,  and  gave  for  the 
mean  density  of  the  earth  a  result  nearly  equiva- 
lent to  that  deduced  by  Cavendish  and  Maskelyne 
from  experiments  of  a  totally  different  nature.  See 
Earth. 

If  the  bob  of  the  simple  pendulum  be  slightly 
displaced  in  any  mauner,  it  describes  an  ellipse 
about  its  lowest  position  as  centre.  This  ellipse 
may,  of  course,  become  a  straight  line  or  a 
circle,  as  in  the  cases  already  considered.  The 
bob  does  not  accurately  describe  the  same  curve 
in  successive  revolutions ;  in  fact,  the  elliptic 
orbit  just  mentioned  rotates  in  its  own  plane  about 
its  centre,  in  the  same  direction  as  the  bob  moves, 
with  an  augular  velocity  nearly  proportional  to  the 
area  of  the  ellipse.  This  is  an  interesting  case 
of  progression  of  the  apse  (Apsides,  q.  v.),  which 
can  be  watched  by  any  one  who  will  attach  a 
small  bullet  to  a  fine  thread ;  or,  still  better, 
attacli  to  the  lower  end  of  a  long  string  fixed  to  the 
ceiling  a  funnel  full  of  tine  sand  or  ink  which  is 
allowed  to  escape  from  a  small  orifice.  By  this  pro- 
cess, a  more  or  less  permanent  trace  of  the  motion 
of  the  pendulum  is  recorded,  by  which  the  elliptic 
form  of  the  path  and  the  phenomena  of  progression 
are  well  shewn. 

According  to  what  is  stated  above,  there  ought 
to  be  no  progression  if  the  pendulum  could  be  made 
to  vibrate  simply  in  a  straight  line,  as  then  the  area 
of  its  elliptic  orbit  vanishes.  It  is,  however,  found 
to  be  almost  impossible  in  practice  to  render  the 
path  absolutely  straight ;  so  that  there  always  is 
from  this  cause  a  slight  rate  of  change  in  the  posi- 
tion of  the  line  of  oscillation.  But  as  the  direction 
of  this  change  depends  on  the  direction  of  rotation  in 
the  ellipse,  it  is  as  likely  to  affect  the  motion  in  one 
way  as  in  the  opposite,  and  is  thus  easily  separable 
from  the  very  curious  result  obtained  by  Foucault, 
that  on  account  of  the  earth's  rotation,  the  plane  of 
vibration  of  the  pendulum  appears  to  turn  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  sun,  that  is,  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  the  earth's  rotation  about  its  axis.  To 
illustrate  this  now  well-known  case,  consider  for  a 
•noment  a  simple  pendulum  vibrating  at  the  pole  of  the 
ttarth.  Here,  if  the  pendulum  vibrates  in  a  straight 
line,  the  direction  of  that  line  remains  absolutely 
fixed  in  space,  while  the  earth  turns  round  below  it 
once  in  2-1  hours.  To  a  spectator  on  the  earth,  it 
appears,  of  course,  as  if  the  plane  of  motion  of  the 
pendulum  were  turning  once  round  in  24  hours,  but 
in  the  opposite  direction.  To  find  the  amount  of 
the  corresponding  phenomenon  in  any  other  lati- 
tude, all  that  is  required  is  to  know  the  rate  of 
the  earth's  rotation  about  the  vertical  in  that 
latitude.  This  is  easy,  for  velocities  of  rotation 
are  resolved  and  compounded  by  the  same  process 
as  forces,  hence  the  rate  at  which  the  earth  rotates 
about  the  vertical  in  latitude  x  is  less  than  that  of 
rotation  about  the  polar  axis  in  the  ratio  of  sin.  x 
374 


to  1. 


Hence  the  time  of  the  apparent  rotation  ot 

.,       ,  o  .,  ,  i      *         ,.      .     24  hours      .  . 

the  plane  of  the  pendulum  s  motion  is      .        — .    At 
1  *  sin.  x 

the  pole,  this  is  simply  24  hours  ;  at  the  equator,  it  ia 
infinitely  great,  or  there  is  no  effect  of  this  kind  ;  in 
the  latitude  of  Edinburgh  (56°  57'  23'2'J,  it  ia 
2S-63  h.,  or  2S  h.  37  m.  4S  s. 

We  have  not  yet  alluded  to  the  obvious  fact,  that 
&  simple  pendulum,  such  as  we  have  described  above, 
exists  in  theory  only,  since  we  cannot  procure  either 
a  single  heavy  particle,  or  a  perfectly  light  and 
flexible  string.  But  it  is  easily  shewn,  although  the 
process  cannot  be  given  here,  that  a  rigid  body  ot 
any  form  whatever  vibrates  about  an  axis  under  the 
action  of  gravity,  according  to  the  same  law  as  the 
hypothetical  simple  pendulum.  The  length  of  the 
equivalent  simple  pendulum  depends  upon  what  is 
called  the  Radius  of  Gyration  (q.  v.)  of  the  pendu- 
lous body.  Its  property  is  simply  this,  that  if  the 
whole  mass  of  the  body  were  collected  at  a  point 
whose  distance  from  the  axis  is  the  radius  of  gyra- 
tion, the  moment  (q.  v.)  of  inertia  of  this  heavy  point 
(about  the  axis)  would  be  the  same  as  that  of  the 
complex  body.  The  square  of  the  radius  of  gyration 
of  a  body  about  any  axis,  is  greater  than  the  square 
of  the  radius  of  gyration  about  a  parallel  axis 
through  the  centre  of  gravity,  by  the  square  of  the 
distance  between  those  lines.  Now,  the  length  of 
the  simple  pendulum  equivalent  to  a  body  oscillat- 
ing about  any  axis  is  directly  as  the  square  of  the 
radius  of  gyration,  and  inversely  as  the  distance  of 
the  centre  of  gravity  from  the  axis.  Hence,  if  k  be 
the  radius  of  gyration  of  a  body  about  an  axis 
through  the  centre  of  gravity,  *,/&  +  h-  is  that 
about  a  parallel  axis  whose  distance  from  the  first 
is  h ;  and  the  length,  I,  of  the  equivalent  simple  pen- 

.  .        .    .     F  +  A2 
dulum  is  I  =  — i — . 

This  expression  becomes  infinitely  great  if  ft  be 
very  large,  and  also  if  h  be  very  small  (that  is,  a 
body  vibrates  very  slowly  about  ah  axis  either  far 
from,  or  near  to,  its  centre  of  gravity).  It  must 
therefore  have  a  minimum  value.  By  solving  the 
equation  above  as  a  quadratic  in  h,  we  find  that  I 
cannot  be  less  than  2/c,  which  is,  therefore,  the  length 
of  the  simple  pendulum  corresponding  to  the  quickest 
vibrations  which  the  body  can  execute  about  any 
axis  parallel  to  the  given  one.  In  this  case,  the 
value  of  «  is  equal  to  k.  Hence,  if  a  circular  cylinder 
be  described  in  a  body,  its  axis  passing  through  the 
centre  of  gravity,  and  its  radius  being  the  radius  of 
gyration  about  the  axis,  the  times  of  oscillation 
about  all  generating  lines  of  this  cylinder  are  equal, 
and  less  than  the  times  of  oscillation  about  any 
other  axes  parallel  to  the  given  one.  Also,  since 
the  formula  for  I,  above  given,  may  be  thus  written, 
h(l  —  A)  =  k2,  it  is  obvious  that  it  is  satisfied  if  l—h 
be  put  for  h.  Hence,  if  auy  value  I  (of  course  not 
less  than  2k)  be  assigned  as  the  length  of  the  equi- 
valent simple  pendulum,  there  are  two  values  of  h 
which  will  satisfy  the  conditions  ;  that  is,  there  are 
two  concentric  cylinders,  about  a  generating  line  of 
either  of  which  the  time  of  oscillation  is  that  of  the 
assigned  simple  pendulum.  When  I  =  2k,  these 
cylinders  coiucide,  and  form  that  above  described. 
And,  since  the  sum  of  the  radii  of  these  cylinders  is 
/,  it  is  obvious  that  if  we  can  find  experimentally 
two  parallel  axes  about  which  a  body  oscillates  in 
equal  times,  and  if  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
body  lie  between  these  axes,  and  in  their  plane,  tlie 
distance  between  these  axes  is  the  length  of  the  equiva- 
lent simple  pendulum.  This  result  is  of  very  great 
importance,  because  it  enabled  Kater  (who  was  the 
first  to  employ  it)  to  use  the  complex  pendulum  for 
the    determination  of    the    length  of    the    simple 


PENELOPE-PENGUIN. 


second's  pendulum  in  any  locality.  The  simple  pen« 
dulum  is  perfect  in  theory,  but  cannot  i>e  con- 
Btrueted  ;  and  tlius  the  method  which  enables  us  to 

obtain  its  results  by  the  help  of  such  a  pendulum  as 

we  can  construct,  is  especially  valuable. 
Compensation  Pendulum.-  As  the  length  of  a  rod 

ot  bar  of  any  material  depends  on  its  temperature 
[m  -e  HkaI;.  8  clock  with  an  ordinary  pendulum 
goes  faster  in  cold,  and  slower  in  hot,  weather. 
Various    contrivances    have    been    devised    for    the 

purpose  of  diminishing,  if  not  destroying,  these 
tffeots.     The  most  perfect  in  theory,  chough  per- 

'mps  n</t  the  most  available  in  practice,  is  that 
of  Sir  l>  Brewster  (q.  v.),  founded  upon  the  experi- 
mental discovery  of  filitecherlich,  that  some  crystals 
expand  by  heat  in  one  direction,  while  contracting 
in  the  perpendicular  one  ;  and  therefore  that  a 
rod  may  be  cut  out  of  the  crystal  in  such  a  direc- 
tion as  not  to  alter  in  length  by  any  change  of 
temperature.  In  the  method  of  correction  usually 
employed,  and  called  compensation,  advantage  is 
taken  of  the  fact  that  different  substances  have  dif- 
ferent coefficients  of  linear  dilatation  ;  so  that  if  the 
bob  of  the  pendulum  be  so  suspended  as  to  be  raised 
by  the  expansion  of  one  substance,  ami  depressed 
by  the  expansion  of  another,  the  lengths  of  the 
effective  portions  of  these  substances  may  be  so 
adjusted  that  the  raising  and  depression,  taking 
place  simultaneously,  may  leave  the 
position  of  the  bob  unaffected.  There 
are  two  common  methods  of  effecting 
this,  differing  a  little  in  construction, 
but  ultimately  depending  on  the  same 
principle.  Of  these,  the  mercurial  pen- 
dulum is  the  more  easily  described. 
The  rod  AC,  and  the  framework  OB, 
are  of  steel.  Inside  the  framework  is 
placed  a  cylindrical  glass  jar,  nearly 
full  of  mercury,  which  can  be  raised  or 
depressed  by  turning  a  nut  at  B.  By 
B  increase  of  temperature,  the  steel  por- 
*"  tion  AB  is  lengthened  by  an  amount 
Fig.  3.  proportional  to  its  length,  its  coefficient 
of  linear  dilatation,  and  the  change  of 
temperature,  conjointly — and  thus  the  jar  of  mercury 
is  removed  from  the  axis  of  suspension.  But  neglect- 
ing the  expansion  of  the  glass,  which  is  very  small, 
the  mercury  rises  in  the  jar  by  an  amount  propor- 
tional to  its  bulk,  its  coefficient  of  cubical  dilatation, 
and  the  change  of  temperature,  conjointly.  Now, 
by  increasing  or  diminishing  the  quantity  of  mer- 
cury, it  is  obvious  that  we  may  so  adj  ust  the  instru- 
ment that  the  leugth  /  ---  \  of  the  equivalent  simple 

pendulum  shall  be  unaltered  by  the  change  of  tem- 
perature, whatever  be  its  amount,  so  long  as  it  is  not 
great  enough  to  sensibly  change  the  coefficients  of 
dilatation  of  the  two  metals.  The  screw  at  B  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  compensation,  its  use  is  to 
adjust  the  length  of  the  pendulum  so  that  it  shall 
vibrate  in  one  second. 

The  construction  of  the  gridiron  pendulum  will 
be  easily  understood  from  the  cut.  The  black  bars 
are  steel,  the  shaded  one3  are  brass,  copper,  or  some 
substance  whose  coefficient  of  linear  dilatation  is 
more  than  double  that  of  steel.  It  is  obvious  from 
the  figure  that  the  horizontal  bars  are  merely  con- 
nectors, and  that  their  expansion  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  vibration  of  the  pendulum,  so  they  may  be 
made  of  any  substance.  It  is  easily  seen  that  an 
increase  of  temperature  lowers  the  bob  by  expand- 
ing the  steel  roils,  whose  effective  length  consists  of 
the  sum  of  the  lengths  of  Act,  BC,  and  the  steel  bar 
to  which  the  bob  is  attached  ;  while  it  raises  the 
bob  by  expanding  the  brass  bars,  whose  effective 
length  is  that  of  one  of  them  only ;  the  other,  as  well 


Fig.  4. 


as  the  steel  rod  6c,  being  added  to  the  instrument  for 
the  sake  of  symmetry,  strength,  and  stiffness  only. 
If  the   effective   Lengths    of    steel    and    bi  f 

inversely  as  their  respective  dilatation 
Coefficients,  the  position  of  the  bob  is 
unaltered  by  temperature;  and  there- 
fore the  pendulum  will  vibrate  in  the 
same  period  as  before  heal  ng  This 
is  on  the  supposition  that  the  v. 
of  the  framework  may  be  neglected 
in  comparison  with  that  of  the  bob; 
if  this  weight  must  be  taken  into 
account,  the  requisite  adjustments, 
though  possible,  are  greatly  more 
complex,  and  can  only  be  alluded  to 
here.  Practically,  it  is  found  that  a 
strip  of  dry  fir-wood,  carefully  varn- 
ished, to  prevent  the  absorption  of 
moisture,  and  consequent  hygrometrio 
alterations  of  its  length,  is  very  little 
affected  by  change  of  temperature ; 
and,  in  many  excellent  clocks,  this  is  used  as  a  very 
effective  substitute  for  the  more  elaborate  forms 
just  described.  To  give  an  idea  of  the  nicety  which 
modern  astronomy  recpiires  in  the  construction  of 
an  observing  clock,  we  may  mention  that  the  Rus- 
sian astronomers  find  the  gridiron  superior  to  the 
mercurial  pendulum  ;  because  differences  of  tem- 
perature at  different  parts  of  the  clock  case  (though 
almost  imperceptible  in  a  properly  protected  instru- 
ment), may  heat  the  steel  or  the  mercury  unduly  in 
the  latter  ;  while,  in  the  former,  the  steel  and  brass 
bars  run  side  by  side  through  the  greater  part  of  the 
length  of  the  pendulum,  and  are  thus  simultaneously 
affected  by  any  such  alterations  of  temperature. 

It  would  lead  us  into  details  of  a  character  far  too 
abstruse  for  the  present  work  to  treat  of  the  effects 
of  the  hydrostatic  pressure  and  viscosity  of  the  air 
upon  the  motion  of  a  pendulum. 

PEXE'LOPE,  in  Homeric  legend,  the  wife  of 
Ulysses  (Odysseus),  and  mother  of  Telemachus, 
who  was  still  an  infant  when  Ulysses  went  to  the 
Trojan  war.  During  his  long  wanderings  after 
the  fall  of  Troy,  he  was  generally  regarded  as 
dead,  and  P.  was  vexed  by  the  urgent  suits  of 
many  lovers,  whom  she  put  off  on  the  pretext 
that  she  must  first  weave  a  shroud  for  Laertes, 
her  aged  father  in-law.  To  protract  the  time,  she 
undid  by  night  the  portion  of  the  web  which 
she  had  woven  by  day.  When  the  suitors  had 
discovered  this  device,  her  position  became  more 
ditficult  than  before  ;  but  fortunately  Ulysses 
returned  in  time  to  rescue  his  chaste  spouse  from 
their  distasteful  importunities.  Later  tradition 
represents  P.  in  a  very  different  light,  asserting 
that  by  Hermes  (Mercury),  or  by  all  her  suitors 
together,  she  became  the  mother  of  Pan  (q.  v.),  and 
that  Ulysses,  on  his  return,  divorced  her  in  conse- 
quence. But  the  older  Homeric  legend  is  the 
simpler  and  more  genuine  version  of  the  story. 

PE'UGUIN  (Aptenodytes),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Alcidce  (see  Auk),  or  constituting  the  family 
Aptenodidaz,  regarded  by  many  as  a  sub-family  of 
Alcidce,  and  divided  into  several  genera  oi  sub- 
genera. They  have  short  wings,  quite  unfit  for 
flight,  but  covered  with  short  rigid  scale  like 
feathers,  admirably  adapted  for  swimming,  and 
much  like  the  flippers  of  turtles.  The  legs  are  very 
short,  and  are  placed  very  far  back,  so  that  on  land 
penguius  rest  on  the  tarsus,  which  is  widened  like 
the  sole  of  the  foot  of  a  quadruped,  and  maintain  a 
perfectly  erect  posture.  Their  bones,  unlike  tliose 
of  birds  in  general,  are  hard,  compact,  and  heavy, 
and  have  no  air-cavities ;  those  of  the  extremities 
contain  an  oily  marrow.  The  body  is  of  an  elliptical 
'  37a 


PENICILLARIA— PENITENTIARIES. 


form ;  the  neck  of  moderate  length ;  the  head 
email;  the  bill  moderately  long,  straight,  more  or 
less  compressed  ;  the  tail  very  short.  Some  of 
them  have  a  long,  slender,  and  pointed  bill,  the 
upper   mandible  a  little   curved  at   the  tip,   aud 


Penguin  (Aplenodytes  pennatis). 

feathered  for  about  a  third  of  its  length ;  some, 
sometimes  called  Gorfews  or  Gorfous  (Chrysocoma) 
have  a  stout  and  pointed  bill,  a  little  curved  at  the 
tip  ;  some,  Sphenisques  or  Spheniscans  (Spheniscus), 
have  a  straight  and  compressed  bill,  irregularly 
furrowed  at  the  base.  The  Penguins  are  all  among 
the  most  aquatic  birds,  although  they  are  seldom 
seen  very  far  out  at  sea ;  but  it  is  only  in  the 
breeding  season  that  they  spend  much  time  on 
6hore.  They  are  found  only  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere, and  chiefly  in  high  southern  latitudes, 
although  some  of  the  species  extend  into  ■warm 
regions,  as  Spheniscus  Humboldtii  to  the  coast  of 
Peru.  Of  this  species,  which  is  called  Paxaro  nino, 
or  Child  Bird,  by  the  Peruvians,  Tschudi  states 
that  it  is  easily  tamed,  becomes  very  sociable,  and 
follows  its  master  like  a  dog,  waddling  along  in  a 
very  amusing  manuer  with  its  plump  body  and 
short  legs,  keeping  its  balance  by  motions  of  its 
little  wings.  It  displays  considerable  intelligence, 
and  learns  to  answer  to  its  name.  In  some  of  the 
furthest  antarctic  regions,  penguins  are  prodigiously 
numerous,  appearing  on  the  shore  like  regiments  of 
soldiers,  or,  according  to  another  similitude  which 
has  been  used  by  a  voyager,  like  bands  of  little 
children  in  white  aprons.  They  often  occupy  for 
their  breeding  ground  a  space  of  several  acres, 
which  is  laid  out  and  levelled  and  divided  into 
squares,  as  nicely  as  if  it  had  "been  done  by  a 
surveyor ;  whilst  between  the  compartments  they 
march  as  accurately  as  soldiei's  on  parade.  The 
King  P.  (A.  PatacJionica),  a  large  species,  of  the 
size  of  the  great  auk,  dark  grayish-blue  above,  white 
beneath,  with  a  black  head  and  a  yellow  curved 
band  on  the  throat,  is  found  in  such  numbers  on 
some  of  the  sandy  antarctic  coasts,  that  Mr  Bennett 
describes  one  breeding  ground  on  Macquarie  Island 
as  covering  thirty  or  forty  acres,  and,  to  give  some 
notion  of  the  multitudes,  speaks  of  30,000  or  40,000 
birds  as  continually  landing  and  as  many  putting 
to  sea.  On  many  of  the  antarctic  shores,  the 
penguins  do  not  flee  from  nor  seem  to  dread  the 
presence  of  man,  remaining  as  if  stupidly  indifferent, 
even  when  their  companions  are  knocked  on  the 
head  ;  their  very  indifference,  it  is  said,  suggesting 


the  idea  of  loneliness  and  desolation  more  power- 
fully than  if  there  were  a  total  absence  of  life. 
When  attacked,  however,  they  often  shew  courage 
in  self-defence,  aud  are  read}'  to  run  with  open  bill 
at  an  invader.  The  young  are  reckoned  good 
eating ;  the  old  are  said  to  be  black  and  tough. 
The  name  P.  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Latin 
pinguis,  fat. — Penguins  make  no  nest,  but  lay  a 
single  egg  in  a  chosen  place  on  the  shore  ;  and  the 
egg  is  carefully  tended  both  by  male  and  female. 
The  female  P.  keeps  charge  of  her  young  for  nearly 
twelve  months. —  Many  of  the  penguins  are  birds  of 
bright  plumage. — Cuttlefish,  and  other  CepJudo/ioda, 
form  a  great  part  of  their  food.  Their  voice  is 
loud  and  harsh,  between  a  quack  and  a  bray,  but 
there  are  many  diversities  in  the  different  species. 

PENICILLA'RLL  See  Guinea  Corn  and 
Millet. 

PENITE'NTIAL  PSALMS,  seven  of  the  Psalms 
of  David,  so  called  as  being  specially  expressive  of 
sorrow  for  sin,  and  accepted  by  Christian  devotion 
as  forms  of  prayer  suitable  for  the  repentant  sinner. 
They  are  Psalms  vi.,  xxxii.,  xxxviii.,  li.,  cii.,  cxxx., 
and  cxliii.  according  to  the  Authorised  Version, 
which  correspond  with  vi.,  xxxi.,  xxxvii.,  1.,  ci.,  cxxix., 
and  cxlii.  of  the  Vulgate.  These  Psalms  have  been 
set  apart  from  a  very  early  period,  and  are  referred 
to  as  such  by  Origen  (Horn.  ii.  in  Leviticum).  Pope 
Innocent  III.  ordered  that  they  should  be  recited 
in  Lent.  They  have  a  special  place  in  the  Roman 
Breviary,  and  more  than  one  of  the  popes  attached 
an  indulgence  to  the  recital  of  them.  The  most 
deeply  penitential,  and  the  most  frequent  in  use, 
both  public  and  private,  is  the  51st  Psalm,  or  the 
Miserere  (50  th  in  the  Vulgate). 

PENITE'NTIAPJES,  a  name  applied  to  prisons 
under  the  separate  system  adopted  by  the  Friends  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1786,  when  they  caused  the  legisla- 
ture of  that  state  to  abolish  the  punishments  of  (loath, 
mutilation,  and  the  whip,  and  to  substitute  solitary 
confinement  as  a  reformatory  process.  The  name  has 
been  extended,  and  there  are  now  two  systems  of  pen- 
itentiaries in  the  United  States — that  "known  as  the 
Pennsylvania,  or  separate  (not  solitary),  and  the  Au- 
burn, or  silent  collective  system.  By  the  former  the 
prisoners  are  lodged  in  separate  well-ventilated  cells, 
where  they  are  required  to  work  during  stated  hours, 
and  where  they  are  secluded  from  the  gaze  of  the  public 
and  from  contact  with,  or  any  knowledge  of  the  pres- 
ence of,  fellow-prisoners.  Here  they  receive  visits 
from  the  moral  instructor  and  committees  of  benevolent 
men  and  women,  who  labour  for  their  reclamation 
from  the  influence  of  evil  desires,  are  supplied  with 
books,  and  become,  under  their  kindly  agencies,  pre- 
pared for  exposure  to  the  temptations  of  the  outer 
world.  The  punishments  to  which  they  are  subjected 
are  deprivation  of  food  for  short  periods,  and  confine- 
ment without  labour  in  the  dark — discipline  which  has 
proved  effective  without  the  application  of  corporeal 
punishment,  which  is  prohibited.  Objections  have 
been  made  to  this  system  based  upon  its  supposed  un- 
healthiness,  and  the  increased  tendency  to  insanity  from 
the  want  of  social  influences ;  but  they  are  believed  to 
be  without  force.  By  the  Auburn,  or  New  York  system, 
the  prisoners  are  not  separated  during  working  hours, 
nor  at  their  meals,  but  are  required  to  maintain  strict 
silence  and  refrain  from  any  communication  with 
one  another,  and  are  locked  in  separate  cells  by  night. 
They  labour  in  extensive  workshops  f,s  carpenters, 
blacksmiths,  &c.  Discipline  is  enforced  by  whipping, 
but  is  sail'  to  be  rarely  exercised.  The  objections  to 
this  system  are  that  prisoners  do  communicate  with 
one  another,  and  that  the  exposure  thus  made  prevents 
a  return  to  virtue,  while  the  discipline  degrades  the 
convict  and  keeps  alive  his  baser  passions. 


PENITENTIARY— PENN. 


PENITENTIARY  (Lat  and  [taL  penitentiartn), 
tlie  name  riven  to  one  of  the  offices  of  the  Roman 
court,  n in  1  also  the  dignitary  (a  cardinal,  called 
Psnlteiitiariuit)  who  presides  over  it.  The  cardinal 
penitentiary  n  ust  be  a  priest  and  a  doctor  of  theology 
or  cation  law.  He  is  named  by  the  pope  himself,  and 
should  the  penitentiary  die  while  the  Roman  sec  is 
vacant,  the  cardinals  must  he  specially  assembled  to 
fleet  by  secret  scrutiny  a  pro-penitentiary  to  act  for 
the  time.  The  officials  of  the  penitentiary,  under  the 
lardinal  penitentiary,  are  a  regent,  three  secretaries, 
three  clerks,  a  corrector,  a  consnlter  in  theology,  and 
another  in  canon  law,  and  one  or  tWO  minor  officers. 
The  subjects  which  come  under  the  notice  of  the 
penitentiary  are  all  matters  relating  to  the  con- 
fessional, especially  the  absolution  from  sins  and  from 
canonical  censures,  reserved  to  the  pope,  and  in  cer- 
tain cases  dispensations  from  the  impediments  of  mar- 
riage. 

PENN,  William,  a  celebrated  English  Quaker 
and  philanthropist,  the  founder  of  the  colony  of 
Pennsylvania,  the  son  of  Sir  William  Penn,  an  emi- 
nent English  admiral,  was  horn  at  London,  14th 
October,  1644.  His  early  years  were  spent  partly  in 
Esses  and  partly  in  Ireland,  where  his  father  had 
several  estates.  lie  studied  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
and  while  there  was  converted  to  Quakerism  by  the 
preaching  of  a  disciple  of  Georgo  Fox,  named  Thomas 
Loc.  His  enthusiasm  for  his  new  faith  assumed  an 
aggressive  form,  for  not  only  did  he  object  to  attend  the 
services  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  to  wear  the 
surplice  of  a  student,  hoth  of  which  he  considered 
eminently  papistical,  but,  along  with  some  com- 
panions who  had  also  become  Quakers,  he  attacked 
tseveral  of  his  fellow-students,  and  tore  the  obnoxious 
robes  from  their  backs.  For  this  unseemly  procedure 
he  was  expelled  from  the  university.  His  father  was 
eo  annoyed  at  his  conduct,  that  he  gave  him  a  beating, 
und  turned  him  out  of  doors ;  but  he  was  soon  after- 
wards appeased,  and  sent  him  on  his  travels,  in  the 
hope  that  new  scenes  and  the  gaiety  of  French  life 
would  change  the  bent  of  his  mind.  They  failed, 
however,  of  their  purpose,  though  the  youth  certainly 
acquired  a  grace  and  suavity  of  address  he  did  not 
before  possess.  In  1666  the  admiral  sent  him  to  Ire- 
land to  look  after  his  estates  in  the  county  of  Cork, 
which  Penn  did  to  his  father's  complete  satisfaction; 
for  in  matters  of  business  he  was  as  practical  an  Eng- 
lishman as  in  religion  he  was  spiritually-minded.  In 
the  city  of  Cork,  however,  he  again  fell  in  with 
Thomas  Lee,  and  for  attending  a  Quaker  meeting 
was,  along  with  some  others,  imprisoned  by  the 
mayor,  but  was  immediately  afterwards  released  on 
appealing  to  the  lord  president  of  the  Council  of 
Munster,  who  was  personally  acquainted  with  him. 
On  his  return  to  England,  Fenn  and  his  father  again 
quarrelled,  because  the  conscience  of  the  former 
would  not  allow  him  to  take  off  his  hat  to  anybody 
■~not  even  to  the  king,  the  Duke  of  York,  or  the 
dmiral  himself.  Fenn  was  again  turned  out  of  doors 
y  his  disappointed  and  provoked  parent.  The 
mother,  however,  now  interposed,  and  plead  for  her 
boy  so  far  that  he  was  allowed  to  return  home,  and 
the  admiral  even  exerted  his  influence  with  the  gov- 
ernment to  induce  it  to  wink  at  his  son's  attendance 
at  th  >  illegal  conventicles  of  the  Quakers,  which  he 
would  not  give  up.  In  1668,  however,  he  was 
thrown  into  the  Tower,  on  account  of  a  publication 
entitled  The  Sandy  Foundation  Shaken,  in  which  he 
attacked  the  ordinary  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  jus- 
tification by  the  imputation  of  Christ's  righteousness. 
While  in  prison  he  wrote  the  most  famous  and  popu- 
lar of  his  books,  No  Cross,  no  Crown,  and  Innocency 
with  her  Open  Face,  a  vindication  of  himself,  which 
contributed  to  his  liberation,  obtained  through  the 
Interference  of  the  Duke  of  York.     In   September, 


1670,  Admiral  Penn  died,  leaving  his  son  an  estate  of 
£1500  a  year,  together  with  claims  upon  government 
for  £16,000.  In  1671,  the  nprighl  bnl  incorrigible 
sectary  was  again  committed  to  the  Tower  for  preach- 
ing, and  as  he  wonld  not  take  an  oath  at  his  trial,  ho 
was  sent  to  New-.-ite  for  six    months.      Here   he  wrote 

four  treatises;  one  of  them,  entitled  The  Great  <'<n>sr 
of  Liberty  of  Conscience,  is  an  admirable  defence  of 
tlie  doctrtneof  toleration.  After  regaining  his  liberty 
he  visited  Holland  and  Germany,  lor  the  advance 
nient  of  Quakerism,  along  with  fox  and  Rnrclav, 
Tlie  Countess  Palatine  Elizabeth,  the  granddaughter 

of  James  I.,  shewed  him  particular  favour.  On  bin 
return,     he     married,     in     the     beginning     of      1672, 

Gulielma  Maria  Springett,  daughter  of  Sir  William 
Springett,  and  for  some  years  thereafter  continued  to 
disseminate,  by  preaching  and  writing,  the  doctrines  of 
his  sect.  Having  become  a  proprietor  of  part  of  New 
Jersey,  and  interested  in  its  colonisation,  be  "vas  in- 
duced, in  1681,  to  obtain  from  the  crown,  in  lieu 
of  his  monetary  claim  upon  it,  a  grant  of  the  territory 
now  forming  the  state  of  Pennsylvania.  He  proposed 
to  call  it  Svlvania,  on  account  of  its  forests;  but  the 
king  (Charles  II.)  good-humouredly  insisted  on  the 
prefix  Penn.  His  comprehensive  design  was  not  only 
to  afford  an  asylum  for  his  religious  brethren,  hut  to 
establish  a  government  adapted  to  his  views  and 
principles— 'a  civil  society  of  men  enjoying  the  highest 
possible  degree  of  freedom  and  happiness.'  With 
several  friends,  he  sailed  for  the  Delaware  in  August, 
1682,  was  well  received  by  the  settlers,  and  on  the 
30th  of  November  held  his  famous  interview  with  the 
Indian  tribes,  under  a  large  elm-tree  at  Shackamaxon, 
now  Kensington.  He  next  planned  and  named  the 
city  of  Philadelphia,  and  for  two  years  governed  the 
colony  in  the  wisest,  most  benevolent,  and  liberal 
manner.  In  his  '  concessions '  to  the  settlers  of  New 
Jersey,  a  portion  of  which  was  colonised  by  the  leading 
Quakers  of  that  period,  the  same  attachment  to  the 
principles  of  civil  and  religious  liberty  was  displayed, 
which  he  now  exhibited  upon  a  more  extended  scale 
in  Pennsylvania,  where  his  religious  benevolence, 
genuine  Christianity,  anjl  love  of  his  race  found  open 
expression  and  practical  enforcement.  The  charter  of 
liberties  followed,  and  the  province  of  Pennsylvania 
set  an  example  to  sister  states,  showing  how  it  is  pos- 
sible to  enjoy  one's  own  religious  convictions  without 
disturbing  the  peace  and  conscience  of  one's  fellows. 
His  colony  became  an  asylum  for  the  persecuted  mem- 
bers of  other  sects  besides  the  Quakers.  Towards  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  Penn  returned  to  Eng- 
land to  exert  himself  in  favour  of  his  persecuted 
brethren  at  home.  His  influence  with  James  II. — an 
old  friend  of  his  father's — was  so  great,  that  many 
people,  from  that  time  to  the  present,  have  had 
doubts  about  the  nature  of  their  relations;  but  the 
suspicion  that  he  allowed  himself  to  be  used  as  a  tool 
by  the  court  is  really  not  justified  by  any  known 
facts.  His  position  may  have  seemed  equivocal, 
but  Lord  Macaulay  —  who  has  urged  the  view  of 
his  complicity  in  some  of  the  disgraceful  incident* 
that  followed  Monmouth's  rebellion  with  an  ungra- 
cious animosity — has  been  convicted  of  haste  and 
inaccuracy  in  several  important  particulars.  At  any 
rate,  his  exertions  in  favour  of  the  Quakers  were  so 
far  successful,  that  in  1686  a  proclamation  was  .ssr.ed 
to  release  all  persons  imprisoned  on  account  of  their 
religious  opinions,  and  more  than  1200  Quakers  were 
set  free.  In  the  April  following,  James  issued  an 
edict  for  the  repeal  of  all  religious  tests  and  penalties, 
but  the  mass  of  Nonconformists  doubted  his  sincerity, 
and  refused  to  avail  themselves  of  it.  After  the 
accession  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  as  William  III.,  P. 
was  twice  accused  of  treason,  and  of  corresponding 
with  the  exiled  monarch,  but  was  acquitted.  In  1690 
he  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy,  but  waa 

377 


PENNALISM— PENNATULA. 


again  acquitted.  Nevertheless,  in  the  following  year 
the  charge  was  renewed.  Nothing  appears  to  have 
been  done  for  some  time,  but  Penn  at  last,  through 
the  kindly  offices  of  his  friends,  Locke,  Tillotson, 
and  others,  had  the  matter  thoroughly  investigated, 
and  was  finally  and  honourably  acquitted,  November, 
1693.  Shortly  after,  his  wife  died,  but  in  less  than 
two  years  be  married  again,  His  second  wife,  Hannah 
Callowhill,  was  a  Bristol  lady.  In  16!i9  be  paid  a 
second  visit  to  the  New  World,  and  found  Pennsyl- 
vania in  a  prosperous  condition.  His  stay,  which 
lasted  two  years,  was  marked  by  many  useful  meas- 
ures, \m\  by  efforts  to  ameliorate  the  condition  both 
of  the  Indians  and  Negroes.  Towards  the  end  of 
17  >1,  Pi 'in  sailed  for  England,  and  found  himself  on 
hi»  return  virtually  ruined  by  the  villainy  of  his  agent, 
Ford,  with  whom  he  had  left  the  management  of  his 
affairs.  When  the  rogue  died,  he  left  to  his  widow 
and  son  false  claims  against  his  master,  and  these 
were  so  ruthlessly  pressed,  that  Penn  allowed  himself 
to  be  thrown  into  the  Fleet  in  1708,  to  avoid  extor- 
tion. His  friends  afterwards  procured  his  release, 
but  not  till  his  constitution  was  fatally  impaired. 
Penn  died  at  Bnscombe,  in  Berkshire,  July  30,  1718. 
The  character  of  William  Penn,  and  his  code  of  laws, 
have  been  the  theme  of  eulogy.  '  In  the  early  consti- 
tutions of  Pennsylvania  are  to  be  found  the  distinct 
annunciation  of  every  great  principle;  the  germ,  if 
not  the  development,  of  every  valuable  improvement 
in  government  or  legislation  which  has  been  intro- 
duced into  the  political  systems  of  modern  epochs.' — 
T.  I.  Wharton,  Discourse  before  the  Penn  Society, 
1826.  'To  William  Penn  belongs  the  distinction, 
destined  to  brighten  as  men  advance  in  virtue,  of  first 
in  human  history  establishing  the  Law  of  Love  as  a 
rule  of  conduct  in  the  intercourse  of  nations.' — Chas. 
Sumner,  True  Grandeur  of  Nations,  1852.  'His 
name  has  become  throughout  all  civilised  nations  a 
synonym  for  probity  and  philanthropy.'  —  Lord  Mac- 
nulay,  History  of  England.  See  Macaulay's  History 
of  England,  vol.  i. ;  Hepworth  Dixon's  Life  of  Win. 
Penn;  J.  Paget's  Inquiry  into  the  Evidence  of  the 
Charges  brought  by  Lord  Macaulay  against  William 
Penn,  Edin.,  1858;  S.  M.  Jauney,  Life  of  W.  Penn, 
Philada,;  Article  JPitliam  Peun,  by  J.  Thomas,  M.D., 
in  LippincotCs  Biographical  Dictionary,  Philada., 
1870;  and  Bibliography  of  the  Perm- Macaulay  Con- 
troversy, in  Allibone's  Dictionary  of  'Authors,  Philada., 
1870. 

PE'NNALISM,  the  name  given  to  a  practice  once 
prevalent  in  the  Protestant  universities  of  Germany, 
which  seems  to  have  been  essentially  the  same  as  the 
Fagging  (q.  v.)  of  the  English  public  schools.  The 
freshmen  or  students  of  the  first  year  (called  jiennals 
— i.  e.,  pen-cases  ;  fags)  were  considered  by  the  elder 
students  ('schorists')  as  virtually  their  servants. 
Whatever  property  the  pennals  had  they  must  give  up 
to  the  schorists,  who  now  employed  them  in  the 
meanest  offices,  made  laughing-stocks  of  them,  and 
beat  and  ill-used  them — all  which-  had  to  be  endured 
without  complaint.  Pennalism  is  said  to  have  been 
introduced  in  the  beginning  of  the  17  th  century,  and 
to  have  been  mostly  confined  to  the  Protestant  univer- 
sities of  Germany.  But  the  germs  and  modifications 
of  it  were  much  earlier  and  more  general,  as  is  mani- 
fest from  the  prevalence  of  names  of  contempt  for 
first  year's  students  (see  Bejan),  and  from  statutes 
passed  by  French  universities  as  early  as  the  middle 
of  the  14tl  century,  against  levying  payments  for 
first  footing  from  them.  The  servitude  imposed  on 
the  pennals  was  probably  an  aping  of  the  usage 
of  chivalry,  by  which  a  candidate  for  knighthood 
had  to  serve  for  a  time  as  page  to  one  already  a 
knight.  All  attempts  to  check  the  evils  of  pennal- 
ism were  long  unavailing,  as  the  pennals  took  part 
with  the  schorists  in  resisting  all  regulations  of  the 
378 


authorities,  which  would  have  deprived  thorn  of  the 
hope  of  exercising  in  their  turn  a  like  tyranny  upon 
others.  Edicts  against  the  practice  were  isBued  in 
Jena  and  other  universities  about  the  beginning  of 
the  17th  c,  but  it  was  not  till  the  last  half  of  the 
century  that  the  universities,  by  uniting  in  severe 
measures,  were  able  to  check  the  evil ;  anil  traces  of  it 
survived  for  a  long  time  afterwards. — Sehottgen,  Ilis- 
torie  des  Pennalwesens  (Dresd.  1747). 

PENNANT,  Thomas,  LL.D.,  tourist,  naturalist, 
and  antiquary,  was  born  June  14,  1726,  at  Downing, 
in  Flintshire,  and  educated  at  Queen's  and  Oriel 
Colleges,  Oxford.  His  first  important  publication 
was  the  British  Zoology  (1761 — 1769),  which  con- 
tained in  all  132  plates  on  imperial  paper,  engraved 
by  Mazel,  and  established  his  reputation.  While  the 
work  was  in  course  of  publication,  P.  made  a  trip 
to  the  continent,  and  saw  some  of  the  scientific  and 
literary  celebrities  of  the  time,  as  Buffon,  who  has 
favourably  mentioned  him  in  his  great  work  on 
Natural  History,  Voltaire,  Haller,  the  two  Gesiiers, 
and  Pallas.  In  1769,  he  made  the  first  of  his  famous 
tours  in  Scotland,  penetrating  to  the  remotest  part 
of  the  country,  which,  he  says,  was  then  '  almost  as 
little  known  as  Kamtschatka.'  He  returned  with  a 
very  good  opinion  of  it,  and  published  his  report 
in  1771,  in  consequence  of  which  (according  to  him) 
Scotland  has  '  ever  since  been  inondee  with  southern 
visitants.'  The  year  before,  he  added  103  plates 
to  his  British  Zoology,  with  descriptive  notices ;  and 
in  1771,  printed  at  Chester  his  Synopsis  of  Quad- 
rupeds, subsequently  enlarged  and  improved  under 
the  title  of  History  of  Quadrupeds.  Of  this  work 
Cuvier  says  :  '  It  is  still  indispensable  to  those  who 
wish  to  study  the  history  of  quadrupeds.'  In  the 
same  year  the  university  of  Oxford  conferred  on  hi  in 
the  degree  of  LL.D.  Next  year  he  undertook  his 
second  and  most  important  tour  in  Scotland,  which 
included  a  voyage  to  the  Hebrides  (an  account  of 
which  appeared  in  3  vols.  1775).  P.  was  warmly 
welcomed  by  the  inhabitants.  Almost  every  cor- 
porated  town  paid  him  some  formal  compliment,  and 
he  returned  'rich  in  civic  honour.'  In  1773,  he 
published  his  Genera  of  Birds,  and  made  an  anti- 
quarian tour  through  the  north  of  England.  His 
subsequent  tours  through  Wales  do  not  require 
special  notice.  In  1777  appeared  a  fourth  volume 
of  his  British  Zoology,  containing  the  Vermes,  the 
Crustaceous  and  the  Testaceous  Animals  of  the 
Country.  Among  a  great  vai'iety  of  later  miscel- 
laneous publications,  we  may  mention  in  particular 
an  amusing  life  of  himself  (The  Literary  Lije  of 
the  late  Thomas  Pennant,  Esq.,  by  himself,  1793). 
He  died  December  16,  1798. 

PENNA'TULA,  a  genus  of  zoophytes  (Anthozoa), 
allied  to  Gorgouia  (q.  v.)  and  Alcyonium  (q.  v.),  and 
having  very  similar  polypes  ;  but  the  polype  mass  is 
not  fixed  by  its  base,  has  a  fleshy  stem  strengthened 
by  a  bone,  and  a  skin  containing  calcareous  spiculae, 
the  upper  part  of  the  stem  winged  on  two  sides, 
with  numerous  pinnae,  along  the  upper  margins  of 
which  the  polype-cells  are  ranged.  The  whole 
form  somewhat  resembles  a  quill,  so  that  the  popu- 
lar name  Sea  Pen  is  very  often  given  to  these 
zoophytes.  One  species,  P.  phosphorea,  is  common 
on  the  northern  parts  of  the  British  coast.  It  is 
from  two  to  four  iuches  in  length,  of  a  purplish-red 
colour,  and  like  many — perhaps  all — of  the  other 
species,  is  sometimes  brilliantly  phosphorescent, 
emitting  flashes  of  light  when  disturbed,  but  ceasing 
to  be  luminous  on  relapsing  into  quiescence.  The 
stalk  is  hollow  in  the  centre,  and  the  bone  which 
it  contains — and  which  is  composed  of  phosphate 
and  carbonate  of  lime,  like  the  bones  of  the  verte- 
brate animals — is  a  very  remarkable  part   of  its 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


structure,  not  extending  the  whole  length  <>!'  the 
stalk,  dender,  straight,  and  perfectly  simple,  but  bent 
backwards  at  each  end  into  a  hook.  Other  Bpeciee 
■re  found  in  the  Mediterranean  and  other  Beas,  Borne 
of  them  more  pen-like  than  even  the  British  one. 


''-■/./jji 

Pennatula  {Virgularia  inirabilis). 

Nearly  allied  to  the  pennatuhe  is  another  genus  of 
extremely  beautiful  zoophytes,  Virgularia,  ranked 
-with  them  in  the  family  PennatitlidtB,  and  sometimes 
receiving  the  popular  name  Ska  Hush.    One  Bpecies, 

(".  in <)■<•<  a 'is,  is  found  on  the  British  eoasts. 

PENNSYLVANIA,  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
Stairs  of  the  United  States  of  America,  and  the 
second  in  population,  is  situated  between  39°  43'  and 
42°  15'  N.  hit.  and  74°  42'  and  80°  35'  W.  long.,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  X.  by  Lake  Erie  and  N.York,  E.  by 
X.  York  and  X.  Jersey,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
the  river  Delaware,  S.  by  Delaware,  Maryland,  and 
W.  Virginia,  and  W,  by  W.  Virginia  and  Ohio.  It  is 
about  310  miles  in  length  and  160  miles  in  breadth, 
is  divided  into  66  counties,  and  contains  an  area  of 
46,000  square  miles,  or  29,440,000  acres.  P.  is 
divided  near  the  middle  by  the  Alleghany  Mountains 
into  an  eastern  and  western  region.  The  lirst  is 
drained  by  the  Delaware,  the  Susquehanna,  and  their 
branches,  whose  waters  flow  into  Delaware  and 
Chesapeake  Bays;  the  latter  chiefly  by  the  Alle- 
ghany and  Monongahela,  whose  waters  unite  to  form 
the  Ohio.  The  average  height  of  the  rolling  country 
west  of  the  Alleghanies  is  600  feet,  and  Lake  Erie,  on 
the  north-west,  is  565  feet  above  the  sea.  The  Al- 
leghanies are  part  of  the  great  Appalachian  chain,  but 
in  P.  they  seldom  rise  above  2000  feet  in  height.  The 
Blue  Ridge,  known  as  the  South  Mountain  in  P.,  passes 
through  the  S.  E.  section  of  the  State,  and  some- 
times rises  to  the  height  of  1500  feet.  P.  is  noted  for 
her  pastoral  valleys  of  rare  beauty,  and  for  her  pic- 
turesque streams  and  mountain  gorges.  The  geology 
of  the  state  has  been  ably  developed  by  H.  D.  Rogers 
and  J.  P.  Lesley,  and  therein  has  been  found  the  key  to 
*he  succession  of  strata  in  the  eastern  United  States. 
The  geological  formations  range  from  the  Eozoic 
(Azoic),  through  the  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  Car- 
boniferous, to  the  Triassic  (Xew  Red  Sandstone), 
while  the  glacial  drift  is  spread  over  the  northern  and 
western  sections,  and  sends  long  tongues  of  gravel 
adown  the  valleys  almost  to  the  southern  limits  of  the 
State.  The  middle  and  eastern  sections  present  nu- 
merous fertile  limestone  valleys,  and  near  Philadelphia 
are  quarries  of  white  marble,  and  in  Lehigh  and  York 
counties  valuable  slates  abound.  The  great  deposits 
of  .Jjthracite  and  semi-anthracite  lie  east  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies, and  on  the  west  are  extensive  beds  of  bitu- 
minous coal  salt  wells,  aud  the  wonderful  reservoirs 
of  petroleum,  which  flows  from  the  earth  at  the  rate  of 
aboi.t  20,000  barrels  a  day.  Iron  ore  abounds  in  many 
parts,  either  as  hematitic,  magnetic,  or  fossiliferous, 
and  nickel,  copper,  lead,  and  zinc  are  also  mined. 

The  chief  cities  are  Philadelphia  (q.  v.),  distin- 
guished for  its  manufactures;  Pittsburg  (q.  v.),  at 
the  head  of  the  Ohio,  noted  for  its  iron  and  glass 
products;  Reading,  on  the  Schuylkill,  for  its  ma- 
chinery; Williamsport,  on  the  West  Branch  of  the 
Susquehanna,  the  seat  of  one  of  the  most  extensive 


lumher  marts  in  the  Union;  1  larri-hurg,  the  political 
capital,  Lancaster,  Boston,  and  Erie. 

The  climate  in  the  S    1'..  counties  is  generally  mild, 

the  mercury  seldom  falling  below  lero  of  I'.,  or  rising 
above  '.».')';  imt  in  the  mountain  valleys  the  winters 
are  often  severe.  The  soil  is  generally  fertile,  produc- 
ing oats,  maize,  wheat,  potatoes,  rye,  buckwheat,  and 
hay.  The  product  of  maize  per  acre  is  often  unsur- 
passed by  any  other  State,  except  those  on  the  virgin 

BOils    of    the  North-West.       While   1*.  is  one  of    the  bl>8t 

agricultural  states  a  vast  industry  is  also  engaged  in 

mining  coal  and  iron  ores,  in  manufacturing  iron  and 
steel,  machinery,  glass,  woollens,  and   cotton — in   the 

lust  two  ranking  next  to  Massachusetts,  and  in  the 

former  greatly  surpassing  any  other  State.  The 
manufacturing  establishments  of  P.  in  1860  num- 
bered 22,363,  producing  an  annual  value  of  $290,- 
121,188,  and  employing  a  capital  of  $190,055,904* 
Her  productive  industry  has  probably  trebled  in  value 
during  the  last  decade.  In  1809  and  1870  the  min- 
eral products  reached  an  enormous  amount.  In 
1869  there  were  mined  13,338,457  tons  of  anthracite, 
and  6,700,000  tons  of  bituminous  coal,  valued  at 
$90,000,000,  and  4,215,000  barrels  of  petroleum, 
valued  at  $50,000,000.  'Die  production  of  pig-iron 
was  '.150,000  tons,  or  45  per  cent,  of  the  entire  pro- 
duction of  the  Union;  of  rails,  319,653  tons,  or  53 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  amount;  of  rolled  iron,  260,000 
tons,  and  of  steel,  18,000  tons.  In  1870  the  anthra- 
cite product  had  increased  to  15,849,899  tons,  and  the 
bituminous  coal  to  6,543,145,  valued  at  $100,000,000; 
petroleum,  5,659,000  barrels,  five-sixths  of  the  total 
American  product,  valued  at  $56,590,000;  pig-iron, 
875,000  tons;  rails,  325,000  tons;  rolled  iron,  245,- 
000  tons ;  steel,  24,000  tons,  a  total  value  for  iron 
and  steel  products  (excluding  machinery,  tools,  kv.) 
of  $70,000,000.  In  1869  the  agricultural  products 
were  valued  at  $131,000,000,  and  in  1870  at  $150,- 
000,000,  while  the  manufactures  of  Philadelphia  alonn 
reached  a  total  valuation  of  $300,000,000,  an  aggre- 
gate of  $676,590,000.  If  to  this  be  added  the  profit* 
of  her  railroads  and  canals,  and  the  numberless  indus- 
tries not  here  enumerated,  a  final  aggregate  would  ha 
reached  of  quite  $1,000,000,000. 

P.  has  long  been  noted  for  her  charitable  institutions, 
for  her  admirable  system  of  prison  discipline,  for  her 
excellent  roads,  and  for  her  gigantic  system  of  canals 
and  railroads,  the  latter  constructed  in  advance  of  the 
time,  but  having  been  transferred  by  the  State  to 
private  companies,  now  eminently  prosperous.  The 
Reading,  Lehigh,  and  Lackawanna  R.  R.  now  carrieb 
the  largest  coal  tonnage  in  the  world,  and  a  stream 
of  oil  flows  through  the  State  over  the  roads  to  Phil 
adelphia  and  Xew  York.  There  are  141  railroads, 
with  a  main-line  extension  of  4256  miles,  which  have 
cost  about  $300,000,000,  and  pay  a  handsome  profit 
upon  their  capital,  and  carried,  in  1870,  26,491,949 
passengers  (exclusive  of  the  city  railroads,  which 
conveyed  upward  of  60,000,000),  and  53,439,789  tons 
of  freight,  on  which  a  profit  of  $34,138,195  was 
realized.  One  of  these,  the  Pennsylvania,  now  con- 
trols 4000  miles,  extending  its  Briarean  arms  from  the 
Atlantic  almost  to  the  Pacific,  forming  the  most 
gigantic  corporation  in  the  world.  P.  has  13  canals, 
1068  miles  in  length,  and  wholly  within  the  State. 

Education  has  received  enlarged  attention  in  P.,  as 
is  attested  by  her  34  colleges,  13  theological  semina- 
ries, 5  schools  of  medicine,  5  normal  schools  in 
operation  and  4  in  progress,  14,212  public  schools, 
attended  by  555,941  pupils,  conducted  by  17,612 
teachers.  The  total  cost  of  public  education,  in  1870, 
was  $7,771,761,  of  which  $3,745,415  was  for  tuitioD 
alone.  There  are  also  numerous  private  academies, 
1400  public  libraries,  political,  religious,  literary,  and 
scientific  journals,  nearly  6000  churches,  6  asylum? 
for   the  insane,   many  hospitals,  ai    institution   foj 


PENNY— PENSIONS  AND  PENSIONERS. 


deaf-mutes,  2  for  the  blind,  1  for  the  feeble-minded, 
2  houses  of  refuge  for  juvenile  delinquents,  2  State 
penitentiaries,  and  IS  soldiers'  orphans'  schools,  with 
3530  pupils,  and  numerous  asylums  and  schools  sus- 
tained by  private  munificence. 

There  were,  in  1870,  50  hanks  (43  national),  15 
savings  hanks,  and  4  hanks  for  deposit,  46  turnpike 
companies,  32  iron  and  steel  companies,  15  coal  and 
iron  companies,  67  coal  companies,  50  insurance  com- 
panies, 76  oil  companies,  42  incorporated  manufactur- 
ing and  12  mining  companies. 

The  expenditure  of  the  commonwealth  for  the  fiscal 
year  ending  November  30,  1870,  was  $6,434,523,  of 
which  $336,866  was  for  charitable  institutions,  $508,- 
245  for  soldiers'  orphans'  schools,  $648,959  for  public 
schools,  $1,789,522  for  sinking  fund,  $1,864,811  for 
interest  on  loans,  and  $816,069  for  the  civil  govern- 
ment. The  revenue  amounted  to  $6,336,603.  The 
assessed  value  of  personal  property  was  $171,686,918, 
and  the  value  of  real  and  personal  property,  according 
to  the  census  of  1870,  was  $1,171,557,000'.  The  pub- 
lic  debt  on  Dec.  1,  1870,  was  $31,111,662,  against 
which  the  commonwealth  held  bonds  of  railroad  and 
canal  companies  valued  at  $11,254.32.  $1,702,879 
of  the  public  deht  was  paid  during  the  year  1870. 

In  1627  a  colony  of  Swedes  and  Finns  settled  on 
the  Delaware  River.  In  1681  the  territory  was 
granted  by  Charles  II.  to  William  Penn  (q.  v.),  who, 
with  his  co-religionists  of  the  Society  of  Friends  (q. 
v.),  established  a  Christian  government  '  founded  on 
peace,  reason,  and  right.'  Having  purchased  the 
lands,  &c,  of  the  Indians,  and  conciliated  them  by 
kindness  and  good-will,  he  secured  their  friendship 
during  70  years.  Some  of  the  interior  counties  were 
settled  by  Germans  and  Scotch  only,  hut  the  great 
body  of  the  people  are  of  English  origin.  New  Jersey 
and"  Pennsylvania  were  the  only  colonies  founded 
without  bloodshed,  and  of  which  it  may  be  truly  said 
that  the  principle  that  neither  priest  nor  magistrate 
has  any  jurisdiction  over  the  conscience  of  men 
formed  a  fundamental  provision  of  the  constitution. 
Both  colonies  were  under  the  control  of  Quaker  pro- 
prietaries for  a  number  of  years,  and  their  liberal 
political  institutions  have  heen  a  theme  for  eulogy  by 
historians.  The  principles  involved  in  Penn's  code  of 
laws  were  new  in  those  days,  hut  have  since  heen 
adopted  in  the  constitutions  of  many  States,  while  in 
others  they  are  still  in  advance  of  the  age. 

Population  in  1800,  602,361;  1820,  1,049,458; 
1840,  1,724,033;    1860,  2,906,370;    1870,  3,521,951. 

See  Taylor,  R.  C,  Statistics  of  Coal,  2d  ed.,  re- 
vised by  S.  S.  Ilaldeman,  Philada.,  1855;  Lesley,  J. 
P.,  Manual  of  Goal  and  its  Topography,  Philada., 
1856-  Rogers,  H.  D.,  Geology  of  Pennsylvania,  2 
vols.  '4to,  Philada.,  1858;  Lesley,  J.  P.,  Iron  Manu- 
facturer^ Guide,  New  York,  1859 ;  Henry,  M.  D., 
^History  of  the  Lehigh  Valley,  Easton,  1860;  Daddow, 
S.  H.,  and  Bannan,  B.,  Coal,  Iron  and  Oil,  Potts- 
ville,  'l866;  and  First  Annual  Rep.  of  Commissioner 
of  Public  Charities,  Harrisburg,  1871. 

PENNY,  a  British  coin  and  money  of  account.  The 
name  is  evidently  the  same  as  the  German  pfennig, 
and  both  words  seem  to  he  intimately  connected  with 
the  old  German  pfant,  a  pledge,  and  the  Latin  pendo, 
to  weigh  or  to  pay.  The  penny  is  first  mentioned  in 
the  laws  of  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  about  the 
close  of  the  7th  century.  It  was  at  this  time  a  silver 
coin,  and  weighed  about  22|  troy  grains,  being  thus 
about  ^Tjyth  of  the  Saxon  pound  weight.  See  MARK. 
Halfpence  and  farthings  were  not  coined  in  England 
till  the  time  of  Edward  I.,  but  the  practice  previously 
prevailed  of  so  deeply  indenting  the  penny  with  a  cross 
mark,  that  the  coin  could  be  easily  broken  into  two  or 
four  parts  as  required.  Silver  farthings  ceased  to  be 
coined  under  F/hvard  VI.,  and  silver  halfpennies  under 
the  Com  mor  wealth.  By  this  time  the  penny  had 
380 


steadily  decreased  in  weight;  it  was  18  grahis  under 
Edward  III.,  15  and  12  under  Edward  IV.,  8  under 
Edward  VI.,  and  under  Elizabeth  it  was  finally  fixed 
af  7ff  grains,  or  ^2  of  an  ounce  of  silver,  a  value  to 
which  the  subsequent  copper  pennies,  which  till  1860 
were  the  circulating  medium,  closely  approximated. 
In  1672  an  authorised  copper  coinage  was  established, 
and  halfpence  and  farthings  were  struck  in  copper. 
The  penny  was  not  introduced  till  1797.  The  penny 
of  the  present  bronze  coinage  is  of  only  about  half  the 
value  of  the  old  copper  penny. 

PENO'BSCOT,  a  river  of  Maine,  U.S.,  rises  r  ea 
the  centre  of  the  state  by  two  branches,  from  a 
chain  of  lakes  extending  north-westerly;  aud  after  a 
south  by  west  course  of  135  miles  from  the  junction, 
or  275  in  all,  empties  into  Penobscot  Bay,  a  broad 
and  sheltered  opening  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  20 
miles  wide,  with  several  large  islands.  Its  chief 
towns  are  Belfast,  at  its  mouth ;  Bangor,  50  miles 
above,  where  falls  supply  power  to  saw-mills  and 
factories  ;  Castine,  and  Bucksport.  It  is  navigable  to 
Bangor,  where  there  is  a  tide  of  20  feet.  The  chief 
trade  is  pine  timber. 

PE'NRITH,  a  market  town  of  Cumberland,  in  a 
picturesque  and  fertile  valley,  with  rich  and  striking 
scenery  in  the  vicinity,  stands  on  the  Carlisle  and 
Lancaster  Railway,  17  miles  south-south-east  of 
Carlisle.  In  the  parish  churchyard  is  a  monument 
of  great  antiquity,  formed  of  two  pyramidal  stones 
about  12  feet  high,  and  known  as  the  '  Giant's 
Grave.'  The  town  contains  an  ancient  free  gram- 
mar-school, and  other  educational  institutions.  A 
new  aud  beautiful  church,  built  in  the  style  of  the 
13th  c,  was  consecrated  here  in  1850.  Cotton, 
linen,  and  woollen  goods  are  manufactured.  Pop. 
(1871)  8317. 

PENRY'N,  a  nmnicipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  and  market  town  of  England,  in  the  county 
of  Cornwall,  in  a  warm,  sheltered,  and  richly  pro- 
ductive valley,  on  the  Plymouth  and  Falmouth 
Railway,  two  miles  w«st-north-west  of  Falmouth. 
It  stands  on  a  low  hill  projecting  eastward  into 
Falmouth  Harbour.  Trade  is  carried  on  to  some 
extent  with  the  mining  district  of  Redruth,  and  there 
are  several  quarries  in  the  vicinity,  from  which  the 
famous  P.  granite — the  material  of  which  Waterloo 
i  Bridge,  the  Chatham  Docks,  and  a  great  number  of 
other  important  public  works  are  constructed — is 
obtained  :  20,000  tons  of  granite  have  been  exported 
in  the  year,  but  the  quantity  varies  much.  Pop. 
(1871)  of  municipal  borough  3679.  Together  with 
Falmouth,  it  forms  a  parliamentary  borough,  which 
returns  two  members  to  parliament,  and  the  popula- 
tion of  which,  in  1871,  was  16,819. 

PENSACO'LA,  a  town  and  port  of  entry,  on  a 
deep  bay  opening  into  the  Gidf  of  Mexico,  at  the 
south- western  extremity  of  West  Florida,  U.S. 
Lat.  30°  24'  N.,  long.  87°  10'  W.  The  town,  nearly 
destroyed  during  the  war  in  1861,  is  on  the  north 
shore  of  the  bay,  and  is  connected  by  railway  with 
Montgomery,  Alabama.  Near  the  entrance  were 
the  navy  yard,  hospital,  and  Fort  Barrancas.  The 
entrance  is  further  defended  by  Fort  Pickens,  at  the 
west  end  of  Santa  Rosa  Island,  and  Fort  M'Rae  on 
the  opposite  point.  The  bay  branches  into  two 
divisions,  receiving  the  Escambia  and  Yellow  Rivers. 
As  one  of  the  best  harbours  on  the  gulf,  P.  was 
settled  by  the  Spaniards,  occupied  by  the  British  in 
1814,  and  acquired  by  the  United  States  in  1821. 

PENSION  (Lat.  pensio,  from  pendo,  to  weigh 
out,  to  pay),  an  allowance  paid  annually  by  govern- 
ment to  an  individual  in  consideration  of  past 
services,  civil  or  military.    See  Civil  List. 

PENSIONS  AND  PENSIONERS,  Military 
and  Naval.    There  are  pensions  for  good  Bervlca 


PENSIONS  AND  PENSIONERS— PENT ACRIN I  S. 


for  mere  faithful  ordinary  service,  for  wounds,  and 
to  representatives  of  deceased  officers. 

Good-Service  Pauion*  are  rewards  to  selected 
officer!  in  the  British  navy  for  distinguished  service. 
In  1873  they  were  us  Follow:  IS  admirals  have  £800 
each,  lt>  captains  £150,  l  general  of  marines  £300,  r> 
do.  £200,  2  colonels  £l 50,  and  5  medical  officers  £100; 
the  total  charge  being  £9150.  The  corresponding 
pension  in  the  army  is  called  i\  RBWABD  FOB  DIS- 
TINGUISHED Service  (q.  v.). 

The  Pensions  for  Long  Service  are  awarded  in  the 
army  to  non-commissioned  officers  and  soldiers  who 
have  served  21  years  in  the  infantry,  or  21  years  in 
the  cavalry,  or  earlier  if  disabled  from  further  service, 
according  to  the  wounds,  loss  of  health,  and  conduct 
of  the  pensioner.  The  amount  is  fixed  by  the  com- 
missioners of  Chelsea  Hospital,  and  varies  from  l^il. 
to  3a  6d.  a  day,  the  lower  rates  being  mainly  con- 
lined  to  negro  pensioners  from  the  West  India 
regiments.  Pensioners  are  either  m-peneioners  of 
Chelsea  (q.  v.)  or  Kilmainham  Hospitals,  in  which 
case  they  forego  their  proper  pension,  and  receive 
board,  lodging,  and  a  small  sum  for  tobacco- money, 
or  out-pensioners  residing  where  they  please,  and 
drawing  their  pensions  from  the  staff  officers  of 
pensioners,  of  whom  there  is  one  in  every  consider- 
able town.  These  men  can  follow  other  pursuits,  often 
do  so  with  great  success,  as  their  military  habits 
of  regularity  stand  them  in  good  stead  in  civd  life. 
In  particular,  railways  give  employment  to  great 
numbers  of  pensioners,  as  signalmen,  guards,  &c. 
Pensioners  who  are  in  good  health,  and  are  willing 
for  such  service,  are  enrolled  in  a  force  called  the 
'  Enrolled  Pensioners,'  which  forms  a  defensive  corps 
of  veterans.  This  gives  the  men,  as  an  adjunct  to 
the  pension,  an  annual  retaining  fee  of  i'l  each, 
besides  pay  during  the  yearly  training,  of  8  days  at 
the  rate  of  2s.  a  day  for  privates,  2&  Gd.  for  corporals, 
and  3s.  for  Serjeants.  The  veterans  are  officered  by 
their  respective  staff  officers,  and,  in  case  of  emer- 
gency, would  be  embodied  for  service.  As  garrison 
troops,  these  old  soldiers  would  doubtless  prove 
most  valuable.  A  pension  is  forfeited  if  the  holder 
he  convicted  of  felony. 

The  Naval  Pensio?is  for  Long  /Service  are  given  to 
petty  officers,  seamen,  and  marines,  under  principles 
essentially  similar  to  those  for  the  army;  the  com- 
missioners of  Greenwich  Hospital  awarding  the  allow- 
ances, Greenwich  Hospital  being  the  home  of  the 
in-pensioner,  and  the  out-pensioners  drawing  their 
pensions  through  the  staff  officers  of  military  pen- 
sioners. 

Under  this  section  should  he  mentioned  pensions  for 
especial  bravery  in  action,  granted  with  the  Victoria 
Cross  (q.  v.). 

Pensions  for  wounds  are  common  to  both  services, 
and  are  limited  to  officers.  They  are  awarded  respect- 
ively by  the  Secretary  for  War  and  Lords  of  the  Ad- 
miralty, for  serious  bodily  injury,  as  the  loss  of  a  limb 
or  eye,  and  vary  according  to  the  rank  of  the  recipient 
and  other  circumstances.  In  cases  of  less  serious  in- 
jury, temporary  pensions  are  sometimes  granted,  or 
gratuities. 

"Widows  of  commissioners  and  warrant  officers  in 
the  army  and  navy  receive  pensions  so  long  as  they 
remain  unmarried,  provided  they  have  been  married 
severally  twelve  months  when  their  husbands  die, 
and  that  the  latter  were  under  60  years  of  age  (50 
for  warrant  officers)  when  they  married  the  claim- 
ants. Such  pension  is  not  granted  if  the  widow  be 
ieft  in  wealthy  circumstances,  and  lies  dormant 
during  a  second  marriage,  though  it  may  be  revived 
should  she  again  become  a  widow.  The  amount  of 
pension  varies  according  to  rank,  and  there  are 
three  distinct  classes  for  each  rank:  1st,  When  the 
husband    was   killed    in    battle,  or   died    within   six 


months  of  wounds  received   therein;  2d,  When  he 
died  from  some  cause  distinctly  falling  within  tlio 
sphere  of  his  duty,  but  not  from  wounds  in  .. 
3d,   When  he  died  in  the  course  of  nature     The 

following  table  shews  the  amount  of  pension  to 
widows  of  combatant  ranks,  civil  ranks  receiving 
similar  rates  according  to  relative  standing.  St>a 
Relative  Rank. 


FlnsrOffleer,  or  General) 
Officer,  .     ) 

Captains  in  Navy  ;  Col- 
onels in  Army, 

Lieutenant  Colonels  in 

Army,     . 
Commander!  in  Navy ; 

M.ijurs  in  Army,    . 
Lieutenants,       Navy  ;) 

Captain*,  Army.    .      | 
Sub-Lieutenants,  Navy, 
Lieutenants,  Army, 
Knxigna,  Army, 
Gunners,     Boatswains,) 

Carpenters,  Navy,       f 


Fna  Annim. 


3d  (Inn. 


According  to  circumstances, 

£200 


120 

80 

60 
60 

50 

35 


J 105  Cptna.  ) 

(1-io  Cols.     / 


3dC!»M, 

£120 

80&«0 
80 
70 


Compassionate  allowances  are  small  additional 
pensions  granted  to  the  children  of  deceased  officers, 
left  in  indifferent  or  bad  circumstances.  They  vary 
from  £5  to  £40  each,  and  can  be  held  by  boys  till 
18  (unless  earlier  provided  for),  and  by  girls  until 
21,  or  an  earlier  marriage.  If  an  officer  fall  in 
action,  without  leaving  a  widow  or  orphans,  but 
leaving  a  parent  who  had  been  more  or  less  depend- 
ent on  him,  such  parent  may  be  granted  the  pension 
or  a  portion  of  it,  and  is  sometimes  allowed  to  com- 
mute the  pension  into  a  single  payment. 

The  United  St  at  ex  Pension  office  was  established  tem- 
porarily in  1833,  and  continued  by  subsequent  legisla- 
tion until  made  permanent  by  act  of  January  19,  1849. 
It  forms  a  Bureau  in  the  Department  of  the  Interior, 
and  is  under  the  charge  of  the  Commissioner  of  Pen- 
sions. The  only  surviving  revolutionary  soldiers  who 
received  a  pension  died  during  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1867,  but  pensions  were  granted  to  two  other  vet- 
erans by  acts  passed  in  the  same  year.  On  the  30th 
of  June,  1869,  there  were  on  the  rolls  81,579  invalid 
military  pensioners,  whose  yearly  pensions  amounted 
to  $7,362,804,  and  103,546  widows  and  orphans,  and 
dependent  relatives  of  soldiers,  whose  yearly  pensions 
amounted  to  $13,567,679,  making  an  aggregate  of 
army  pensioners  of  185,125,  and  a  total  annual  rate 
of  $20,930,483;  the  amount  actually  paid  to  invalid 
military  pensioners  and  to  widows  and  orphans  was 
$27,992,868.04.  There  were  also  5280  invalid  navy 
pensioners,  to  whom  an  annual  pension  was  paid, 
amounting  to  $118,171,  and  1558  widows,  orphans, 
&e.,  receiving  an  aggregate  annual  rate  of  $256,830; 
the  amount  actually  paid  to  navy  invalids  and  to 
widows,  orphans,  &c.,  was  $430,01 6.  The  total  amount 
paid  in  the  year  ending  June  30,  1870,  to  pensioners 
of  all  clashes  was  $2S, 284,043,  a  sum  less  by 
$409,781  than  was  paid  in  the  previous  year. 

On  June  30,  1870,  there  were  195,739  pensioners  of 
all  classes,  or  10,614  more  than  on  June  30,  1869. 

Bounty  Land.—  During  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1870,  there  were  issued  1633  original  land- warrants 
for  261,280  acres. 

PENSIONARY,  GRAND,  of  Holland.  See 
Grand  Pensionary. 

PENTA'CRINUS,  a  genus  of  EcMnodermata,  of 
the  order  or  family  Crinoideae.  (q.  v.),  remarkable  as 
containing  the  only  permanently  stalked  Crinoideae, 
or  Crinoideae  believed  to  be  permanently  stalked, 
known  now  to  exist,  and  thus  the  only  true  hyi^g 
representative  of  the  fossil  Encrinites  (q.  v.).  The 
genus  P.  has  a  long  pentangular  column  of  numerous 


PENTADESMA— PENTATEUCH. 


joints,  from  winch  there  arise  at  intervals  many 
whorls  of  unbranched  arms,  and  which  bears  at  its 
vimmit  a  disc  at  first  divided  into  five  radiating 
members,  and  afterwards  blanching  into  ten  arms, 
each  further  subdivided.  The  whole  of  this  skeleton 
is  calcareous,  but  it  is  united  by  cartilages,  and 
covered  with  a  fleshy  integument.  P.  Caput 
Medusa,  the  Medusa's  Head,  is  found  in  the  West 
Indian  seas,  and  is  very  rare  in  collections,  being 
only  dredged  up  from  waters  of  considerable  depth  ; 
from  which  cause  also  the  nature  of  the  base  of 
the  column  is  not  certainly  known.  The  stem  is 
more  than  a  foot  long. — The  fossil  species  of  P.  are 
numerous  in  the  Lias  and  Oolite  formations.  They 
gradually  become  fewer  in  the  newer  rocks. — The 
etalked  young  of  Comatula  rosacea  was  at  one  time 
regarded  as  a  P.,  and  described  under  the  name  of 
P.  Europoeu8.     See  Crinoide^s. 

PENTADE'SMA,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Guttiferce,  to  which  belongs  the  Butter-and- 
Tallow  Tree  of  Sierra  Leone,  P.  butyracea.  It  is 
a  tree  sixty  feet  high,  and  produces  a  conical  fruit 
of  the  size  of  a  very  large  pear,  the  pnlp  of  which 
abounds  in  a  yellow  oily  substance,  with  a  strong 
flavour,  somewhat  resembling  that  of  turpentine,  yet 
much  used  by  the  natives  as  an  article  of  food. 
The  '  country  butter,'  brought  to  the  market  of 
Freetown,  is  supposed  to  be  procured  froni  this 
fruit. 

PE'NTASTYLE,  a  building  with  a  portico  of  five 
columns. 

PE'NTATEUCH  (Gr.  fivefold  book),  a  name 
given  by  Greek  translators  to  the  five  books 
ascribed  to  Moses,  which  are  in  Hebrew  called 
collectively  Tor  ah  (Law),  by  way  of  eminence,  or 
Chamisha  Chumshe  Torah  (five-fifths  of  the  Torah). 
Law  is  also  the  general  name  by  which  the  work  or 
portions  of  it  are  referred  to  and  quoted  (the  words 
'  of  Moses '  or  '  of  the  Lord '  being  added  occasion- 
ally) both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament. 

The  division  into  five  portions  (further  divided 
into  50,  40,  27,  36,  34  chapters,  or  12,  11,  10,  10,  11 
Parshioth  or  Sidras  respectively,  by  the  Masoretes) 
is,  if  not  original,  at  all  events  of  a  very  remote 
date,  and  certainly  anterior  to  the  Septuagint. 
Genesis,  Leviticus,  and  Deuteronomy,  the  first, 
third,  and  fifth  books,  form  clearly  defined  and 
internally  complete  parts  of  the  work  as  a  whole, 
and  thus,  also,  fix  the  limits  of  the  intermediate 
second  (Exodus)  and  the  commencement  of  the 
concluding  fifth  (Deuteronomy).  The  chief  aim  of 
the  Pentateuch  being  to  give  a  description  of  the 
origin  and  history  of  the  Hebrew  people  up  to  the 
conquest  of  Canaan,  together  with  the  theocracy 
founded  among  them,  the  centre  is  formed  by 
the  person  of  Moses  himself,  the  regenerator 
and  lawgiver  of  the  nation.  Genesis,  beginning 
with  the  history  of  the  creation  and  antediluvian 
genealogy  from  Adam  to  Noah,  in  rapid  outlines 
Bketches  the  propagation  of  the  various  tribes  that 
descended  from  the  one  man  who  was  saved  in  the 
Deluge,  but  dwells  with  special  emphasis  upon 
Shem,  from  whom  sprang,  in  the  tenth  generation, 
Abraham,  the  progenitor  of  the  '  people  of  the 
covenant.'  The  salient  events  in  the  lives  of  his 
descendants,  the  Patriarchs,  are  minutely  described ; 
and  a  fitting  close  is  found  in  the  benediction  of 
Jacob,  who,  as  it  were,  reinaugurates  and  confirms 
all  his  twelve  sons  in  the  covenant  made  between 
Abraham  and  God.  Exodus,  treating  of  the  libera- 
tion of  the  people  from  Egypt ;  their  wanderings  in 
the  desert ;  the  promulgation  of  the  Law,  by  which 
they  became  emphatically  the  '  holy  nation '  and  the 
'people  of  the  Lord  and  the  erection  of  a  visible 
sanctuary  may  be  regarded  as  the  nucleus  of 
382 


the  work ;  while  Leviticus,  the  following  book, 
fittingly  enters  into  the  details  of  the  legislation 
and  the  mode  of  worship;  chiefly  concerning  the 
priests  and  Levites,  the  expositors  of  the  Law, 
and,  in  a  manner,  the  spiritual  representatives  of 
the  other  tribes.  The  historical  thread  is  taken 
up  again  in  Numbers,  the  fourth  book,  which,  also, 
side  by  side  with  the  relation  of  the  events  between 
the  Sinaitic  period  and  the  beginning  of  the 
fortieth  year  after  the  Exodus,  contains  many 
laws  explanatory  of,  or  complementary  to,  those 
of  the  former  books,  together  with  such  as  new 
Circumstances  had  called  into  existence.  A  brief 
recapitulation  of  the  preceding  portions;  Moses's 
most  impressive  and  reiterated  exhortations  to  keep 
that  Law,  which  was  now  completed,  and  solemnly 
transmitted  to  the  Levites;  and  the  death  of  the 
legislator- himself ;  form  the  chief  contents  of  the 
fifth  book,  or  Deuteronomy.  Thus,  the  theo- 
cratic plan  of  the  work  is  carried  through  from 
beginning  to  end,  coming  out  more  prominently  in 
the  three  intermediate  books,  but  never  lost  sight 
of  entirely.  Nothing  is  dwelt  or  even  touched  upon 
save  that  which  in  some  way  illustrates  either  the 
relation  of  God  to  the  people,  or  of  the  people  to 
God ;  the  political,  civil,  and  domestic  laws  them- 
selves, being  enumerated  only  as  bearing  upon  the 
main  aim  and  object  of  the  work. 

The  special  books  being  treated  separately  under 
their  respective  heads,  we  have  here  only  to  con- 
sider some  questions  relating  to  the  work  as  a 
whole,  and  principally  that  of  its  authorship  and 
history,  as  far  as  these  points  have  not  been  touched 
upon  already  under  Genesis.  Tradition,  as  embodied 
in  the  earliest  historical  records,  mentions  Moses  as 
the  writer  of  the  complete  Pentateuch,  such  as  it  is 
before  us :  with  the  exception  of  a  few  verses,  describ- 
ing the  last  moments  of  the  lawgiver,  &c,  which  were 
ascribed  to  Joshua.  This  tradition  has  for  many  a 
long  century  been  almost  universally  adhered  to.  Not 
that  there  have  not  at  different  periods  suspicions 
been  raised  respecting  this  '  authenticity.'  The 
Pseudo-Clementines,  for  instance,  assumed  that  the 
Law,  orally  delivered  by  Moses  to  the  Elders,  had, 
before  and  after  its  being  committed  to  writing, 
undergone  innumerable  changes,  nay,  corruptions ; 
among  these  the  too  personal  and  human  concep- 
tions of  God,  and  the  unworthy  traits  recorded 
of  the  Patriarchs.  Jerome  expresses  himself  in 
a  somewhat  doubtful  manner  on  the  relation  of 
Ezra  as  the  '  redactor,'  or  rather  '  restorer,'  of  the 
Pentateuch.  Aben  Ezra  boldly  calls  several 
passages  later  interpolations,  and  speaks  of  others 
still  more  poignantly  as  a  Ssod,  or  a  '  Mystery,' 
i.  e.,  as  containing  difficulties  not  to  be  cleared  away 
in  consonance  with  the  common  belief,  which  he, 
however,  was  too  pious  wantonly  to  disturb.  Other 
voices,  vaguely  lifted  up  by  more  or  less  competent 
scholars,  remained  unheard.  It  was  not  until  long 
after  the  Preformation,  at  the  dawn  of  the  exegetical 
and  critical  modern  age,  that  the  question  whether 
this  codex  was  the  work  of  one  man,  or  even  of 
one  age,  aud  what  share,  if  any,  Moses  had  in  its  com- 
position, began  to  be  discussed  seriously  and  on 
scientific  grounds.  Hobbes  held  that  the  Pentateuch 
was  rather  a  work  on,  than  by  Moses.  Spinoza  came 
to  the  conclusion,  that  it  was  to  Ezra  that  we  were 
indebted  for  the  hook  in  its  present  shape,  and  that 
it  embodies  certain  genuine  portions,  collected  at  a 
late  period,  together  with  a  vast  amount  of  later 
material,  added  at  various  periods  subsequent  to  the 
time  of  the  supposed  author.  Vitringa,  Le  Clerc 
(Clericus),  Rich.,  Simon,  and  others,  followed,  resum- 
ing and  enlarging  the  discussion  chiefly  respecting 
the  difficulties  which  presented  themselves  in  the 
accounts  of    the  creation,    and   the  like,   contained 


TKNTATEUCH. 


In  Genesis.  The  next,  and  indeed  the  most  import- 
ant 9tep — because  the  one  which  at  once  removed 
the  question  from  the  field  of  hazy  and  timid 
speculations  to    that   scientific   basis  upon  which 

it  still  rests,  was  taken  by  Astruc,  who,  from 
the   marked  difference    <>f  the  Divine  names  used 

in  <; sis  and  the  beginning  of  Exodus— noticed 

in  the  Talmud  and  the  FATHERS  ok  tiik  Church — 
came  to  the  conclusion,  that  these  books  had 
been  worked  up  from  different  original  documents, 
which  lie  called  Jehovistio  and  Elohistic  respect- 
ively. See  article  G  BNE3T8,  where  the  development  of 
this  speculation  is  described.  At  the  present  stage 
of  the  investigation,  the  view  very  generally  adopted 
is  the  '  complementary  theory,'  which  assumes, 
with  certainty,  two  or  more  authors — Jehovists 
and  Elohists  —for  the  whole  of  the  first  four 
books,  at  least;  the  fifth  being  by  some  (Delitzsch, 
Schulz,  Kurz,  &c.)  still  ascribed  chiefly  to  Moses's 
own  hand.  Only  a  small  apologetic  school,  of  which 
the  chief  spokesman  is  Hengstenberg,  still  upholds 
the  entire  integrity  and  authenticity  of  the  work, 
pronouncing  Moses  its  sole  author.  The  contem- 
porary discussions  on  these  points,  which,  up  to 
within  a  very  recent  period,  were  chiefly  confined 
to  Germany,  have  now  also  found  their  way  into 
England.  The  impulse  to  the  controversy  in  this 
country  was  principally  given  by  Dr  Davidson, 
the  '  Essayists  and  lleviewers,'  and  Bishop  Colenso, 
all  of  whom,  on  the  basis  of  these  German  investi- 
gations, raised  some  new  points.  Innumerable 
replies,  by  more  or  less  competent  champions,  have 
been  issued ;  but  as  yet,  so  far  from  either  of  the 
combatants  having  declared  themselves  convinced 
by  the  arguments  from  the  other  side,  the  contro- 
versy elicits  new  publications  uninterruptedly. 

AVWile  endeavouring  to  trace,  in  the  briefest  of 
outlines,  some  of  the  chief  objections  raised  against 
the  Mosaic  authorship,  and  the  replies  given  there- 
unto, we  must  remind  the  reader  that  ours  is  only 
the  task  of  epitomisers,  as  it  were,  and  that  the 
very  nature  of  our  task  precludes  us  from  giving 
any  opinion  whatsoever  about  the  superior  force  of 
the  arguments  on  either  side. 

A  work,  alleged  to  be  the  production  of  one  man, 
it  is  urged,  first  of  all,  ought  to  contain  neither 
unnecessary  repetitions  of  considerable  length,  nor 
contradictions,  nor  anachronisms.  There  ought  to 
be  a  plan  and  a  unity.  Yet,  there  can  be  no  doubt, < 
they  say,  about  the  fragmentary  character  of  the 
Pentateuch.  Many  portions,  evidently  complete  in 
themselves,  are  strung  together  without  the  slightest 
logical  sequence,  nay,  in  an  unchronological  order. 
As  to  repetitions  aud  contradictions,  there  is,  to 
begin  with,  the  very  history  of  the  creation,  which 
occurs  twice  in  the  first  chapters  of  Genesis,  is  each 
time  given  differently,  and  in  each  account  the 
Divine  name  is  consistently  mentioned  in  a  different 
way.  The  same  is  to  be  said  with  regard  to  the 
account  of  the  Deluge,  and  several  incidents  in  the 
lives  of  the  Patriarchs  ;  the  important  conversation 
between  God  and  Moses  respecting  Aaron  (Exod. 
iv.  10 — 16,  and  vi.  9)  ;  the  descriptions  of  the 
tabernacle ;  the  priestly  vestments  ;  the  story  of 
the  manna  as  given  in  Exodus  and  Numbers  ;  the 
account  of  the  appointment  of  the  council  of  the 
70  elders  in  the  same  books  ;  &c.  Again,  the  work 
itself  sometimes  seems  to  indicate  an  author  who 
is  not  the  legislator  himself,  such  as  the  phrase 
of  Moses  being  the  humblest  of  men  ;  the  account 
of  his  own  death ;  the  passage  in  Genesis  '  before 
there  reigned  any  king  over  the  children  of  Israel ' 
(xxxvi.  31);  the  occurrence  of  the  name  of  the  city 
of  Dan  (Gen.  xiv.  14,  Deut.  xxxiv.  1),  so  called  only 
after  the  conquest  by  that  tribe.  In  Numb,  xxxii. 
34     again,    we   have   an   enumeration   of    a   certain 


number  of  towns  and  villages  built  by  the  tribes 
<>f  Gad  and  Beuben— an  event  which  could  not 
have  happened  during  Moses's  lifetime;  further, 
the  frequent  occurrence  of  the  formula  'unto  this 
day'  (e.  g.,  Deut.  x.  8,  where  the  author  speaks  of 
the  institution  of  the  Levites  as  being  still  in  force 
'up  to  this  day'),  &c.  It  is  contended,  also,  that 
the  language  of  the  Pentateuch  varies  very  little 
from  that  of  the  last  prophets,  and  that  it  can 
hardly  be  assumed  that  a  thousand  years  should 
have  made  no  perceptible  difference  in  the  idiom; 
more  particularly  has  Deuteronomy  been  supposed 
to  bear  a  striking  resemblance,  in  style  and  language, 
to  Jeremiah.  The  Pentateuch  is  further  said  to 
contain  many  facts  palpably  contradictory  to 
natural  laws,  as  they  are  established  in  the  ex- 
perience of  the  whole  historical  human  race,  and 
systeniatised  by  science. 

Of  the  many  ways  to  get  rid  of  these  and  similar 
— old  and  new — exceptions,  the  most  generally 
adopted  is  that  which  we  mentioned  as  the  method 
of  'interpolation,'  by  which  the  Apologetic  School 
strikes  out  some  fifty  or  more  passages,  as  not 
belonging  to  the  original  work,  but  having  crept  in, 
by  way  of  commentary,  note,  or  explanation,  in 
post-Mosaic  times — the  body  of  the  work  being  thus 
saved,  so  to  say,  by  a  most  extensive  amputation. 
As  to  the  argument  from  the  language,  it  is  said  that 
the  Pentateuch,  being  the  divine  book,  by  way  of 
eminence,  and  embodying  the  very  phrases  (to  the 
letter)  made  use  of  by  the  Almighty,  must  needs 
have  served  as  a  model  for  the  next  thousand  years, 
and  priests  and  Levites,  the  teachers  of  the  people, 
were  enjoined  constantly  to  study  and  read  it : 
hence  the  small  difference  in  the  later  writers. 
Arabic  and  Syriac,  it  is  argued,  did  likewise  not 
change  essentially  for  many  centuries — an  assertion, 
however,  which  only  holds  good  if  '  many '  is  taken 
in  a  very  vague  sense  indeed.  That  Deuteronomy 
differs  in  style  and  manner,  is  verbose,  &c,  is 
explained  by  Moses's  advanced  age.  On  the  other 
hand,  events  which  are  not  in  harmony  with  the 
'  natural  laws,'  are  accepted  by  the  orthodox 
simply  and  literally  as  '  miracles,'  while  '  conserva- 
tive '  rationalists  of  the  school  of  Eichhorn,  Rosen- 
muller,  and  others,  who  stand  by  the  authenticity 
of  the  Pentateuch,  have  been  at  great  pains  to  find 
some  kind  of  poetical  interpretation  for  them. 

The  most  recent  attacks  on  the  authenticity  are 
chiefly  founded  upon  arithmetical  grounds.  The 
numbers  of  the  people,  their  cattle,  and  the  like, 
at  various  periods,  do  not  seem  to  conform 
to  the  laws  of  natural  increase,  or  even  to  the 
geometrical  limits  within  which  they  were  at  times 
stated  to  have  been  confined.  Among  the  direct, 
proofs,  however,  proffered  by  the  defenders  of  the 
authenticity,  the  following  chiefly  deserve  attention. 
Deuteronomy,  it  is  averred,  can  only  be  the  work  of 
Moses.  He  speaks  in  it  to  the  men  whom  he  has 
led  for  many  years,  as  one  who  has  lived  through 
all  the  events  himself.  There  is  no  possibility  of 
any  one  imitating  the  local  colouring  in  such  a 
manner.  If,  then,  Deuteronomy  must  be  allowed 
to  be  the  work  of  Moses,  the  three  preceding  books, 
to  the  contents  of  which  frequent  allusion  is  made, 
must  equally  be  suppose!  to  be  finally  redacted,  if 
not  written,  by  the  same  hand  ;  and  it  further 
follows  naturally,  that  the  introduction  to  these 
books,  which  is  Genesis,  must  have  emanated  from 
it.  Again,  any  one  writing  after  Moses,  could  not 
possibly  have  possessed  the  extraordinarily  correct 
knowledge  of  contemporary  Egypt  and  Arabia, 
which  appears  throughout  the  Pentateuch.  A  writer 
who  might  be  supposed  to  have  acquired  it  by  dint 
of  study  of  antiquities,  must,  it  is  said,  have 
betrayed  himself  on  every  page  by  inaccuracies  and 


PENTATEUCH. 


Anachronisms.  Nineveh  is  in  Genesis  a  city  of  as 
yet  little  importance ;  while  I'esen,  of  which  no  trace 
is  to  be  found  in  any  other  part  of  the  Bible,  is  the 
great  metropolis  of  Assyria  of  the  time.  Tyre, 
great  in  the  days  of  David,  and  mentioned  already 
in  Joshua,  is  not  to  be  met  with  in  the  Pentateuch, 
where  a  later  writer  would  certainly  have  spoken  of 
it  in  connection  with  Sidon.  The  Canaanite  gods 
and  altars  are  often  spoken  of ;  never  their  temples, 
of  which  yet  we  read  in  Joshua.  Why,  then,  should 
that  very  ancient  author,  to  whom  must  needs  be 
traced  the  Pentateuch,  not  be  Moses  himself, 
rather  than  some  contemporary  of  his?  The  frag- 
mentary, abrupt,  and,  as  it  were,  confused  character 
of  the  work,  the  apologists  further  urge,  so  far 
from  testifying  against  Moses,  confirm  the  tradition 
of  his  authorship.  Would  not  a  later  historian 
have  worked  the  mixed  mass  of  historical, 
geographical,  legal,  and  personal  material  into 
a  methodical  and  systematical  whole  ?  Who  else 
could  have  imparted  to  the  book  the  impress 
of  a  diary,  so  to  say,  but  the  man  who  was  in  the 
midst  of  the  events,  jotting  down  all  the  items 
important  either  in  his  own  individual  or  the  national 
career?  And  who  but  one  standing  in  its  very 
centre  could  depict  with  such  glowing  colours  the 
life  that  moved  around  him  ? — But  a  further  direct 
argument  for  the  authenticity  is  found  by  them  in 
the  very  item  of  the  language  of  the  Pentateuch. 
True,  they  say,  it  resembles  as  much  as  can  be  that 
of  the  later  books,  because,  as  we  said  before,  it 
remained  the  classical  language  for  all  later  genera- 
tions ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  offers  certain  pecu- 
liarities— such  as  the  use  of  a  common  pronoun  of 
the  third  person  singular  for  both  the  masculine 
and  feminine  genders ;  the  same  term  for  boy  and 
girl ;  and  the  like  archaisms— all  of  which  distinctly 
prove  it  to  be  a  work  of  a  very  much  older  date. 
The  existence  of  an  ancient  Mosaic  code  of  laws 
would  further  appear  proved  beyond  any  doubt  by 
the  constant  recurrence  of  quotations  from  'the 
Law  of  Jehovah '  or  '  the  Law  of  Moses '  throughout 
the  other  books  of  the  Old  Testament  from  Joshua 
to  Hosea.  Had  there  in  reality  been  no  such  code 
in  existence,  the  authors  of  the  different  biblical 
works  coidd  not  possibly  have  so  unanimously 
spoken  of  it  without  betraying  a  conscious  forgery 
somewhere.  That  Ezra  should  have  been  the  author, 
or,  at  all  events,  the  refounder  of  the  Pentateuch, 
is  equally  improbable,  on  account  of  the  spirit,  tone, 
language,  and  all  those  smaller  peculiarities  of 
which  mention  has  been  made ;  and  he  would,  on 
the  other  hand,  never  have  been  able  so  skilfully  to 
avoid  his  own  individual  manner  and  style,  as  it 
appears  in  his  own  book.  The  Samaritan  P.,  it 
is  further  said,  which,  with  a  very  few  character- 
istic alterations,  is  an  accurate  transcript  of  our 
Pentateuch,  would  have  been  an  utter  impossibility, 
considering  the  hostile  relations  between  the 
Samaritans  and  the  Jews,  if  it  had  not  been  well 
known  as  a  genuine  document  before  the  division  of 
the  empire.  That  Hilkiah,  who  is  said  to  have 
found  the  Book  of  the  Law  in  the  temple  in  the 
days  of  Josiah  (2  Kings,  xxii. ;  2  Chron.  xxxiv.) 
should  have  been  its  real  author — an  opinion  first 
advanced  by  De  Wette — would  imply  a  complicity 
in  the  forgery  not  only  on  the  part  of  Jeremiah, 
Huldah,  and  the  elders,  but  almost  of  the  whole 
people,  among  whom,  on  the  contrary,  there  cer- 
tainly seems  to  have  been  living  a  very  vivid 
tradition  of  the  former  existence  of  the  book  or 
some  of  its  portions  at  least.  Moreover,  had  it  been 
first  written  in  those  days,  there  surely  would  have 
been  introduced  some  kind  of  prophetical  allusion 
to  the  royal  house  of  David,  or,  at  all  events,  a 
pedigree  and  origin  differing   from   the  incestuous 


one  given  in  Gen.  xxxviii.  Deuteronomy  would 
altogether  have  changed  its  language  about  Royalty 
(xvii.  15 — 20)  very  considerably ;  and  Joseph's 
would  not  have  stood  out  so  prominently  as  a 
favoured  tribe.  The  alleged  difficulties  respecting 
the  numbers  are  explained  away  more  or  less  con- 
vincingly— in  the  most  difficult  cases,  by  miraculous 
interference.  Corruptions,  interpolations,  and  the 
many  fates  that  befall  ancient  documents,  are 
allowed  to  have  crept  in,  in  some  places ;  although 
this  argument  is  given  up  by  those  who  hold  that 
a  special  providence  watched  over  the  divine  work. 
In  all  other  respects,  they  hold  these  books  are 
exactly  as  they  were  written  by  Moses  under  direct 
1  Inspiration.' — Thus  far,  in  swiftest  outlines,  the 
pros  and  contras  most  commonly  adduced,  and 
worthy  of  some  consideration. 

A  few  rationalistic  critics,  however,  have  gone  so 
far  as  to  deny  the  very  possibility  of  Moses  having 
given  the  laws  contained  in  the  Pentateuch,  chiefly 
founding  their  objections  upon  the  ground  that  he 
was  not  likely  to  have  been  versed  in  the  art  of 
writing  to  an  extent  which  the  composition  of  these 
laws  would  presuppose.  Egyptian  characters,  with 
which  he  might  have  been  familiar,  could  not  have 
been  used  for  Hebrew  composition ;  and  the 
Hebrews  themselves,  uncultivated  as  they  were,  did 
not  possess  any  characters  of  their  own.  There  has 
only,  in  reply  to  these  objections,  that  fact  to  be 
stated,  that  a  soberer  criticism  of  more  recent  date 
has  found  itself  obliged,  in  deference  to  certain 
paleographical  and  other  scientific  truths,  to  give  up 
most  of  these  points,  or,  at  all  events,  to  found  no 
such  sweeping  condemnation  upon  those  which  still 
remain.  On  the  contrary,  whichever  of  the  hypo- 
theses enumerated  at  the  beginning  is  assumed,  the 
groundwork  of  the  legislation  is  traced  back,  by 
almost  unanimous  consent,  to  the  historical  person  of 
Moses,  who  is  no  longer  the  mythical  demigod  of 
barbarous  hordes,  but  a  man,  such  as  we  have 
endeavoured  to  sketch  under  that  head.  The  final 
redaction  of  these  laws,  however,  as  of  the  whole  of 
the  Pentateuch,  is  almost  as  unanimously — more 
especially  by  German  critics— placed  in  ages  long 
after  him. 

In  the  contemporary  '  moderate '  school  in  Eng- 
land, so  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  glean  from  their 
writings,  the  following  seems  to  be  the  prevalent 
opinion  on  the  point  of  the  Mosaic  authorship :  It 
is  allowed,  that  Moses  did  not  write  the  whole  of  the 
Pentateuch,  but  portions  of  Exodus,  Leviticus,  and 
Numbers,  and  the  whole  of  Deuteronomy,  with  the 
exception  of  the  account  of  his  death,  and  such 
portions  as  palpably  shew  an  author  who  points  to 
the  imminent  dissolution  of  the  empire.  That  even 
the  fundamental  Law  (Decalogue)  should  be  found  in 
two  varying  versions,  they  hold,  strengthens  rather 
the  assumption  of  their  genuine  Mosaic  authorship  in 
some  original  shape.  The  later  editor,  finding  two 
different  recensions  made  by  contemporaries,  or  in 
subsequent  ages,  embodied  them  both,  on  account  of 
their  paramount  importance,  literally.  Genesis  was 
worked  up  from  ancient  documents,  composed  by 
various  writers,  living  at  various  '  prehistoric ' 
periods,  either  by  Moses  himself,  or  under  his  super- 
vision, by  some  of  the  elders.  The  first  redaction 
of  the  five  books  as  a  whole  took  place  after  the 
conquest  of  Canaan,  through  Joshua  and  the  elders ; 
the  second  and  final  redaction,  however,  in  which  it 
received  its  present  shape,  is  to  be  dated  from  the 
time  of  Ezra,  after  the  return  from  the  exile. 

The  majority  of  continental  modem  critics  of  the 
more  moderate  stamp — who  repudiate  the  notion  of 
their  belonging  to  the  advanced  rationalistic  party — 
hold  opinions  of  a  very  different  kind  ;  and  since 
they  have  found  professed  partisans  in  England,  the 


PENTECOST— PENUMBRA. 


foremost  of  whom  is  Dr  Davidson,  we  will  make 
use  of  his  own  words  [Introduction  to  the  Old 
Testament)'.  'There  is  little  external  evidence 
for  the  Mosaic  authorship;  and  what  little  there 
is,  does  not  stand  the  test  of  criticism.  The  BUi 
ing  writers  of  the  Old  Testament  do  not  confirm 
it.  The  venerable  authority  of  Christ  himself  has 
no  proper  bearing  on  the  question.  The  objections 
derived  from  internal  structure  are  conclusive 
against  the  Mosaic  authorship.  Various  contradic- 
tions are  irreconcilable.  The  traces  of  a  later  date 
are  convincing.  The  narratives  of  the  Pentateuch 
are  usually  trustworthy,  though  partly  mythical 
and  legendary.  The  miracles  recorded  were  the 
exaggerations  of  a  later  age.  The  voice  of  God 
cannot,  without  profanity,  be  said  to  have  externally 
uttered  all  the  precepts  attributed  to  him.  Moses's. 
hand  laid  the  foundation  of  the  editice  of  God's  word, 
which  has  grown  into  the  proportions  in  which  we 
now  possess  it ;  but  he  was  not  the  first  writer  who 
penned  parts  of  the  national  legends  and  history. 
He  was  emphatically  a  laiugiver,  not  a  historian,  a 

frand    spiritual    actor  in    the    life-drama    of    the 
sraelites,  who  founded  their  theocratic  constitution 
under  the  direct  guidance  of  the  Supreme.' 

A  few  words  must  be  added  respecting  the  use 
of  the  Pentateuch.  According  to  Deut.  xxxi.  24 
seqq.,  it  was  preserved  in  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant. 
Every  seventh  year,  it  had  to  be  read  to  the  people 
in  public  ;  and  probably  the  Schools  of  Prophets, 
instituted  at  the  time  of  Samuel,  propagated  its  use 
by  copies.  Moreover,  certain  priestly,  sanitary,  and 
other  laws  required  constant  reference  to  it,  so 
that  certain  portions  of  it  seem  to  have  been 
widely  in  use  at  an  early  period.  Every  syna- 
gogue is,  according  to  the  traditional  Law,  to 
possess  a  roll  of  the  Torah,  written  on  parchment, 
and  under  certain  strictly-insisted-upon  regulations, 
out  of  which  roll  certain  portions  are  read  on 
Sabbath  and  feast-days ;  and,  according  to  the 
ancient  custom  in  Palestine,  when  Monday  and 
Thursday  were  the  market-days — when  the  country- 
people  came  to  town  and  the  judges  sat — also  on 
those  days.  A  smaller  portion  (Parasha)  is  read  on 
these  and  on  the  afternoon  service  of  the  Sabbath 
than  on  the  Sabbath  morning  service,  when  a 
whole  Sidra  is  read,  or  rather  chanted,  according  to 
the  Negino.h,  which  is  note  and  accent  at  the  same 
time.  The  Samaritans  have,  of  all  biblical  books, 
only  adopted  the  Pentateuch,  with  slight  variations 
(see  Samaritans),  their  Book  of  Joshua  being  a  very 
different  work  from  ours  ;  and  certain  very  recent 
accounts  of  their  possessing  also  other  adaptations 
of  our  biblical  books,  require  confirmation.  For  the 
different  translations  of  the  Pentateuch,  ancient  and 
modern,  see  Versions.  The  first  printed  edition 
of  the  Pentateuch  dates  Bologna,  1482,  fol.  The 
name  of  commentators  and  writers  on  the  whole 
of  the  Pentateuch,  both  in  and  out  of  the  Church,  is 
legion.  We  mention  among  the  foremost,  besides 
the  Church  Fathers  (Augustine,  Jerome,  Ephraim, 
Syrus,  &c.)  and  the  medieval  Jewish  commentators 
(Itaspi,  D.  Kimchi,  Aben  Ezra),  Calvin,  Luther, 
Grotius,  Le  Clerc,  Spence,  Michaelis,  Eichhorn,  Jahn, 
De  Wette,  Keil,  Havernich,  Bleek,  Hengstenberg, 
Eanke,  Kurtz,  Stakelin,  Bertheau,  Colenso,  Graves, 
Stuart,  Bush,  &c. 

PE'NTECOST  (Gr.  pentecosti,  fiftieth)  was  the 
name  given  to  the  feast  among  the  Jews,  held  on 
the  fiftieth  day  after  the  passover,  in  celebration  of 
the  '  ingathering,'  and  in  thanksgiving  for  the 
harvest.  See  Festivals.  From  the  Jewish  use  it 
was  introduced  into  the  Christian,  and  with  special 
solemnity,  as  being  the  day  of  the  descent  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  on  the  apostles,  and  of  the  first  solemn 
preaching  of  the  Christian  religion.  From  early 
337 


times,  pentccost  has  ben  regarded  as  one  of  the 
great  festivals  of  the  Christian  year,  and   it  was 

ohosen  as  one  of  the  times  for  the  solium  admini- 
stration of  baptism  ;  and  the.  English  name  of  the 
festival,  Whit-Sunday,  is  derived  from  the  white 
robes  in  which  the  newly-baptised  were  clad.  It 
ig  regarded  as  specially  sacred  to  the  Third  Person 
of  tin-  lUessed  Trinity,  to  whose  honour  the  services 
of  the  day  are  directly  addressed.  Many  curious 
usages  were  anciently  connected  with  the  celebra- 
tion. The  dove,  being  held  as  an  emblem  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  in  some  churches,  a  figure  of  a  dove, 
suspended  by  a  cord  from  the  ceiling,  was  lowered 
so  as  to  alight  on  the  high  altar  during  tin-  service. 
In  others,  figures  of  cloven  tongues,  or  red  rose- 
leaves,  were  similarly  introduced.  The  latter 
practice  is  said  to  be  still  retained  at  Messina,  but 
in  general  these  scenical  representations  have  been 
discontinued.  In  some  places,  however,  in  the 
East  as  well  as  in  the  West,  the  practice  prevails 
of  decorating  the  churches  with  evergreens  and 
flowers,  as  is  done  in  England  at  Christmas.  Tho 
whole  time  intervening  between  Easter  and  Pente- 
cost is  celebrated  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
with  special  solemnity,  and  with  some  peculiar 
usages,  and  of  this  something  is  retained  in  the 
Church  of  England. 

PE'NTHOUSE,  a  projection  forming  an  open 
roof  or  shed,  protecting  a  doorway,  gate,  window, 
&c. 

PE'NTLAND  FIRTH,  a  channel  or  strait 
between  the  Atlantic  and  German  Oceans,  separ- 
ating the  mainland  of  Scotland  from  the  Orkney 
Islands.  It  is  17  miles  long,  and  from  6  to  8  miles 
wide.  About  a  mile  west  of  Duncansbay  Head  is 
a  ferry  station,  whence  boats  cross  to  Burwick,  in 
the  island  of  South  Ronaldshay,  a  distance  of  7 
miles.  The  Pentland  Skerries,  5  miles  north-east  of 
Duncansbay  Head,  consist  of  two  islets,  and  of 
several  contiguous  rocks.  On  the  larger  of  the  islets 
is  a  light-house  with  two  lights,  one  of  which  is 
170,  and"  the  other  140  feet  above  iea-level.  The  lat. 
of  the  light-house  is  58°  41'  N.,  long.  2°  55'  W.  Off 
the  coast  of  Caithness,  and  separated  from  it  by 
a  channel  called  the  Inner  Sound  (about  2  miles 
in  width),  is  the  island  of  Stroma;  and  3  miles 
north-north-east  of  Stroma  is  the  islet  of  Swona, 
one  of  the  Orkneys.  On  the  north  side  of  Stroma  is 
the  small  vortex  or  whirlpool  of  Swalchie,  and  west 
of  it  are  the  breakers  called  the  'Men  of  Mey,' 
which  are  supposed  to  be  produced  by  a  current 
setting  strongly  on  a  concealed  reef.  The  naviga- 
tion of  the  P.  F.  is  more  dangerous  than  that  of 
any  other  portion  of  the  Scottish  seas.  A  current 
setting  from  west  to  east  flows  through  the  Firth 
with  a  velocity  of  from  3  to  9  miles  an  hour,  and 
causes  numerous  eddies  and  whirlpools.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  about  4000  vessels  with  cargoes  pass 
through  the  Firth  annually. 

PENTLAND  HILLS,  in  the  Lowlands  of 
Scotland,  extend  north-east  from  the  border  of 
Lanarkshire  to  the  centre  of  the  county  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  to  within  4  miles  of  the  city  of  that 
name.  Mean  height  upwards  of  1000  feet ;  highest 
summit,  East  Cairn,  near  the  middle  of  the  range, 
1839  feet. 

PENU'MBRA.  When  the  shadow  of  an  opaque 
object  is  thrown  upon  a  surface  at  some  little  dis- 
tance by  a  light  of  considerable  apparent  size,  it  is 
observed  that  the  shadow  is  divided  into  two 
portions,  a  dark  portion  in  the  centre,  and  a  lighter 
portion  surrounding  it.  The  former  is  known  as 
the  umbra,  or  complete  shadow ;  the  latter  as  tne 
penumbra,  or  partial  shadow.     A  reference  to  the 


PENZA— PEPE. 


figure  will  at  once  make  plain  their  origin  and 
relation ;  for  if  S  be  the  illuminating  body,  E 
the    object   whose   shadow   is   cast   on   the   surface, 


ABCD,  it  is  seen  that  the  small  portion,  uu,  receives 
(omitting  all  consideration  of  refraction,  disper- 
sion, &c,  of  light)  no  light  from  S,  while  the  whole 
surface  outside  of  PPPP'  is  completely  illuminated. 
The  point  P'  receives  light  from  the  whole  of  S  ;  the 

{>oint  F  is  only  half  illumined,  and  that  by  the 
ower  part  of  S,  the  illumination  of  the  points 
becoming  less  and  less  as  they  approach  u',  which  is 
unillumined.  The  portion  within  uu'  is  the  umbra, 
and  that  between  the  boundaries  PPPP'  and  uu'  is 
the  penumbra,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  gradually 
shades  from  perfect  light  at  the  outer  boundary  to 
perfect  darkness  at  the  inner,  so  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  exactly  to  note  its  limits  on  either  side. 
This  phenomenon,  it  is  evident,  can  only  occur 
when  the  illuminating  body  is  of  such  a  size,  real  or 
apparent,  as  to  make  the  angle,  P'Kw',  of  sensible 
magnitude ;  and  it  is  equally  evident  that  the 
nearer  the  body  E  approaches  the  plane  on  which 
its  shadow  is  cast,  the  larger  is  the  umbra  and  the 
smaller  the  penumbra ;  while  by  increasing  the 
distance  between  E  and  the  plane,  so  that  the  point 
L  shall  fall  between  them,  the  umbra  is  made  to 
vanish,  and  the  penumbra  is  increased.  -This  is 
well  illustrated  by  natural  phenomena  :  the  shadow 
of  a  man  cast  by  the  sun  on  the  ground  presents 
almost  no  penumbra ;  the  shadow  of  the  earth 
thrown  by  the  sun  upon  space  at  the  distance  of  the 
moon  gives  a  penumbra  many  times  as  large  as  the 
umbra  ;  and  sometimes,  when  the  moon  is  new  at 
her  apogee,  for  instance,  her  shadow  cast  upon  the 
earth  exhibits  no  umbra.  Spectators  on  the  earth 
who  see  a  partial  eclipse  of  the  sun,  are  situated 
within  the  penumbra,  but  within  the  umbra  when 
they  observe  a  total  eclipse  ;  while  if  the  eclipse 
be  annular,  the  unfttra  does  not  exist  in  the  shadow 
cast  by  the  moon  on  the  earth's  surface.  See 
Eclipses. 

PE'NZA,  a  central  government  of  European 
Russia,  between  the  government  of  Nij  ni-Novgorod 
on  the  north  and  that  of  Tambov  on  the  west. 
Area,  14,615  square  miles,  pop.  1,197,393.  The  sur- 
face is  in  extensive  and  elevated  plains,  marked 
occasionally  with  ridges  of  low  hills.  The  rivers 
are  tributaries  of  the  Don  and  Volga,  and  three  of 
them,  the  Khoper,  the  Soura,  and  the  Moksha,  are 
navigable.  The  climate,  though  rather  cold  in 
winter,  is  temperate,  agreeable,  and  healthy.  The 
soil,  consisting,  for  the  most  part,  of  black  earth,  is 
extremely  fertile,  and  agriculture  is  the  principal 
employment  of  the  inhabitants.  Grain  of  different 
kinds,  leguminous  plants,  beet-root,  flax,  hemp, 
tobacco,  and  hops  are  the  principal  products.  Much 
of  the  grain  is  used  in  the  numerous  distilleries, 
and  considerable  quantities  of  it  are  exported  to 
the  neighbouring  governments.  About  one-third 
of  the  entire  area  is  covered  with  forests,  some  of 
886 


which  consist  entirely  of  oak-trees.  The  manufac- 
tories are  centred  chiefly  in  the  towns ;  cloth  and 
leather  are  the  principal  articles  made.  The  com- 
mercial improvement  of  the  government  is  hindered 
by  the  want  of  direct  means  of  communication  with 
the  consuming  districts.  The  principal  towns  are 
Penza,  Mokshansk,  and  Saransk. 

PENZA,  a  town  of  European  Russia,  capital  cf 
the  government  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Scura, 
220  miles  south-south-east  of  Nij  ni-Novgorod.  It 
was  founded  in  the  middle  of  the  17th  c,  as  a 
defence  against  Tartar  invasion,  is  a  handsome 
town,  occupying  an  elevation,  and  containing  19 
churches,  2  convents,  many  gardens,  a  large  park, 
with  a  beautiful  fruit-garden  and  a  horticultural 
school.  It  possesses  2  cloth-factories,  4  iron -works, 
several  soap-boiling  and  candle-making  establish- 
ments. The  principal  articles  of  commerce  are 
corn  and  timber,  which  is  floated  down  the  Soura 
during  spring.     Pop.  27,799. 

PENZA'NCE,  a  market  and  sea-port  town,  and  a 
municipal  borough  of  England,  in  the  county  of 
Cornwall,  stands  on  the  north-west  shore  of  Mount's 
Bay,  22  miles  west-south-west  of  Falmouth.  It  is 
the  most  westerly  town  in  England — the  light-house 
on  its  pier  being  in  lat.  50°  7'  N.,  and  in  long. 
5°  28'  W.  The  town,  standing  on  a  finely-curved 
shore,  surrounded  by  rocky  eminences,  and  in  a 
fertile  district,  is  exceedingly  picturesque  in  situa- 
tion, and  is  famous  for  its  mild,  though  somewhat 
moist  climate.  Its  esplanade,  one  of  the  finest  in 
the  west  of  England,  commands  charming  land  and 
sea  views.  The  chief  buildings,  most  of  which  are 
constructed  of  granite,  are  the  town-hall  and  corn- 
market,  surmounted  by  a  dome,  and  the  chapels  of 
St  Paul  and  St  Mary.  There  are  numerous  board- 
ing-houses for  the  accommodation  of  the  visitors, 
attracted  hither  by  the  temperate  and  equable 
climate,  by  the  beauty  of  the  neighbouring  scenery, 
and  the  curiosities  of  the  district  of  Land's  End. 
Woollen  yarns  and  cloths  are  manufactured ;  the 
fishery  employs  upwards  of  2000  persons ;  agri- 
cultural produce,  pilchards,  and  tin  and  copper 
ores  produced  from  the  mines  of  the  vicinity  are 
exported ;  and  timber,  iron,  hemp,  and  hides  are 
the  chief  imports.  The  harbour  is  accessible  for 
vessels  of  considerable  burden,  and  is  furnished  with 
a  pier  800  feet  in  length.  In  1872,  859  vessels,  of 
73,689  tons,  entered,  and  369,  tonnage  28,211,  cleared, 
the  port.     Pop.  (1871)  of  municipal  borough,  10,414. 

P.  was  laid  in  ashes  by  a  party  of  marauding 
Spaniards  in  1595,  and  was  sacked  by  Fairfax  in 
1646. 

PE'ON.    See  Calophyllubi. 

PEO'RIA,  a  beautiful  and  flourishing  city  in  Illi- 
nois, U.  S.,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Illinois  River, 
which  is  crossed  by  two  bridges  of  2500  feet,  at  the 
outlet  of  Peoria  Lake,  70  miles  north  of  Springfield, 
and  151  miles  south-west  of  Chicago.  It  is  connected 
by  steamboat  navigation  with  the  Ohio  and  Missis- 
sippi, by  canal  with  Lake  Michigan,  and  is  an  import- 
ant station  on  the  great  network  of  western  railways, 
Bluffs  of  bituminous  coal,  opening  upon  the  river 
banks,  supply  numerous  manufactories.  There  are 
24  churches,  and  numerous  schools  and  public  institu- 
tions.    Pop.  (1860)  14,025;   (1870)  22,849. 

PEPE.  Three  Neapolitans  of  this  name  have 
played  an  important  part  in  history.  The  first 
of  these  was  Gabriele  Pepe,  who'  was  born  in 
1781  at  Bojano,  in  the  present  province  of  Campo- 
basso,  Italy,  and  was  a  student  of  law  in  1799, 
when,  on  the  proclamation  of  the  Parthenopa?an 
Republic,  he  took  service  in  the  Franco- Neapolitan 
army,  and  was   consequently  exiled  on  the  fall  of 


PEPERINO— PEPIN. 


[he  aew  government.  Subsequently  he  Berved  In 
the  [talian  Legion  in  the  French  army  under  King 
Joseph  in   S] mill   -with  great  distinction,  and   with 

Murat.  In  1S15,  he  was  raised  by  the  latter  to  the 
rank  of  colonel,  a  grade  confirmed  l>y  Ferdinand  I., 
who  gave  him  the  command  of  a,  province,  and 
afterwards  of  the  garrison  of  Syracuse.  He  espoused 
with  great  zeal  the  cause  of  the  revolutionary  party 
in  1820,  and  was  deputed  to  the  national  parliament. 
On  the  downfall  of  the  constitutional  government, 
he  was  seized  by  the  Austrians,  and  imprisoned  at 
Olmutz,  in  Moravia  ;  hut  was  released  at  the  end  of 
two  years,  and  retired  to  Tuscany  ;  where,  feeling 
hurt  at  some  remarks  of  M.  de  Lamartine,  then 
charge-d'-affaires  in  that  country,  on  Italian  patriot- 
ism, ho  in  turn  wielded  the  pen  in  defence  of  his 
countrymen  with  such  severity  that  a  duel  resulted 
between  him  and  the  poet,  followed  by  an  apology 
from  the  latter.     From  this  time  he  took  no  part  in 

ftolitical  affairs,  hut  devoted  himself  to  science  and 
iteraturc,  and  died  at  Bojano,  August  1849. — His 
cousin,  Gugliklmo  Pepe,  born  in  1782  at  Squillace, 
was  a  man  of  equal  note.  After  serving  in  the 
French  army  of  Catalonia,  and  attaining  to  high 
rank  and  honour,  he  returned  to  Naples  to  support 
Murat;  and  after  the  flight  of  that  chief,  was  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  '  Muratist '  party,  yet,  after 
the  restoration,  the  Bourbon  Ferdinand  allowed 
him  to  retain  his  honours.  P.  rendered  valuable 
services  in  rooting  out  (1818)  the  nests  of  brigands 
who  infested  the  provinces  of  Avellino  and  Foggia, 
and  after  the  insurrection  of  1S20,  was  for  some 
months  the  most  influential  man  in  Naples ;  but, 
after  his  defeat  by  the  Austrians  at  Pueti,  7th 
March,  1821,  he  was  forced  to  flee  the  country, 
and  took  refuge  in  Spain,  whence  he  retired  to 
England,  where  he  lived  many  years,  afterwards 
removing  to  Paris.  In  1848,  on  the  proclamation 
of  an  armistice,  he  returned  to  Naples,  welcomed 
with  enthusiasm  by  the  people  and  the  court;  and 
the  king,  constrained  by  the  public  voice,  gave  him 
the  command  of  the  Neapolitan  contingent  which 
was  sent  to  aid  the  Lombards  against  Austria ; 
but  after  the  suppression  of  revolution  in  Naples 
(15th  May),  P.  was  ordered  to  return  and  put  down 
the  insurgents  of  Calabria.  Disregarding  these 
orders,  P.,  with  as  many  of  the  Neapolitans  as 
would  adhere  to  him  (2000  men),  devoted  his 
energies  to  the  defence  of  Venice,  of  whose  army 
he  had  been  elected  commander-in-chief.  His  prud- 
ence and  courage,  joined  to  an  untiring  energy, 
enabled  him  greatly  to  retard  the  operations  of  the 
Austrians ;  but  the  force  under  his  command  was 
ill  suited  for  effecting  anything  of  importance. 
His  most  remarkable  exploit  was  the  sortie  he 
effected  in  person  (October  1849)  from  the  citadel 
of  Marghera.  After  the  fall  of  Venice,  P.  fled  to 
Corfu  on  board  a  French  ship,  and  subsequently 
returned  to  Paris.  He  had,  however,  an  antipathy 
to  France,  and  speedily  removed  to  Turin,  where  he 
died  9th  August  1855.  He  has  left  several  works, 
the  chief  of  which  are,  Relation  ties  Evenements 
PoUtiqv.es  et  Militaires  de  Naples  en  1820  et  1821 
(Paris,  1822,  in  Italian  and  French),  and  Histoire  des 
Resolutions  et  des  Guerres  d!Italie  en  1847,  1848,  et 
1849  (Paris,  1850).  A  statue  of  him  has  been 
erected  in  Turin. — His  elder  brother,  Florestano 
P.  (born  1780,  died  1851),  was  also  a  Muratist,  but 
submitted  to  Ferdinand.  He  was  a  mild  and  con- 
cdiatory,  but  feeble  liberal. 

PEPERI'NO,  an  Italian  term,  applied  by  some 
geologists  to  the  brown  volcanic  tufts  derived  from 
SkUgitic  rocks,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  ordinary 
tufas,  which  name  they  confine  to  the  lighter- 
coloured  pumiceous  rocks  that  have  more  trachyte 
in  their  composition. 


PEPIN,  the  name  of  several  distinguished  mem- 
bers of  the  Carlovingian  family;  the  Hrsl  of  whom 
in  order  wasFspiw  lb  Visuxor  Pepin  de  Lakdex, 
the  founder  of  the  family.  He  was  of  :1  Brabant 
family,  and  took  his  designation  from  Landen 
in  Liege,  Belgium).  Rebelling  with  others  of  the 
great  lords  of  Anstrasia  against  the  rule  of  Brune- 
haut,  who  was  regent  for  the  youthful  king,  he 
offered  the  crown  to  Clotaire  II.,  king  A  Nenstria, 
who,  in  reward  of  his  services,  created  ]'.  maire  hi 
palaii  of  Anstrasia,  an  office  which  he  continued  to 
hold  during  the  two  following  reigns,  and  died  io 
639.  His  administration  was  directed  to  the  pres- 
ervation of  the  power  and  integrity  of  the  Austra- 
sian  kingdom,  and  though,  by  opposing  the  various 
schemes  of  centralisation  proposed  by  the  king,  he 
fell  under  the  royal  displeasure,  his  conduct  gained 
for  him  favour  and  influence  with  the  Australian 
chiefs  ;  his  power  ami  wealth  were  greatly  inci 
and  a  broad  and  firm  path  to  political  supremacy 
laid  for  his  descendants.  His  son,  Grimoald,  who 
succeeded  him  as  maire  du  palais,  incautiously 
attempted  to  gather  the  fruits  of  his  father's  Bchemi  a 
before  they  were  quite  ripe,  and  accordingly  suffered 
for  his  folly.  Both  he  and  his  son  Childebert  were 
strangled  in  prison  (650)  by  order  of  Clovis  II. 
Pepin  '  the  Old '  left  by  his  daughter  a  grandson, 
Pepin  le  Gros  or  Pepin  D'Heristal,  who  was 
elected  by  the  Austrasian  nobility  as  their  chief, 
to  protect  Anstrasia  against  the  machinations  of 
Elroin,  the  able  maire  of  Neustria.  His  first  step 
was  to  rid  himself  of  the  Merovingian  king,  who 
nominally  ruled  over  Anstrasia  ;  which  was  effected 
by  obtaining  the  condemnation  of  the  unfortunate 
monarch,  Dagobert  II.,  by  a  council  of  bishops,  and 
then  putting  him  to  death.  From  this  time  the 
Merovingian  rule  in  Anstrasia  ceased.  P.  was  now 
sole  ruler,  but  his  ambition  did  not  stop  here;  he 
had  resolved  on  the  ruin  of  the  Merovingian 
monarchs,  and  accordingly  levied  a  large  army  for 
the  invasion  of  Neustria.  Elroin,  on  his  side,  was 
equally  resolved  to  humble  the  territorial  aristo- 
cracy, and  support  the  throne  ;  and  advancing  into 
Anstrasia,  his  army  came  in  sight  of  P.'s  at  Loixi. 
In  the  battle  (6S0)  which  ensued,  P.'s  army  was 
totally  defeated,  his  brother  and  co-ruler,  Martin, 
was  taken  prisoner  and  put  to  death,  and  he  him- 
self narrowly  escaped.  Luckily  for  him,  howe  ver, 
Elroin  was  soou  afterwards  assassinated,  and  his 
successor,  Warato,  signed  a  treaty  of  peace.  The 
incapacity  and  tyranny  of  Warato  and  his  successor. 
Berthaire,  discontented  the  Neustrian  nobles,  who 
went  over  to  P.,  and  by  this  accession  of  power 
enabled  him  to  resume  the  offensive.  Neustria  was 
immediately  invaded,  and  a  bloody  but  decisive 
battle  at  Testry  (687)  freed  P.  of  his  opponent  Ber- 
thaire, who  was  left  dead  on  the  field,  and  j^aced 
Neustria  at  his  feet.  Full  of  moderation  in  the  midst 
of  triumph,  and  satisfied  that  he  could  not  place  on 
the  throue  a  more  obedient  slave  than  Thierry  II L, 
the  then  king  of  Neustria,  P.  caused  him  to  be  also 
proclaimed  king  of  Anstrasia,  but  reserved  for  him- 
self  the  sovereign  power,  wielding  the  sceptre  though 
declining  the  crown.  From  this  time  he  ruled  the 
whole  of  France  (Austrasia  in  his  own  right  by  his 
election  as  Duke,  and  Neustria  as  maire  du  palais) 
with  energy,  and  undisturbed  by  any  internal  com- 
motion, during  the  lives  of  three  other  4  faineant ' 
kings,  till  his  death  in  714.  He  had  made  several 
campaigns  (6S9— 70S)  against  the  Frisians,  but  that 
valiant  and  independent  race  was  not  thoroughly 
subdued  for  some  time  afterwards.  P.  had  two 
legitimate  sons  who  died  before  him,  and  an  illegiti- 
mate son,  Charles,  subsequently  known  as  Charles 
Martel  (q.  v.),  who  succeeded  to  his  power.  —  The 
third  who  bore  this  name  was  Pepin  le  Bref.  the 

387 


PEPIN— PEPPER. 


younger  son  of  Charles  Martel,  who,  on  the  death  of 
his  father  in  741,  received  Neustria  and  Burgundy  ; 
Austrasia,  Thuringia,  and  Suahia  being  the  heritage 
of  his  elder  brother  Carloman.  Aquitaine  was 
nominally  a  part  of  P.'s  dominions,  though,  as  it 
was  really  independent  under  its  own  duke,  he 
made  several  attempts  to  subdue  it ;  but  the  duke 
was  quite  able  to  hold  his  own  against  both  P.  on  the 
one  hand  and  the  Arabs  (from  Spain)  on  the  other. 
The  farce  of  governing  the  country  in  the  name  and 
as  the  chief  minister  of  the  Merovingian  sovereign 
was  still  kept  up,  though  P.  was  eagerly  longing  for 
»n  opportunity  to  assume  the  crown ;  but  the  pre- 
sent time  was  inopportune,  as  no  sooner  was  the 
restraint  of  Charles  Martel1  s  iron  hand  removed  by 
death,  than  revolts  broke  out  in  all  quarters  among 
the  Franks,  Germans,  Bavarians,  and  Gascons.  The 
country,  by  the  united  exertions  of  P.  and  Carloman, 
was  restored  to  tranquillity  about  745.  Those 
princes  who  had  excited  the  insurrection  were  mostly 
deposed,  and  otherwise  punished,  and  the  Duke  of 
Aquitaine  was  compelled  to  acknowledge  at  least 
the  nominal  sovereignty  of  Pepin.  In  747,  Carloman 
bade  adieu  to  power,  and  retired  into  a  convent, 
leaving  his  government  to  his  sons,  who  were  imme- 
diately dispossessed  by  Pepin.  After  crushing  a. 
rebellion  of  Saxons  and  Bavarians,  P.  began  to 
carry  out  his  favourite  project  of  dispossessing  the 
Merovingian  dynasty  of  even  the  semblance  of 
authority,  and  of  originating  in  person  a  new  royal 
dynasty.  To  gam  his  point  he  flattered  the  clergy, 
then  the  most  influential  body  in  France ;  and  as 
they  had  been  despoiled  by  Charles  Martel  for  the 
behoof  of  his  warriors,  a  moderate  degree  of  kindness 
and  generosity  on  the  part  of  P.  contrasted  him  so 
favourably  with  his  father,  that  the  clergy  at  once 
became  his  partisans.  So  did  the  pope,  who  felt 
the  importance  of  securing  the  aid  of  the  powerful 
Frankish  chief  against  the  Lombards,  who  were 
then  masters  of  Italy,  and  released  the  Franks  from 
their  oath  of  fidelity  to  Childeric,  the  Merovingian 
monarch.  On  learning  this,  P.  at  once  caused  him- 
self to  be  elected  king  by  the  assembly  of  estates 
at  Soissons,  and  was  consecrated  by  the  Bishop  of 
Mayence  (March  752).  Childeric  retired  to  a  con- 
vent, where  he  died  in  755.  P.  was  the  first 
Frankish  monarch  whose  election  received  the 
sanction  of  the  pope,  and  who  was  consecrated  to  his 
high  dignity  ;  and  these  solemn  ceremonies  put  the 
crown  to  a  great  extent  at  the  mercy  of  the  clergy, 
who  from  this  time  took  a  political  rank  in  the  state. 
The  practice,  too,  followed  by  P.  and  his  predecessors 
in  office,  of  gaining  partisans  by  granting  parti- 
cular fiefs  to  various  chiefs,  greatly  strengthened 
the  feudal  system,  and  proportionally  weakened  the 
royal  power.  This  efTect,  however,  did  not  shew 
itself  till  after  the  subsequent  reign  of  Charlemagne, 
on  account  of  the  personal  genius  of  these  two  rulers. 
P.  was  soon  called  upon  to  aid  the  pope  against  the 
Lombards,  and  marching  into  Italy  at  the  head  of  a 
large  army,  he  compelled  Astulf,  the  Lombard  king, 
to  retire  from  the  siege  of  Rome,  and  restore  several 
cities  which  had  previously  belonged  to  the  Greeks; 
these  were  now  handed  over  to  the  pope.  He  had 
hardly  returned  to  France,  when  he  was  anew 
summoned  (755)  to  Italy,  the  Lombards  having 
broken  their  engagements.  This  time  he  took 
Ravenna,  Emilia,  the  Pentapolis,  and  the  duchy  of 
Rome  from  the  Lombards,  reuniting  them  to  the 
Holy  See.  After  the  settlement  of  affairs  in  Italy, 
the  turbulent  nations  on  his  eastern  frontier  de- 
manded his  attention.  The  Saxons  and  other 
German  tribes  were  defeated  (757),  their  country 
cruelly  ravaged,  a  heavy  tribute  exacted,  and 
numbers  of  captives  and  hostages  taken.  Resolved 
to  unite  the  whole  of  Gaid  under  his  authority,  he 


eagerly  accepted  the  invitation  of  the  Visigoths  of 
Septimania  to  aid  them  against  the  Arabs,  who 
had  taken  possession  of  the  country;  and  after  a 
war  of  many  years'  duration,  Narboune,  the  last  of 
the  Arab  strongholds,  was  taken,  and  the  country, 
freed  of  these  invaders,  at  once  acknowledged  P.'s 
authority.  The  remaining  years  of  his  reign  were 
occupied  in  reducing  the  independent  monarchy  of 
Aquitaine,  which  was  not  accomplished  till,  after 
nine  years  (760 — 768)  of  desolating  warfare,  P. 
obtained  the  assassination  of  his  opponent,  Duke 
Waifre,  whose  partisans  then  laid  down  their  arms, 
surrendering  to  the  Frankish  monarch  the  vast 
provinces  which  stretch  from  the  Loire  to  the  ocean 
and  the  Pyrenees.  Shortly  after  this  conquest,  P. 
died  of  dropsy,  September  708.  He  was  a  most 
active,  enterprising,  and  in  general  fortunate  prince ; 
he  established  the  unity  of  the  Gallic  nation,  and 
protected  it  as  far  as  could  be  done  by  invading 
and  ravaging  the  territories  of  the  neighbouring 
nations,  though  he  also  introduced  those  elements  of 
weakness  into  its  constitution  which  reduced  the 
authority  of  his  successors  to  such  a  deplorable 
state.  The  others  of  this  name,  though  important 
personages  at  the  time,  make  little  figure  in  history. 
PEPPER  (Piper),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Piperacem  (q.  v.),  which  once  included  the 
whole  of  that  order;  but,  as  now  limited,  consists 
of  plants  with  woody  stems,  solitary  spikes  opposite 
to  the  leaves,  and  covered  with  flowers  ou  all  sides, 
the  flowers  mostly  hermaphrodite.  The  most 
important  species  is  Common  P.  or  Black  P.  (P. 
nigrum),  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  now  cultivated 
also  in  many  tropical  countries,  and  extensively  in 
some  parts  of  the  New  World;  its  fruit  being  the 
most  common  and  largely  used  of  all  spices.  It 
is  a  rambling  and  climbing  shrub,  with  smooth  and 
spongy  stems,  sometimes  twelve  feet  in  length  ;  and 
broadly  ovate,  acuminate,  leathery  leaves.  The 
fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  of  a  bright-red 
colour  when  ripe,  not  crowded  on  the  spike.  In 
cultivation,  the  P.  plant  is  supported  by  poles,  or 
by  small  trees  planted  for  the  purpose,  as  it  loves  a 
certain  degree  of  shade,  and  different  kinds  of  trees 
are  often  planted  for  thi3  purpose  in  India.  It  is 
propagated  by  cuttings,  comes  into  bearing  in  three 
or  four  years  after  it  is  planted,  and  yields  two 
crops  annually  for  about  twelve  years.  When  any 
of  the  '  berries '  of  a  spike  begin  to  change  from 
green  to  red,  all  are  gathered,  as  when  more  fully 
ripe  they  are  less  pungent,  besides  being  apt  to 
drop  off.  They  are  spread  on  mats  and  sepai-ated 
from  the  spikes  by  rubbing  with  the  hands  or  by 
treading  with  the  feet,  after  Avhich  they  are  cleaned 
by  winnowing.  The  Black  P.  of  commerce  consists 
of  the  berries  thus  dried,  and  become  wrinkled  and 
black  ;  White  P.  is  the  seed  freed  from  the  skin  and 
fleshy  part  of  the  fruit,  to  effect  which  the  dried 
fruit  is  soaked  in  water  and  then  rubbed.  White 
P.  thus  prepared  is  of  a  whitish-gray  colour,  but  not 
unfrequently  undergoes  a  bleaching  by  chlorine, 
which  improves  its  appearance  at  the  expense  of  its 
quality.  Black  P.  is  much  more  pungent  than 
White  P.,  the  essential  constituents  of  the  spice 
being  more  abundant  in  the  outer  parts  of  the  fruit 
than  in  the  seed.  P.  depends  for  its  properties 
chiefly  on  an  acrid  resin  and  an  acrid  volatile  oil ; 
it  contains  also  a  crystalline  substance  called 
Piperin. — The  fruit  of  Piper  trimcum,  a  species 
very  similar  to  the  Common  P.,  is  more  pungent ; 
and  it  is  cultivated  in  some  parts  of  India. — The 
fruit  of  other  species  of  Piperacem  is  used  as 
pepper  in  their  native  countries;  that  of  Coco- 
bryo?i  Capense  at  the  Cape  of-  Good  Hope;  that 
of  Peltobryon  longifolium,  of  Artcmthe  crocata,  oi 
A.  trkhostachya,  and  of  Serronia  jaborandi  in  Souti 


PEPrERMINT-PERAMBULATION  OF  PARISHES. 


America. — Chavica  Eoxburghii  and  C.  qfflcinartem 
yield  the  Long  Peppbb  oi  druggist*  They  have 
woody  olimbing  stems,  solitary  spikes  opposite  to 

the  le.-ivi  s,  dioecious  (lowers,  and  the  fruits  so  close 
together  on  tho  spikes  us  in  ripening  to  become  a 

compact  mass.  The  spikes  are  gathered  when 
unripe,  and  dried  in  the  sun.  They  are  used  in 
pickling  and  for  ordinary  purposes,  also  in  medicine 
for  the  same  purposes  as  Common  Pepper.  They 
are  generally  reputed  to  he  more  pungent  than 
Common  Pepper.  0.  RoxburghU  is  cultivated  in 
Bengal  and  the  Circars,  where  it  is  called  J'i/i/>ii/  ; 
C.  ojliciiiariii/i  in  the  Dutch  East  Indian  colonies. 
The  root  and  thickest  part  of  the  stem  of  C.  Rox- 
bunjhii  are  extensively  used  in  India  as  a  stimulant 
medicine ;  and  are  cut  into  small  pieces,  dried,  and 
brought  to  the  market  under  the  uame  of  pippula 
moola. 

P.  acts  on  tho  skin  as  a  rubefacient  and  vesicant, 
anil  is  often  used  for  this  purpose  in  a  powdered 
state,  moistened  with  some  kind  of  alcoholic  spirit. 
It  is  also  employed  as  a  local  stimulant  in  relaxa- 
tion of  the  uvula,  and  is  applied  in  the  form  of  an 
ointment  to  ringworm.  Taken  into  the  stomach 
in  small  quantities  it  is  a  pleasant  stimulant,  but  in 
large  doses  it  produces  great  pain  and  irritation. 
The  quantity  used,  however,  by  the  natives  of  hot 
climates  much  exceeds  anything  known  among 
Europeans,  and  the  effects  are  evidently  beneficial 
rather  tbau  injurious.  The  chief  use  of  P.  is  as  a 
epice  and  condiment. 

P.  was  known  to  the  ancients ;  Hippocrates 
employed  it  as  a  medicine  ;  and  Pliny  expresses  his 
surprise  that  it  should  have  come  into  general  use, 
considering  its  want  of  flavour.  In  the  middle  ages 
P.  was  one  of  the  most  costly  spices,  and  in  the 
13th  c.  a  few  pounds  of  it  were  reckoned  a  princely 
present.  The  quantity  now  imported  into  Europe 
is  immense ;  but  there  are  no  means  of  exactly 
ascertaining  how  much  of  the  P.  of  commerce  is  the 
produce  of  Piper  nigrum,  or  indeed  of  the  Piperacece, 
and  how  much — although  certainly  it  is  not  a  large 
proportion  of  the  whole — is  the  produce  of  species 
of  Capsicum. 

The  name  P.  is  popularly  given  to  substances 
possessing  a  pungency  resembling  that,  of  -P., 
although  produced  by  very  different  plants.  Thus, 
Cayenne  P.  is  the  produce  of  species  of  Capsicum, 
of  the  natural  order  Holanacece ;  Jamaica  P.  (or 
Pimento)  of  species  of  Eugenia,  of  the  natural 
order  Myrtacece  ;  and  Guinea  P.,  or  Meleguetta 
P.,  of  speoies  of  the  natural  orders  Scitaminem  and 
Anonacece.  See  Capsicum,  Pimento,  Grains  of 
Paradise,  and  Guinea  Pepper. 
PE'PPERMINT.  See  Mint. 
PEPPER-POT,  a  celebrated  West  Indian  dish, 
of  which  Casareep  (q.  v.)  is  a  principal  ingredient ; 
and  along  with  it  flesh  or  dried  fish,  vegetables, 
chiefly  the  unripe  pods  of  the  ochro  (see  Hibiscus), 
and  chillies  (see  Capsicum). 

PEPPER-ROOT  {Dentaria  diphylla),  a  perennial 
herbaceous  plant,  of  the  natural  order  Cruciferce,  a 
native  of  North  America,  with  pairs  of  ternate 
leaves,  and  racemes  of  white  flowers;  the  root  of 
which  has  a  pungent  mustard- like  taste,  and  is  used 
as  a  condiment. 

PE'PSIN  has  been  already  described  (in  tbe 
article  Digestion)  as  one  of  the  essential  constituents 
of  the  gastric  juice.  Various  modes  of  extracting  it 
from  the  walls  of  the  stomach  of  the  calf,  sheep,  and 
pig  have  been  proposed  by  different  chemists 
( YVasmann,  Frerichs,  Schmidt,  Boudault,  and  others), 
into  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  enter.  According 
to  Schmidt's  analysis,  it  contains  530  per  cent  of 
carbon,  67  of  hydrogen,  17*8  of  nitrogen,  and  225 


of  oxygen,  and  hence  in  its  ultimate  composition  it 
i-  clo  e\y  allied  to  albumen.  This  substance,  either 
as  a  powder  or  in  solution,  has  been  employed  of 

late  years  to  a  considerable  extent  in  medical 
practice,     in     cases     of     disordered     digestion     from 

deficient  or  imperfect  secretion  of  gastric  juice,  and 
of  convalescence  from  typhoid  and  other  debilitating 
levers.  Pepsin  wine  is  perhaps  the  best  form  in 
which   to  prescribe   this  substance;    a    teaapoonful 

being  the  ordinary  dose.  The  fact  that  pepsin  has 
not  been  thought  deserving  of  a  place  in  the  British 
pharmacopoeia  seems  to  indicate  that  its  efficiency 
as  a  remedy  is  not  generally  recognised  in  Great 
Britain. 

PEPYS,  Samuel,  a  distinguished  officer  of  tho 
Admiralty  during  the  reigns  of  Charles  II.  and 
James  II.,  was  born  February  23,  1632—1633.     He 

was  the  son  of  a  London  citizen,  a  tailor,  but  was 
well  educated,  first  at  St  Paul's  School,  and  after- 
wards at  Magdalen  College,  Cambridge.  His  cousin, 
Sir  Edward  Montagu  (the  first  Earl  of  Sandwich), 
introduced  him  to  public  employment.  In  1G60  he 
was  appointed  Clerk  of  the  Acts  of  the  Navy,  and 
in  1673  Secretary  for  the  Affairs  of  the  Navy.  He 
was  an  excellent  public  servant,  acute,  diligent,  and 
laborious  ;  but  during  the  fanatical  excitement  of 
the  Popish  Plot  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  on 
an  unfounded  and  absurd  charge  of  aiding  in  the 
design  to  dethrone  the  king  and  extirpate  the 
Protestant  religion.  Having  been  discharged  with- 
out a  trial,  P.  was  replaced  at  his  post  in  the 
Admiralty,  which  he  retained  till  the  abdication 
of  James  II.  For  two  years  he  held  the  honour- 
able station  of  President  of  the  Royal  Society. 
He  died  May  26,  1703.  P.  wrote  Memoirs  of  t/te 
Royal  Navy,  1690.  He  left  to  Magdalen  College 
his  large  collection  of  books,  MSS.,  and  prints, 
including  about  2000  ancient  English  ballads, 
forming  five  folio  volumes.  This  curious  collection 
was  begun,  he  says,  by  Selden,  and  continued  down 
to  the  year  1700,  when  the  form  peculiar  to  the  old 
ballads,  namely,  the  black  letter  with  pictures,  was 
laid  aside  for  the  simpler  modern  fashion.  P.  is 
now  best  remembered  for  his  Diary,  deciphered  by 
the  Rev.  J.  Smith  from  the  original  shorthand  MS. 
in  the  Pepysian  Library,  Cambridge,  and  first 
published,  under  the  editorial  care  of  Lord  Bray- 
brooke,  in  1S25.  It  commences  on  the  1st  of 
January  1659 — 1660,  and  is  continued  for  above 
nine  years,  when  the  diarist  was  obliged  from 
defective  eyesight  to  abandon  his  daily  task.  As  a 
picture  of  the  court  and  times  of  Charles  II.  this 
Diary  is  invaluable ;  it  was  written  in  perfect 
confidence  and  secrecy ;  the  events,  characters, 
follies,  vices,  and  peculiarities  of  the  age  are  pre- 
sented in  true  and  lively  colours,  and  the  work 
altogether  is  one  of  the  most  racy,  unique,  and 
amusing  books  in  the  language. 

PE'RA,  a  suburb  of  Constantinople  (q.  v.). 

PERAMBULA'TION  OF  PARISHES.  The 
ancient  custom  in  England  of  perambulating  parishes 
in  Rogation  week  had  a  two-fold  object.  It  waa 
designed  to  supplicate  the  Divine  blessing  en  the 
fruits  of  the  earth;  and  to  preserve  in  all  elaeses 
of  the  community  a  correct  knowledge  of,  and  due 
respect  for,  the  bounds  of  parochial  and  individual 
property.  It  appears  to  have  been  derived  from  a 
still  older  custom  among  the  ancient  Romans,  called 
Terminalia,  and  Ambarvalia,  which  were  festivals  in 
honour  of  the  god  Terminus  and  the  goddess  Ceres. 
On  its  becoming  a  Christian  custom  the  heathen  rites 
and  cei-emonies  were  of  course  discarded,  and  those 
of  Christianity  substituted.  It  was  appointed  to  be 
observed  on  one  of  the  Rogation  (q.  v.)  days,  which 
were    the    three  days   next   before    Ascension   Da\. 


PERAMBULATION  OF  PARISHES— PERCE!  HON. 


Before  the  Reformation  parochial  perambulations 
were  conducted  with  great  ceremony.  The  lovd  of 
the  manor,  with  a  large  banner,  priests  in  surplices 
and  with  crosses,  and  other  persons  with  hand- 
bells, banners,  and  staves,  followed  by  most  of 
the  parishioners,  walked  in  procession  under  the 
parish,  stopping  at  crosses,  forming  crosses  on  the 
ground,  'saying  or  singing  gospels  to  the  corn,'  and 
allowing  '  drinkings  and  good  cheer '  (Grindal's 
Remains,  pp.  141,  241,  anil  Note;  Whitgift's  Works, 
iii.  266—267  ;  Tindal's  Works,  iii.  62,  234,  Parker 
Society's  Edition),  which  was  remarkable,  as  the 
Rogation  days  were  appointed  fasts.  From  the 
different  practices  observed  on  the  occasion  the 
custom  received  the  various  names  of  processioning, 
rogationing,  perambulating,  and  ganging  the  bound- 
aries ;  and  the  week  in  which  it  was  observed  was 
called  Rogation  week;  Cross  week,  because  crosses 
were  borne  in  the  processions  ;  and  Grass  week, 
because  the  Rogation  days  being  fasts,  vegetables 
formed  the  chief  poi-tion  of  diet. 

At  the  Reformation,  the  ceremonies  and  practices 
deemed  objectionable  were  abolished,  and  only  'the 
useful  and  harmless  part  of  the  custom  retained.' 
Yet  its  observance  was  considered  so  desirable,  that 
a  homily  was  prepared  for  the  occasion ;  and 
injunctions  were  issued  requiring  that  for  '  the 
perambulation  of  the  circuits  of  parishes,  the  people 
should  once  in  the  year,  at  the  time  accustomed, 
with  the  rector,  vicar,  or  curate,  and  the  sub- 
stantial men  of  the  parish,  walk  about  the  parishes, 
as  they  were  accustomed,  and  at  their  return  to  the 
church  make  their  common  prayer.  And  the 
curate,  in  their  said  common  perambulations,  was 
at  certain  convenient  places  to  admonish  the  people 
to  give  thanks  to  God  (while  beholding  of  his 
benefits),  and  for  the  increase  and  abundance  of  his 
fruits  upon  the  face  of  the  earth,  with  the  saying  of 
the  103rd  Psalm.  At  which  time  also  the  said 
minister  was  required  to  inculcate  these,  or  such 
like  sentences,  Cursed  be  he  which  translateth  the 
bounds  and  doles  of  his  neighbour ;  or  such  other 
order  of  prayers  as  should  be  lawfully  appointed.' 
(Burn's  Ecclesiastical  Law,  vol.  iii.  61 ;  Grindal's 
Remains,  p.  16S.) 

Those  engaged  in  the  processions  usually  had 
refreshments  provided  for  them  at  certain  parts  of 
the  parish,  which,  from  the  extent  of  the  circuit  of 
some  parishes,  was  necessary  ;  yet  the  cost  of  such 
refreshment  was  not  to  be  defrayed  by  the  parish, 
nor  could  such  refreshment  be  claimed  as  a  custom 
from  any  particular  house  or  family.  But  small 
annuities  were  often  bequeathed  to  provide  such 
refreshments.  In  the  parish  of  Edgcott,  Bucking- 
hamshire, there  was  about  an  acre  of  land,  let  at  £3 
a  year,  called  '  Gang  Monday  Land,'  which  was  left 
to  the  parish- officers  to  provide  cakes  and  beer  for 
those  who  took  part  in  the  annual  perambulation  of 
the  parish. 

To  this  day,  questions  of  disputed  boundary 
between  parishes  are  invariably  settled  by  the 
e\  idem  s  afforded  by  these  perambulations ;  for  in 
yuch  questions,  immemorial  custom  is  conclusive. 
And  so  far  are  they  recognised  in  law,  that  the 
parishioners  on  such  occasions  are  entitled  to  tres- 
pass on  lands,  and  even  to  enter  private  houses  if 
these  stand  on  the  boundary  line.  In  Scotland,  where 
the  parochial  principle  has  never  been  developed  as 
in  England,  there  seem  to  be  few  traces  of  a  similar 
practice.  But,  as  between  neighbouring  landowners, 
a  brieve  of  perambulation  is  the  technical  remedy  for 
setting  right  a  dispute  as  to  boundaries  or  marches ; 
and  perambulating  or  '  riding '  the  bounds  of  boroughs 
is  a  common  practice. 

The  necessity  or  determination  to  perambulate 
along  the  old  track  often  occasioned  curious 
390 


incidents.  If  a  canal  had  been  cut  through  the 
boundary  of  a  parish,  it  was  deemed  necessary  that 
some  of  the  parishioners  should  pass  through  the 
water.  Where  a  river  formed  part  of  the  boundary 
line,  the  procession  either  passed  along  it  in  boats, 
or  some  of  the  party  stripped  and  swam  along  it,  or 
boys  were  thrown  into  it  at  customary  j daces.  If  a 
house  had  been  erected  on  the  boundary  line,  the 
procession  claimed  the  right  to  pass  through  it.  A 
house  in  Buckinghamshire,  still  existing,  has  an 
oven  passing  over  the  boundaiy  line.  It  was  cus- 
tomary in  the  perambulations  to  put  a  boy  into  thia 
recess  to  preserve  the  integrity  of  the  boundary 
line. 

At  various  parts  of  the  parish  boundaries,  two  or 
three  of  the  village  boys  were  '  bumped  ' — that  is,  a 
certain  part  of  the  person  was  swung  against  a 
stone  wall,  a  tree,  a  post,  or  any  other  hard  object 
which  happened  to  be  near  the  parish  boundary. 
This,  it  will  scarcely  be  doubted,  was  an  effectual 
method  of  recording  the  boundaries  in  the  memory 
of  these  battering-rains,  and  of  those  who  witnessed 
this  curious  mode  of  registration. 

The  custom  of  perambulating  parishes  continued 
in  some  parts  of  the  kingdom  to  a  late  period,  but 
the  religious  portion  of  it  was  generally,  if  not 
universally,  omitted.  The  custom  has,  however,  of 
late  years  been  revived  in  its  integrity  in  many 
parishes. 

PERCE'PTION.  This  word  refers  to  our  recep- 
tion of  knowledge  through  the  senses,  an  operation 
that  to  the  common  understanding  seems  simple 
enough,  but,  viewed  philosophically,  is  attended 
with  much  difficulty.  Perception,  considered  as  a 
source  of  knowledge,  refers  exclusively  to  the  outer, 
or  the  object  world — the  world  of  extended  matter 
and  its  properties.  The  names  for  the.  act  of  know- 
ing one's  own  mind— the  feelings  and  thoughts  of 
the  individual — are  Self-consciousness  and  Self- 
introspection.  The  word  'consciousness,'  is  some- 
times improperly  limited  to  this  signification.  Locke 
used  the  term  '  Reflection '  for  the  same  meaning, 
but  this  is  ambiguous,  and  is  now  disused.  All  our 
knowledge  is  thus  said  (by  those  that  deny  innate 
ideas)  to  spring  from  two  sources — Perception  and 
Self-consciousness. 

Two  great  disputes  connect  themselves  with 
Perception,  both  raised  into  their  full  prominence  in 
the  philosophical  world  by  Bishop  Berkeley.  The 
first  is  the  origin  of  our  judgments  of  the  Dis- 
tances and  real  Magnitudes  of  visible  bodies.  In 
opposition  to  the  common  opinion  on  this  subject, 
Berkeley  maintained  that  these  were  learned  by 
experience,  and  not  known  by  the  mere  act  of 
vision.     See  Vision. 

The  second  question  relates  to  the  grounds  we 
have  for  asserting  the  existence  of  an  external  and 
material  world,  which,  in  the  view  of  Berkeley  was 
bound  up  with  the  other.  Inasmuch  as  perception 
is  a  mental  act,  and  knowledge  is  something  con- 
tained in  a  mind,  what  reason  have  we  for  believing 
in  the  existence  of  objects  apart  from  our  minds  V 
or  what  is  the  mode  of  existence  of  the  so-called 
external  world  ? 

The  following  sentences  shew  in  what  manner 
Berkeley  opened  up  the  question:  'That  neither 
our  thoughts,  nor  passions,  nor  ideas,  formed  by  the 
imagination,  exist  without  the  mind,  is  what  every  • 
body  will  allow;  and  it  seems  no  less  evident  that 
the  various  sensations  or  ideas  imprinted  on  the 
sense,  however  blended  or  combined  together  (i.  e., 
whatever  objects  they  compose),  cannot  exist  other- 
wise than  in  a  mind  perceiving  them.  I  think  an 
intuitive  knowledge  may  be  obtained  of  this  by  any 
one  that  shall  attend  to  wdiat  is  meant  by  the  term 
exist  when  applied  to  sensible   things.     The  table  1 


PERCEPTION. 


write  on,  I  say,  exists — i.  e.,  I  see  and  feel  it ;  ami 
if  I  were  out  of  my  study,  I  should  say  it  existed, 
moaning  ((hereby  th.it  if  1  was  in  my  study  I  might 
perceive  it,  or  that  some  other  Bpirit  actually  does 
perceive  it.  There  was  an  odour — i.  e.,  it  was 
■melledj  there  was  a  sound — that  is  to  say,  it  was 
heard  ;  a  colour  or  figure,  and  it  was  perceived  by 
sight  or  touch.  This  is  all  I  can  understand  by 
these  and  the  like  expressions.  For  as  to  what  is 
said  of  the  absolute  existence  of  unthinking  things, 
without  any  relation  to  their  being  perceived,  that 
aecius  perfectly  unintelligible.  Their  esse  is  percipi, 
nor  is  it  possible  they  should  have  any  existence 
out  of  the  minds  or  thinking  things  which  perceive 
th  mi.' 

This  doctrine  of  Berkeley,  amounting,  it  was 
said,  to  a  denial  of  the  existence  of  a  material  world 
(which  is  far  from  a  correct  view  of  it),  was  followed 
up  by  Hume,  who,  on  similar  reasoning,  denied  the 
existence  of  mind,  and  resolved  the  universe  into  a 
mere  How  of  ideas  and  impressions  without  any 
subject  to  be  impressed,  acknowledging,  never- 
theless, that  he  felt  himself  unable,  practically,  to 
acquiesce  in  his  own  unanswerable  arguments. 
There  was  obviously  some  great  mistake  in  a  mode 
of  reasoning  that  brought  about  a  dead-lock  of  this 
description  ;  and  hence  it  has  been  the  work  of 
metaphysical  philosophy  since  that  time  to  endeavour 
to  put  the  perception  of  the  world  on  an  admissible 
footing. 

Dr  lleid  reclaimed  against  Berkeley  and  Hume, 
by  appealing  to  Common  Sense,  or  Unreasoning 
Instinct,  as  a  sufficient  foundation  for  our  belief  in 
the  existence  of  a  world  apart  from  our  own  minds. 
Sir  W.  Hamilton  has  expounded  the  same  view 
with  greater  clearness  and  precision.  He  considers 
that  our  consciousness  tells  us  at  once  that  in  the 
act  of  perceiving  there  is  both  a  perceioing  subject- 
self,  or  the  mind — and  an  external  7-eality,  in  relation 
with  sense,  as  the  object  perceived.  '  Of  the  exist- 
ence of  both  these  things,'  he  says, '  I  am  convinced ; 
because  I  am  conscious  of  knowing  each  of  them, 
not  mediately  in  something  else,  as  represented,  but 
immediately  in  itself,  as  existing.  Of  their  mutual 
dependence  I  am  no  less  convinced ;  because  each 
is  apprehended  equally  and  at  once,  in  the  same 
indivisible  energy,  the  one  not  preceding  or  deter- 
mining, the  other  not  following  or  determined  ;  and 
because  each  is  apprehended  out  of,  and  in  direct 
contrast  to  the  other.' — Beid,  p.  7-47. 

Much  as  Hamilton  has  laboured  to  elucidate  this 
doctrine  in  all  its  bearings,  it  has  not  been  univer- 
sally accepted  as  satisfactory.  Many  believe  that 
he  has  regarded  as  an  ultimate  fact  of  our  consti- 
tution what  admits  of  being  still  further  resolved, 
and  has  mistaken  an  acquisition  of  the  mature  mind 
for  a  primitive  or  instinctive  revelation. 

Piofessor  Ferrier,  in  his  Institutes  of  Metaphysic, 
has  gone  through  the  question  with  extraordinary 
minuteness  and  elaboration.  His  main  position  is 
the  inseparability  of  the  subject  and  the  object  in 
perception,(a  position  also  maintained  by  Hamilton 
in  the  above  extract),  which  is  not  reconcilable 
with  the  common  assumption  as  to  the  independent 
existence  of  matter.  Indeed,  he  reduces  the  received 
dogma  of  the  existence  of  matter  per  se  to  a  self- 
contradiction,  and  builds  up  a  system  in  strict  con- 
formity with  the  correlation,  or  necessary  connection, 
of  the  mind  perceiving  with  the  object  perceived. 
He  thus  approaches  nearer  to  Berkeley  than  to 
Hamilton  or  to  Kcid. 

Those  who  would  endeavour  to  shew  that  our 
notion  of  the  outer  world  is  a  complex  fact,  and  an 
acquisition,  and  not  a  simple  apprehension  of  the 
uneducated  mind,  explain  themselves  to  the  fol- 
lowing effect.    It  is  in  the  exercise  of  force  that  we 


have  to  look  for  the  peculiar  feeling  of  the  extern- 
ality of  sensible  things,  or  the  distinction  that  we 
make  between  what  impresses  from  without,  and 
impressions  not  recognised  as  outward.  Any  impres- 
sion that  rouses  a  stroke  of  energy  within  as,  and 
that  varies  exactly  and  constantly  as  that 
varies,  we  call  an  outward  impression.  Dr  Johnson 
refuted  Berkeley,  as  he  thought,  by  kicking  a  stone. 
But  in  fact  it  was  his  own  action  with  its  conse- 
quences, and  not  the  optical  impression  of  a  stone  in 
the  eye,  that  satisfied  him  us  to  the  existence  of 
something  outward.  The  sum-total  of  all  the 
occasions  for  putting  forth  active  energy,  or  for 
conceiving  this  as  possible  to  be  put  forth,  is  our 
external  world. 

We  experience  certain  uniformly  recurring  sensa- 
tions, and  certain  uniform  changes  in  these,  when 
we  exert  particular  energies.  Thus  the  visible 
picture  of  our  dwelling  is  a  permanent  and  habitual 
experience,  and  the  variations  of  appearance  that  it 
is  subject  to  correspond  principally  to  our  own 
conscious  movements.  As  we  move  from  oue  end 
of  a  room  to  auother,  we  experience  a  change  of  the 
visible  aspect  at  every  step,  and  this  regularly 
happens  as  often  as  we  repeat  the  movement.  But 
at  times  the  appearance  exists  in  another  shape,  to 
which  we  give  the  name  of  memory  or  idea.  We 
draw  a  marked  distinction  between  these  two  modes 
of  presentation,  the  actual  and  the  ideal,  and  we 
assign  a  superiority  to  the  one  over  the  other.  The 
superiority  we  find  connects  itself  with  the  relation 
to  our  own  movements  ;  a  mere  idea  or  mental  picture 
remains  the  same  whatever  be  our  bodily  position 
or  bodily  exertions  ;  the  sensation  that  we  call  the 
actual  is  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  our  movements, 
shifting  in  every  possible  way  (but  uniformly) 
according  to  the  varieties  of  action  that  we  go 
through.  With  a  forward  movement  the  visible 
impression  enlarges,  with  a  backward  movement  it 
diminishes.  A  certain  movement  of  the  eye  shuts 
it  out,  another  restores  it.  The  raising  of  the  head 
and  the  bending  of  the  body  are  followed  by  an 
altered  spectacle.  We  cannot  but  draw  a  broad 
distinction  between  the  mental  scenery  that  is  thus 
shifted  by  all  our  movements,  and  the  ideas  and 
dreams  that  vary  of  themselves  wliile  we  are  stilL 
To  express  the  one  fact,  we  use  the  terms  extern- 
ality, the  material  world,  independent  existence ; 
to  express  the  other  we  employ  the  opposite 
language,  internality,  the  world  of  mind,  &c.  Even 
if  sensation  were  only  in  ourselves,  we  should  still 
have  to  distinguish  between  present  sensation  and 
remembered  or  revived  sensation ;  the  reference  of 
the  one  to  our  voluntary  movements,  and  of  the 
other  to  no  such  modifying  causes,  would  oblige  us 
to  note  a  vital  difference  in  the  two  classes  of  facts. 
Such  is  the  uniformity  of  connection  between  certain 
appearances  and  certain  movements,  that  we  come 
to  anticipate  the  one  through  the  other.  We  know 
that  in  some  one  position,  as  when  lyin.Li;  in  bed, 
certain  movements  of  the  limbs  and  back  will  bring 
us  to  the  sensation  of  a  solid  contact  in  the  feel  ; 
that  another  series  of  movements  will  bring  on  a 
particular  view  to  the  sight ;  that  a  third  move- 
ment will  give  the  sound  of  a  bell  in  the  ear,  and  30 
forth.  We  cannot  avoid  regarding  those  various 
sensible  effects,  brought  uniformly  into  play  by  a 
regular  series  of  waking  voluntary  action?,  as 
totally  different  from  our  ideas,  recollections,  and 
dreams. 

As  our  belief  in  the  externality  of  the  causes  of 
our  sensations  means  that  certain  actions  of  our» 
will  bring  the  sensations  into  play,  or  modify  *hem 
in  a  known  manner,  this  belief  is  readily  furnished 
by  experience,  and  is  no  more  than  our  experience 
entities    us  to    entertain.      When   we    have   beec 


'ERCEVAL— PERCH. 


repeatedly  conscious  that  a  tree  becomes  larger 
and  larger  to  the  eye  in  connection  with  a 
definite  locomotion  on  our  part,  called  the  forward 
advance ;  that  this  movement  brings  on  at  last 
a  sensation  of  touch ;  that  this  sensation  of 
touch  varies  with  definite  movements  of  the 
arms,  and  so  on;  the  repetition  of  all  this  train 
of  experience  fixes  it  on  the  mind,  so  that  from 
one  thing  alone,  as  from  the  distant  vision  of 
the  tree,  we  can  anticipate,  or  as  it  is  otherwise 
called,  perceive  all  the  other  consequences.  We 
then  know,  without  going  through  the  steps,  that 
the  specified  movements  will  bring  about  all  the 
sensations  above  described,  and  we  know  nothing 
else ;  this  knowledge,  however,  is  to  us  the  recog- 
nition of  external  existence,  the  actual  fact  that  is 
meant  when  a  material  world  is  spoken  of.  Belief 
in  external  reality  is  the  sure  anticipation  of  certain 
sensations  on  the  performance  of  certain  movements ; 
everything  else  said  to  be  implied  in  it  is  but  a 
convenient  hypothesis  for  aiding  the  mind  in  holding 
together  those  multifarious  connections  that  our 
experience  has  established  in  the  mind.  In  order 
to  account  for  the  fact  that  the  conscious  move- 
ment wf  elevating  the  upper  eyelid  is  followed  with 
the  sensation  of  light,  to  us  and  to  other  minds,  we 
suppose  a  luminous  agency  always  existing  even 
when  not  affecting  us  or  any  other  person ;  we 
cannot  know  or  verify  this  supposition — it  is  a 
generalisation  founded  upon  particular  experiences, 
and  serving  to  sum  up  those  experiences  in  a  con- 
venient form,  but  no  such  perennial  independent 
substance  can  be  absolutely  proved. 

PERCEVAL,  Spencer,  Right  Hon.,  English 
minister,  was  the  second  son  of  John,  Earl  of 
Egmont ;  born  November  1,  1762 ;  educated  at 
Harrow,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar,  and  soon  obtained  a  reputation  as 
a  diligent  lawyer.  A  clever  pamphlet  on  the  abate- 
ment of  the  impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings, 
made  him  known  to  Pitt.  Obtaining  a  seat  in  par- 
liament for  Northampton,  he  was  soon  conspicuous 
for  his  extreme  horror  of  popery,  and  his  violent 
advocacy  of  what  was  called  by  his  party  the 
'Protestant  interest.'  In  the  Addington  administra- 
tion, he  was  made  Solicitor-general  in  1801,  and  Attor- 
ney-general in  1802.  He  was  afterwards  induced  to 
abandon  his  profession,  and  adopt  a  political  career. 
In  the  Portland  administration  of  1S07,  he  was  made 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  and  was  even  then 
the  real  head  of  the  government,  his  influence  with 
George  III.  being  obtained  by  the  depth  of  his 
bigotry  and  his  pertinacious  opposition  to  the 
Catholic  claims.  On  the  death  of  the  Duke  of 
Portland  in  1809,  P.  became  Premier,  uniting  to  his 
office  of  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  that  of  First 
Lord  of  the  Treasury.  He  was  retained  in  power  by 
the  Prince  of  Wales  on  his  accession  to  the  regency. 
On  the  11th  May  1812,  about  5  p.m.,  as  P.  was 
entering  the  lobby  of  the  House  of  Commons,  a  man 
named  Bellingham  fired  a  pistol  at  him,  the  ball 
pierced  his  heart,  and  he  instantly  expired.  The 
assassin  made  no  attempt  to  escape.  He  was  a 
Liverpool  broker,  trading  with  Russia,  who,  having 
sustained  some  losses  and  injuries,  which  he  had 
vainly  applied  to  the  government  to  redress,  deter- 
mined, to  avenge  himself  by  taking  the  life  of  the 
prime  minister.  P.'s  assassination  shocked  the 
public  mind,  and  parliament  hastened  to  make  an 
ample  provision  for  his  widow  and  numerous  family. 
His  death  was,  however,  rather  a  private  than  a 
public  calamity.  '  With  all  my  respect  for  the 
virtues  and  excellences  of  the  late  minister,'  said 
the  Marquis  of  Wellesley,  who  had  held  the  office 
of  Foreign  Secretary  in  his  administration,  '  I  still 
feel  it  my  duty  to  say  that  I  did  not  consider  him  a 

392 


fit  man  to  lead  the  councils  of  this  great  empire.' 
He  was  ready  in  debate,  a  placid  and  not  ungrace- 
ful speaker,  and  led  the  House  of  Commons  with 
much  tact ;  but  he  was  superficial  and  intolerant. 
Sydney  Smith,  in  his  Letters  of  Peter  Plymley,  has 
conferred  a  species  of  immortality  upon  him  by  his 
wit  and  sarcasm.  It  was  the  fashion,  when  P.'s 
public  policy  was  attacked,  to  laud  his  domestic 
virtues.  'Peter'  said,  if  he  had  to  choose  between 
public  and  private  virtues,  he  should  prefer  that  Mr 
!  P.  'owed  for  the  veal  of  the  preceding  year,  whippod 
his  boys,  and  saved  his  country.' 

PERCH  {Perca),  a  genus  of  acanthoptercus  fishes, 
of  the  family  Percidce,  to  which  it  gives  its  name, 
and  which  includes  many  genera  and  a  very  great 
number  of  species  both  of  marine  and  fresh-water 
fishes.  The  Percidce,  or  P.  family,  have  the  body 
somewhat  oblong  and  more  or  less  compressed  ;  the 
scales  rather  large ;  the  bones  of  the  gill-covers 
toothed  or  otherwise  armed ;  the  mouth  without 
barbels ;  the  vomer  toothed,  and  generally  also  the 
palate  ;  there  are  sometimes  two  dorsals,  sometimes 
only  one.  To  this  family  belong  not  only  the  true 
perches,  all  of  which  are  fresh-water  fishes,  but  the 
Lates  (q.  v.)  of  the  Nile,  the  Basse  (q.  v.)  or  Sea 
P.,  and  their  congeners  the  Pike  Perches  (q.  v.), 
the  Serrani,  and  many  other  fishes.  The  true 
perches  {Perca)  have  two  dorsal  fins,  distinct  and 


Perch  [Perca  fiuviatilis). 

separate,  the  rays  of  the  first  spinous  and  those  of 
the  second  flexible  ;  the  tongue  is  smooth  ;  and  the 
gill-covers  are  bony,  notched,  and  sharply  serrated. 
The  Common  P.  (P.  fiuviatilis)  is  an  inhabitant  of 
the  lakes,  ponds,  and  still  rivers  of  almost  all  parts 
of  Europe.  It  is  very  common  in  England  and 
Ireland,  and  is  found  in  many  of  the  waters  of  the 
south  of  Scotland,  although  in  the  north  it  is  rare, 
and  is  said  to  exist  only  where  it  has  been  intro- 
duced. But  it  is  found  in  Scandinavia,  and  even  in 
Lapland.  It  is  of  a  greenish-brown  colour,  passing  into 
golden  yellow  on  the  under  parts,  and  marked  on 
the  back  with  six  or  seven  indistinct  blackish  cross- 
bands.  Its  height  is  about  one-third  of  its  length. 
It  often  attains  a  length  of  16  or  18  inches,  and  a 
weight  of  2  or  3  pounds,  but  perches  have  been 
taken  of  8  pounds  weight  or  more.  Th.e  P.  loves 
still  waters,  and  is  easily  reared  in  ponds,  but  it  is 
not  a  desirable  inmate  of  ponds  intended  for  other 
fish,  because  it  is  very  voracious,  and  devours  their 
fry.  It  is  readily  caught  by  almost  any  kind  of 
bait,  and  sometimes  takes  a  small  artificial  fly.  It 
is  much  esteemed  for  the  table.  It  lives  a  long  time 
out  of  the  water  if  kept  moist,  and  in  some  countries 
is  thus  brought  to  market,  and  carried  back  to 
the  pond  if  not  sold.  The  female  P.  deposits  her 
eggs  in  long  strings,  united  by  a  viscid  matter. — A 
species  of  P  (P.  Jtalica),  found  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  differs  from  the  Common  P.  in  its  shorter 
and  deeper  form,  and  want  of  black  hands.  Several 
species  are  natives  of  the  rivers  and  lakes  of  Nort* 


PERCH— PERCUSSION. 


America,  and  are  among  the  most  esteemed  of  its 
fresh-water  fishes. 
PERCH.    See  Rod. 

PERCLO'SE,  a  railing  or  other  enclosure  separ- 
ating a  tomb  or  chapel  from  the  rest  of  a  church. 
PERCLOSE,  or  DEMI-GARTER,  in  Heraldry, 
the  lower  half  of  a  garter  with 
the  buckle. 

PERCOLA'TION,  a  process 
much  used  in  Pharmacy,  and  in 
some  other  arts,  for  extracting 
certain  soluble  properties  v' 
various  bodies  by  filtering  a 
liquid  through  them.  In  the 
new  British  pharmacopoeia,  39 
tinctures  and  9  extracts  are 
ordered  to  be  prepared  by 
the  fluid  soaks  in  and  passes 
acted     upon,     it     displaces 


Perclose. 


percolation, 
through     the 


As 

material 
and  carries  with  it  the  soluble  parts,  hence  per- 
colation is  sometimes  called  the  Method  of  Dis- 
placement. The  forms  of  apparatus  for  percolation 
are  very  numerous,  but  the  principle  is  the  same 
in  all — viz.,  a  vessel  with  a  porous  bottom,  and  in 
the  form  of  a  truncated  cone  inverted,  receives  the 
material  first,  and  over  it  is  poured  the  water  or 
other  fluid  which  is  to  extract  its  virtues.  One 
made  by  an  eminent  French  pharmacien,  M.  Bejot, 
i.s  very  effective  and  complete.  A  is  a  long  fun- 
uel-shaped  glass,  with  a  glass   stop-cock  (6)  in  the 


Percolator. 

bottom,  which  narrows  to  an  inch  in  diameter;  this 
fits  into  the  neck  of  a  large  globular  vessel  B,  both 
being  adjusted  by  grinding.  C  is  a  syringe  of  brass 
fixed  in  the  glass  B  as  shewn,  and  made  air-tight 
by  a  caoutchouc  washer.  a1,  a2,  a3  are  three 
diaphragms  of  porous  felt,  pierced  by  the  tube  d, 
which  allows  air  bubbles  to  escape  from  the  bottom 
without  disturbing  the  fluid.  The  material  to  be 
acted  upon,  as  wood,  bark,  root,  leaves,  &c,  is  first 
powdered,  and  is  then  laid  on  the  top  of  the  upper- 
most diaphragm,  a1,  so  as  to  half  fill  the  space 
betweeu  it  and  the  glass-cover  c;  water,  or  any 
other  required  fluid,  is  then  poured  in  until  it  is 
filled,  the  stop-cock  b  is  opened,  and  the  operator 
drawa  tho  air  from  the  outer  vesse  by  mean'    %f  the 


air-pump  C,  the  fluid  is  thus  rapidly  drawn  through 
the  material,    and   displaces    i t -^    Bolnble  parts,      a1 

and  a8  arrest  the  fine  solid  particles  which  nre 
carried  through  the  first  diaphragm  with  the 
liquid,  anU  form  sediments  which  are  also  acted 
upon  by  the  liquid  which  is  checked  at  each 
division  for  a  time.  The  fluid,  when  it  reaches 
the  globular  glass,  however  dark-coloured,  is  beau- 
tifully bright  ami  clear,  and  the  preparations  so 
made  are  remarkable  for  their  good  quality  and 
uniformity  of  strength.  In  1804,  Dr  Redwood, 
of  the  Pharmaceutical  Institution  of  <  neat  Britain, 
invented  a  new  percolator  of  great  efficacy.  lt<ou- 
usts  of  a  tinned-copper  cylinder,  with  a  cylinder 
t  flannel  inside,  in  which  the  materials  are  |>uto 
Tt.e  whole  is  filled  with  the  fluid  menstruum,  and  as 
that,  which  is  in  more  immediate;  contact  with  the 
solid  materials  becomes  charged  with  the  soluble 
matter  displaced,  it  gives  rise,  as  its  density  ia 
increased,  to  an  endosmotic  action  through  the 
flannel  Avails  of  the  inner  cylinder  untd  the  whole 
is  equalised,  when  it  is  drawn  off  by  the  tap,  and 
fresh  fluid  added  untd  it  comes  away  colourless. 
The  outer  cylinder  has  a  tight  cover  to  prevent  loss 
by  evaporation. 

PERCU'SSION,  in  Medicine,  is  the  method  of 
eliciting  sounds  by  tapping,  or  gently  striking  the 
surface  of  the  body ;  its  object  being  to  determine 
by  the  nature  of  the  sound  the  comparative  density 
of  the  subjacent  parts.  This  means  of  diagnosis 
was  first  employed  by  Avenbrugger  in  the  middle 
of  last  century,  and  it  was  afterwards  adopted  by 
Corvisart  in  the  investigation  of  heart  diseases ; 
but  its  value  was  not  fully  appreciated  till  Laennec 
made  the  diseases  of  the  chest  his  peculiar  study ; 
and  since  his  time,  its  application  and  various  uses 
have  been  considerably  extended  by  the  labours  of 
Piorry,  Hughes  Bennett,  and  other  physicians. 

Percussion  is  chiefly  employed  in  the  diagnosis  of 
diseases  of  the  lungs,  heart,  and  abdominal  organs. 
It  may  be  direct  (or,  as  some  writers  term  it,  imme- 
diate), or  it  may  be  mediate.  In  the  former  case, 
the  part  to  be  examined  is  struck  with  the  ends 
of  the  three  first  fingers  set  close  together  on  the 
same  level,  or  with  a  small  hammer  tipped  with 
India-rubber;  while  in  the  latter,  which  is  now 
almost  universally  adopted,  a  flat  body  is  placed 
upon  the  chest,  or  other  part  to  be  examined,  and 
is  then  struck  by  the  fingers  or  hammer.  The  flat 
intervening  body  is  termed  a  Pleximt'er  (from  the 
Gr.  plexis,  a  blow,  and  metron,  a  met,  'ire).  The 
instrument  usually  sold  as  a  pleximeter  is  -v  flat  oval 
piece  of  ivory,  but  the  left  iudex  or  middle  finger  of 
the  physician,  with  its  flat  surface  fitted  accurately  to 
the  part  to  be  examined,  acts  equally  well  The  force 
of  the  stroke  on  the  pleximeter— whether  the  stroke 
be  made  with  the  fingers  or  the  hammer— must 
vary  according  as  it  is  desired  to  elicit  the  sound 
from  a  superficial  or  a  deep-seated  part.  The  sur- 
face to  be  percussed  should  be  exposed,  or,  at  most, 
only  covered  with  one  layer  of  clothing  ;  and  the 
blow  should  fall  perpendicularly  on  the  pleximeter. 
When  percussion  is  made  over  a  considerable  cavity 
filled  with  air— as  the  stomach  or  intestines — & 
hollow,  drum-like,  or  (as  it  is  usually  termed  by 
medical  writers)  a  tympanitic  sound  is  produced. 
When  any  part  of  the  surface  of  the  chest  is  struck, 
below  which  there  is  a  considerable  depth  of  healthy 
lung-tissue,  consisting  of  small  cells  filled  with  air,  a 
clear  sound,  less  loud  and  hollow  than  the  tympan- 
itic sound,  and  termed  the  pulmonary  percussion 
note,  depending  partly  on  the  vibrations  of  air  in  the 
lung-cells,  and  partly  on  the  vibrations  of  the  walls 
of  the  chest,  is  evolved.  When  the  subjacent  sub- 
stance is  solid  (as  the  heart,  liver,  or  spleen)  or 
fluid  (as  when  there  is  effusion  into  a  closed  sac). 


PERCUSSION  CAPS— PERDIDO. 


the  sound  is  dull  in  proportion  to  the  density 
and  want  of  elasticity  of  the  part  struck.  The 
first  thing  that  must  be  acquired  in  order  to 
make  percussion  useful  in  the  diagnosis  of  disease, 
is  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  sounds  elicited 
from  the  different  parts  in  their  normal  condition. 
When,  for  example,  the  healthy  pulmonary  per- 
cussion note  is  known,  increased  resonance  of  the 
walls  of  the  chest  will  indicate  a  dilatation  of  the 
air-cells  (or  Pulmonary  Emphysema),  while  various 
degrees  of  dullness  will  afford  evidence  of  such 
morbid  changes  as  the  effusion  of  fluid  into  the 
pleura  (Hydrothorax),  or  inflammatory  solidification 
of  the  lung-tissue  (the  Hepatisation  of  Pneumonia), 
or  tubercular  deposition.  The  use  of  percussion  in 
relation  to  diagnosis  is  further  shewn  in  the  articles 
Pericarditis  and  Pleurisy. 

PERCUSSION  CAPS  are  small  copper  cylinders, 
closed  at  one  end,  for  conveniently  holding  the 
detonating  powder  which  is  exploded  by  the  act  of 
percussion  in  percussion-arms.  Caps  were  not  used 
with  the  earliest  percussion-arms,  which  the  Rev. 
Mr  Forsyth  of  Belhelvie,  Aberdeenshire,  patented 
in  1807 ;  but  they  became  tolerably  general  between 
1820  and  1830,  and  were  adopted  for  the  army  by 
1840.  The  manufacture  is  extremely  simple :  A 
sheet  of  thin  copper  is  stamped  into  pieces  of  appro- 
priate shape,  which  are  bent  into  the  form  of  caps 
by  stamping- apparatus  closing  round  a  mandril,  the 
whole  being  done  in  one  machine  by  two  operations. 
The  caps  are  then  placed  in  a  tray,  mouths  upward ; 
and  the  inside  of  each  is  touched  with  a  strongly 
adhesive  varnish.  Over  this  is  dusted  the  deton- 
ating powder,  all  the  particles  which  fail  to  adhere 
being  blown,  dusted,  or  shaken  out.  A  stamper 
once  more  is  forced  into  the  cap,  to  fix  and  compress 
the  powder,  and  the  operation  is  completed.  Large 
numbers  are  rilled  and  stamped  together,  so  that 
many  thousands  per  hour  may  be  turned  out  by  one 
machine.  Admirable  mechanism,  for  the  manu- 
facture of  caps,  is  employed  in  the  Royal  Laboratory 
at  Woolwich. 

For  muskets,  the  cap3  are  charged  with  equal 
parts  of  fulminating  mercury  and  chlorate  of 
potash ;  for  cannon,  with  a  mixture  composed  of  two 
parts  of  chlorate  of  potash,  two  parts  of  native 
snlphuret  of  antimony,  and  one  of  powdered  glass; 
the  last  ingredient  taking  no  part  in  the  chemical 
action,  and  being  added  merely  to  increase  the 
friction.  For  the  manner  in  which  a  cap  is  used, 
see  Lock. 

PERCUSSION,  Centre   of.      See  Centre  of 

Percussion. 

PERCY.  This  is  the  name  of  a  noble  Norman 
family  who  accompanied  the  Conqueror  to  England, 
and  whose  head,  William  de  Percy,  obtained 
from  his  sovereign  thirty  Knights'  Fees  in  the 
north  of  England.  The  representation  of  the 
house  devolved  (temp.  Henry  I.)  on  Agnes,  daughter 
of  the  3d  baron,  who  married  Josceline  of  Lovain, 
brother-in-law  of  the  king,  only  on  condition  that 
he  adopted  either  the  surname  or  the  arms  of  P. ;  he 
chose  to  retain  his  paternal  arms  and  to  assume  the 
P.  name.  The  head  of  the  family  at  the  time  was 
one  of  the  chief  barons  who  extorted  Magna  Charta 
from  King  John  ;  and  the  9th  feudal  lord  (temp. 
Edward  I.)  shewed  a  similar  spirit  towards  the  pope, 
against  whose  demands  he  maintained,  with  others 
of  the  greater  barons,  the  spiritual  independence 
of  the  English  crown.  This  nobleman's  great-grand- 
son was  a  distinguished  military  commander  under 
Edward  III.,  and  acting  as  Marshal  of  England  at 
the  coronation  of  Richard  II.,  was  created  Earl  of 
Northumberland.  He  subsequently,  however,  took 
up  arms  agaiost  Richard,  and  placed  the  crown  on 
391 


the  head  of  Henry  of  Lancaster,  wh  o  became  Henry 

IV.  Again  dissatisfied  with  the  government,  he 
joined  in  rebellion  with  his  son  Hotspur,  for  the 
purpose  of  transferring  the  crown  to  Mortimer,  Earl 
of  March.  The  earl,  with  the  other  leaders  of  this 
rebellion,  fell  at  Bramham  Moor  (1407—1408),  and 
his  titles  became  forfeited  These,  however,  were 
revived  in  favour  of  his  grandson,  who  became  Lord 
High  Constable  of  England,  and  who  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  St  Alban's.  This  earl's  son  and  sue* 
cessor  (the  third  earl)  met  a  like  fate  on  Towton 
field,  fighting  in  the  van  of  tl  le  Lancastrian  army. 
The  4th  earl  (who  obtained  a  reversal  of  his  father's 
attainder)  was  murdered  by  the  populace  in  North- 
umberland, when  ordered  by  the  avarice  of  Henry 
VII.  to  enforce  a  subsidy.  The  executions  of  the  6th 
and  7th  earls  by  Edward  VI.  and  Elizabeth  are 
part  of  the  history  of  England.  The  8th  earl  was 
committed  to  the  Tower,  on  a  charge  of  being  con- 
cerned in  a  plot  in  favour  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots, 
and  died  a  violent  death  in  prison.  The  10th  earl 
fought  in  the  civil  wars  against  Charles  I.,  though 
he  took  no  part  with  the  regicides,  and  eventually 
joined  in  the  general  effort  to  bring  about  the 
Restoration.  The  11th  earl  left  an  only  child,  who 
succeeded  to  the  ancient  barony  of  P.,  and  marry- 
ing Charles,  Duke  of  Somerset,  became  the  mother 
of  Algernon,  Duke  of  Somerset,  who  was  created 
Earl  of  Northumberland,  with  remainder  to  his 
son-in-law,  Sir  Hugh  Smithson,  of  Stauwick,  in  the 
county  of  York,  a  gentleman  of  respectable  lineage. 
Sir  Hugh,  succeeding  to  the  earldom,  obtained  in 
1766  his  advancement  to  the  dukedom  of  North- 
umberland, which  title  is  now  held  by  Algernon 
George  Percy,  born  in  1810,  who  succeeded  to  the 
dukedom  in  1867. 

PERCY,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  eminent  poetical 
collector,  antiquary,  and  scholar,  was  born  at 
Bridgenorth,  Shropshire,  in  1728 ;  was  educated  at 
Christchurch,  Oxford ;  and  having  entered  the 
church,  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Dromore,  in  Ireland, 
1782.  He  died  in  1811.  This  amiable  and  accom- 
plished prelate,  the  friend  of  Johnson,  Goldsmith, 
and  other  distinguished  contemporaries,  published 
translations  from  the  Icelandic,  a  new  version  of 
the  Song  of  Solomon,  the  Northumberland  House- 
hold  Book,  a  translation  of  Mallet's  Northern, 
Antiquities,  &c.  His  most  popular  and  valuable 
contribution  to  our  literature  was  the  Reliques  of 
Ancient  English  Poetry,  consisting  of  old  heroic 
ballads  and  songs,  with  some  modern  imitations,  in 
which  the  editor  himself  displayed  the  taste  and 
feeling  of  a  poet.  This  work  appeared  in  1765,  and 
P.  lived  to  see  four  editions  of  it  called  for  by  the 
public,  and  to  receive  the  warm  commendations  of 
all  poetical  readers  and  critics.  The  Bdiques  were 
chiefly  obtained  from  an  old  folio  MS.  that  had 
fallen  into  P.'s  hands,  with  the  addition  of  pieces 
from  the  Pepys  collection  at  Cambridge,  the 
Ashmole  Library  at  Oxford,  the  British  Museum, 
and  the  works  of  our  earlier  poets.  Certain 
liberties  were  taken  with  some  of  the  ballads — 
softening  touches,  repairs,  and  renovations — for 
which  the  editor  was  severely  censured  by  Ritson 
and  other  antiquaries ;  but  the  collection  was  of 
great  value  to  our  literature,  recalling  the  public 
taste  to  the  rude  energy,  picturesqueness,  and 
passion  of  the  old  chivalrous  minstrels  and  Eliza- 
bethan songsters.  It  captivated  the  youthful 
imagination  of  Walter  Scott,  and  was  the  inspirer  and 
model  of  his  Mi?istrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border.  The 
memory  of  P.  has  been  still  further  perpetuated  by  a 
Club  Book  Association,  called  the  Percy  Society. 
See  Club  Books,  in  Supp.,  Vol.  X. 

PERDI'DO,  a  bay  and  river  of  Alabama,  U.  S. 


PEREGRINE  FALCON— PERENNIAL. 


The  bay,  20  miles  long  by  6  to  10  miles  wide,  opens 
by  a  narrow  channel  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  18 
miles  west  of  the  entrance  to  Pensacola  Bay  ;  the 
river  rises  in  South- Western  Alabama,  and  bay  and 
river  form  the  boundary  between  Alabama  aud 
Florida. 

PE'REGRINE  FALCON  (Falco  peregrinus),  a 
■pccies  of  Falcon  (q.  v.)  found  in  almost  all  parts 
of  the  world.  The  female  is  larger  than  the  male, 
being  about  18  inches  in  length  from  the  tip 
of  the  bill  to  the  tip  of  the  tad,  whilst  the  male  is 
only  about  15  inches.  The  female  is  the  Falcon  of 
falconers,  and  the  male  the  Tercel.  The  plumage  of 
the  two  sexes  is  very  similar.  The  back,  wings,  and 
tail  are  bluish-slate  or  ash-gray,  the  feathers  barred 
with  a  darker  tint ;  the  crown  of  the  head,  back  of 
the  neck,  and  a  spot  below  the  eye,  nearly  black  ; 
the  front  of  the  neck  white,  with  dark  longitudinal 
lines ;  the  breast,  belly,  and  plumage  of  the  legs, 
whitish,  with  dark-brown  transverse  bars.  The 
wings  are  very  long,  reaching  almost  to  the  tip  of 
the  tail  ;  and  the  bird  is  remarkable  for  its  power 
of  flight,  being  capable  of  maintaining  for  a  con- 
siderable time  a  rate  of  more  than  100  miles 
an  hour,  so  that  it  is  often  seen  far  from  any  of 
its  haunts  or  breeding-places ;  whence  the  name 
Peregrine,  from  the  Latin  peregrinus,  a  wanderer. 
Its  swoop,  when  rushing  on  its  quarry,  is  wonderful 
both  for  rapidity  and  force.  The  P.  F.  can  easily 
carry  through  the  an*  a  bird  or  quadruped  fidly  its 
own  weight.  Its  ordinary  prey  consists  of  grouse, 
■woodcocks,  rabbits,  &c.  The  woodcock  in  vain 
seeks  to  escape  from  it  by  threading  its  way  among 
branches  of  trees  and  brushwood ;  the  falcon 
follows,  and  exhibits  at  least  an  equal  power  of 
moving  with  great  rapidity  in  the  thicket  without 
getting  entangled  or  stayed.  Sometimes  the  quarry 
soars  into  the  air,  and  seeks  safety  by  trying  to 
keep  above  the  falcon,  till  both  are  lost  to  ordinary 
sight;  but  the  falcon  generally  gets  uppermost,  and 
'strikes'  it  at  last.  The  quantity  of  game  des- 
troyed by  the  P.  F.  is  very  great.  It  is  supposed 
that  a  single  nest  of  peregrine  falcons  will  consume 
nearly  300  brace  of  grouse  in  a  season,  besides  much 
other  prey.  The  P.  F.  is  a  bird  as  remarkable  for 
boldness  as  for  power  of  flight.  It  has  sometimes 
been  seen  to  pounce  on  game  shot  by  a  sportsman, 
before  it  coidd  fall  to  the  ground  ;  and  an  instance 
occurred  in  Yorkshire  of  a  P.  F.  dashing  through 
the  glass  of  an  aviary  in  a  town,  and  carrying  off  a 
bird.  It  makes  its  nest  on  ledges  of  high  rocks, 
either  on  the  sea-coast  or  in  inland  precipices  and 
ravines,  and  lays  from  two  to  four  eggs.  Numerous 
localities  in  Britain  have  long  been  noted  as  breed- 
ing-places of  the  P.  F.,  and  some  of  them  were 
regularly  visited,  whilst  falconry  was  a  favourite 
sport,  for  young  birds,  which  were  not  procured 
without  clanger  and  difficulty.  The  bird,  caught 
when  adult,  although  more  difficult  to  train,  was, 
however,  believed  to  possess  superior  qualities. 
The  P.  F.  is  more  docile,  and  becomes  more  gentle 
than  the  Gyr-falcon.  The  young  female  of  the  P.  F. 
has  been  by  mistake  described  by  Pennant  and 
others  under  the  name  of  the  Lann^r  (q.  v.),  a 
species  not  found  in  Britain.  For  fig.  of  P.  F.,  see 
Falconry. 

PEREIRA,  Jonathan,  the  pharmacologist, 
was  born  in  the  parish  of  Shoreditch,  London, 
22d  May,  1804.  After  a  distinguished  career 
at  a  classical  academy  in  Finsburv,  where  he 
remained  for  four  years,  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  medicine,  and  in  1823  was  appointed 
resident  medical  officer  of  the  General  Dispen- 
sary in  Aldersgate  Street,  at  which  institution 
he    became,    three    years    afterwards,    lecturer    on 


chemistry.  His  attention  was  early  attracted  to  the 
study  in  which  he  hat  become  famous.  In  1824,  he 
published  a  translation  of  the  London  Pharma- 
copceia;  which  was  followed  by  A  Manual  for  the 
Use  of  Student* ;  A  Ccneral  Tabic  of  Atomic  Num- 
bers,  with  on  Introduction  to  the  Atomic  Theory;  and 
other  text-books  for  the  use  of  tho^e  who  were 
preparing  for  medical  examinations.  He  contrib- 
uted numerous  papers  to  the  professional  journals 
on  the  properties  and  adulteration  of  drags,  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  those  researches  which  issued  in 
his  great  work  on  Materia  Medico.  In  1832,  he 
resigned  the  office  of  lecturer  for  that  of  Professor 
of  Materia  Medica  in  the  New  Medical  School  in 
Aldersgate  Street,  and  at  the  same  time  he  suc- 
ceeded Dr  Gordon  as  Lecturer  on  Chemistry  at  the 
London  Hospital.  His  Elements  of  Materia  Medica 
(tirst  published  in  the  form  of  lectures  contributed 
to  the  Medical  Times  and  Gazette)  appeared  as  a 
separate  work  in  1S39— 1840,  and  at  once  established 
his  reputation  as  a  pharmacologist.  The  treatise  is 
remarkable  for  the  extent  of  its  research,  the  variety 
of  its  information,  whether  scientific,  commercial, 
or  practical,  and  the  scrupulous  exactness  of  its 
statements.  In  1841,  he  procured  the  licence  to 
practise  in  London  from  the  College  of  Physicians  ; 
in  1845,  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  that  body  ;  and 
on  the  establishment  of  the  London  University,  he 
was  appointed  Examiner  in  Materia  Medica  and 
Pharmacy,  a'  post  which  he  filled  with  admirable 
efficiency  till  his  death.  Among  his  other  contri- 
butions to  science,  the  best  known  are  his  excellent 
treatises  on  Diet  and  on  Polarised  Light,  both  of 
which  appeared  in  1S43.  His  death,  which  took  place 
on  January  20,  1S53,  was  the  result  of  a  fall  down  a 
flight  of  steps  in  the  College  of  Surgeons,  and  was 
deeply  felt,  not  only  by  his  professional  brethren, 
but  by  the  numerous  scientific  bodies,  such  as  the 
Royal,  the  LinnEean,  and  the  other  societies  of  which 
he  was  a  distinguished  Fellow. 

PEREKO'P,  Isthmus  of,  in  South  Russia, 
government  of  Taurida,  18  miles  long,  16  miles 
broad  at  its  southern,  and  5  miles  broad  at  its 
northern  extremity,  connects  the  peninsida  of  the 
Crimea  with  the  mainland  of  European  Russia.  It 
is  an  arid  waste  of  mere  sand,  or  sand  combined 
with  clay.  There  are,  however,  numerous  salt  lakes, 
and  salt  is  extensively  made.  In  the  north  of  the 
isthmus,  and  forming  the  key  to  the  Crimea,  is 
the  small  town  of  Perekop.  Notwithstanding  its 
advantageous  position  at  the  convergence  of  the 
numerous  roads  leading  from  South  Russia  into 
the  Crimea,  P.  is  of  little  commercial  importance. 
Pop.  of  town  4982. 

PERE-LA-CHAISE.    See  La-Chaise. 

PE'REMPTORY  DEFENCES,  in  Scotch  Law, 
mean  defences  to  an  action  or  suit,  which  amount 
to  an  entire  negative  of  the  right  of  action,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  a  preliminary  or  temporary  defence. 

PERE'NNIAL,  in  Botany,  a  term  employed  in 
contradistinction  to  Annual  (q.  v.)  aud  Biennial 
(q.  v.),  to  designate  plants  which  subsist  for  a  number 
of  years.  Some  plants,  however,  which  are  annual  in 
cold  climates,  are  j)erennial  in  warmer  regions.  The 
term  perennial  is  in  general  applied  only  to  herba- 
ceous plants,  and  indicates  a  property  only  of  their 
roots,  the  stems  of  most  of  them  dying  at  the  end 
of  each  summer.  Perennial  herbaceous  plants,  like 
shrubs  and  trees,  are  capable  of  producing  flowers  and 
fruit  time  after  time,  in  which  they  differ  from  annual 
and  biennial  plants,  which  are  fruitful  only  once. 
Those  plants  which  are  capable  of  being  propagated 
by  cloves,  offset  bulbs,  or  tubers,  are  all  perennial. 
Thus  the  potato  is  a  perennial  plant,  a  though  the 
crop  is  planted  in  spring  and  reaped  in  autumn,  like 


PERESLAV— PERFUMERY,  PERFUMES. 


that  of  corn,  whilst  all  the  com  plants  are  annuals. 
— There  is  great  diversity  in  the  duration  of  life  of 
perennial  plants. 

PEEESLA'V,  or  PEREIASLA'YXE-ZALIE'- 
SKY,  a  district  town  in  the  middle  of  Great  Russia, 
in  the  government  of  Vladimir,  and  70  miles  north- 
west of  the  city  of  that  name.  It  was  founded  in 
1052  by  George,  Prince  of  Sousdal.  It  possesses 
upwards  of  30  churches  and  religious  institutions ; 
but  is  principally  noteworthy  for  its  factories,  which 
are  nine  in  number,  and  of  which  the  most  important 
are  cotton-mills  and  print-works  for  cotton  goods. 
The  factories  yield  in  all  an  annual  profit  of  about 
£i  .000,000.  The  cotton  manufactures  of  P.  are 
exported  to  the  fairs  of  Nijni-Novgorod  and  Irbit, 
and  even  to  China  by  way  of  Siberia.  Pop.  6783, 
employed  in  the  factories  and  in  the  productive 
fishery  of  Lake  Pleshtcheieff. 

PEREZ,  Antonio,  minister  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
was  born  in  Aragon  in  1539.  His  father  was  Secre- 
tary of  State  under  Charles  I.  and  Philip  II.,  and 
he  himself  was  appointed  to  this  office  when  only 
25  years  of  age,  and  acquired  the  entire  confidence 
of  the  king.  Don  Juan  d'Austria,  having  sent  his 
confidant,  Juan  de  Escovedo,  to  Spain,  to  solicit  aid 
against  the  party  of  Orange  ;  and  Escovedo  having 
rendered  himself  an  object  of  hatred  both  to  the 
king  and  to  P.,  the  former  resolved  to  put  him  out 
of  the  way  by  murder,  and  intrusted  P.  with  the 
accomplishment  of  this  design,  which  P.,  to  gratify 
his  own  revenge,  accomplished  accordingly,  31st 
March  1578.  The  family  of  Escovedo  denounced 
P.  as  the  murderer,  and  all  his  enemies  joined  against 
him.  The  king  at  first  sought  to  shield  him  ;  but 
in  July  1581  he  was  arrested,  and  by  torture  forced 
to  confess.  He  succeeded,  however,  in  making  his 
escape  to  Aragon,  where  he  put  himself  under  pro- 
tection of  its  laws.  After  a  long  and  severe  inquiry 
into  his  conduct,  he  was  found  guilty  of  many  acts 
of  fraud  and  corruption,  and  condemned  to  death 
in  Madrid ;  but  the  Justicia  Major,  or  highest 
court  of  justice  in  Saragossa,  refused  to  deliver  him 
up.  The  king  applied  for  aid  in  May  1591  to  the 
Inquisition,  and  the  Aragonese  court  delivered  him 
up  to  its  agents,  but  the  people  rose  in  tumult,  and 
liberated  him.  This  happened  repeatedly ;  and  at 
last,  in  September  1591,  Philip  II.  entered  Aragon 
with  an  army  powerful  enough  to  subdue  all  oppo- 
sition, abolished  the  old  constitutional  j)rivileges  of 
the  country,  and  caused  a  number  of  the  principal 
people  to  be  executed.  P.,  however,  made  his 
escape,  avoiding  the  many  plots  which  the  king 
laid  for  his  assassination.  He  was  condemned  in 
Spain  as  a  heretic,  but  was  treated  with  great 
kindness  in  Paris  and  London.  He  spent  the 
latter  years  of  his  life  in  Paris,  and  died  there  in 
1611  in  great  poverty.  P.  wrote  an  account  of  his 
misfortunes,  which  was  published  at  Paris  in  1598,  j 
under  the  title  of  Eelaciones. 

PERFECTIBI'LITY    OF    CHRISTIANS,    a] 

doctrine  held  by  the  Wesleyan  Methodists  (see  | 
Methodists)  of  a  Christian  perfection  attainable  in 
this  life.  It  is  not  a  perfection  of  justification,  but 
a  perfection  of  sanctification ;  which  John  Wesley, 
in  a  sermon  on  Christian  Perfection,  from  the  text 
Heb.  vi.  1,  'Let  us  go  on  to  perfection,'  earnestly 
contends  for  as  attainable  in  this  life  by  believers, 
by  arguments  founded  chiefly  on  the  commandments 
and  promises  of  Scripture  concerning  sanctification  ; 
guarding  his  doctrine,  however,  by  saying  that  it  is 
neither  an  angelic  nor  an  Adamic  perfection,  and 
does  not  exclude  ignorance  and  error  of  judgment, 
with  consequent  wrong  affections,  such  as  '  needless 
fear  or  ill- grounded  hope,  unreasonable  love,  or  un- 
reasonable aversion.'  He  admits,  also,  that  even  in 
33C 


this  sense  it  is  a  rare  attainment,  but  asserts  that 
'  several  persons  have  enjoyed  this  blessing,  without 
interruption,  for  many  yeai'S,  several  enjoy  it  at  this 
day,  and  not  a  few  have  enjoyed  it  unto  their  death, 
as  they  have  declared  with  their  latest  breath, 
calmly  witnessing  that  God  had  saved  them  from 
all  sin,  till  their  spirit  returned  to  God.'  Concern- 
ing all  which,  the  general  belief  of  Protestant 
Christians  is,  that  these  persons  were  merely  more 
self-complacent  and  less  sensible  of  their  own 
corruptions  than  is  usual,  and  that  the  commands 
and  promises  concerning  sanctification  are  all  sus- 
ceptible of  an  explanation  consistent  with  remaining 
corruption  in  believers,  and  a  need  of  further  sanc- 
tification, or  a  continued  going  on  unto  perfection 
whilst  this  life  endures. 

That  perfection  is  attainable  in  this  life,  is  held 
by  the  Franciscans,  Jesuits,  and  Molinists  in  the 
Church  of  Rome,  but  denied  by  the  Dominicans  and 
Jansenists.  In  advocating  the  doctrine,  its  Roman 
Catholic  supporters  generally  rest  much  on  the 
distinction  between  mortal  and  venial  sins. 

PERFORMANCE   OF   CONTRACTS  is  one 

of  the  modes  of  satisfying  the  contract,  which 
may  be  either  by  doing  some  specific  thing,  or 
not  doing  something,  or  by  payment  of  money. 
It  is  a  good  answer  to  any  action  brought  by 
one  party  against  another  for  breach  of  contract, 
that  what  was  contracted  for  has  been  already 
performed. 

PERFUMERY,  PERFU'MES  (Fr.  parfum, 
from  Lat.  fumus,  smoke  or  vapour),  delicate  fumes  or 
smells.  Perfumes  are  of  three  distinct  classes  when 
derived  from  plants,  and  there  is  a  fourth  class, 
which  are  of  animal  origin. 

Class  I. — These  are  the  most  ancient,  and  have 
been  in  use  from  the  earliest  period  of  which  there 
is  record.  They  consist  of  the  various  odoriferous 
gum-resins,  which  exude  naturally  from  the  trees 
which  yield  them  ;  and  to  increase  the  produce,  the 
plants  are  often  purposely  wounded.  The  most 
important  are  benzoin,  olibanum,  myrrh,  and  cam- 
phor. No  less  than  5000  cwt.  of  these  together  are 
annually  imported  into  Britain.  Gum-resins  form 
the  chief  ingredients  in  '  Incense,'  (q.  v.),  and  in 
Pastilles  (q.  v.). 

Class  II.  are  those  perfumes  which  are  procured 
by  distillation.  As  soon  as  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans  learned  the  use  of  the  still,  which  was  an 
invention  imported  by  them  from  Egypt,  they  quickly 
adapted  it  to  the  separation  of  the  odorous  principle 
from  the  numerous  fragrance-bearing  plants  which 
are  indigenous  to  Greece  and  Italy.  An  essential  oil 
or  otto  thus  procured  from  orange-flowers  bears  in 
commerce  to  this  day  the  name  of  Neroly,  supposed 
to  be  so  named  after  the  Emperor  Nero.  Long 
before  that  time,  however,  fragrant  waters  were  in 
use  in  Arabia.  Odour-bearing  plants  contain  the 
fragrant  principle  in  minute  glands  or  sacs  ;  these 
are  found  sometimes  in  the  rind  of  the  fruit, 
as  the  lemon  and  orange;  in  others,  they  occur  in 
the  leaves,  as  sage,  mint,  and  thyme;  in  wood,  as 
rosewood  and  sandal-wood;  in  the  bark,  as  cassia 
and  cinnamon ;  in  seeds,  as  caraway  and  nntmeg. 
These  glands  or  bags  of  fragrance  may  be 
plainly  seen  in  a  thin  cut  stratum  of  orange- 
peel;  so  also  in  a  bay  leaf,  if  it  be  held  up 
to  the  sunlight,  all  the  oil  cells  may  be  seen 
like  specks.  All  these  odour-bearing  substances 
yield  by  distillation  an  essential  oil  peculiar  to 
each;  thus  are  procured  oil  of  patchouly  from 
the  leaves  of  the  patchouly  plant,  Pogostemon 
patchouly,  a  native  of  Burmah;  oil  of  caraway, 
from  the  caraway  seed ;  oil  of  geranium,  from  the 
leaves  of   the  Geranium  rosa ;   oil  of  lemon,  from 


PERFUMERY,  PERFUMES. 


lemon-peel;    and  a  hundred  othe.s  of  infinite  va- 
riety. 

The  old  name  for  these  pure  odoriferous  principles 
was  Quintessence.  Latterly,  they  have  been 
termed  Essential  Oils  ;  they  are  now,  in  modern 
Bcientilic  works,  often  termed  Ottos,  from  the 
Turkish  word  attar,  which  is  applied  to  the  well- 
known  otto  or  attar  of  roses.     See  On- 

All  the  various  essential  oik  or  ottos  are  very 
sightly  soluble  in  water,  so  that  in  the  process  of 
distillation  the  water  which  comes  over  is  always 
fragrant.  Thus,  elder  water,  rose  water,  orange 
water,  dill  water  are,  as  it  were,  the  residue  of  the 
distillation  for  obtaining  the  several  ottos.  The 
process  of  Distillation  (q.  v.)  is  very  simple ;  the 
fragrant  part  of  the  plant  is  put  into  the  still  and 
covered  with  water  ;  ami  when  the  water  is  made 
to  boil,  the  ottos  rise  along  with  the  steam,  are 
condensed  with  it  in  the  pipe,  and  remain  floating 
on  the  water,  from  which  they  are  easily  separated 
by  decanting.  In  this  way  100  pounds  of  orauge, 
lemon,  or  bergamot  fruit  peel  will  yield  about  10 
ounces  of  the  fragrant  oil ;  100  pounds  of  cedar 
wood  will  give  about  15  ounces  of  oil  of  cedar ; 
100  pounds  of  nutmeg  will  yield  60  to  70  ounces 
of  oil  of  nutmeg ;  100  pounds  of  geranium  leaves 
will  yield  2  ounces  of  oil. 

Every  fragrant  substance  varies  in  yield  of 
essential  oil.  The  variety  of  essential  oils  is  end- 
less ;  but  there  is  a  certain  relationship  among 
odours,  as  among  tints.  The  lemon-like  odours  are 
the  most  numerous,  such  as  verbena,  lemon,  berga- 
mot, orange,  citron,  citronella ;  then  the  almond- 
like odours,  such  as  heliotrope,  vanilla,  violet ; 
then  spice  odours,  cloves,  cinnamon,  cassia.  The 
whole  may  be  classified  into  twelve  well-defined 
groups.  All  these  ottos  are  very  soluble  in  alcohol, 
in  fat,  butter,  and  fixed  oils.  They  also  mix  with 
soap,  snuff,  starch,  sugar,  chalk,  and  other  bodies, 
to  which  they  impart  their  fragrance. 

The  principal  consumption  of  the  various  frag- 
rant ottos  is  for  scenting  soap.  Windsor  soap, 
almond  soap,  rose  soap,  and  a  great  variety  of  others, 
consist  of  various  soaps  made  of  oil  and  tallow, 
perfumed  while  in  a  melted  state  with  the  several 
named  ottos  or  mixtures  of  them. 

Though  snuff  is  by  no  means  so  popular  an  article  in 
the  reign  of  Victoria  as  it  was  in  Anne's  time,  yet  the 
increased  population  and  greater  exports  to  the  British 
colonies  cause  the  production  of  scented  snuff  to  be 
greater  than  it  was  fifty  years  ago,  and  it  is  especially 
in  demand  in  the  fur  countries  of  Northern  Canada. 
There  is  a  large  consumption  of  fragrant  essential  oils 
in  the  manufacture  of  toilet  powders  ;  under  the  various 
names  of  rose  powder,  violet  powder,  &c,  a  mixture 
of  starch  and  orris,  differently  scented,  is  in  general 
demand  for  drying  the  skin  of  infants  after  the  bath. 

Precipitated  chalk  and  powdered  cuttle-fish  bone, 
being  perfumed  with  otto  of  roses,  powdered  myrrh, 
and  camphor,  become  '  Dentifrice.'  The  oils  of  pep- 
permint, lavender,  rose,  and  others,  are  extensively 
used  in  scenting  sweetmeats  and  lozenges. 

During  the  year  ending  June  30,  1870,  there  were 
imported  into  the  U.  States  for  consumption  5102 
ounces  of  otto  of  roses,  valued  at  $23,305  ;  essence  of 
bergamot,  20,461  pounds,  valued  at  $62,045;  orange 
and  lemon,  60,665  pounds,  valued  at  $123,269;  cit- 
ronella, 16,202  pounds,  valued  at  $15,328;  cassia, 
14,613pounds,valuedat$16,385,and  fruit  ethers,  or 
essence  of  apples,  pears,  &c,  169pounds,valuedat$345. 

Class  III. — These  are  the  perfumes  proper,  such 
as  are  used  for  perfuming  handkerchiefs,  &c. 
Contrary  to  the  general  belief,  nearly  all  the  per- 
fumes derived  from  flowers  are  not  made  by  dis- 
tillation, but  by  the  processes  of  enfleurnge  and 
maceration.      Although  this  mode  of   obtaining  the 


odours  from  flowers  has  certainly  been  in  practice 
for  two  centuries  in  tne  valley  of  the  Var,  in  the 
south  of  France,  it  is  only  by  the  publication  ol 
a  recent  work*  that  the  method  has  been  made 
generally  known.  The  odours  of  flowers  do  not,  aa 
a  general  rule,  exist  in  them  as  a  store  or  in  a 
but  are  developed  as  an  exhalation.  Wb 
!  flower  breathes  it  yields  fragrance,  but  kill  the 
j  flower,  and  fragrance  ceases.  It  has  not  been 
ascertained  when  the  discovery  was  made  of  con- 
densing, as  it  were,  the  breath  of  the  flower 
during  life;  what  we  know  now  is,  that  if  a 
living  flower  be  placed  near  to  grease,  animal 
fat,  butter,  or  oil,  these  bodies  absorb  the  odour 
given  off  by  the  blossom,  and  in  turn  them- 
selves become  fragrant.  If  we  spread  fresh 
unsalted  butter  upon  the  bottom  of  two 
plates,  and  then  till  one  of  the  plates  with  gathered 
fragrant  blossoms  of  clematis,  covering  them  over 
with  the  second  greased  plate,  we  shall  find  that 
after  24  hours  the  grease  has  become  fragrant. 
The  blossoms,  though  separated  from  the  parent 
stem,  do  not  die  for  some  time,  but  live  and 
exhale  odour;  which  is  absorbed  by  the  fat. 
To  remove  the  odour  from  the  fat,  the  fat  must  be 
scraped  off  the  plates  and  put  into  alcohol ;  the 
odour  then  leaves  the  grease  and  enters  into  the 
spirit,  which  thus  becomes  '  scent,'  and  the  grease 
again  becomes  odourless. 

The  flower  farmers  of  the  Var  follow  precisely 
this  method  on  a  very  large  scale,  with  but  a  little 
practical  variation,  with  the  following  flowers — rose, 
orange,  acacia,  violet,  jasmine,  tuberose,  and  jonquiL 
The  process  is  termed  enfleurage.  In  the  valley  of 
the  Var,  there  are  acres  of  jasmine,  of  tuberose,  of 
violets,  and  the  other  flowers  named  ;  in  due  season 
the  air  is  laden  with  fragrance,  the  flower  harvest 
is  at  hand.  Women  and  children  gather  the 
blossoms,  which  they  place  in  little  panniers  like 
fishermen's  baskets  hung  over  the  shoulders.  They 
are  then  carried  to  the  laboratory  of  flowers 
and  weighed  In  the  laboratory  the  harvest  of 
flowers  has  been  anticipated.  During  the  previous 
winter  great  quantities  of  grease,  lard,  and  beef-suet 
have  been  collected,  melted,  washed,  and  clarified. 
In  each  laboratory  there  are  several  thousand 
chAssU  (sashes),  or  framed  glasses,  upon  which  the 
grease  to  be  scented  is  spread,  and  upon  this  grease 
the  blossoms  are  sprinkled  or  laid.  The  ehdeae  en 
verre  is,  in  fact,  a  frame  with  a  glass  in  it  as  near 
as  possible  like  a  window-sash,  only  that  the  frame 
is  two  inches  thicker,  so  that  when  one  chasse  is 
placed  on  another,  there  is  a  space  of  four  inches 
between  every  two  glasses,  thus  allowing  space  for 
blossoms.  The  illustration  shews  the  chasse  with 
grease  and  flowers  upon  it  (fig.  1),  also  a  pile  of  the 
same  as  in  use.  The  flower  blossoms  are  changed 
every  day,  or  every  other  day,  as  is  convenient  in 
regard  to  the  general  work  of  the  laboratory  or  flower- 
ing of  the  plants.  The  same  grease,  however,  remains 
in  the  chasse  so  long  as  the  particular  plant  being 
used  yields  blossoms.  Each  time  the  fresh  flowers 
are  put  on,  the  grease  is  '  worked  ' — that  is,  serrated 
with  a  knife — so  as  to  offer  a  fresh  surface  of  grease 
to  absorb  odour.  The  grease  being  enjleuree  in 
this  way  for  three  weeks  or  more — in  fact,  so  long  as 
the  plants  produce  blossoms — is  at  last  scraped 
off  the  chasse,  melted,  strained,  and  poured  into 
tin  canisters,  and  is  now  fit  for  exportation.  Fat 
or  oil  is  perfumed  with  these  same  flowers  by  the 
process  of  maceration ;  that  is,  infusion  of  the  flowers 
in  oil  or  melted  fat.  For  this  end,  purified  fat  is 
melted  in  a  lain  marie,  or  warm  bath,  aud  the  fresh 

*  Art  of  Perfumery,  by  Septimus  Piesse,  Ph.D.,  8vo 

50  cuts.    Longman. 

387 


PERFUMERY,  PERFUMES. 


blossoms  are  infused  in  it  for  several  hours.  Fresh 
flowers  being  procured,  the  spent  blossoms  are 
strained  away,  and  new  flowers  added  repeatedly,  so 
long  as  they  can  be  procured.  The  bain  marie  is 
used  in  order   to   prevent  the  grease  becoming  too 


Fig.  1. 
1,  Chassis  en  Vet-re  ;  2,  Chassis  en  Fer. 

hot  from  exposure  to  the  naked  fire ;  so  long  as 
the  grease  is  fluid,  it  is  warm  enough.  Oil  does  not 
require  to  be  warmed,  but  improved  results  are 
obtained  when  it  is  slightly  heated. 

Jasmine    and    tuberose  produce    best   perfumed 
grease  by  enfleurage,  but  rose,  orange,  and  acacia 


Fig.  2. 
1,  Bain  Marie  ;  2,  Section  of  Bain  Marie. 

five   mr re    satisfactory  products   by    maceration ; 
while  violet   and  jonquil   grease  is  best  obtained 
by    the    joint    processes — enfleurage    followed    by 
sss 


maceration.  In  the  engraving  a  chdsse  en  fer  (2,  fig.  1) 
is  shewn ;  this  is  for  enfleurage  of  oil.  In  the 
place  of  glass,  the  space  is  filled  with  a  wire  net ; 
on  which  is  laid  a  molleton,  or  thick  cotton  fabric — 
moleskin,  soaked  with  oil ;  on  this  the  flowers  are 
laid,  just  as  with  solid  grease.  In  due  time — that 
is,  after  repeated  changing  of  the  flowers — the  oil 
becomes  fragrant,  and  it  is  then  pressed  out  of  the 
moleskin  cloth.  Oil  of  jasmine,  tuberose,  &c\,  are 
prepared  in  this  way.  In  order  now  to  obtain  the 
perfume  of  these  flowers  in  the  form  used  for 
scenting  handkerchiefs,  we  have  only  to  infuse 
the  scented  fat  or  oil,  made  by  any  of  the  above 
methods,  in  strong  alcohol. 

In  extracting  the  odour  from  solid  fat  it  has  to  be 
chopped  up  fine  as  suet  is  chopped,  put  into  the 
spirit,  and  left  to  infuse  for  about  a  month.  In  the 
case  of  scented  oil  it  has  to  be  repeatedly  agitated 
with  the  spirit.  The  result  is,  that  the  spirit  extracts 
all  the  odour,  becoming  itself  'perfume,'  while  the 
grease  again  becomes  odourless;  thus  are  produced 
the  essence  of  jasmine,  essence  of  orange  flowers, 
essence  of  violets,  and  others  already  named,  rose, 
tuberose,  acacia,  and  jonquil. 

It  is  remarkable  that  these  flowers  yield  perfumes 
which,  either  separate  or  mixed  in  various  propor- 
tions, are  the  types  of  nearly  all  flower  odours ;  thus, 
when  jasmine  and  orange  flowers  are  blended,  the 
scent  produced  is  like  sweet-pea  ;  when  jasmine  and 
tuberose  are  mixed,  the  perfume  is  that  of  the 
hyacinth.  Violet  and  tuberose  resemble  lily  of  the 
valley.  All  the  various  bouquets  and  nosegays, 
such  as  '  frangipanui,'  '  white  roses,'  '  sweet  dajihne,' 
are  made  upon  this  principle. 

The  commercial  importance  of  this  branch  of 
perfumes  may  be  indicated  by  the  quantity  of  flowers 
annually  grown  in  the  district  of  the  Var.  Flower 
Harvest :  orange  blossoms,  1,475,000  lbs.  ;  roses, 
530,000  lbs.  ;  jasmine,  100,000  lbs.  ;  violets,  75,000 
lbs. ;  acacia,  45,000  lbs.  ;  geranium,  30,000  lbs. ; 
tuberose,  24,000  lbs. ;  jonquil,  5000  lbs. 

Class  IV.  Perfumes  of  animal  origin. — The 
principal  are  Musk  (q.  v.),  Ambergris  (q.  v.),  Civet 
(q.  v.),  and  Castor  (q.  v.).  The  aroma  of  musk  is 
the  most  universally  admired  of  all  perfumes ;  it 
freely  imparts  odour  to  every  body  with  which  it  is 
in  contact.  Its  power  to  impart  odour  is  such,  that 
polished  steel  will  become  fragrant  of  it  if  the  metal 
be  shut  in  a  box  where  there  is  musk,  contact  not 
being  necessary. 

In  perfumery  manufacture,  musk  is  mixed  with 
other  odorous  bodies  to  give  permanence  to  a 
scent.  The  usual  statement  as  to  the  length  of 
time  that  musk  continues  to  give  out  odour  has 
been  called  in  question.  If  fine  musk  be  spread 
in  thin  layers  upon  any  surface,  and  fully 
exposed  to  a  changing  current  of  air,  all  fragrance, 
it  is  said,  will  be  gone  in  from  six  to  twelve 
months. 

Civet  is  exceedingly  potent  as  an  odour,  and  when 
pure,  and  smelled  at  in  the  bulk  of  an  ounce  or  so, 
is  utterly  insupportable  from  its  nauseousness  ;  in 
this  respect  it  exceeds  musk.  When,  however, 
civet  is  diluted  so  as  to  offer  but  minute  quantities 
to  the  olfactories,  then  its  perfume  is  generally 
admitted;  this  is  also  the  case  with  gas-tar ;  but  the 
fragrant  principle  is  the  same  as  that  exhaled  by  the 
beautiful  narcissus.  Castor  is  in  our  day  almost  obso- 
lete as  a  perfume. 

The  average  consumption  of  musk  in  Britain  for 
1860—1865  was  7810  ounces,  value  £8545.  Average 
importation  for  the  years  1860 — 1865:  otto  of  roses, 
1117  ounces,  value  £13,561;  vanilla,  3525  pounds, 
value  £12,568;  ambergris,  2 2 5- ounces,  vain e  £225 
civet,  355  ounces,  value  £300;  orris  root,  420  hun- 
dl  edweight 


PERGAMUS  -PERTC  A  RDITTS. 


The  value  of   musk  entering  into  consumption  in 

the    l'.  States,  in    1870,  was  $R'.Ki.r>;    civet,  $454;   of 

cologne  water  and  other  alcoholic  perfnroery,  10,282 
pills.,  rained  at  $177,003;  other  perfumery,  &c.,  not 
specified,  valued  at  £nG,720.  See  Mad.  Celnart  on 
Perfumery,  translated  by  C.  Morfit,  Phila. ;  Pradaland 
Malpeyno,  I  Complete  Treatise  en  Perfumery,  trans. 
by  H.  Dnssance,  l'hila.,  1864;  E.  Rimmell,  Book  of 

Perfumes,  4  th  ed.,  Lond.,  1864  ;  A  Practical  Guide  for 
the  Perfumer,  l.v  Debey,  Lunel,  Dussanec,  &r. 

PE'RGAMUS,  or  PERG  AMUM,  anciently  a  city 
of  Mysia  in  Asia  Minor,  on  the  navigable  river 
Catena,  at  the  distance  of  120  stadia  from  the  sea. 
According  to  tradition,  the  place  was  of  Greek 
origin,  but  its  early  history  is  quite  insignificant. 
It  first  acquired  prominence  when  Lysimachus,  one 
of  Alexander's  generals,  chose  it  as  a  stronghold  in 
which  to  keep  his  treasures.  Under  Philetrerus  it 
became  the  capital  of  a  state,  283  B.C.  His  successor, 
Eumenes  L, maintained  its  independence  against  the 
Seleucidas,  although  the  title  of  king  was  first 
assumed  by  Attains  I.,  who  reigned  from  241  to  197 
B.  c.  He  intimately  allied  himself  with  the  Romans 
against  Philip  of  Macedon,  and  this  alliance  subsisted 
throughout  succeeding  reigns,  in  which  the  kingdom 
increased  in  extent  and  importance,  till  at  last 
Attains  III.,  surnamed  Philometer,  who  died  in  133 
B.  c,  left  it  with  all  his  treasures  to  the  Romans, 
who  successfully  maintained  the  right  thus  acquired, 
and  under  whom  the  city  continued  to  flourish.  It 
was  the  focus  of  all  the  great  military  and  commercial 
routes  of  Asia  Minor,  and  Pliny  describes  it  as  longe 
clarissimum  As'ue  Pergamum.  The  Attali  collected 
in  P.  a  library  only  inferior  to  that  of  Alexandria. 
It  was  also  the  seat  of  a  famous  grammar-school, 
and  it  gave  its  name  to  Parchment  (q.  v.).  P.  sank 
under  the  Byzantine  emperors,  but  the  place  still 
exists  under  the  name  Bergamah,  and  is  noted  for 
the  splendour  and  magnificence  of  its  ruins,  which 
embrace  temples,  palaces,  aqueducts,  gymnasia, 
amphitheatres,  and  city  walls. 

PERGOLESE,  Giovanni  Battista,  an  eminent 
musician  of  the  Neapolitan  school.  Evidence 
regarding  the  date  and  place  of  his  birth  is  con- 
flicting ;  probably  the  correct  account  is  that  of  the 
Marchese  di  Villarosa,  his  latest  biographer,  who 
states  that  he  was  born  at  Jesi,  near  Aucona,  on 
the  3d  of  January  1710.  In  1717  he  was  admitted 
into  the  Conservatorio  dei  Poveri  di  Gesu  Cristo  at 
Naples,  where  he  studied  the  violin  under  Domenico 
di  Matteis,  and  musical  composition  under  Gaetano 
Greco  and  Durante.  Under  the  conviction  that 
melody  and  taste  were  sacrificed  to  learning  by 
most  of  the  masters  of  his  time,  he  abandoned  the 
style  of  Scarlatti  and  Greco  for  that  of  Vinci  and 
Hasse.  His  first  great  work  was  the  oratorio  of 
San  Guglielmo  d ' Aquitania,  composed  in  1731.  In 
that  and  the  following  year  appeared  his  operas  of 
La  Serva  Padrona,  II  Prigionier  Superbo,  and  Lo 
Frate  Innamorato ;  in  1734,  Adriano  in  Siria ;  in 
1735,  II  Flaminio  and  L'Olimpiade.  In  1734,  he 
received  the  appointment  of  maestro  di  capella  of 
the  Church  of  Loretto.  In  consequence  of  delicate 
health,  he  removed  to  Pozzuoli,  where  he  composed 
the  cantata  of  Orj'eo,  and  his  pathetic  Stabat  Mater. 
He  died  there  of  consumption  in  1736.  Besides  the 
above-mentioned  works,  P.  composed  a  number  of 
pieces  for  the  church,  which  were  better  appreciated 
during  his  lifetime  than  his  secular  compositions, 
also  a  violin  concerto,  and  thirty  trios  for  violin, 
violoncello,  and  harpsichord.  His  works  are  aU 
characterised  by  sweetness  and  freedom  of  style. 

PERI  (Fairy),  according  to  the  mythical  lore 
of  the  East,  a  being  begotten  by  fallen  spirits, 
which  spends  its  life  in  all  imaginable  delights,  is 


immortal,  but  is  lor  ever  excluded  from  the  joys  of 
Paradise.  It  takes  an  intermediate  place  between 
angels  ami  demons,  ami  is  either  male  or  female. 
So  far  from  there  being  only  female  Peris,  aa 
is  supposed  by  some,  ami  these  the  wives  of  the 
DeTS,  the  Perii  live,  on  the  contrary,  in  constant 
warfare  with  these  Devs.  Otherwise,  they  are 
of  the  most  innocuous  character  to  mankind,  ami, 
exactly  as  the  fairies,  with  whom  our  own  popular 
mythology  has  made  us  familiar,  are,  when  female, 
of  surpassing  beauty.  One  of  the  fines!  compliments 
to  be  paid  to  a  Persian  lady  is  to  speak  of  her  as 
Pervsadeh  (born  of  a  Peri;  Greek,  Parisatis).  They 
belong  to  the  great  family  of  genii,  or  jin :  a 
belief  in  whom  is  enjoined  in  the  Koran,  and  for 
whose  conversion,  as  well  as  for  that  of  man, 
Mohammed  was  sent  (cf.  Koran,  chaps,  lv.,  lxxii., 
and  lxxiv.). 

PERIA'GUA,  a  large  canoe  composed  of  the 
trunks  of  two  trees,  hollowed  and  united  into  one 
fabric  ;  whereas  an  ordinary  canoe  is  formed  of  the 
body  of  one  tree  only.  Periaguas  are  used  in  the 
Pacific,  and  were  formerly  employed  among  the 
West  India  Islands,  whence  the  frequent  allusion  to 
them  in  Robinson  Crusoe. 

PE'RIANTH  (Gr.  peri,  around,  anthos,  a  flower;, 
in  Botany,  the  floral  envelope  (see  Flower)  of  those 
plants  in  which  the  calyx  and  corolla  are  not  easily 
distinguished.  The  term  is  convenient,  as  it  can  be 
applied  indifferently  to  the  calyx  and  corolla ;  thus, 
when  there  is  either  a  calyx  or  corolla  existing,  but 
not  both,  the  perianth  is  said  to  be  single;  when 
both  are  present,  double.  Both  are  really  present  in 
many  endogenous  plants,  to  which  the  use  of  the  term 
perianth  is  confined  by  some  botanists ;  the  single 
floral  envelope  of  exogenous  plants  being  regarded 
as  a  calyx,  and  the  corolla  supposed  to  be  wanting. 
The  perianth  is  regular  in  some  plants,  irregular  in 
others.  It  often  displays  great  beauty,  as  in  tulips, 
crocuses,  lilies,  &c. 

PERICARDI'TIS,  or  Inflammation  of  the 
Pericardium  (q.  v.),  is  a  disease  of  frequent  occur- 
rence ;  the  result  of  a  very  large  number  of 
post-mortem  examinations  being  to  shew  that  about 
1  in  23  of  all  who  die  at  an  adult  age  exhibits 
traces  of  recent  or  old  attacks  of  this  disorder. 

For  reasons  which  will  be  obvious  when  we  come 
to  speak  of  the  physical  signs  of  this  disease,  we  shall 
commence  with  a  notice  of  the  anatomical  changes 
which  take  place  in  the  inflamed  membrane.  Very 
soon  after  symptoms  of  pericarditis  begin  to  shew 
themselves  there  is  an  abnormal  dryness  of  the 
serous  membrane,  which  is  speedily  followed  by  an 
increased  secretion  of  fluid.  The  secreted  fluid  is 
sometimes  almost  entirely  fibrinous,  in  which  case 
it  coagidates,  and  gives  rise  to  adhesions  between 
the  heart  and  the  pericardium ;  or  it  may  consist 
almost  entirely  of  serum,  which  remains  liquid  ;  or 
it  may  be,  and  it  most  frequently  is,  a  mixture  of 
the  two.  When  there  is  a  large  amount  of  liquid 
effusion  (as,  for  instance,  a  third  of  a  pint  or  more) 
which  is  not  re-absorbed,  death  usually  takes  place 
in  the  course  of  a  few  days,  in  consequence  of  the 
interference  of  the  fluid  with  the  heart's  actions  ; 
but  when  there  is  not  much  liquid  effusion,  or  when 
the  liquid  part  is  absorbed,  the  pericardium  becomes 
more  or  less  adherent,  and  apparent  recovery  usually 
takes  place. 

In  the  cases  that  prove  fatal  when  fibrinous  fluid 
has  been  effused,  but  has  not  coagulated  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  cause  complete  adhesion  of  the  heart  to 
the  pericardium,  the  partially  coagulated  fibrin  (or 
lymph,  as  the  older  authors  styled  it)  is  seen  to  be 
of  a  yellowish-white  colour,  and  to  occur  in  a  rugged, 
shaggy,  or  cellular  form.     Laennec  compared  the 


PERICARDITIS— PERICARDIUM. 


Burface  on  which  the  lymph  is  deposited  to  that 
which  would  be  produced  by  suddenly  separating 
two  flat  pieces  of  wood  between  which  a  thin  layer 
of  butter  had  been  compressed.  Dr  Watson  regards 
the  appearance  as  more  like  the  rough  side  of  pieces 
of  uncooked  tripe  than  anything  else ;  while  others 
have  compared  it  to  lace-work,  cut  sponge,  a  honey- 
comb, a  congeries  of  earthworms,  &c.  When  the 
patient  dies  at  a  more  advanced  stage  of  the  disease 
— viz.,  soon  after  the  whole  of  the  membrane  has 
become  adherent — incipient  blood-vessels,  in  the  form 
of  red  points  and  branching  lines,  are  seen,  indicating 
that  organisation  is  commencing  in  the  deposit, 
which  if  death  had  not  ensued  woidd  have  been 
finally  converted  into  cellular  or  areolar  tissue,  and 
have  occasioned  the  complete  obliteration  of  the 
pericardial  cavity. 

The  symptoms  of  pericarditis  are  pain  in  the 
situation  of  the  heart,  increased  by  a  full  inspiration, 
by  pressure  upon  or  between  the  ribs  in  the  cardiac 
region,  and  especially  by  pressure  upwards  against 
the  diaphragm  by  thrusting  the  ringers  beneath  the 
cartilages  of  the  false  ribs ;  palpitations ;  a  dry 
cough  and  hurried  respiration ;  discomfort  or  pain 
on  lying  on  the  left  side ;  restlessness ;  great 
anxiety  of  countenance ;  and  sometimes  delirium. 
The  pulse  usually  beats  from  110  to  120  in  a  minute, 
and  is  sometimes  intermittent ;  and  febrile  symptoms 
are  always  present.  These  symptoms  are  seldom 
collectively  present  in  any  individual  case,  and  imtil 
the  time  of  Louis  the  diagnosis  of  this  disease  was 
uncertain  and  obscure.  The  physical  signs,  dependent 
on  the  anatomical  changes  which  have  been  described, 
are,  however,  generally  so  distinct  that  by  their  aid 
the  disease  can  be  readily  detected.  They  are 
three  in  number.  1.  In  consequence  of  irritation 
propagated  to  the  muscular  tissue  of  the  heart  at 
the  commencement  of  the  inflammation  of  its 
investing  membrane,  the  ventricles  contract  with 
increased  force,  rendering  the  sounds  of  the  heart 
louder  and  its  impulse  stronger  than  in  health,  or 
than  in  the  more  advanced  stages  of  the  disease. 
2.  When  much  fluid  is  effused  into  the  pericardium, 
dulness  on  percussion  is  always  observable  to  a 
greater  degree  than  in  health.  This  sign,  which  is 
very  characteristic,  is  seldom  perceived  till  the 
disease  has  continued  for  two  or  three  days.  In 
relation  to  this  increased  dulness,  we  must  premise 
that  in  the  healthy  condition  of  the  heart  and  lungs 
there  is  an  irregular  roundish  space  with  a  diameter 
of  somewhat  less  than  two  inches,  extending  from 
the  sternum  (or  breast-bone)  between  the  level  of 
the  fourth  and  fifth  ribs  towards  the  left  nipple,  in 
which  a  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  heart  is  not 
overlapped  by  the  lungs,  but  lies  in  contact  with 
the  walls  of  the  chest.  This  space  should  normally 
be  dull  on  percussion.  In  pericarditis  the  extent  of 
the  dulness  beyond  the  normal  limit  indicates  the 
amount  of  effusion.  In  extreme  cases  the  dulness 
may  extend  over  a  space  whose  diameter  is  seven 
inches  or  more.  Simultaneous  with  the  increased 
dulness,  there  is  a  diminution  of  the  heart's  sounds  in 
consequence  of  the  intervening  fluid,  and  the  impulse 
is  often  scarcely  perceptible.  3.  The  rubbing  of 
the  inflamed  and  roughened  surfaces  upon  each 
other  gives  rise  to  a  sound  which  is  commonly 
called  the  friction  sound,  but  which  has  received 
various  names.  Thus  Dr  Watson  calls  it  a  to  and 
fro  sound,  and  observes  regarding  its  variations 
that,  'like  all  the  other  morbid  sounds  heard  within 
the  chest,  it  is  capable  of  much  variety  in  tone  and 
degree.  Sometimes  it  very  closely  resembles  the 
noise  made  by  a  saw  in  cutting  through  a  board ; 
sometimes  it  is  more  like  that  occasioned  by  the 
action  of  a  file  or  of  a  rasp  ;  but  its  essential  char- 
acter is  that  of  alternate  rubbing  ;  it  is  a  to  and  fro 
400 


sound.'  This  sound  is  heard  early  in  the  disease, 
before  the  surfaces  of  the  pericardium  are  separated 
by  the  effusion  of  fluid  ;  and  it  is  due  either  to  the 
dryness  of  the  membrane,  or  to  its  roughness  from 
the  deposition  of  lymph.  When  the  contiguous 
surfaces  are  either  separated  by  fluid,  or  become 
adherent,  the  sound  disappears ;  but  when  it  has 
been  lost  from  the  first  of  these  causes,  it  reappear? 
after  the  fluid  has  been  so  far  absorbed  as  to  permit 
the  surfaces  again  to  come  in  contact.  But  here, 
again,  its  duration  is  brief,  for  the  surfaces  soon 
become  adherent  and  cease  to  rub  upon  each  other. 

Pericarditis  is  a  disease  which  occasionally  runs 
a  very  rapid  course,  and  terminates  fatally  in  forty- 
eight  hours  or  less.  In  ordinary  cases,  however, 
which  terminate  in  apparent  recovery,  the  disease 
generally  begins  to  yield  in  a  week  or  ten  days,  and 
excepting  that  adhesion  remains,  the  cure  appears 
to  be  complete  in  three  weeks  or  less.  But  although 
these  patients  apparently  recover,  the  pericardial 
adhesion  commonly  occasions  other  structural 
changes  of  the  heart  sooner  or  later  to  develop 
themselves ;  and  in  those  cases  that  the  physician 
has  the  opportunity  of  subsequently  watching,  it  is 
observed  that  fatal  disease  of  the  heart,  primarily 
due  to  the  pericarditis,  almost  always  supervenes. 
In  slight  cases  it  is  probable  that  a  true  cure, 
without  adhesion,  may  take  place. 

Pericarditis  frequently  arises  from  exposure  to 
cold  when  the  body  is  warm  and  perspiring.  It  is 
no  uncommon  result  of  a  contaminated  state  of  the 
blood,  such  as  occurs  in  the  exanthematous  diseases, 
especially  scarlatina,  and  in  Bright's  disease  of  the 
kidney ;  but  beyond  all  comparison,  it  is  of  most 
frequent  occurrence  in  association  with  acute 
Rheumatism  (q.  v.),  of  which  it  forms  by  far  the 
most  dangerous  complication. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  disease,  blood  should 
be  freely  taken  (if  the  patient  is  tolerably  robust) 
from  the  region  of  the  heart  either  by  cupping  or 
repeated  leeching ;  and  at  the  same  time  every 
attempt  must  be  made  to  get  the  system  under 
the  influence  of  mercury  to  the  extent  of  rendering 
the  gums  tender  and  of  affecting  the  breath.  Not 
only  should  calomel  in  small  doses,  and  combined 
with  opium  with  the  view  of  preventing  purging,  be 
frequently  given,  but  mercurial  ointment  should  be 
rubbed  into  the  arm-pits  and  inner  sides  of  the 
thighs,  and  the  mouth  should  be  kept  slightly  sore 
for  some  time.  After  three  or  four  days,  if  there 
should  be  much  fluid  effusion,  a  large  blister  should 
be  applied  over  the  heart ;  and  if  the  patient  is  not 
already  under  the  influence  of  mercury,  the  raw 
surface  may  be  dressed  with  mercurial  ointment. 
Perfect  rest  both  of  body  and  mind  is  of  essential 
importance,  and  all  possible  causes  of  excitement 
should  be  excluded.  The  diet  should  be  mild  and 
chiefly  farinaceous,  and  little  or  no  animal  food 
should  be  allowed  till  the  beginning  of  convalescence. 
Cooling  drinks  are  agreeable  to  the  patient,  and 
may  be  taken  freely  with  advantage  throughout  the 
disease. 

PERICARDIUM,  The,  is  a  conical  membranous 
sac,  containing  the  heart  and  the  commencement  of 
the  great  vessels,  to  the  extent  of  about  two  inches 
from  their  origin.  It  is  placed  with  its  apex 
upwards  behind  the  sternum,  and  to  its  left  side,  in 
the  interval  between  the  pleurae — the  serous  sacs 
in  which  the  lungs  are  enclosed ;  whde  its  base  is 
attached  to  the  diaphragm.  It  is  a  fibro-serous 
membrane,  consisting  of  an  external  fibrous  and  an 
internal  serous  layer.  The  fibrous  layer  is  a  strong, 
dense,  fibrous  membrane ;  the  serous  layer  invests 
the  heart,  and  is  then  reflected  on  the  inner  surface 
of  the  fibrous  layer.  Like  all  serous  membranes,  it 
is  a  closed  sac;    its  inner  surface  is  smooth  and 


PERICARP— PERICLES. 


glistening,  and  secretes  a  thin  fluid  which  serves  to 
facilitate  the  natural  movements  of  the  heart.  It 
is  inflammation  of  this  serous  sac  which  constitutes 
the  disease  known  as  pericarditisi 

PE'RICARP.     See  Fruit. 

PE'RIOLES   (Gr.  Perikles),  the  most   accom- 

Slished  statesman  of  ancient  Greece,  was  horn  of 
iBtrnguished  parentage  in  the  early  part  of  the 
6th  c.  n.  a  His  father  was  that  Xanthippus  who 
won  the  victory  over  the  Persians  at  Mycale, 
d79  B.C.,  and  his  mother,  Agariste,  was  the  niece 
of  the  great  Athenian  reformer  Cleisthenes.  P. 
received  an  elaborate  education ;  but  of  all  his 
teachers,  the  one  whom  he  most  reverenced,  and 
from  whose  instructions  he  derived  most  benefit, 
was  the  philosopher  Anaxagoras  (q.  v.).  P.  was 
conspicuous  all  through  his  career  for  the  singular 
dignity  of  his  manners,  the  'Olympian'  thunder  of 
his  eloquence,  his  sagacity,  probity,  and  profound 
Athenian  patriotism.  When  he  entered  on  public 
life,  Aristides  had  only  recently  died,  Themistocles 
was  an  exile,  and  Cimon  was  fighting  the  battles  of 
his  country  abroad.1  Although  the  family  to  which 
he  belonged  was  good,  it  did  not  rank  among  the 
first  in  point  of  either  wealth  or  influence,  yet  so 
transcendent  were  the  abilities  of  P.,  that  he  rapidly 
rose  to  the  highest  power  in  the  state  as  the  leader 
of  the  dominant  democracy.  The  sincerity  of  his 
attachment  to  the  '  popular'  party  has  been  ques- 
tioned, but  without  the  shadow  of  evidence.  At 
any  rate,  the  measures  which  either  personally  or 
through  his  adherents  he  brought  forward  and 
caused  to  be  passed,  were  always  in  favour  of 
extending  the  privileges  of  the  poorer  class  of  the 
citizens.  P.  seems  to  have  grasped  very  clearly,  and 
to  have  held  as  firmly,  tbe  modern  'radical'  idea, 
that  as  the  state  is  supported  by  the  taxation  of 
the  body  of  the  citizens,  it  must  govern  with  a  view 
to  general  and  not  to  caste  interests.  In  4G1  B.C., 
P.,  through  the  agency  of  his  follower,  Ephialtes, 
struck  a  great  blow  at  the  influence  of  the  oligarchy, 
by  causiug  the  decree  to  be  passed  which  deprived 
the  Areopagus  of  its  most  important  political 
powers.  Shortly  after,  the  democracy  obtained 
another  triumph  in  the  ostracism  of  Cimon.  During 
the  next  few  years  the  political  course  pursued  by 
P.  is  not  very  clearly  discernible,  but  in  general  his 
attitude  was  hostile  to  the  desire  for  foreign  con- 
quest or  territorial  aggrandisement,  so  prevalent 
among  his  ambitious  fellow-citizens.  In  454  B.C., 
or  shortly  after,  he  magnanimously  proposed  the 
measure  (which  was  carried)  for  the  recall  of  Cimon, 
and  about  the  same  time  commenced  negotiations 
with  the  other  Hellenic  states  with  the  view  of 
forming  a  grand  Hellenic  confederation,  the  design 
of  which  was  to  put  an  end  to  the  mutually  destruc- 
tive wars  of  kiudred  peoples — to  make  of  Greece 
one  mighty  nation,  fit  to  front  the  outlying  world. 
The  idea  was  not  less  sagacious  than  noble.  Had 
it  been  accomplished,  the  semi-barbarous  Macedo- 
nians would  have  menaced  the  civilised  Greeks  in 
vain,  and  even  Rome  at  a  later  period  might  per- 
haps have  found  the  Adriatic,  and  not  the  Euphrates, 
the  limits  of  her  empire.  But  the  Spartan  aristo- 
crats were  xitterly  incapable  of  morally  appreciating 
such  exalted  patriotism,  or  of  understanding  the 

Eolitical  necessity  for  it,  and  by  their  secret  intrigues 
rought  the  well-planned  scheme  to  naught.  Athens 
and  Sparta  were  already,  and  indeed  had  for  some 
time  been,  in  that  mood  towards  each  other  which 
rendered  the  future  Peloponnesian  war  inevi- 
table. They  are  always  found  on  opposite  sides. 
When  the  Spartans,  in  448  B.  C,  restored  to  the 
Delphians  the  guardianship  of  the  temple  and 
treasures  of  Delphi,  of  which  they  had  been 
338 


deprived  by  the  Phocians,  the  Athenian*  imm*- 
diately  after  marched  an  army  thither,  and  rein* 
stated  the  Litter.  Three  years  later,  an  insui 
broke  out  in  the  territories  tributary  to  Athens, 
Megan,  Eubcea,  &c,  and  the  Spartans  again 
appeared  in  the  field  as  the  allies  of  the  insurgents. 
The  position  of  Athens  was  critical.  P.  wisely 
declined  to  fight  against  all  his  enemies  at  once. 
A  bribe  of  ten  talents  sent  tbe  Spartans  home,  and 
the  insurgents  were  then  rapidly  and  thoroughly 
crushed. 

Cimon  was  now  dead,  and  was  succeeded  in  the 
leadership  of  the  aristocratical  party  by  Thucy- 
dides,  sou  of  Milesias,  who  in  444  B.C.  made  a  strong 
effort  to  overthrow  the  supremacy  of  P.  by  at: 
him  in  the  popular  assembly  for  squandering  the 
public  money  on  buildings,  and  in  festivals  and 
amusements.  Thucydides  made  an  effective  speech; 
but  P.  immediately  rose  and  offered  to  execute  tha 
buildings  at  his  own  expense,  if  the  citizens  would 
allow  him  to  put  his  own  name  upon  them  instead 
of  theirs.  The  sarcasm  was  successfid,  and  P.  waa 
empowered  to  do  as  he  pleased  in  the  matter.  But 
P.  did  not  mean  to  be  simply  sarcastic ;  he  wished 
to  point  out  to  the  Athenians  in  a  delicate  way  the 
spirit  and  aim  of  his  policy,  which  Mas  to  make 
Athens,  as  a  city,  worthy  of  being  the  head 
and  crown  of  Hellas.  His  victory  in  the  assembly 
was  followed  by  the  ostracism  of  Thucydides  ;  and 
during  the  rest  of  his  career  '  there  was,'  says  the 
historian  Thucydides,  '  in  name  a  democracy,  but 
in  reality  a  government  in  the  hands  of  the  first 
man.'  The  same  author,  however,  informs  us  that 
he  never  did  anything  unworthy  of  his  high  position ; 
that  he  did  not  flatter  the  people,  or  oppress  his 
adversaries ;  and  that  with  all  his  unlimited  com- 
mand of  the  public  purse,  he  was  personally  incor- 
ruptible. Soon  after  this  the  Samian  war  broke 
out,  in  which  P.  acquired  high  renown  as  a  naval 
commander.  This  war  originated  in  a  quarrel 
between  the  Milesians  and  Samians,  in  which 
Athens  was  led  to  take  a  part  with  the  former. 
The  Samians,  after  an  obstinate  struggle,  were 
beaten,  and  a  peace  was  concluded  in  440  B.  c. 
The  position  in  which  Athens  then  stood  towards 
many  of  the  Greek  states  was  pecidiar.  Since 
the  time  of  the  Persian  invasion  she  had  been 
the  leader  of  the  confederacy  formed  to  resist  the 
attacks  of  the  powerful  enemy,  and  the  guardian 
of  the  confederate  treasury  kept  in  the  isle  of 
Delos.  P.  got  the  treasury  removed  to  Athens, 
and,  commuting  the  contingents  of  the  allies 
for  money — Athens,  of  course,  herself  undertaking 
to  protect  the  confederacy — enormously  increased 
the  contributions  to  the  '  patriotic  fund.'  The 
grand  charge  against  P.  is,  that  he  applied  the 
money  thus  obtained  to  other. purposes  than  those 
for  which  it  was  designed  ;  that,  in  short,  he 
adorned  and  enriched  Athens  with  the  spoils  of  the 
allied  states.  But  the  objection  is  more  plausible 
than  solid,  for,  in  point  of  fact,  Athens  kept  up  in 
admirable  discipline  a  great  fleet  and  a  fine  army, 
and  P.  made  the  Greek  name  more  respected  in  his 
time  than  it  had  ever  been  before.  It  may  be  that 
his  conduct  is  open  to  criticism  in  some  respects, 
but  a  broad  and  just  view  of  the  motives  which 
impelled  him  to  act  as  he  did,  and  a  fair  consider- 
ation of  the  political  exigences  of  the  time  will,  in 
the  main,  justify  his  procedure.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  give  a  detailed  account  of  all  that  he  did  to  make 
his  native  city  the  most  glorious  in  the  ancient 
world.  Greek  architecture  and  sculpture,  under 
his  patronage,  reached  perfection.  To  P.,  Athens 
owed  the  Parthenon,  the  Propylrea,  the  Odeum, 
and  numberless  other  public  and  sacred  edifices ; 
he  also  liberally  encouraged  music  and  the  drama ; 


PERIER— PERIM. 


and,  during  his  rule,  industry  and  commerce  were 
in  so  flourishing  a  condition,  that  prosperity  was 
universal  in  Attica. 

At  length,  in  431  B.C.,  the  long-foreseen  and 
inevitable  '  Peloponnesian  war'  broke  out  between 
Athens  and  Sparta.  With  the  circumstances  that 
led  to  it  we  have  not  here  to  do,  but  as  it  termin- 
ated most  disastrously  for  Athens,  it  is  but  right 
to  say  that  P.  is  not  to  blame  for  the  result.  Had 
the  policy  which  he  recommended  been  pursued, 
one  can  hardly  doubt  that  Athens,  with  her  im- 
mense resources,  would  have  been  the  victor,  and 
not  the  vanquished,  in  the  struggle.  P.  himself 
died  in  the  autumn  of  429  B.C.,  after  a  lingering 
sickness.  His  character  has  been  sufficiently 
delineated  in  the  outline  of  his  life  which  we  have 
given.  His  connection  with  the  brilliant  Aspasia 
(q.  v.)  is  noticed  elsewhere. 

PERIER,  Casimir,  a  celebrated  French  states- 
man, was  born  at  Grenoble,  in  the  department  of 
Isere,  France,  21st  October  1777.  His  father  had 
enriched  himself  by  mercantile  and  industrial 
pursuits,  into  which  he  initiated  his  two  elder 
sons  ;  but  Casimir  was  still  studying  at  the  college 
of  the  Oratory  at  Lyon  when  the  revolution  broke 
out.  He  immediately  went  to  Paris,  and  there 
associated  himself  with  his  father  and  elder  brother 
Antoine-Scipion  in  their  endeavours  to  found  a 
banking  company.  It  is  sufficient  to  notice  here 
that  the  banking  company  was  firmly  established, 
and  became  the  Bank  of  France.  Casimir  was 
drafted  into  the  army  in  1798,  and  served  in  an 
engineering  corps  till  1801,  when  he  returned  to 
Paris,  and  resumed  the  position  of  coadjutor  to 
his  brother.  The  house  of  P.  prospered  greatly 
under  the  empire ;  the  peace  which  followed  the 
events  of  1815  aided  the  development  of  their 
plans,  and  gave  a  wider  scope  to  their  enterprises ; 
and  the  public  regarded  with  special  favour  men 
such  as  these  two  brothers,  who  devoted  their 
abilities  aud  fortunes  to  foster  the  growth  of  public, 
as  well  as  their  own,  prosperity.  In  1817,  P.  pub- 
lished three  tracts,  in  which  he  condemned  the 
financial  policy  of  the  ministry.  These  papers 
made  a  lively  impression  on  the  public,  and  led  to 
the  return  of  the  author  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
by  the  electors  of  Paris.  P.,  in  his  political  prin- 
ciples, was  essentially  a  Constitutionalist,  equally 
far  removed  from  absolutism  on  the  one  hand,  and 
extreme  democracy  on  the  other.  The  elections  of 
1824,  conducted  under  government  influence,  resulted 
in  the  ousting  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  Constitu- 
tionalists. P.,  however,  and  a  few  others  of  the 
chiefs  of  the  party  retained  their  seats ;  but  their 
opposition  to  the  ministerial  measures,  though 
constant  and  unwearying,  was  quite  ineffective ;  it, 
however,  raised  them  greatly  in  public  opinion,  and 
secured  their  re-election  in  1827.  In  this  year,  P. 
had  the  honour  of  being  elected  as  representative  by 
both  the  departments  of  the  Seine  and  Aube.  He 
defended  the  loyal  and  sagacious  administration  of 
M.  de  Martignac,  whose  representations  to  the  king, 
Charles  X.,  seemed  to  have  the  effect  of  reconciling 
the  royal  party  to  government  in  conformity  with 
the  charter ;  but  the  subsequent  rule  of  the  Prince 
de  Polignac  reduced  this  hopeful  state  of  affairs 
to  its  former  critical  condition.  The  revolution 
(of  July  1830),  which  P.,  from  his  experience  of 
that  of  1789,  had  made  every  endeavour  to  pre- 
vent, now  followed,  and  it  only  remained  for  him 
to  render  it  as  bloodless  as  possible.  In  this  he 
was  successful,  through  his  great  influence  with 
the  people  of  Paris.  On  August  3,  he  was  elected 
President  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  but  resigned 
this  office  on  the  11th  of  the  same  month  to  become 
a  member  of  the  ministry.  When  Laffitte  became 
402 


President  of  the  Council  (November  2),  P.,  fearing 
that  the  tendencies  of  the  ministry  were  too  revo- 
lutionary, resigned  office,  and  resumed  the  presi. 
dency  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.     On  13th  March 

1831,  he  succeeded  Laffitte  as  minister,  and  gave  hia 
whole  attention  to  the  repression  of  revolution,  the 
maintenance  of  order  at  home  and  of  peace  abroad, 
originating  the  political  system  known  as  the  juste* 
milieu  (q.  v.).  His  foreign  policy  was  very  success- 
ful ;  he  greatly  contributed  to  the  maintenance 
of  Belgian  independence,  the  suppression  of  tho 
Miguelite  insurrection  in  Portugal,  the  counter- 
balancing of  Austrian  influence  in  Italy,  and,  in 
general,  to  the  spread  and  progress  of  constitutional 
liberty  both  at  home  and  abroad ;  but  the  rapid 
growth  of  extreme  liberalism  in  France,  partly  owing 
to  previous  encouragement  unwittingly  afforded  by 
himself,  was  a  source  of  great  annoyance  to  him. 
On    the    outbreak    of    cholera    in    Paris,    March 

1832,  P.  made  the  most  extraordinary  exei'tiona 
for  the  enforcement  of  the  necessary  sanatory 
measures ;  but  he  was  attacked  by  the  disease, 
and  his  system  being  already  exhausted  by  over- 
exertion, he  died,  16th  May  1832.  No  public  man 
in  France  was  ever  so  generally  and  sincerely 
lamented,  and  a  monument  to  his  memory  was 
erected  by  public  subscription  in  the  cemetery  of 
Pere-la-  Chaise. 

PE'RIGEE  (Gr.  peri,  near ;  ge,  earth),  that  point 
in  the  moon's  orbit  which  is  nearest  to  the  earth. 
The  opposite  point  is  the  Apogee  (q.  v.).    See  Moon. 

PERIGTJEUX,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of 
the  department  of  Dordogne,  and  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Isle,  68  miles  east-nor-th-east  of 
Bordeaux.  It  consists  of  the  ancient  city  of  P. 
Proper — which  is  gloomy  in  aspect,  and  has  narrow 
streets,  but  large  and  solidly-built  houses— and  the 
Puy  St  Front,  which,  until  the  year  1240,  was  a 
separate  and  a  rival  town.  In  the  old  town,  there 
are  many  curious  remains  of  Gothic  architecture. 
The  old  ramparts  have  been  demolished,  and  re- 
placed by  beautiful  and  spacious  boulevards.  The 
cathedral  of  St  Front  is  a  majestic  edifice,  restored 
at  the  end  of  the  15th  century.  Quarries  of  build- 
ing-stone are  worked  in  the  vicinity,  and  many 
hands  are  employed  in  cutting  and  polishing  marble. 
Paper,  woollen  cloths,  cutlery,  and  hosiery  are 
manufactured.  The  celebrated  Pates  de  Perigueux, 
made  of  partridges  and  truffles,  are  largely  made 
and  exported.     Pop.  19,140. 

P.,  a  town  of  the  highest  antiquity,  is  the  Vesunna 
mentioned  by  Caesar.  In  ancient  times,  it  was  a 
city  of  much  importance.  It  stood  at  the  junction 
of  five  Roman  roads,  and  contained  a  number  of 
splendid  edifices.  Close  to  the  modern  town  are 
still  to  be  seen  the  remains  of  a  vast  amphitheatre, 
oval  in  form,  and  larger  in  its  dimensions  than  the 
ancient  amphitheatre  of  Nimes.  There  are  also 
remains  of  ancient  aqueducts,  baths,  and  temples. 
The  Tour  de  Vesonne  is  the  most  remarkable  frag- 
ment of  Roman  architecture.  It  is  still  67  feet  high, 
and  appears  to  have  been  much  higher  ;  is  200  feet 
in  circumference,  and  has  walls  6  feet  thick.  It 
has  neither  doors  nor  windows.  Its  purpose  is  not 
known. 

PERIHE'LION  (Gr-  peri,  and  helios,  the  sun), 
that  point  in  its  orbit  at  which  a  planet  is  nearest 
the  sun.  The  point  of  the  orbit  opposite  to  it  is 
called  the  Aphelion  (q.  v.).  The  position  of  the 
perihelion,  i.  e.,  its  longitude  east  or  west  of  the 
equinox,  is  one  of  the  seven  elements  of  a  planet's 
orbit. 

PERI'M,  a  small  island  belonging  to  Great 
Britain,  situated  in  the  strait  of  Bnb-el-Mandeb. 
at  the  entrance  to  the  Red  Sea.     Lat.  of  southern 


PERIMETER— PERIODICAL. 


point  12°  38'  N.,  long.  43°  12'  E.  It  is  3}  miles  long 
by  2£  broad ;  is  about  a  mile  distant  from  the 
Arabian,  and  about  13  miles  from  the  African  coast. 
On  both  sides  of  this  island,  the  navigation  is  easy  ; 
the  Little  Strait,  between  the  island  and  Arabia, 
is  the  passage  most  generally  taken  by  vessels.  The 
island  is  bare,  destitute  of  fresh  water,  and  ill- 
furnished  with  provisions,  which  are  brought  for  the 
most  part  from  Aden.  P,  owes  its  importance 
wholly  to  its  commanding  position  at  the  entrance 
of  the  Red  Sea.  On  its  south-west  side  is  an  excel- 
lent harbour,  l.V  miles  in  length,  and  from  a  half  to 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  breadth.  It  is  easy  of 
access,  7  to  8  fathoms  in  depth,  and  is  capable  of 
accommodating  forty  men-of-war.  Fortifications 
have  been  erected  on  the  island  since  18f>7,  and  the 
guns  command  the  strait  on  both  sides.  It  was 
first  occupied  by  the  English  in  1799,  and  held  by 
them  as  a  check  upon  the  designs  of  the  French, 
who  were  then  in  Egypt.  It  was  abandoned  in 
1801,  but  was  reoccupied  by  Great  Britain,  Febru- 
ary 1,  1S.">7,  with  a  view  to  the  protection  of  her 
Indian  possessions,  which  were  thought  to  be 
exposed  to  some  chance  of  danger  from  the  opening 
of  the  Suez  Canal  (q.  v.). 

PERI'METER  (Gr.  peri,  around,  metron,  a 
measure)  and  PERI'PHERY  (Gr.  phero,  I  carry) 
are  terms  denoting  the  boundary,  or  the  length  of 
the  boundary,  of  any  closed  plane  figure ;  though 
the  term  '  perimeter'  is  generally  confined  to  those 
figures  which  are  bounded  by  straight  lines. 

PE'RIOD,  a  term  used  in  Chronology  in  the  same 
sense  as  Cycle  (q.  v.),  to  denote  an  interval  of  time 
after  which  the  astronomical  phenomena  to  which 
it  refers  recur  in  the  same  order.  It  is  also  employed 
to  signify  a  cycle  of  cycles.  Various  periods  have 
been  invented  by  astronomers,  but  we  can  only 
notice  a  few  of  the  most  important. 

The  Chaldasans  invented  the  Chaldceic  Period,  or 
Period  of  Eclipses,  from  observing  that,  after  a 
certain  number  of  revolutions  of  the  moon  round 
the  earth,  her  eclipses  recurred  in  the  same  order 
and  of  the  same  magnitude.  This  period  consists  of 
223  lunations,  or  679328  days,  and  corresponds 
almost  exactly  to  a  complete  revolution  of  the 
moon's  node.  The  Egyptians  made  use  of  the  Dog- 
star,  Siriacal,  or  Sothric  Period,  as  it  is  variously 
called,  to  compare  their  civil  year  of  365  days  with 
the  true  or  Julian  year  of  365^  days.  The  period 
consequently  consisted  of  1460  Julian  years,  corres- 
ponding to  1461  Egyptian  years,  after  the  lapse  of 
which  the  dates  in  both  reckonings  coincided.  By 
comparing  the  solar  and  lunar  years,  Meton,  an 
Athenian,  invented  (432  B.C.)  a  lunar  period  of  6940 
days,  called  from  him  the  Metonic  Cycle  (q.  v.),  also 
the  Lunar  Cycle.  About  a  century  afterwards, 
the  cycle  of  Meton  was  discovered  to  be  an  insuffi- 
cient approximation  to  the  truth,  and  as  he  had 
made  the  solar  year  too  long  by  about  ^th  of  a  day, 
at  the  end  of  4  Metonic  cycles  the  solar  reckoning 
was  in  advance  of  the  lunar  by  about  1  day  6  hours. 
To  remedy  this,  a  new  period,  called  the  Calippic 
Period,  was  invented  by  Calippus,  and  consisted  of 
4  Metonic  cycles  less  by  1  day,  or  27,759  days. 
But  as  this  period  still  gave  a  difference  of  6  hours 
between  the  solar  and  lunar  reckonings,  it  was 
improved  by  Hipparchus,  who  invented  the  Hip- 
parchic  Period  of  4  Calippic  periods  less  by  1 
day,  or  111,035  days,  or  about  304  Julian  years, 
which  is  an  exceedingly  close  approximation,  being 
only  6^  minutes  too  long,  when  measured  by  the 
tropical  year;  and  too  short  but  by  an  almost 
inappreciable  quantity,  when  measured  by  the 
Synodit,  Month  (see  Month).  The  period  of  the 
MelMcai    or    Solar    Cycle,    after    which    the    same 


day  of  the  month  falls  upon  the  same  day  of  the 
week,  oonsists  of  28  Julian  years.  If  the  year  hud 
regularly  consisted  of  365  days,  that  is,  one  day 
more  than  an  exact  number  of  weeks,  it  is  evident 
that,  at  the  end  of  seven  years,  the  days  of  the 
month  and  week  would  again  correspond  ;  but  the 
introduction  of  an  intercalary  day  into  every  fourth 
year  causes  this  coincidence  to  recur  at  irregular 
periods  of  6,  11,  6,  and  5  years  successively.  How- 
ever, by  choosing  a  period  such  as  will  preserve  the 
leap-years  in  the  same  relative  position  to  the  other 
years,  and  at  the  same  time  consist  of  an  exact 
number  of  weeks  (both  of  which  objects  are  effected 
by  using  the  number  28,  which  is  the  least  com- 
mon multiple  of  4  and  7),  we  insure  the  regular 
recurrence  of  the  coincidence  between  the  days  of 
the  week  and  of  the  month.  The  solar  cycle  is 
supposed   to    have    been    invented    about    the    time    of 

the  Council  of  Nice  (325  a.  r>. »,  but  it  is  arranged 
so  that  the  first  year  of  the  first  cycle  corresponds 
to  9  15.  C.  In  calculating  the  position  of  any  year  in 
the  solar  cycle,  care  must  he  taken  to  allow  for  the 
omission  of  the  intercalary  day  at  the  beginning  ( t 
each  century,  and  its  insertion  in  the  first  year 
of  every  fourth  century.  See  Leap-yeaii.  The 
Julian  Period  is  a  cycle  of  cycles,  and  consists 
of  7980  (=28X19X15)  years,  after  the  la] 
which  the  solar  cycle,  lunar  cycle,  and  the  Inflic- 
tion (q.  v.)  commence  together.  The  period  of  its 
commencement  has  been  arranged  so  that  it  will 
expire  at  the  same  time  as  the  other  three  periods 
from  which  it  has  been  derived.  The  year  4713 
E.  c.  is  taken  as  the  first  year  of  the  first  period, 
consequently,  1  A.  D.  was  the  4714th  of  it,  and  the 
year  1871  the  6584th. 

PERIO'DICAL,  a  publication  which  appears 
continuously  at  regular  intervals,  and  whose  con- 
tents may  be  devoted  to  criticism,  politics,  religion, 
literature,  science,  arts,  amusement,  or  general  and 
miscellaneous  subjects.  Those  periodicals  which 
consist  of  a  collection  of  critical  essays  are  called 
Reviews. 

The  earliest  periodical  in  Great  Britain  seems  to 
have  been  the  Philosophical  Transactions  of  the 
Royal  Society,  which  first  appeared  in  1665,  and 
contained  notices  of  books  as  well  as  original  papers. 
Periodicals  professing  to  notice  the  books  that  wore 
being  published  appeared  soon  after  from  time  to 
time  under  the  name  of  All  the  Works  of  the  Learned.; 
and  in  1692  appeared  the  Gentlemen's  Journal,  or 
Monthly  Miscellany,  properly  speaking,  the  first 
English  magazine.  The  Gentleman's  Magazine  was 
founded  in  1731  by  Cave  the  printer,  a  periodical 
which  secured  a  fortune  for  its  proprietor,  and,  after 
surviving  all  its  competitors,  still  continues  to 
flourish.  The  periodical  literature  of  Scotland  was 
long  represented  by  the  Scats  Magazine,  founded  in 
1739.  The  first  English  periodical  that  attempted 
anything  like  criticism  was  the  Monthly  Review, 
begun  in  1749.  It  was  followed  in  1756  by  the 
Critical  Review,  founded  by  Smollett ;  and  these  two 
were  long  the  leading  periodicals  of  their  class, 
though  their  criticism  was  but  meagre  and  unsatis- 
factory, according  to  our  present  notions.  Another 
critical  journal,  called  the  Anti-Jacobin,  was  estab- 
lished in  1798.  In  1802,  a  new  era  in  criticism  was 
inaugurated  by  the  establishment  in  Scotland  of  the 
Edinburgh  Recieio  (q.  v.)  ;  which  was  followed  in 
London  by  the  Quarterly  Review,  of  about  equal  merit 
and  opposite  politics,  supported  by  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
Southey,  S.  T.  Coleridge,  Heber,  and  at  a  later  period 
by  Hartley  Coleridge,  Lord  Mahon,  and  Gladstone. 
Another  very  important  periodical,  Blackv:oo(Cs 
Magazine,  sprang  up  in  Edinburgh  in  1817,  under 
the  auspices  of  John  Wilson  and  Lockhart,  as  much 
above  the  literary  mark  of  former  magazines,  as  tba 
J  403 


PERIODICAL. 


JEcliribu»j7i  and  Quarterly  were  above  the  mark  of 
preceding  reviews,  strongly  devoted  to  the  interests  of 
conservatism,  and,  in  its  early  years,  somewhat  vio- 
lent in  its  politics.  The  review,  in  the  course  of  time, 
became  the  favourite  medium  for  all  parties  to  dis- 
seminate their  views  on  political,  literary,  or  theolog- 
ical subjects.  Among  the  most  important  periodicals 
of  this  class,  besides  the  Edinburgh  and  Quarterly, 
are  the  Westminster  Review,  established  1824,  charac- 
terised by  freedom  in  handling  philosophical  and  theo- 
logical t  >pics,  and  containing  essays  by  J.  S.  Mill, 
Carlyle,  Grote,  John  Sterling,  and  Lord  Houghton ; 
the  Dublin  Review,  Roman  Catholic,  founded  in  1836; 
the  North  British  Review,  which  appeared  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1844,  and  ceased  in  Jan.  1871;  British  Q. 
Rev.,  begun  1845,  organ  of  English  non-conformity, 
and  edited  for  21  years  by  R.  Vaughan;  the  National 
Review,  in  1855;  and  the  Home  and  Foreign  Review, 
in  1862 — 1864.  Most  of  these  periodicals  appear 
four  times  in  the  year.  A  few  reviews  have  of  late 
appeared  monthly  or  even  weekly :  of  this  last  class, 
the  most  widely-circulated  and  influential  are  the 
Athenaeum,  established  in  1828,  the  /Saturday  Re- 
view, in  1856,  the  Contemporary  Review,  and 
the  Fortnightly  Review.  The  management  of  a 
review  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  an  editor.  Each 
article  has  at  its  head  the  title  of  a  work  or  works, 
which  either  are  directly  the  subject  of  the  reviewer's 
criticism,  or  at  least  indicate  the  general  subject  of 
the  article. 

The  greater  part  of  magazines  or  periodicals  of  a 
more  miscellaneous  character  appear  monthly,  and 
their  system  of  management  is  somewhat  similar 
to  that  of  reviews ;  but  the  articles  are  generally 
shorter,  the  subjects  more  varied,  consisting  often 
of  tales  and  novels,  which  appear  there  as  serials, 
continued  from  number  to  number.  Some  of  the 
most  popular  novels  of  the  present  day  have  first 
been  published  in  magazines.  Blackwood  was  the 
precursor  of  various  monthly  magazines  of  repute, 
the  most  important  being  Eraser's  Magazine,  estab- 
lished in  1830,  which  still  preserves  a  high  literary 
character.  The  usual  price  of  these  periodicals  is 
Is.  6d. ;  but  in  1859  and  1860,  several  new  magazines, 
Macmillan 's  Magazine,  the  Corn/till,  Temple  Bar, 
London  Society,  and  the  St  James's  Magazine,  were 
started  at  the  cheaper  price  of  a  shilling,  under 
favourable  auspices.  In  Great  Britain  there  are 
now  many  weekly  periodicals,  chiefly  of  an  instruc- 
tive and  amusing  kind,  price  from  a  penny  to  three- 
pence each.  This  class  of  publications  received 
an  impetus  and  proper  direction  by  the  issue  of 
Chambers's  Journal  and  the  Penny  Magazine  of 
the  '  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Know- 
ledge '  in  1832.  To  the  first  mentioned,  which 
still  exists,  have  since  been  added  All  the  Year 
Round,  conducted  by  Charles  Dickens,  and  various 
others  enjoying  a  high  degree  of  popularity.  It  is 
customary  for  the  publishers  of  these  weekly 
sheets  to  issue  them  accumulatively  in  parts 
monthly  under  a  cover,  wherefore  they  largely 
answer  the  purpose  of  monthly  magazines.  The 
rate  of  payment  for  writing  in  the  higher  class 
reviews  is  usually  £10,  10s.  per  sheet  of  16  demy 
8vo  pages  ;  in  the  weekly  periodicals,  half  a  guinea 
to  a  guinea  per  column  is  ordinarily  paid,  but  in 
some  instances  the  price  paid  is  very  much  greater  ; 
sirch  particularly  is  the  case  as  regards  novels  or 
stories,  given  chapter  by  chapter,  through  a  series 
of  numbers  ;  for  some  tales  in  this  form  the  pay- 
ment amounts  to  hundreds,  if  not  thousands  of 
pounds — a  striking  proof  of  the  eager  demand  for 
sensational  fiction. 

In  1868,  there  were  in  the  United  Kingdom  74  quar- 
terly periodicals,  of  which  hardly  more  than  1 6  come 
under  the  common  idea  of  a  review;  many  are  devoted 
404 


to  special  departments,  literary,  scientific,  commercial, 
or  theological;  and  some  consist  of  an  account  of  the 
transactions  of  particular  societies,  literary  or  scientific. 
In  1868  there  were  367  monthly  magazines  of  all  de- 
scriptions, having  an  average  sale  of  2000  copies. 

Fiance  possessed  as  far  back  as  1665  a  critical 
review  called  the  Journal  des  Savants,  which,  after 
a  lengthened  interruption,  began  again  in  1816,  and 
holds  a  respectable  position  as  a  scientific  journal. 
A  number  of  literary  and  scientific  journals  sprang 
up  in  last  century,  as  the  Nouveau  Journal  des 
Savants,  Journal  Litteraire,  Journal  Encyclopidtqtte, 
&c.  Among  the  best  was  the  Magasin  Encyclo- 
pedv}ue,  begun  in  1795,  and  from  1819  to  1835, 
combined  with  the  Revue  Encyclopedique.  One  of 
the  most  noted  critical  journals  in  Europe  is  pub- 
lished in  Paris,  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  which 
began  in  1829,  and  has,  since  1831,  appeared  fort- 
nightly. In  it  and  the  other  French  periodicals  of 
the  same  kind,  the  review  form  is  not  so  completely 
preserved  as  with  us  :  a  proportion  of  tales,  poetry, 
&c,  is  admitted,  and  the  names  of  the  contributors 
are  required  to  be  attached  to  their  articles.  The 
Revue  des  Deux  Mondes  has  had  many  shortlived 
imitators,  more  or  less  identified  with  different 
political  parties.  The  principal  French  reviews 
of  more  recent  date  are  the  Revue  Contemporaine, 
Athenaeum  Francois,  and  Revue  d 'Europe. 

In  Germany,  reviews  have  taken  even  a  deepei 
root  than  in  England  The  Gottinger  Gelehrte 
Anzeige,  which  is  the  oldest  publication  of  the  kind, 
still  preserves  a  high  character.  German  criticism 
can,  however,  hardly  be  said  to  have  begun  before 
the  time  of  Lessing,  who,  in  conjunction  with 
Nicolai  of  Berlin,  established,  in  1757,  the  Bibliothek 
der  schonen  Wissenschaften,  and  afterwards  various 
other  journals,  characterised  by  an  independence  of 
thought  unknown  before.  The  Allgemeine  Litera- 
turzeitung,  founded  at  Jena  in  1785,  was  a  periodical 
of  a  still  higher  character,  having  for  contributors 
the  most  eminent  literary  men  of  the  period.  When 
transferred  from  Jena  to  Halle,  another  journal, 
called  the  Jenaische  Allgemeine  Literaturzeitung, 
sprung  up  at  the  former  place,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  celebrated  literary  circle  at  Weimar,  of  whom 
Goethe  was  the  centre.  These  two  periodicals 
existed  till  1848.  Of  modern  German  reviews,  the 
Literarische  Centralblatt,  founded  in  1S50,  is  one  of 
the  best  and  most  comprehensive.  Among  periodi- 
cals which  do  not  come  under  the  class  of  reviews, 
may  be  mentioned  Das  Deutsche  Museum  (1851), 
and  Das  Weimarsche  Jahrbuch  filr  Deutsche  Sprache, 
Lite.ralur  und  Kunst,  may  be  favourably  named. 

Italy  possessed  a  critical  journal,  Giornale  dei 
Leiterati,  as  far  back  as  1710,  conducted  by 
Apostolo  Zeno,  which  continued  for  23  years.  A 
new  journal  of  the  same  name,  founded  at  Pisa  in 
1771,  attained  considerable  repute.  From  1826  to 
1830,  the  Biblioteca  Italiana  and  Antologia  di 
Firenze,  were  reviews  of  considerable  ability.  The 
scientific  periodicals  of  Italy  are  generally  credit 
able.  In  the  dominions  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  there 
were  in  1864,  31  literary  and  scientific,  and  10  miscel- 
laneous periodicals. 

The  United  States  of  America  possess  a  large  va- 
riety of  periodicals,  quarterly  and  monthly,  and  in  a 
less  degree  weekly,  issuing  chiefly  from  the  presses  of 
Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia.  The  most  noted 
critical  journal  is  the  North  American  Review,  estab- 
lished in  1815.  Several  sectarian  journals,  entitled 
reviews,  have  been  issued  of  late  years,  among  which 
are  the  Presbyterian  and  Theological  Review,  Baptist 
Quarterly,  Methodist  Quarterly,  Church  Review, 
&c.  The  more  important  literary  monthlies  are  the 
Atlantic  Monthly,  The  Oalaxy,  Harper's  Monthly, 
Lippincott's    Magazine,    The    Overlmd,    and    com- 


rKRIODICITY— PERIOSTEUM. 


pilations  from  periodicals  of  British,  French,  andGer* 
man  origin.  Fur  a  li>i  of  periodicals  in  the  U.  States, 
see  Newspapebs.  Latterly,  as  is  well  known,  many 
of  the  periodicals,  both  of  Europe  and  America,  have 
acquired  an  interest  by  the  introduction  of  wood- 
engravings,  on  the  preparation  of  which  large  sums 
•se  expended.    See  Wood-Engraving. 

PERIODI'OITY  (in  Physiology  and  Pathology). 
The  tendency  manifested  l>y  various  ]>hcnomeua 
ooourring  in  living  animals  to  recur,  after  equal,  or 
nearly  equal  intervals  of  time,  is  so  marked,  that 
Bichat,  the  great  French  anatomist  and  physiologist, 
described  it  under  the  title  of  the  Lei  cPlntermittenee. 
The  alternation  of  sleep  and  waking,  the  pheno- 
mena of  menstruation,  and  the  punctual  return  of 
hunger,  are  some  of  the  most  obvious  instances  of 
periodicity  that  can  be  suggested  as  occurring  in 
the  healthy  subject ;  while  les3  obvious  examples 
are  afforded  by  the  apparently  regular  variations 
that  have  been  observed  in  the  excretion  of  carbonic 
acid   from   the   lungs,  and   in  the  number   of   the 

Eulsations  of  the  heart  at  different  periods  of  the  24 
ours.  As  is  well  known  by  experience,  periodicity 
may  be  usefully  cultivated  and  fixed  in  daily  habits. 
This  is  well  exemplified  in  the  case  of  sleep,  but  in 
a  more  special  degree  by  the  daily  relieving  of  the 
bowels  at  a  particular  hour,  a  habit  in  which  i\  is 
important  that  all  young  persons  should  be  carefully 
instructed  with  a  view  to  health  and  convenience. 

In  certain  forms  of  disease,  the  law  of  periodicity 
or  intermission  is  very  distinctly  seen.  The  regular 
periodic  recurrence  of  the  paroxysms  of  intermittent 
lever  (or  ague),  is  universally  known,  although  the 
cause  of  the  periodicity  has  hitherto  baffled  all 
inquiry.  Amongst  those  who  have  tried  to  solve 
this  question  may  be  mentioned  Willis,  ReiL  Bailly, 
Roche,  Cullen  (who  ascribes  periodicity  to  'a  diurnal 
revolution  affecting  the  animal  economy'),  and  more 
recently,  Laycock,  who  refers  it  to  the  diurnal 
atmospheric  changes  in  relation  to  pressure,  elec- 
tricity, &c. 

Ague  often  gives  rise  to  periodic  diseases  which 
present  no  close  analogy  to  that  disease.  Thus  it — 
or,  at  all  events,  malaria, — is  a  frequent  cause  of  tic 
douloureux,  recurring  at  regular  intervals ;  cases  are 
recorded  in  which  periodical  vomiting,  occurring 
weekly,  or,  in  one  case,  at  an  interval  of  ten  days, 
seemed  to  be  due  to  it ;  and  Mr  Moore,  surgeon 
to  the  Middlesex  Hospital,  has  recently  published 
the  case  of  a  woman  who  experienced  a  periodical 
inflammatory  swelling  of  the  right  knee,  as  a 
sequence  of  that  disorder.  Epilepsy  is  a  disease  in 
which  the  intervals  (especially  in  women)  tend  to  a 
regular  period.  Sir  Henry  Holland  (Medical  Notes 
and  Reflections,  2d  ed.,  page  341)  records  a  case 
in  which  '  six  attacks  occurred,  with  intervals  of 
sixteen  or  eighteen  minutes  between  ;  so  exactly 
recurring,  as  noted  by  the  watch,  that  it  was  impos- 
sible to  suppose  it  a  mere  casualty  ; '  and  another, 
'  where  a  spasmodic  seizure,  more  of  tetanic  than 
epileptic  character,  occurred  twice  a  day  for  many 
weeks  successively,  and  almost  exactly  at  the  same 
hours  each  day.'  For  many  other  examples  of 
periodic  or  intermittent  morbid  action,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  a  memoir  by  Hcnle,  '  On  the  Course  and 
Periodicity  of  Disease,'  in  his  Pathologische  Vntcr- 
suchungen ;  and  to  Sir  Henry  Holland's  essay  (to 
which  we  have  already  referred)  in  his  Medical 
Notes  and  Reflections.  The  most  important  practical 
fact  in  relation  to  this  class  of  diseases  is,  that  they 
almost  invariably  yield  to  the  action  of  certain 
medicines,  especially  bark  and  arsenic. 

Exercising  a  beneficial  or  mischievous  influence, 
as  the  case  may  be,  the  habit  of  periodicity  is  to  be 
sedulously  shunned  in  every  instance  likely  to  prove 
morally  or  physically  prejudicial.    No  more  marked 


example  of  the  injudicious  cultivation  of  periodicity 
could  be  given,  than  in  the  evil  practice  of  periodi- 
cal blood-letting,   which  once  prevailed  ail 
Europe,  and  was   only   abandoned  in  recent   times 
as  not  oidy  useless,  but  in  all  respects  injurious. 

PEUICE'CI  (Gr.  Perioikoi,  literally,  « dweller* 
round  about,'  i.  e.,  round  about  some  particular 
locality  or  city)  was  the  name  given,  in  ancient 
Greece,  to  the  original  Achaian  inhabitants  of 
Laconia  by  their  Dorian  conquerors.  The  P. 
were  not  slaves,  like  the  Helots  (q.  v.) ;  they 
were  merely  a  vassal  population,  personally  free, 
cultivating  their  own  ground,  and  carryiug  on 
most  of  the  home  and  foreign  trade  of  Laconia, 
but  possessing  no  political  rights,  incapable  of 
intermarrying  with  the  Dorians  of  Sparta,  or  of 
holding  important  state-offices,  and  subjected  to 
a  land-tax  in  token  of  their  dependent  condition. 
They  have  been — as  regards  their  political  position 
— compared  to  the  Saxons  of  England  after  the 
Norman  conquest,  and  seldom  has  a  historical 
parallel  been  so  sound.  The  P.  must  have  been 
very  numerous,  for  they  occupied  at  one  time 
upwards  of  100  cities,  several  of  which  were  on  the 
coast,  whence  the  whole  seaboard  of  Laconia  bore 
the  name  of  the  Perioikis,  and  they  produced  capital 
sailors,  which  doubtless  accounts  for  the  anomalous 
fact  of  P.  being  occasionally  invested  with  the 
command  of  the  Spartan  fleet.  They  also  formed  a 
part  of  the  Spartan  army.  At  the  battle  of  Plataea 
(479  B.C.),  there  were  10,000  P.  present.  These 
dependent  Achaians  were  not,  however,  all  on  a  dead 
level  of  vassalage ;  they  lived  in  regularly  organised 
communities,  where  the  social  distinctions  of  rank, 
refinement,  and  wealth  were  as  marked  as  else- 
where. Xenophon  speaks  of  '  accomplished  and 
well-born  gentlemen '  (kaloi  k'agathoi)  among  the  P. 
serving  as  volunteers  in  the  Spartan  army ;  and  such 
artists  and  men  of  culture  as  Lacedsemon  produced, 
in  all  probability  belonged  to  this  class.  P.  also 
existed  in  the  other  Dorian  communities  of  the 
Peloponnesus. 

PERIO'STEUM  (Gr.  peri,  around,  and  osteon, 
bone),  a  tough  fibrous  membrane  which  surrounds 
the  various  bones.  It  is  highly  vascular,  and  is 
the  means  by  which  the  outer  layers  of  the 
shafts  and  the  greater  part  of  the  spongy  portions 
of  the  bones  are  supplied  with  blood.  '  From 
the  internal  surface  of  the  periosteum  also  is  pro- 
duced a  layer  of  soft  blastema  (or  plastic  fluid  in 
which  cells  are  developed),  by  means  of  which, 
additions  are  made  to  the  exterior  of  the  growing 
bones.  The  process  of  ossification  going  on  in  the 
inner  part  of  this  blastema,  contributes  to  the 
thickness  of  the  bone,  while  a  fresh  supply  is  con- 
tinually being  added  to  the  exterior  of  the  blastema, 
through  the  medium  of  the  vessels  of  the  peri- 
osteum.'— Humphry  On  tlie  Human  Skeleton,  page 
19.  In  young  bones,  this  membrane  is  thick,  and  in 
consequence  of  the  intervening  blastema  is  very 
easily  detached  from  the  bone ;  but  in  the  bones  of 
the  adult  it  is  less  thick  and  vascular,  while  its 
connection  with  the  bone  becomes  closer,  iu  conse- 
quence of  the  blastema  being  less ;  while  in  aged 
persons  it  is  very  thin,  its  vessels  are  scanty,  and 
there  is  no  blastema.  Numerous  experiments  shew 
that  the  formation  of  bone  is  essentially  due  to  the 
action  of  this  membrane ;  and  that,  by  transplanting 
detached  portions  of  periosteum  into  muscular  or 
other  tissues,  bony  tissue  is  generated  in  those 
pai'ts.  In  most  cases  in  which  this  membrane  has 
become  detached  in  consequence  of  a  wound  or 
of  disease,  the  exposed  bone  (except  in  the  instance 
of  the  skull,  which  derives  most  of  its  nutrient 
matter  from  the  dura  mater)  perishes;  but  this  is 

405 


PERIOSTITIS— PERITONEUM. 


not  invariably  the  case.  Amongst  its  other  offices, 
it  serves,  by  isolating  the  bone  from  the  surrounding 
tissues,  to  prevent  the  spread  of  disease  from  them 
to  it.  The  shin-bone  or  tibia  is  thus  indebted  to 
the  periosteum  for  its  ordinary  immunity,  in  cases  of 
ulcer  in  that  region.  In  those  parts  in  which  the 
bone  is  not  so  completely  isolated  from  the  sur- 
rounding tissues,  as  at  the  ends  of  the  bones  of  the 
fingers  and  toes,  inflammation  of  the  soft  parts  not 
infrequently  extends  to  the  bony  structure. 

PEIUOSTI'TIS,  or  INFLAMMATION  OF 
THE  PERIOSTEUM,  generally  occurs  on  the 
Burface  of  thinly-covered  bones,  such  as  the  tibia, 
clavicles,  aud  cranial  bones.  Its  chief  causes  are  (1) 
a  syphilitic  taint,  iu  which  oval  swellings,  called 
Nodes  (rt.  v.),  are  produced  ;  (2)  rheumatism  ;  and  (3) 
scrofula.  In  the  two  latter  cases,  there  is  a  peri- 
osteal swelling  around  the  whole  circumference  or 
surface  of  the  bone.  The  affection,  especially  when 
due  to  the  first  or  second  of  the  above  causes,  is 
usually  accompanied  with  considerable  nocturnal 
pain.  If  the  disease  occurs  in  an  acute  form,  it 
must  be  treated  with  leeches,  fomentations,  and  the 
other  ordinary  antiphlogistic  (or  lowering)  remedies. 
When  it  becomes  chronic,  the  treatment  must  be 
mainly  directed  to  the  cause  which  has  originated 
it.  In  almost  all  cases,  the  nocturnal  pains  are 
best  relieved  by  somewhat  large  doses  (five  to  ten 
grains)  of  iodide  of  potassium,  taken  three  times 
a  day  on  an  empty  stomach. 

PERIPATE'TIC  PHILOSOPHY,  a  designation 
of  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  (q.  v.)  and  of  his 
followers.  It  is  of  doubtful  origin,  being  supposed 
to  have  been  derived  either  from  his  custom  of 
occasionally  walking  about  (peripatein)  during  the 
deliveiy  of  his  lectures,  or  from  the  place  in  which 
they  were  delivered  having  been  a  shaded  walk  of 
the  Lyceum. 

PERIPNEUMONIA,  an  inflammation  of  the 
membrane  which  invests  the  lungs,  accompanied 
with  general  disturbance  of  the  whole  system ; 
remarkably  prevalent  among  horses  in  South  Africa, 
in  a  zone  from  20°  to  27°  S.  lat.  It  is  very  fatal ; 
and  to  its  prevalence  and  virulence,  Dr  Livingstone 
is  disposed  to  ascribe  the  fact  that  horses,  although  so 
abundant  in  the  more  northern  parts  of  Africa,  were 
unknown  in  the  south  till  introduced  by  Europeans ; 
this  invisible  barrier  being  more  insurmountable 
than  mountain  ranges,  deserts,  or  rivers.  The 
season  during  which  peripneumonia  prevails  is 
from  December  to  April.  Zebras,  antelopes  and 
oxen  are  liable  to  its  attacks,  but  no  kind  of 
quadruped  suffers  so  much  from  it  as  the  horse. 
The  flesh  of  animals  which  die  of  peripneumonia  is 
unwholesome,  and  produces  a  malignant  carbuncle 
in  persons  who  eat  it. 

PERI'PTERAL  (Gr.  peri;  and  pteron,  a  wing),  a 
term  applied  to  temples  or  like  buildings  having 
columns  all  round  the  cella. 

PERISTA'LTIC  MOTION.  The  terms  peri- 
staltic (Gr.  clasping  and  compressing)  and  vermicular 
{ox  worm-like)  are  applied  to  the  peculiar  motion  or 
action  of  the  muscular  coat  of  the  intestines,  by 
which  the  substances  contained  within  it  are  regu- 
larly moved  onward. 

This  action  of  the  intestines  is  readily  seen  on 
opening  an  animal  (a  dog,  cat,  or  rabbit,  for  example) 
immediately  after  it  has  been  killed ;  and  in  these 
circumstances,  it  is  perhaps  exaggerated,  from  the 
stimulating  action  of  the  cold  air ;  and  it  may  be 
shewn  in  an  abnormally  active  state,  although  not 
altered  in  character,  by  subjecting  the  exposed 
intestines  to  the  iunuence  of  the  electro-magnetic 
machine. 

It  appears,  from  the  observations  made  by  Brinton, 
406 


Todd  and  Bowman,  and  others  on  recently  killed 
animals,  that  the  peristaltic  motion  commences  at 
the  pyloric  third  of  the  stomach  (see  Digestion, 
Organs  of),  wheuce  successive  waves  of  contraction 
and  relaxation  are  propagated  downwards  through- 
out the  whole  length  of  the  intestinal  canal.  '  In 
examining  a  portion  of  intestine  at  the  moment  of  its 
contraction,  we  perceive  a  dilatation  above  it  as  well 
as  below  it ;  the  latter  being  produced  by  the  pro- 
trusion into  it  of  the  contents  of  the  now  contracted 
portion  of  intestine  ;  the  former  by  the  relaxation  of 
a  previously  contracted  portion.  The  rapid  succes- 
sion of  these  contractions  and  relaxations  gives  to  the 
movements  of  the  intestines  the  appearance  of  the 
writhings  of  a  worm,  whence  they  are  distinguished 
by  the  appellation  vermicular.'1 — Todd  and  Bowman's 
Physical  Anatomy  of  Man,  vol.  ii.  p.  238.  These 
movements  can  occasionally  be  observed  during  life 
in  the  human  subject,  indirectly,  in  cases  of  extreme 
attenuation  of  the  abdominal  walls,  and  directly  in 
wounds  of  the  abdomen,  and  during  certain  surgical 
operations.  There  are  differences  of  opinion  as  to 
the  cause  of  the  peristaltic  action ;  thus,  Todd  and 
Bowman  assert  that  '  the  intestinal  movements  are 
partly  due  to  the  influence  of  the  stimidus  of  dis- 
tention upon  the  muscular  tissue,  and  partly  to  the 
reflex  action  of  the  ganglia  of  the  intestinal  portion 
of  the  sympathetic,  stimulated  by  the  contact  of 
the  intestinal  contents  with  the  mucous  membrane  ; ' 
while  Carpenter  maintains  that  '  the  intestinal  tube 
from  the  stomach  to  the  rectum  is  not  dependent 
upon  the  nervous  centres  either  for  its  contractility 
or  for  its  power  of  exercising  it,  but  is  enabled  to 
propel  its  contents  by  its  own  inherent  powers.' 

Numerous  observations  tend  to  shew  that  this 
motion  has  a  nearly  definite  velocity  in  each  indi- 
vidual. Most  commonly  the  act  of  defecation 
takes  place  with  perfect  regularity  every  24  or  (more 
rarely)  every  12  hours,  the  quantity  discharged  being 
almost  constant,  if  the  mode  of  living  does  not  vary. 
Heberden  (Commentarii,  p.  14)  mentions  a  person 
who  regularly  had  a  motion  once  a  month,  and  (by 
way  of  contrast)  another  who  had  twelve  motions 
every  day  during  thirty  years,  and  then  seven  every 
day  for  seven  years,  and  rather  grew  fat  than 
otherwise.  Ponteau  (CEuvres  Posthumes,  tome  L 
p.  27)  records  the  case  of  a  young  lady  who  had  no 
stool  for  upwards  of  eight  years,  although  during 
the  last  year  she  ate  abundantly  of  fruit,  aud  drank 
coffee,  milk,  and  tea,  and  broth  with  yelk  of  eggs ; 
but  she  had  copious  greasy  sweats.  Such  a  case  as 
this  is  possible,  but  far  from  probable. 

That  the  influence  of  expectant  attention  on  the 
muscular  movements  of  the  intestine  (and  especially 
of  its  lower  portion)  is  very  great,  is  shewn  in  various 
ways.  It  is,  for  the  most  part,  thus  that  habit 
operates  in  producing  a  readiness  for  defalcation  at 
one  special  hour  in  the  day,  and  that  bread-pills 
and  other  equally  inert  substances  act  on  the  bowels, 
if  the  patient  believes  them  to  be  purgatives.  Dr 
Carpenter,  in  his  remarks  on  'the  influence  of 
expectant  attention  on  muscular  movements,'  in  the 
chapter  of  his  Human  Physiology  treating  4  Of 
Muscular  Movements,'  mentions  two  very  striking 
cases  of  the  kind  which  have  fallen  within  his  own 
knowledge. 

PE'RISTYLE,  a  colonnade  around  the  interior 
of  a  courtyard  or  other  building. 

PERITONE'UM  (Gr.  periteinein,  to  extend 
around),  a  serous  membrane,  and  like  all  mem- 
branes of  this  class,  a  shut  sac,  which,  however, 
in  the  female,  is  not  completely  closed,  as  the 
Fallopian  tubes  communicate  with  it  by  their  free 
extremities.  The  peritoneum  more  or  less  completely 
invests  all  the  viscera  lying  in  the  abdominal  and 


VKUITONEUM-PEMTONITIS. 


pelvic    i-:i\  itirs,    and    is    then    li  llrilrd    upon    t  lie    Walls 

of  the  abdomen,  bo  that  there  is  a  visceral  and  u 
parietal  layer.  Numerous  folds  are  formed  by  the 
viscera]  layer  as  ii  passes  from  one  organ  to  another. 
They  serve  to  hold  the  parts  in  position,  and  at  the 
Bame  time  enclose  vessels  and  nerves.  Borne  of 
these  folds  are  termed  TAgamttUa^  from  their  serving 
to  Bupporl  tlie  organs,  Thus,  we  have  ligaments  of 
the  liver,  spleen,  bladder,  and  uterus  formed  by 
peritoneal  folds.  Others  are  termed  Mesenteries 
(from  the  Gr.  mesonf  the  middle,  and  enteron,  the 
intestine),  and  connect  the  intestines  with  tlic  verte- 
bral column.  They  me  the  Mesentery  proper  (q.  v.), 
which   has   been   already   described,    the    ascending, 


The  Reflections  of  the  Peritoneum : 
D,  the  diaphragm ;  S.  the  stomach ;  C,  the  transverse  colon ; 
D,  the  duodenum  ;  P,  the  pancreas  ;  I,  the  small  intestines  ; 
K,  the  rectum  ;  B,  the  urinary  bladder;  1,  the  anterior,  and 
2,  the  posterior  layer  of  peritoneum  ;  4,  the  lesser  omentum  ; 
5  and  6,  the  greater  omentum  ;  7,  the  transverse  mesocolon; 
10,  the  mesentery  encircling  the  small  intestine;  11,  the 
recto-vesical  fold;  12,  the  anterior  layer  traced  upwards  upon 
the  internal  surface  of  the  abdominal  walls  to  the  point  (1) 
with  which  the  examination  commenced.— From  Wilson's 
Anatomist's  Vade-mecum. 

transverse,  and  descending  meso-colon,  and  the  meso- 
rectum.  (The  mesentery  and  transverse  meso-colon 
are  shewn  in  the  figure.)  Lastly,  there  are  folds 
called  Omenta,  which  proceed  from  one  viscus  to 
another.  They  are  three  in  number — viz.,  the 
Lesser  or  Gastro-hepatic  Omentum,  which  extends 
from  the  under-surface  of  the  liver  to  the  lesser 
curvature  of  the  stomach  (No.  4  in  fig.) ;  the  G astro- 
splenic  Omentum ;  and  the  Great  (or  Gastr-o-collc) 
Omentum  (Nos.  5  aud  6  in  fig.),  which  consists  of 
four  layers  of  peritoneum,  the  two  which  descend  from 
the  stomach,  and  the  same  two  returning  upon 
themselves,  and  ascending  as  high  as  the  transverse 
colon,  where  they  separate,  and  enclose  that  organ. 
These   separate   layers  may  be  easily  seen  in  the 

Jroung  subject,  but  iu  the  adult  they  are  more  or 
ess  blended.  The  great  omentum  always  contains 
some  adipose  tissue,  which,  in  persons  inclined  to 
corpulency,  often  accumulates  to  an  enormous 
extent.  Its  use  appears  to  be  (1)  to  protect  the 
intestines  from  cold  by  covering  them  anteriorly  as 
with  an .  apron,  and  (2)  to  facilitate  their  move- 
ment upon  each  other  during  their  vermicular 
action. 

Like  all  the  serous  membranes,  the  peritoneum 
readily  takes  on  inflammation  from  various  exciting 
causes.  This  inflammation  is  termed  Peritonitis 
(q.  *.). 


PERITONI'TIB,  or  INFLAMMATION  O? 
THE  PERITONEUM,  may  be  either  an  acute  or  a 
chronic  disease. 

Acute  Peritonitis  generally  presents  well-marked 
.symptoms.  It  sometimes  commences  with  a  chill, 
but  severe  pain  iii  the  abdomen  is  usually  the  first 
symptom.  The  pain  is  at  first  sometimes  confined 
to  particular  spots  (usually  in  the  lower  part  of  the 

abdomen),  but  it  soon  extends  over  tin;  whole 
abdominal  region.  It  is  increased,  on  pressure,  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  patient  cannot  even  bear 
the  weight  of  the  bedclothes  ;  and  to  avoid,  as  far 
as  possible,  internal  pressure  upon  the  peritoneum, 
he  lie3  perfectly  still,  on  bis  back,  with  the  legs 
drawn  up,  and  breathes  by  means  of  the  ribs,  in 
consequence  of  the  pain  occasioned  by  the  descent 
of  the  diaphragm  in  inspiration.  The  breathing 
is  naturally  shallow  in  these  cases,  and  less  air  being 
admitted  at  each  movement  of  respiration,  the 
number  of  those  movements  is  increased.  There 
are  perhaps  forty  or  even  sixty  respirations  executed 
in  a  minute,  instead  of  eighteen  or  twenty.  The 
pulse  is  usually  very  frequent,  often  120  or  more 
in  the  minute,  and  small  and  tense,  though  occa- 
sionally strong  and  full  at  the  commencement  of 
the  attack.  After  the  disease  has  continued  for  a 
certain  time,  the  belly  becomes  tense  and  swollen ; 
the  enlargement  being  caused  at  first  by  llatus, 
and  afterwards  also  by  the  effusion  of  fluid,  as  may 
be  ascertained  by  percussion  aud  auscultation. 

The  progress  of  the  disease  is  in  general  rapid.  la 
fatal  cases,  death  usually  takes  place  within  a  week, 
and  often  sooner.  The  symptoms  indicating  that 
the  disease  is  advancing  towards  a  fatal  termination 
are  great  distention  of  the  abdomen,  a  very  frequent 
and  feeble  pulse,  a  pinched  and  extremely  anxious 
appearance  of  the  face,  and  cold  sweats. 

Peritonitis  may  arise  from  any  of  the  ordinary 
causes  of  inflammation,  such  as  sudden  change  of 
temperature  (especially  the  combined  effects  of  cold 
and  wet  on  the  surface  of  the  body),  excessive  use 
of  stimulating  fluids,  the  suppression  of  long-stand- 
ing discharges,  translation  of  gout  and  rheumatism, 
etc.  It  is  frequently  the  result  of  local  violence, 
and  of  wounds  penetrating  the  peritoneal  sac, 
including  various  surgical  operations.  Besides  the 
above  causes,  there  are  two  which  give  rise  to  special 
varieties  of  peritonitis,  viz.,  contagion  or  infection, 
which  often  prevails  epidemically,  and  produces 
great  mortality  amongst  women  after  childbirth, 
giving  rise  to  puerperal  peritonitis,  one  of  the  most 
perilous  accompaniments  of  the  awful  disorder 
known  as  Puerperal  Fever  (q.  v.)  ;  and  perforation 
of  the  stomach,  bowels,  gall  bladder,  urinary 
bladder,  &c,  by  which  their  contents  are  allowed 
to  escape  into  the  peritoneal  cavity,  where  they 
excite  the  most  violent  inflammation.  Peritonitis 
from  per/oration  is  characterised  by  the  sudden- 
ness of  the  attack ;  intense  pain,  incapable  of 
mitigation  by  medicine,  all  at  once  arising  iu  some 
part  of  the  abdomen,  the  whole  of  which  soon 
becomes  tender  in  every  part.  This  form  of  the 
disease  is  generally  fatal,  death  usually  ensuing 
within  two  days,  and  sometimes  within  a  few  hours. 
Perforation  of  the  small  intestine,  in  consequeLce 
of  ulceration  of  its  glands,  is  of  not  uncommon 
occurrence  in  continued  (typhoid)  fever,  and  some- 
times occurs  in  phthisis.  That  apparently  useless 
structure,  the  vermiform  appendage  of  the  caecum, 
is  a  comparatively  frequent  seat  of  perforation. 
Sometimes  it  is  the  stomach  which  is  perforated, 
and  in  these  cases  the  patients  are  usually  iu>- 
married  women  (especially  domestic  servants),  who 
had  previously  appeared  in  good  health,  or  at  most 
had  complained  of  slight  dyspepsia. 

The  only  disease  with  which  peritonitis  is  likely 
J  407 


PERIWINKLE— PERJURY. 


o  be  confounded  by  the  -well-educated  practitioner 
is  a  peculiar  form  of  hysteria;  but  the  age  and 
sex  of  the  patient,  the  presence  of  hysteria  in  other 
forms,  and  the  general  history  of  the  patient  and 
of  her  symptoms,  will  almost  always  lead  to  a 
correct  diagnosis  of  the  disease. 

The  treatment,  in  an  ordinary  case  of  peritonitis 
(not  arising  from  mechanical  injury,  or  perforation 
from  disease,  or  occurring  in  connection  with  puer- 
peral fever),  consists,  if  the  patient  is  moderately 
robust,  in  bleeding  from  the  arm,  till  a  decided 
impression  has  been  made  on  the  circulation  ;  after 
which  the  abdomen  shoidd  be  covered  with  twenty 
or  thirty  leeches,  and  the  bleeding  from  their  bites 
should  be  encouraged  by  fomenting  the  belly  with 
flannels  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  or,  if  the  patient 
can  bear  its  weight,  by  the  application  of  a  light 
poultice.  The  system  must,  at  the  same  time,  be 
got  as  speedily  as  possible  under  the  influence  of 
mercury,  by  the  means  described  in  the  treatment 
of  Pericarditis  (q.  v.).  Opium  may  be  given  freely, 
not  merely  to  guard  against  the  purgative  action 
of  the  calomel,  but  with  the  view  of  securing  sleep 
to  the  patient,  and  quiet  to  the  inflamed  mem- 
brane. The  patieut  must  be  kept  on  low  diet, 
unless  indications  of  sinking  appear.  Iu  peritonitis 
from  perforation,  the  only  remedy  is  opium,  which 
must  be  given  in  large  and  repeated  doses,  so  as 
to  keep  the  bowels  perfectly  at  rest,  in  order  to 
promote  the  formation  of  adhesion,  by  which  alone 
the  patient  can  be  possibly  saved.  For  the  same 
reason,  perfect  rest  must  also  be  insisted  on,  and 
even  drinks  forbidden,  thirst  being  allayed  by  the 
application  of  ice  to  the  tongue. 

Chronic  Peritonitis  occurs  in  two  forms,  which 
differ  in  their  origin  and  degree  of  fatality,  but  are 
very  similar  in  their  symptoms.  In  the  first,  the 
inflammation  is  of  the  ordinary  character,  and 
although  the  disease  sometimes  originates  spon- 
taneously, it  is  more  frequently  the  sequel  of  an 
imperfectly  cured  acute  attack  ;  in  the  second,  it 
depends  upon  granules  (supposed  by  Louis  and  most 
writers  to  be  tubercles)  lying  in  countless  num- 
bers in  the  serous  membrane,  and  serving  as  a 
constant  source  of  irritation.  The  second  form  is 
confined  almost,  if  not  entirety,  to  persons  of  a 
scrofulous  constitution. 

The  symptoms  of  chronic  peritonitis  are  more 
obscure  "than  those  of  the  acute  form.  There  is 
abdominal  pain,  often  slight,  and  not  always  con- 
stant, which  is  increased  by  pressure,  or  sometimes 
is  felt  only  when  pressure  is  made.  The  patient 
complains  of  a  sensation  of  fulness  and  tension 
of  the  belly,  although  its  size  is  not  visibly 
increased  ;  of  a  loss  of  appetite ;  and  of  nausea 
and  vomiting ;  and  the  bowels  are  usually  more 
or  less  out  of  order.  After  a  time,  the  abdomen 
enlarges,  and  becomes  tympanitic,  or  more  or  less 
filled  with  fluid  ;  and  death  gradually  ensues  from 
debility  and  emaciation,  unless  the  fatal  issue  is 
accelerated  by  an  acute  inflammatory  attack. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  determine,  during  life, 
whether  the  disease  belongs  to  the  first  or  second 
form.  When  its  origin  cannot  be  traced  to  a 
preceding  acute  attack,  to  local  abdominal  injury, 
or  to  chronic  affections  of  the  abdominal  viscera, 
there  is  strong  reason  to  believe  it  to  be  of  the 
granular,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  the  tuber- 
cular form,  especially  if  the  general  constitution 
and  the  hereditary  tendencies  of  the  patient  point 
in  the  same  direction. 

Little  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  treatment, 
especially  in  the  tubercular  form,  further  than 
mitigating  the  most  distressing  symptoms,  and 
possibly  retarding  the  final  issue.  The  frequent 
application  of  a  few  \eeches  it  the  abdomen,  followed 
■id 


by  warm  poultices,  occasional  blisters,  attention 
to  the  bowels,  which,  if  costive,  should  be  acted 
upon  by  gentle  laxatives,  and  a  mild,  nourishing, 
but  unstimulating  diet,  are  more  likely  to  be  of 
service  than  remedies  of  a  more  energetic  nature. 

PERIWI'NKLE  (Littorina),  a  genus  of  gaster- 
opodous  molluscs  of  the  order  Pectinibranchiata  and 
family  Littorinidce,  having  a  proboscis-shaped  head, 
a  foot  of  moderate  size,  a  single  gill,  and  a  rudi- 
mentary siphonal  canal ;  the  shell  turbinate,  thick, 
with  few  whirls,  and  no  nacreous  lining  ;  the  oper- 
culum  of  few  whirls.  A  very  well-known  species  i3 
the  Common  P.  (L.  littorea),  a  snail-like  mollusc 
most  abundant  on  rocky  parts  of  the  British  coasts, 
living  in  the  lowest  zone  of  sea-weeds  between  tide- 
marks,  and  feeding  on  fuci,  &c.  It  is  oviparous. 
No  mollusc  is  more  generally  collected  and  used  for 
food.  Children  are  generally  employed  in  collecting 
it.  It  is  boiled  in  the  shell,  and  so  sold,  often  on 
the  streets,  and  chiefly  to  the  poorer  classes,  although 
few  molluscs  are  more  pleasant.  It  is  calculated 
that  1900  tons,  value  £15,0110,  are  annually  con 
sumed  in  London  alone.  It  is  called  Wilk,  Wulk, 
or  Whulk  in  Scotland,  but  is  quite  different  from 
the  Whelk  (q.  v.)  of  the  English,  notwithstanding 
the  sameness  of  name.  Other  species,  L.  neritokles 
and  L.  rudis,  are  common  on  all  rocky  parts  of  the 
British  coasts,  but  are  less  esteemed.  L.  rudis  is 
viviparous,  and  the  shells  of  the  young  within  the 
mantle  of  the  parent  often  make  it  gritty  and 
unpleasant  to  eat. 

PERIWINKLE  ( Pwira),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Apocynacece,  having  a  5-cleft  calyx,  aud 
a  salver-shaped  corolla  bearded  at  the  throat,  with 
five  obliquely  truncated  segments.  The  leaves  are 
opposite  and  evergreen  ;  the  flowers  grow  singly  or 
in  pairs  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  The  Lesser 
P.  ( V.  minor),  a  native  of  many  parts  of  Europe, 
and  of  the  southern  parts  of  Britain,  growing  in 
woods  and  thickets,  is  a  half-shrubby  plant  with 
trailing  stems,  rooting  at  their  extremities,  ovato- 
lanceolate  leaves,  and  pale-blue — sometimes  white 
or  reddish  -  purple — salver-shaped  flowers.  The 
Greater  P.  ( V.  major),  which  has  much  larger 
flowers  and  ovato-cordate  ciliated  leaves,  is  a  native 
of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  is  found  in  a  few  places 
in  the  south  of  England.  Both  of  these  species  are 
very  commonly  planted  in  shrubberies  and  gardens, 
rapidly  cover  unsightly  objects  with  pleasing  green 
foliage,  and  produce  their  beautiful  flowers  at  almost 
all  seasons  of  the  year,  even  in  winter  when  the 
weather  is  mild.  The  Herbaceous  P.  (  V.  herbacea), 
a  Hungarian  species,  is  remarkable  for  the  abund- 
ance of  its  flowers.  The  Yellow  P.  ( V.  lutea)  is  a 
native  of  the  southern  parts  of  North  America.  The 
Rose-coloured  P.  (V.  rosea),  a  native  of  Mada- 
gascar, is  a  favourite  greenhouse  plant. — The  name 
P.  was  formerly  Perwinke.  Chaucer  speaks  of  the 
'  fresh  perwinke  rich  of  hue.'  It  is  probably  from 
the  French  pervenche,  and  that  from  the  Latin  viiuxi, 

PE'RJURY  is  the  crime  committed  by  one  who, 
when  giving  evidence  on  oath  as  a  witness  io  a 
court  of  justice,  or  before  some  constituted  authority 
of  the  same  kind,  gives  evidence  which  he  knows  to 
be  false.  But  in  order  to  make  the  giving  of  the  false 
evidence  liable  to  criminal  punishment,  it  must  have 
been  not  only  false  to  the  knowledge  of  the  witness, 
but  the  matter  must  have  been  material  to  the  issue 
raised.  If  the  falsehood  occurred  as  to  some  trifling 
or  immaterial  fact,  no  crime  is  committed.  More- 
over, it  is  necessary,  in  proving  the  crime,  that  at 
least  two  persons  should  be  able  to  testify  to  the 
falsehood  of  the  matter,  so  that  there  might  be  a 
majority  of  oaths  on  the  matter — there  being  then 
two  oaths  to  one.    But  this  rule  is  satisfied,  though 


PERKIN  WARBECK-PERMIAN,  MAGNESIAN  LIMESTONE. 


both  witnesses  do  not  testify  to  one  point  The 
perjury  must  also  have  taken  place  before  some 
court  or  tribunal  which  had  power  to  administer  the 
oath.  See  Oath.  Though  in  sumo  courts  affirma- 
tions are  allowed  instead  of  oaths,  yet  the  punish- 
naent  for  false  alliriuai  i  precisely  the  same 

as  for  false  swearing.  Tl  e  punishment  for  perjury 
was,  before  the  Conquest,  Bometimes  death  or  cutting 
out  the  tongue  ;  but  latterly,  it  was  cou  fined  to  fine 
and  imprisonment,  and  at  present  the  latter  is  the 
only  punishment,  with  the  addition  of  hard  labour. 
The  crime  of  Subornation  of  Perjury — i.  e.,  the 
persuading  or  procuring  *i  person  to  give  false 
evidence,  is  also  punishable  as  a  distinct  offence. 

PERKIN  WARBRCK.    See  Henry  VII. 

PE  RM,  the  most  eastern  government  of  European 
Russia,  is  bounded  on  the  E.  by  Siberia,  and  ou  the 
N.,  \Y\,  and  S.  by  the  governments  of  Vologda, 
Viatka,  .and  Orenburg  respectively.  Area,  128,623 
square  miles — more  than  twice  the  area  of  England 
and  Wales.  Population,  2,173.501.  It  is  divided 
by  the  Ural  Mountains  into  two  unequal  parts,  of 
which  the  smaller  portion  is  on  the  eastern  or 
Siberian  side  of  the  mountains,  although,  for 
administrative  purposes,  it  is  reckoned  as  a  part  of 
European  Russia.  About  three-fourths  of  the 
government  are  occupied  by  the  Ural  range,  which 
in  some  places  reaches  the  height  of  4000  feet ;  but 
which  slope  so  gradually  toward  the  plain,  that  the 
traveller  reaches  their  summit  before  he  is  aware 
that  he  has  made  any  unusual  ascent.  About 
two-thirds  of  the  entire  surface,  comprising  all 
the  northern  districts,  are  covered  with  forests, 
one-tenth  of  the  area  is  in  meadows,  and  about  the 
same  extent  is  under  cultivation.  The  more  import- 
ant rivers  belong  to  the  systems  of  the  Volga  and 
the  Obi.  The  Kama,  together  with  the  Tshousovaia 
and  other  affluents  from  the  Ural  Mountains,  flow 
south-west,  join  the  Volga,  and  thus  form  an 
important  means  of  communication  between  the 
mining  districts  of  P.  and  Europe.  The  Tura,  the 
Sosva,  and  the  Losva  communicate  with  the  Obi ; 
and  access  is  opened  up  to  the  White  Sea  and  the 
Arctic  Ocean  by  the  rivers  Dwina  and  Petchora, 
The  climate  is  healthy,  though  somewhat  rigorous. 
At  the  end  of  July,  the  nights  are  cold;  in  the 
middle  of  September,  falls  the  first  snow.  In 
November,  when  the  whole  face  of  nature  is  covered 
with  snow,  the  transport  of  goods  by  sledges  is 
busily  carried  on  everywhere.  In  January,  the  cold 
is  so  great  that  quicksilver  sometimes  freezes.  At 
the  end  of  March,  the  snow  begins  to  melt,  and 
before  the  middle  of  May,  although  the  cold  is 
still  great,  the  country  is  clothed  in  the  green 
of  early  spring.  The  chief  products  are  gold,  copper, 
magnetic  iron  ore,  rock-crystal,  jasper,  agate,  topaz, 
porphyry,  malachite,  porcelain  clay,  salt  (obtained 
from  salt  springs),  coal,  alabaster,  marble,  &c,  and 
diamonds  in  small  quantities.  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  Russians,  bui  there  are  also  numbers  of 
Tartars,  Bashkirs,  and  Finns.  The  agricultural  pro- 
duce of  the  government,  consisting  chiefly  of  corn, 
vegetables,  flax,  and  hemp,  is  more  than  sufficient  for 
lor.al  consumption,  and  is  exported  to  some  extent 
to  the  neighbouring  governments.  The  immense 
foi  fists  of  the  country  yield  wood  for  fuel,  and 
timber  for  the  construction  of  the  barges  which, 
during  summer,  are  floated  down  the  rivers,  freighted 
with  the  products  of  the  mines.  In  1861,  the 
number  of  works  and  manufactories  in  the  govern- 
ment amounted  to  1383,  and  employed  100,000 
hands.  Their  produce  amounted  to  £6,000,000  in 
value,  of  which  the  value  of  the  iron  was  £2,000,000, 
and  that  of  copper  and  gold  was  £200,000  each. 
Here,  also,  is  a  platina  mine,  said  on  good  authority 


to  bo  the  richest  in  the  world.  The  iron  of  P.  is 
famous  over  Europe.  The  commeros  Of  the  govern- 
ment is  important.  The  fair  of  Irbit  (q.  v.)  is, 
alter  that  of  Nijni-Novgorod,  the  most  important 
in  the  Russian  empire.  'I  he  transit  trade,  however, 
is  much  more  considerable  than  the  local  trade. 
The  great  highway  from  Siberia  to  European  Russia 
passes  through  P.,  and  the  government  communi- 
cates by  means  of  the  Volga,  Petchora,  and  the 
Obi,  with  the  Baltic,  White,  and  Caspian  Seas.  The 
central  administration  of  mines  has  its  seat  in 
Ekaterinburg. 

The  government  of  P.  once  formed  a  portion  of 
the  ancient  Biarmia,  inhabited  in  the  earliest 
historical  times  by  Finnish  tribes,  and  even  then 
famous  for  the  commerce  which  it  carried  on, 
especially  with  Asia.  In  the  11th  c,  it  became 
connected  commercially  with  the  principality  of 
Novgorod,  which,  little  by  little,  conquered  and  took 
possession  of  the  country.  At  the  close  of  the 
15th  c,  both  it  and  Novgorod  were  annexed  to  the 
territories  of  the  Prince  of  Moscow,  and  about  the 
same  time  the  Christian  religiou  was  introduced. 

PERM,  a  town  of  European  Russia,  capital  of 
the  government  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Kama, 
1357  miles  east-south-east  of  St  Petersburg.  It 
was  founded  in  1729,  under  the  name  of  the 
Egotmsky  copper-work,  and  was  the  first  colony  in 
the  government  from  which  it  derives  its  name.  It 
is  not  in  itself  important  for  its  commerce,  but  it  is 
the  seat  of  a  most  extensive  transit  trade.  Here 
goods  floated  down  the  Tshousovaia  from  the  Ural 
Mountains,  are  transferred  to  larger  vessels,  and 
forwarded  by  the  Kama  and  Volga  past  Nijni- 
Novgorod  ami  Rybinsk,  and  thence  to  St  Petersburg. 
Goods  from  the  sources  of  the  Kama,  metals,  corn, 
tallow,  and  leathers,  as  well  as  articles  of  the 
Siberian  and  China  trade,  are  also  sent  from  P. 
to  the  Russian  interior,  and  to  Europe  generally. 
A  large  steel  foundry  has  been  built  here  by  the  gov- 
ernment.    Bop.  22,859. 

PE'RMIAX.  MAGNE'SIAN  LIMESTONE,  or 
DIAS  group,  is  the  lower  division  of  the  New  Red 
Sandstone  rocks,  which  were  separated,  chiefly  on 
palaeontologies!  grounds,  from  the  upper  portion,  and 
being,  in  1841,  without  a  collective  name,  were 
called  Permian  by  Murchison,  because  he  found 
them  largely  developed  in  that  portion  of  Russia 
which  composed  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Perniia,  or 
Biarmia.  The  name  Magnesian  limestone  is  given  to 
them  because  of  the  predominant  deposit;  and  Dias 
has  been  proposed  by  some  German  geologists,  to 
correspond  with  Trias,  the  name  universally  accepted 
for  the  upper  section  of  the  New  Red  Sandstone 
series. 

The  Permian  strata  occupy  in  Russia  an  area 
twice  the  size  of  France,  and  contain  an  abundant  and 
varied  suite  of  fossils.  They  are  also  largely  devel- 
oped in  Germany,  and  as  they  have  been  there  care- 
fully studied,  and  described  by  numerous  geologists, 
the  rocks  of  that  country  may  be  considered  as  the 
types  of  the  group.  They  have  been  thus  grouped . 
1.  Bunterschiefer.  2.  Zechstein.  3.  Kupferschiefer 
or  Mergel.     4.  Rothe-toutliegende. 

The  Bunterschiefer  consists  of  red  and  mottled 
marl  and  sandstone,  which  have  been  separated 
from  the  Triassjc  Bunter  Sandstone,  because  of  the 
occurrence  in  them  of  fossils  which  have  a  palaeozoic 
facies.  The  Zechstein  is  chiefly  a  compact  lime- 
stone with  beds  of  coloured  clays,  and  cellulai 
magnesian  limestone.  The  well-known  Stinkstein 
belongs  to  this  series;  it  is  a  dark-coloured  and 
highly  bituminous  limestone,  which  gives  cut  an 
offensive  odour  when  struck  or  rubbed.  The  name 
Zechstein  (literally,  minestone)  was  given   to  these 

409 


PERMUTATIONS  AND  COMBINATIONS— PERNAMBUCO. 


beds,  because  they  must  he  mined  or  cut  through 
to  reach  the  Kupferschiefer  below.  This  latter  is  a 
marl  slate,  richly  impregnated  with  copper  pyrites, 
for  which  it  was  extensively  wrought  It  contains 
numerous  beautifully  preserved  fossil  fish  belonging 
to  the  genera  Palamiscus,  Caslacanthus,  Platysorus, 
&c.  The  strange  name  of  Rothe-todtliegoude  (red 
dead-layers)  was  given  to  a  large  deposit  of  red 
sandstone  and  conglomerate,  by  the  miners,  because 
the  copper  obtained  from  the  beds  above  died  out 
when  the}'  reached  these  red  rocks. 

The  succession  of  rocks  given  by  Murchison  as 
occurring  in  Permia,  are  easily  co-related  with  those 
of  Germany.  They  are  (1),  conglomerates  and  sand- 
stones, containing  the  remains  of  plants  ;  (2),  red 
sandstones  and  shales,  with  copper  ore  and  vegetable 
remains  ;  and  (3),  sandstones,  grits,  and  fossiliferous 
limestones,  with  interstratified  beds  of  marl  and 
gypsum,  the  marls  occasionally  containing  plants, 
and  also  seams  of  impure  coaL 

In  England,  the  Permian  rocks  are  somewhat 
extensively  developed  in  Durham,  where  they  have 
been  described  by  Sedgwick  and  King.  From  this 
county,  they  continue  in  a  narrow  strip  bordering 
the  Carboniferous  beds  down  the  centre  of  England, 
until  they  are  lost  near  Nottingham.  In  Cheshire, 
Shropshire,  Stafford,  and  Warwick,  they  underlie 
the  salt-bearing  triassic  rocks.  The  Durham  strata 
are  grouped  as  follow : 


1.  Concretionary    and    amorphous"^ 


limestone, 
2.  BreLciatedandpseudo-brecciated  f 
limestone,    .  .        .J 


=  Bunterschiefer. 


3.  Fos9iliferous  limestone,       .  )  _ 

4.  Compact  limestune,         .         .      / 

5.  Marl  slate,     .... 
Inferior  various-coloured   sand- 
stone  


Zechstein. 
=  Kupfersi.liiefer. 
>  =Rothe-todtliegende. 

The  fractured  bones  and  teeth  of  saurians  found 
in  the  basement  bed  of  the  sixth  group  are  the  ear- 
liest evidence  of  the  existence  of  reptiles.  They  be- 
long to  the  llhynchocephalia,  an  order  which  has  one 
living  representative  in  New  Zealand. 

The  known  organic  remains  of  this  period  are 
neither  remarkable  nor  abundant.  Many  palaeozoic 
forms  became  extinct  within  this  period;  among 
them  are  the  remarkable  Sigillaria  and  the  Neur- 
opteris  of  the  coal-beds,  the  well-known  brachio- 
pod,  Producta,  and  several  genera  of  heterocercal- 
tailed  fish.  Some  new  forms  appear,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  the  labyrinthodont  reptiles, 
which,  though  beginning  in  the  upper  Carboniferous 
beds,  increase  in  number  in  the  Permian,  and  reach 
their  maximum  development  in  the  succeeding 
Triassic  group. 

PERMUTA'TIONS  and   COMBINATIONS. 

A  combination,  in  Mathematics,  is  a  selection  of  a 
number  of  objects  from  a  given  set  of  objects,  with- 
out any  regard  to  the  order  in  which  they  are  placed. 
The  objects  are  called  elements,  and  the  combina- 
tions are  divided  into  classes,  according  to  the 
number  of  elements  in  each.  Let  the  given  elements 
be  the  four  letters  a,  b,  c,  d  ;  the  binary  combina- 
tions, or  selections  of  two,  are  ah,  ac,  ad,  be,  bd,  cd — 
six  in  all ;  the  combinations  of  three  are  abc,  abd, 
acd,  bed — four  in  all ;  while  there  is  only  one  com- 
bination of  four,  namely,  abed. 

Permutation,  again,  has  reference  to  the  order  of 
arrangement ;  thus,  the  two  elements,  a  and  b,  may 
stand  ab  or  ba,  so  that  every  combination  of  two 
gives  two  permutations  ;  the  three  elements,  a,  b, 
and  c,  may  stand  abc,  acb,  bac,  bca,  cab,  cba,  one 
combination  of  three  thus  affording  six  permuta- 
tions. The  combinations  of  any  order  with  all  their 
permutations  are  called  the  Variations.  Formulas 
are  given  in  works  of  algebra  for  calculating  the 


number  of  permutations  or  combinations  in  any 
given  case.  Suppose  seven  lottery-tickets  marked 
1,  2,  3,  to  7,  and  that  two  are  to  be  drawn  ;  if  it  is 
asked,  how  many  possible  pairs  of  numbers  there 
are,  this  is  a  question  of  the  number  of  com- 
binations of  seven  elements,  two  together,  which 
is  found  to  be  21.  If  we  want  to  know  how 
many  times  the  same  seven  persons  coidd  sit  down 
to  table  together  with  a  different  arrangement 
each  time,  this  is  to  ask  how  many  permutations 
seven  objects  admit  of,  and  the  formula  gives, 
7x6x5x4x3x2  =  5040.  The  theory  of  pro- 
babilities is  founded  on  the  laws  of  combination. 
Thus,  in  the  case  of  drawing  two  tickets  out  of 
seven,  since  there  are  21  possible  pairs,  the  chance 
or  probability  of  drawing  any  particular  pair  is  1  in 
21,  or  -5T.  In  working  out  questions  in  '  combina- 
tions,' advantage  is  often  taken  of  the  fact  that 
whatever  number  of  elements  be  taken  from  a  group 
to  form  a  combination,  the  number  left  gives  the 
same  number  of  combinations  ;  thus  the  number  of 
combinations  of  10  elements  three  together,  is  the 
same  as  that  of  10  elements  seven  together,  &c. 
PERN.    See  Honey  Buzzard. 

PERNAMBU'CO,  the  most  eastern  seaport  of 
Brazil,  stands  at  the  mouths  of  the  Biberibe  and 
Capeberibe,  in  lat.  8°  4'  S.,  long.  34°  52'  W.,  SO  miles 
south  of  Parahiba.  It  is  the  greatest  sugar-mart  in 
Brazil,  and  is  the  third  in  commercial  importance 
of  the  cities  of  the  empire.  It  consists  of  tlrree 
portions,  connected  by  roads  and  bridges — Beci/e, 
the  chief  seat  of  commerce,  on  a  peninsula ;  S. 
Antonio,  the  middle  district,  on  an  island  between 
the  peninsula  and  the  mainland ;  and  Boa  Vista, 
on  the  mainland.  The  inner  harbour,  which  has 
a  depth  of  from  10  to  30  feet,  is  formed  by  a  reef 
which  extends  along  the  coast  at  a  distance 
of  from  a  quarter  to  half  a  mile  from  the  coast. 
This  reef  serves  the  purposes  of  a  breakwater. 
Opposite  the  northern  extremity  of  the  city,  there 
is  an  opening  in  the  reef,  resembling  an  artificial 
cut,  and  forming  a  passage  of  sufficient  width  to 
admit  of  the  entrance  of  vessels  drawing  16  feet  of 
water.  No  port  is  more  easily  accessible  than  the 
outer  harbour  of  Pernambuco.  There  is  a  light-house 
in  the  harbour,  and  it  is  defended  by  several  forts. 
Formerly,  the  city  was  extremely  dirty,  the  streets 
unpaved,  and  much  inconvenience  was  suffered  from 
want  of  a  proper  supply  of  water.  Of  late  years, 
however,  many  improvements  have  been  intro- 
duced ;  water-works  have  been  erected,  extensive 
and  spacious  quays  formed  along  the  margins  of  the 
rivers,  and  the  streets  have,  in  most  instances,  been 
paved  and  lighted.  Numerous  collegios  and  other 
educational  institutions  have  been  established,  and 
the  growing  wealth  and  commercial  prosperity  of 
the  city  have  been  accompanied  by  an  increasing 
degree  of  comfort  and  refinement.  The  principal 
exports  are  sugar,  cotton,  rum,  hides,  and  dye-woods. 
In  1870—1871,  1,164.655  tons  of  sugar  were  ex- 
ported. The  imports  are  woollen  and  cotton  cloths, 
hardware,  silks,  wines,  and  flour.    Pop.  about  120.000. 

PERNAMBUCO,  a  maritime  province  of  Brazil, 
is  bounded  on  the  south-east  by  Bahia  and  Alagoas, 
and  on  the  north-west  by  Piauhi,  Ceara,  and 
Parahiba.  It  contains  61,068  square  miles,  and 
has  a  population  of  1,220,000.  The  coast  is  flat  and 
fringed  with  coral  reefs,  which  render  navigation 
dangerous.  The  chief  river  is  the  San  Francisco, 
which  forms  the  southern  boundary,  and  includes 
the  greater  portion  of  the  area  of  the  province 
in  its  basin.  The  banks  of  this  river  comprise 
many  rich,  expansive  meadows,,  and  here  the  cattle 
arc  reared,  which,  in  the  form  of  beef  and 
hides,  form   .in  important   article   of   export  at  the 


PERNAMBUCO  WOOD— PERPENDICULAR  FORTIFICATION. 


seaport  of  Pernamhuco.  Much  of  the  cotton  and 
sugar  brought  to  the  market  of  the  capital  is 
harvested  about  300  miles  inland,  in  regions  fertil- 
ised l>y  streams  that  rise  at  the  base  of  the  Santa 
Barbaretta  Sills,  the  tirst  hill-range  in  this  district 
that  arrests  the  trade-wind  from  the  Atlantic, 
taden  with  rain.  The  Recife  and  San  Francisco  rait 
way,  an  English  enterprise,  is  a  single  line  774  miles 
long,  to  be  extended  400  miles  through  a  district 
covered  with  valuable  sugar-plantations,  The  pro- 
vince comprises  immense  tracts  of  rich  and  fertile 
aoil,  productive  in  sugar-cane,  cotton,  maize,  fruits, 
vegetables,  and  medicinal  herbs.  From  the  forests, 
balsams,  gums,  and  dye-woods  are  obtained. 

PERNAMBUCO  WOOD.    See  Brazil  Wood. 

PERNO'W  (Germ.  Pernait),  a  seaport  of  the 
Baltic  Provinces,  Russia,  in  the  government  of 
Livonia,  stands  on  a  sandy  heath  at  the  mouth  of 
a  river  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Gulf  of  Riga,  102 
miles  north  of  the  port  of  Riga,  and  350  miles  west- 
south-west  of  St  Petersburg  by  sea.  The  mouth 
of  the  river  is  so  shallow  that  large  vessels  are 
obliged  to  anchor  in  the  roads.  The  exports  are 
chiefly  flax,  linseed,  corn,  and  timber  ;  the  principal 
imports  are  salt  and  herrings.  In  1866,  124  vessels, 
of  which  44  were  English  and  24  Prussian,  entered 
the  port.     Pop.  9527. 

PERPENDI'CULAR.  A  straight  line  standing 
on  another  straight  line  is  said  to  be  perpendicular 
to  that  other  when  the  angles  it  makes  on  both  sides 
are  equal  (see  Angle).  A  line  is  said  to  be  perpen- 
dicular to  a  plane  when  it  is  at  right  angles  to  any 
line  in  that  plane  meeting  it.  Planes  are  said  to 
be  perpendicular  to  each  other  wdien  any  line  in 
the  one  plane  perpendicular  to  their  common  line 
of  intersection  is  also  perpendicular  to  all  lines 
meeting  it  in  the  other  plane. 

The  word  '  perpendicular,'  in  common  usage, 
refers  to  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  the  surface 
of  still  water,  and  is  synonymous  with  vertical. 

PERPENDICULAR,  the  name  given  to  the  style 
of  Gothic  architecture  in  England  which  succeeded 
the  Decorated  Style.  It  prevailed  from  about  the 
end  of  the  14th  c.  to  the  middle  of  the  lGth  c,  and 
was  thus  contemporary  with  the  Flamboyant  Style 
in  France.  These  styles  have  much  in  common, 
but  they  derive  their  names  from  the  features 
peculiar  to  each.  Thus,  the  Flamboyant  (q.  v.)  is 
distinguished  by  the  flowing  lines  of  its  tracery; 
whilst  the  Perpendicular  is  remarkable  for  its  stiff  j 
and  rectilinear  lines.  The  lines  of  the  window- 
tracery  are  chiefly  vertical,  and  the  mullions  are 
frequently  crossed  by  horizontal  bars.  The  mould- 
ings are  usually  thin  and  hard.  The  same  feeling 
pervades  the  other  features  of  the  style;  the 
buttresses,  piers,  towers,  &c,  are  all  drawn  up  and 
attenuated,  and  present  in  their  shallow  recesses 
and  meagre  lines  a  great  contrast  to  the  deep 
shadows  and  bold  mouldings  of  the  earlier  styles. 
The  art  of  masonry  was  well  understood  during  the 
Perpendicular  period,  and  the  vaulting  was  admir- 
ably I  milt.  Fan-tracery  Vaulting  (q.  v.)  belongs  to 
this  style.  The  depressed  or  four-centre  arch  is 
another  of  its  peculiar  features.  This  arch,  over 
doorways,  has  the  mouldings  generally  arranged  in 
a  squat'?  form  over  the  arch,  with  spandrels  contain- 
ing shields,  qnatrefoils,  &c.  Panelling  was  also  much 
used,  the  walls  being  frequently  almost  entirely 
covered  with  it,  as  in  Henry  VII. 's  Chapel  at 
Westminster.  There  are  many  well-known  build- 
ings of  this  style.  Most  of  the  colleges  at  Oxford 
and  Ct-nbridge  belong  to  it,  and  in  almost 
every  cathedral  and  church  of  importance,  there 
ore  some   specimens   of  it.     Open   timber-roofs  are 


*ery  <• mon  in  the  Perpendicular 

iliar  and  beautiful 


Style,  and 

feat u n 


■ 
thd 


Nave  of  Winchester  Cathedral. 

architecture  of  England.  The  roof  of  Westminster 
Hall,  built  by  Richard  II.,  is  the  largest  example  ever 
erected. 

PERPENDICULAR  FORTIFICATION  owea 
its  origin  to  the  Marquis  de  Montalembert,  a  dis- 
tinguished French  general,  who  published  his  work 
upon  the  subject  in  1770.  Vauban  had,  it  was 
admitted,  rendered  the  art  of  attack  superior  to 
that  of  defence.  Montalembert  strove  to  reverse 
this  relation,  and,  in  his  endeavours,  rejected 
entirely  the  bastion  system  of  the  older  engineers. 
Instead  of  the  occasional  bastions,  with  intervening 
curtains  (see  Fortification),  with  which  they 
surrounded  their  enceinte,  he  broke  the  whole 
polygon  into  salient  and  re-entering  angles,  the 
latter  being  generally  right  angles.  Before  the 
connected  redans  thus  formed  were  counterguards 
of  low  elevation  and  ravelins,  to  which  the 
approaches  were  through  casemated  caponnieres. 
In  the  salient  angle  of  each  redan,  he  built  a  brick 
tower,  40  feet  in  diameter,  twelve-sided,  and  four 
stories  high.  The  second  and  third  tiers  were 
built  for  heavy  guns,  and  the  upper  loopholed  for 
musketry.  In  the  centre  of  the  tower  was  a  cir- 
cular reduit,  intended  as  a  last  refuge  for  the 
garrison.       Montalembert    maintained    that    from 


PERPETUAL  CURE-PERPETUAL  MOTION. 


these  towers  every  possible  approach  could  be 
commanded,  which  to  a  great  extent  is  true ;  but 
it  must  be  also  remembered  that  the  greater  space 
a  gun  commands,  by  so  much  the  more  is  it  raised 
above  the  plain,  and  rendered  visible.  These 
towers  would  have  little  chance  against  the  rifled 
ordnance  of  the  present  day.  Montalembert's 
system  was  violently  attacked  by  the  French 
engineers,  but  Carnot  subsequently  adopted  it,  with 
some  modifications,  and  it  enters  largely  into  the 
modern  German  defensive  works.  The  system  has 
never,  however,  found  favour  with  British  engineers. 

PERPE'TUAL  CURE,  a  form  of  ecclesiastical 
benefice  which  grew  out  of  the  abuse  of  lay  Impro- 
priation (q.  v.),  the  impropriator  appointing  a 
clergyman  to  discharge  the  spiritual  functions  of 
which  he  himself  was  not  capable.  The  substituted 
clergyman,  in  ordinary  cases,  is  appointed  by  the 
bishop,  and  called  a  vicar ;  but  when  no  provision 
is  made  for  a  vicar,  the  impropriator  appoints  the 
clergyman,  who  is  called  a  perpetual  curate.  The 
perpetual  curate  enters  on  his  office  without  induc- 
tion or  institution,  and  requires  only  the  bishop's 
licence.  Perpetual  cures  are  also  created  by  the 
erection  and  endowment  of  a  chapel  subject  to  the 
principal  church  of  a  parish.  Such  cures,  however, 
are  not  benefices,  unless  endowed  out  of  the  fund 
called  Queen  Anne's  Bounty.  Churches  so  endowed 
are,  by  2  and  3  Vict.  c.  49,  recognised  as  benefices. 
The  district  churches  which  have  been  erected 
under  several  recent  acts  are  made  perpetual  cures, 
and  their  incumbents  are  corporations. 

PERPETUAL  MOTION,  The.  According  to 
Newton's  First  Law  (see  Motion,  Laws  of),  all  un- 
resisted motion  continues  for  ever  unchanged.  Thus, 
if  friction  could  be  avoided,  a  top  or  a  gyroscope 
spinning  in  vacuo  is  an  instance  of  motion  which 
would  be  unchanged  for  ever,  and  which,  therefore, 
might  be  called  perpetual.  The  motion  of  the  sun 
in  space,  the  earth's  rotation  about  its  axis,  and 
numerous  other  common  motions,  are  in  this  popular 
sense  perpetual.  [It  is  necessary  to  remark  here, 
that  even  these  motions  are  subject  to  retardation  ; 
for  instance,  those  of  the  bodies  of  the  solar  system, 
by  the  resistance  of  the  luminiferous  medium,  which 
we  know  to  be  matter,  and  which  fills  all  space. 
This  was  remarked  by  Newton  himself,  for  he  says, 
'the  larger  bodies,  /ilanets  and  comets,  preserve 
their  motions  longei  (than  terrestrial  objects), 
because  they  move  in  ..ess  resisting  media.'  The 
Bame  cause  influences  the  motion  of  the  gyroscope, 
but  in  its  case  there  is  another  retarding  influence 
at  work,  due  to  the  production  of  electric  currents 
by  the  magnetism  of  the  earth.]  But  this  is  not 
what  is  technically  understood  by  the  title  The 
Perpetual  Motion.  It  means  an  engine  which, 
without  any  supply  of  power  from  without,  can  not 
only  maintaiu  its  own  motion  for  ever,  or  as  long  as 
its  materials  last,  but  can  also  be  applied  to  drive 
machinery,  and  therefore  to  do  external  work.  In 
other  words,  it  means  a  device  for  creating  power 
or  energy  without  corresponding  expenditure.  This 
is  now  known  to  be  absolutely  impossible,  no  matter 
what  physical  forces  be  employed.  In  fact,  the 
modern  physical  axiom,  the  Conservation  of  Energy, 
(see  Force),  founded  on  experimental  bases  as  cer- 
tain as  those  which  convince  us  of  the  truth  of  the 
Laws  of  Motion,  may  be  expressed,  in  the  negative, 
thus :  The  perpetual  motion  is  impossible.  Helm- 
holtz's  beautiful  investigations  regarding  Conserva- 
tion of  Energy  (referred  to  in  Force),  are  founded  on 
this  axiom.  So  is  the  recent  application,  by  Clausius, 
of  Carnot's  remarkable  investigation  of  the  '  Motive- 
power  of  Fire '  to  the  true  Theory  of  Heat.  Other 
instances  will  be  mentioned  at  the  end  of  the  article. 


The  complete  statement  of  the  impossibility  of 
procuring  the  perpetual  motion  with  the  ordinary 
mechanical  arrangements,  in  which  it  was  most 
commonly  sought,  is  to  be  found  in  the  Principia 
(q.  v.),  as  a  deduction  from  Newton's  Third  Law  of 
Motion.  The  equivalent  principle  of  Conservation 
of  Energy  is  there  stated  in  a  manner  which  leaves 
nothing  to  be  desired ;  although  not  given  in  any- 
thing like  the  modern  phraseology.  Yet  it  is  usually 
said,  in  works  on  the  Perpetual  Motion,  that  De  La 
Hire  (in  1678)  gave  the  first  proof  of  its  impossibility 
in  ordinary  mechanics.  This  proof,  published  long 
after  Newton's,  is  by  no  means  so  complete,  as  it 
exposes  only  some  of  the  more  patent  absurdities 
which  had  been  propounded  for  the  solution  of  the 
problem.  It  is  certain,  and  worthy  of  particular 
notice,  that  Newton  was  far  in  advance  of  the 
greatest  of  his  contemporaries  and  their  immediate 
successors,  in  even  the  fundamental  notions  of 
mechanics.  Thus,  we  find  John  Bernouilli  seriously 
propounding  a  form  of  the  perpetual  motion,  depend- 
ing upon  the  alternate  mixture,  and  separation  by  a 
filter,  of  two  liquids  of  different  densities ;  an 
arrangement  which  is  a3  preposterous  as  the  very 
common  suggestion  of  a  water-wheel  which  should 
pump  up  its  own  supply  of  water ;  and  whose 
absurdity  must  be  evideut  to  any  one  acquainted 
with  Newton's  chapter  on  the  Laws  of  Motion. 

It  is  curious  that,  Jong  before  Newton's  time,  the 
physical  axiom,  that  the  perpetual  motion  is  impos- 
sible, was  assumed  by  Stevinus  as  a  foundation  for 
the  science  of  Statics.  This  is  particularly  interest- 
ing when  we  compare  it  with  the  magnificent  dis- 
coveries which  have  been  evolved  in  our  own  day 
from  the  same  principle  applied  to  the  physical  forces 
generally,  and  not  to  gravitation  alone,  as  contem- 
plated by  Stevinus.  His  process  is  as  follows  :  Let 
an  endless  chain  of  uniform 
weight  be  passed  round  a 
smooth  triangular  prism 
ABC,  of  which  the  face 
BC  is  horizontal.  The  free 
portion  of  the  chain  BDC 
will  hang  in  a  symmetrical 
curve  (Catenary,  q.  v.), 
and  its  tension  will  there- 
fore be  the  same  at  B  and 
at  C.  Hence  the  other 
portion  BAG  of  the  chain 

will  be  free  to  move,  unless  the  resolved  part  of 
the  weight  of  AB,  acting  down  the  inclined  plane 
AB,  just  balance  that  of  the  corresponding  portion 
of  the  chain  down  AC.  If  these  balance,  the 
parallelogram  of  forces  is  proved;  if  not,  one  side 
will  preponderate,  and  we  shall  evidently  obtain 
the  perpetual  motion. 

We  will  briefly  sketch  the  history  of  the  simpler 
part  of  the  problem,  where  mechanical  and  hydro- 
statical  arrangements  alone  are  contemplated,  and 
where  the  impossibility  of  procuring  the  perpetual 
motion  had  been  completely  shewn  by  Newton. 

The  leading  features  of  the  various  devices  sug- 
gested as  self-moving  engines  are  three :  1.  The 
machine  being  a  combination  of  mechanical  powers 
driven  by  weights,  was  to  be  constructed  so  as  con- 
stantly to  wind  up  those  weights  as  they  fell,  and 
therefore  to  be  constantly  in  the  same  circumstances 
as  to  power  in  each  successive  complete  revolution. 
The  ideal  of  this,  in  its  simplest  form,  is  that  of  a 
wheel  moving  about  a  horizontal  axis,  and  so  adjust- 
ing certain  heavy  sliding  pieces  on  its  surface,  as  to 
have  always  a  preponderance  on  one  particular  side. 
2.  The  type  of  the  second  class  differs  from  that  of 
the  first  only  in  the  substitution  of  liquids  for  the 
weights  in  the  first  class,  and  the  consequent 
introduction  (often  in  most  extravagant  forms)  oi 


PERPETUAL  MOTION. 


hydrostatical  laws,  which  the  inventors  seem  to  have 
considered  less  certain  and  more  pliable  than  the 
stern  facta  of  common  mechanics,  8.  The  machine 
depends  on  >-"iin-  natural  power,  Bach  ns  rain,  change 
of  temperature,  wind.  fluctuations  of  the  barometer, 
tilled.  &c  The  consideration  <>t'  this  third  class  is 
very  interesting,  but  we  will  defer  it  for  a  little. 

Of  the  first  class,  the  only  machines  that  seem 
ever  to  have  succeeded  in  permanently  deceiving  any 
but  their  inventors  are  those  of  the  Marquis  of 
Worcester  and  <>f  Councillor  Orflfyreug.  Contem- 
porary with  the  former  was  Bishop  Wilkins,  who 
candidly  and  ingeniously  points  out  the  fallacies  of 
Yarious  devices  of  his  own,  depending  severally  on 
weights,  on  magnets,  arid  on  Archimedes's  screw. 
His  first  attempt  seems  to  have  been  closely  allied 
to  that  of  the  Marquis  of  Worcester,  of  whose  engine 
we  have  no  drawing,  and  only  a  very  vague  descrip- 
tion.    The  following  figures  give  us,  however,  some 


Bishop  Wilkins's  First  Form. 

notion  of  its  probable  nature.     The  first  is  one  of 
Wilkins's,  the  second  that  of  Jackson,  the  third  that 


Jackson's  Perpetual  Motion. 

or   Merlin.     Their  construction  is  evident  from  the 
h^iiies. 


In  all  three,  the  attempt  is  by  the  sliding  of  tht 
halls  in  their  cells,  or  by   the  turning  of  the 
to  give  the  preponderance  to  the  descending  tide  <•■« 


Merlin's  Perpetual  Motion. 

the  wheel.  But  even  the  cuts  shew  that  /bongh 
the  weights  on  the  descending  side  are  on  t'r.e  whole 
further  from  the  axis  of  the  wheel  than  those  on 
the  ascending  side,  yet  there  are  more  balls  on  the 
latter  than  on  the  former  side  ;  and  a  careful  exami- 
nation, like  that  made  by  Wilkins,  shews  that  their 
moments  in  opposite  directions  about  the  axis 
balance  each  other.  With  reference  to  the  invention 
of  the  Marquis  of  Worcester — who  is  otherwise  well 
known  as  one  of  the  first  to  foresee,  and  even  in 
part  to  realise  experimentally,  the  advantage  of  steam 
as  a  motive-power — we  find  the  following  in  his 
Century  of  Inventions :  'An  Advantageous  Change  of 
Centers. — To  prouide  and  make  that  all  y*  weights  of 
ye  descending  syde  of  a  wheele  shal  be  perpetually 
further  from  ye  center,  then  those  of  ye  mounting 
syde,  and  yett  equall  in  number  and  heft  of  y*  one 
syde  as  y*  other.  A  most  incredible  thing  if  not 
seene,  butt  tryed  before  ye  late  King  of  happy 
and  glorious  memorye  in  ye  Tower  by  my  directions, 
two  Extraordnary  Embassadors  accompanying  his 
Mat,e  and  y*  D.  of  Richmond,  D.  Hamilton,  and 
most  part  of  y*  Court  attending  him.  The  wheele 
was  14  foote  oner,  and  40  weights  of  50  p'1  apiece ; 
Sr  Wm.  Belford,  then  Lieu1  of  y8  Tower,  and  yet 
liuing  can  justify  it  with  seuerall  others  ;  They  all 
saw  that  noe  sooner  these  great  weights  passed 
y*  Diameter  Line  of  y*  vpper  syde  but  they  hung  a 
foote  further  from  y*5  center,  nor  no  sooner  passed 
the  Diameter  Line  of  the  lower  syde,  butt  they  hung 
a  foote  nearer ;  bee  pleased  to  judge  y*  consequence,'  * 
The  machine  of  Ortfyreus,  by  which 'S  Gravesande 
was  completely  taken  in,  so  much  so  that  he  wrote 
to  Newton  expressing  his  belief  that  the  perpetual 
motion  was  really  found,  consisted  of  a  large  wheel 
or  drum  covered  with  canvas,  to  prevent  the  interior 
from  being  seen,  and  rotating  about  a  thick  horizon- 
tal axle.  This  machine,  when  set  agoing  in  either 
direction,  moved  with  accelerated  speed  till  it  reached 
a  rate  of  twenty-five  turns  in  a  minute ;  and  on  one 
occasion  was  sealed  up  by  the  Elector  of  Cassel  for 
two  months,  and  at  the  expiration  of  that  time  found 
to  be  moving  as  rapidly  as  ever.  This,  like  the  cele- 
brated automaton  chess-player,  was  evidently  a  case 
of  clever  imposition  ;  and  but  for  its  strange  effect 

*  See  Harleian  MS.,  No.  2428,  in  the  British  Museum. 

411 


PERPETUAL  MOTION. 


on  S  Gravesande,  would  probably  have  been  for- 
gotten long  ago.  Tricks  of  this  kind,  more  or  less 
ingenious,  such  as  that  of  Spence  of  Linlithgow 
(1818),  which  many  of  our  readers  may  recollect,  are 
still  common,  especially  in  America. 

Bishop  Wilkins's  third  form  is  a  good  example 
of  the  second  class  of  contrivances  above  men- 
tioned.    Its  construction  will  be  readily  understood 


Bishop  Wilkins's  Third  Form. 

from  the  annexed  cut.  The  water-wheels,  driven 
by  the  descending  water,  are  intended  to  turn  the 
Archimedean  screw,  so  as  constantly  to  replenish 
the  tank  above.  Wilkins's  calm  investigation  of 
the  reasons  why  his  device  will  not  succeed,  is 
very  interesting  and  creditable. 

As  a  contrast,  let  us  take  a  case  of  special 
absurdity,  that  of  Norwood.  In  the  figure,  it  is 
supposed    that,  as    the  weight    of    the  water    or 


Norwood's  Perpetual  Motion. 

mercury  in  the  large  vessel  immensely  exceeds  that 
in  the  neck,  it  will  preponderate,  and  drive  the 
liquid  through  the  spout  into  the  vessel  again ; 
thereby  furnishing,  not  only  an  admirable  perpetual 
motion,  but  a  conclusive  disproof  of  one  of  the 
fundamental  laws  of  Hydrostatics. 

The  second  of  Wilkins's  cases  is  an  instructive  one. 
It  depends  on  magnetism,  and  will  be  readily  under- 
stood from  the  cut.  AB  is  a  loadstone,  which 
draws  the  iron  ball  C  up  the  inclined  plane  to  E, 
where  there  is  a  hole  through  which  the  ball  falls 
down  the  curved  incline,  pushes  open  a  trap  at  F, 
and  is  dragged  again  up  the  plane  by  the  loadstone. 
The  error  of  this  is  the  neglect  of  the  action  of  the 
loadstone  on  the  falling  balL  There  would  be  an 
admirable  case  of  the  perpetual  motion  if  we  could 
411 


remove  or  annihilate  (without  expenditure  of  work) 
the  action  of  the  loadstone  during  the  descent. 
Unfortunately,  the  law  of  magnetic  attraction  is  the 


Bishop  Wilkins's  Second  Form. 

same  as  that  of  gravitation,  and  what  is  impossible 
with  the  one,  must  be  equally  so  with  the  other. 
A  good  illustration  of  this  is  Addeley's  Perpetual 
Motion,  represented  in  the  annexed  sketch.  The 
spokes  projecting  from  the  wheel  are  magnets, 
whose  south  poles  are  all  turned  from  the  centre. 
These  are  attracted  by  the  north  poles  (N),  and 


Addeley's  Perpetual  Motion. 

repelled  by  the  south  poles  (S)  of  four  fixed  mag- 
nets; and  blocks  of  wood  (A)  are  interposed,  to 
prevent  magnetic  action  where  it  would  tend  to  stop 
the  machine !  If  it  were  possible  to  find  a  sub- 
stance which  would  deal  with  gravitation  or  mag- 
netism as  an  opaque  body  does  with  light  (casting  a 
shadow),  the  perpetual  motion  would  b^  obtained 
with  the  greatest  ease. 

It  would  be  tedious  and  unprofitable  to  go  through 
the  various  physical  forces,  shewing  how  a  miscon- 
ception of  their  laws  has  led  to  hundreds  of  patented 
schemes  for  the  production  of  perpetual  motion. 
We  may  merely  hint  at  magneto-electric  machines 
turned  by  electro-magnetic  engines,  to  which  they 
supply  the  electric  currents ;  electric  machines, 
driven  by  a  gas-engine,  the  fuel  for  which  is  supplied 
by  the  decomposition  of  water  by  the  electricity 
produced,  &c. ;  the  absurdity  of  all  of  which  may 
be  imagined  from  the  perfectly  analogous  case  of  a 
steam-engine  to  which  heat  might  be  supposed  tc 


PERPETUAL  MOTION— PERPETU  IT  IPS. 


be  supplied  by  the  friction  of  bodies  driven  by  the 
engine  itself.  An  excellent  example  of  this  absurdity 
is  furnished  by  the  writings  of  one  of  our  ablest 
geologists.  He  considers  that  the  internal  heat  of 
the  earth  may  be  due  to  chemical  combination,  that 
the  heat  so  produced  may  develop  thermo-electric 
currents,  and  that  these  in  their  turn  may  decom- 
pose the  compounds  formed,  so  that  the  process 
may  go  on  indefinitely. 

But  the  third  class  of  attempts  above  described 
merits  a  few  words.  It  certainly  does  not  give  the 
perpetual  motion,  but  it  is  capable  of  furnishing 
prime-movers  which  will  work  uninterruptedly  for 

Serhaps  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years.  This  is 
one,  however,  as  we  should  expect,  at  the  expense 
of  other  stores  of  energy  in  the  universe.  Thus, 
the  tide-wheel,  or  tidal  engine,  a  little-used  but 
most  effective  source  of  power,  derives  its  energy 
entirely  from  the  earth's  diurnal  rotation.  Engines 
driven  by  collected  rain-water,  such  as  mill-wheels, 
&c,  and  others  driven  by  power  stored  up  from 
winds,  &c,  depend  upon  energy  radiated  from  the 
sun,  mainly  in  the  form  of  heat.  None  of  these 
can,  therefore,  in  strictness  be  called  the  perpetual 
motion,  since  the  energy  of  the  earth's  rotation,  or 
of  the  sun's  heat,  is  drawn  upon  in  their  production. 

But  the  complete  proof  of  the  impossibility  of 
procuring  the  perpetual  motion  by  any  arrangement 
whatever,  involving  any  known  forces,  was  arrived 
at  mainly  by  the  experiments  of  Joule  (q.  v.),  who 
shewed  that  the  principle  of  the  Conservation  of 
Energy  extends,  not  alone  to  the  forces  for  which  it 
was  enunciated  by  Newton,  but  to  every  known 
form  of  physical  action.  The  date  1840 — 1845 
may  thus  be  said  to  have  finally  settled  this  long- 
disputed  question  ;  at  all  events,  until  new  forms  of 
physical  forces  may  happen  to  be  discovered ;  and 
we  are  now  in  a  position  to  do  generally,  what  was 
wisely  done  by  the  French  Academy  in  1775  for 
ordinary  mechanical  contrivances  alone — viz.,  refuse 
to  consider  any  scheme  whatever  which  pretends  to 
give  work  without  corresponding  and  equivalent 
expenditure.  The  language  in  which  this  decision 
of  the  French  Academy  is  recorded  (Histoire 
de  V  Academie,  1775)  is  well  worthy  of  being  quoted, 
for  its  calm  scientific  clearness  and  brevity,  and 
for  its  present  applicability  to  physical  science  in 
general :  '  The  construction  of  a  perpetual  motion  is 
impossible.  Even  if  the  effect  of  the  motive-power 
were  not  in  the  long  run  destroyed  by  friction  and 
the  resistance  of  the  medium  [in  which  the  motion 
takes  place],  this  power  could  produce  merely  an 
effect  equivalent  to  itself.  In  order,  therefore,  to 
produce  a  perpetual  effect  from  a  finite  cause,  that 
effect  must  be  infinitely  small  in  any  finite  time. 
Neglecting  friction  and  resistance,  a  body  to  which 
motion  has  been  given  will  retain  it  for  ever ;  but 
only  on  condition  of  its  not  acting  on  other  bodies, 
and  the  only  perpetual  motion  possible,  on  this 
hypothesis  (which,  besides,  cannot  occur  in  nature), 
would  be  useless  for  the  object  which  the  devisers 
of  perpetual  motions  have  in  view.  This  species  of 
research  has  the  inconvenience  of  being  costly;  it 
has  ruined  many  a  family ;  and  numerous  mechanics, 
who  might  have  done  great  service,  have  wasted  on 
it  their  means,  their  time,  and  their  talents. 

'  These  are  the  principal  motives  which  have  led 
the  Academy  to  its  decision.  In  resolving  that  it 
will  no  longer  notice  such  speculations,  it  simply 
declares  its  opinion  of  the  uselessness  of  the  labours 
of  those  who  are  devoted  to  them.' 

It  has  been  asserted  that  the  infatuation  of  the 
perpetual  motionists,  who  (as  may  be   seen  by  a 

fiance  at  the  specifications  of  patents  in  Britain, 
'ranee,  Belgium,  America,  &c.)  are  perhaps  more 
numerous  now  than  ever,  is  due  to  two  causes — 


one,  the  idea  that  the  perpetual  motion  is  a  lost, 
but  recoverable  invention ;  the  other,  that  some 
immense  government  reward  has  been  for  yean  laid 
aside  for  the  successful  discoverer.  But,  unhappily, 
these  ideas  are  as  fallacious  as  the  grand  d 
itself;  and  any  one  who,  in  the  present  state  of  science, 
allows  himself  to  be  carried  away  by  this  fa-r -mat- 
ing inquiry,  loses  his  time  and  wastes  his  talents, 
more  hopelessly  than  even  a  '  squarer  of  the  circle.' 

In  conclusion,  we  may  mention  a  few  of  the 
cases  already  hinted  at,  in  which  the  impossibility 
of  the  perpetual  motion  formed  the  basis  of  an 
investigation.  These  will  shew  the  great  use 
which  may  be  made  of  even  a  negative  proposition, 
Helmholtz  has  shewn  from  it  that  the  ultimate 
particles  of  matter  must  exert  upon  each  other  forces, 
whose  direction  is  that  of  the  line  joining  each  pair 
of  particles,  and  whose  magnitude  depends  solely  on 
their  distance.  J.  Thomson  employed  it  to  shew  that 
the  freezing-point  of  water  is  lowered  by  pressure, 
as  otherwise  work  might  be  created  by  the  freezing 
of  ice-cold  water.  VV.  Thomson  has  employed  it 
to  shew  that  a  diamagnetic  (see  Diama<;netism) 
body  does  not  take  the  opposite  magnetism  to  iron, 
when  in  simdar  circumstances  ;  for  if  it  did,  and 
if,  like  iron,  it  took  time  for  the  full  development 
of  the  action,  a  perpetual  motion  might  be  produced. 

The  literature  of  this  subject  is  very  extensive, 
but  scattered  mainly  through  Patent  Records  and 
ephemeral  pamphlets.  The  Journal  des  Savants, 
and  Montucla's  Histoire  des  Mathematkjues  may  be 
consulted;  but  especially  we  would  refer  the  curious 
reader  to  a  recent  work  by  Mr  Dircks  (of  Patent- 
Ghost  notoriety)  entitled  Perpetuum  Mobile  (Spon, 
London,  1861) ;  to  which  we  have  been  indebted  for 
some  of  our  historical  notices.  The  tenor  of  the 
work  is  such  that  we  cannot  easily  discover  whether 
the  author  is  a  perpetual-motionist  or  not ;  but, 
however  this  may  be,  it  is  extremely  complete  and 
interesting  as  a  history. 

PERPETUITIES,  Law  against,  consists  in  a 
rule  adopted  in  England  to  the  effect  that  property 
cannot  be  tied  up  for  a  period  longer  than  the 
fives  of  some  parties  already  in  existence,  and  21 
years  more.  Those  who  have  the  power  of  disposing 
of  their  property  have  often  attempted  to  regulate 
the  succession  of  their  estate  at  distant  periods. 
Such  was  the  object  of  the  original  practice  of 
entailing  property,  and  so  enforcing  the  devolution 
of  property  on  a  certain  series  of  heirs  to  the 
remotest  generations.  This  power  of  testators  was 
always  looked  upon  with  jealousy,  as  tending  to 
embarrass  future  dealings  with  the  property,  and 
frustrate  the  purposes  for  which  property  is  estab- 
lished. So  early  as  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  a 
decision  was  come  to  by  the  courts  in  Taltarum's 
case,  which  had  the  effect  of  allowing  the  first 
tenant  in  tad  in  remainder,  on  arriving  at  majority, 
to  disentad  the  estate  at  discretion.  Hence,  in 
England,  there  has  been  ever  since  no  mode  of 
settling  property  in  any  way  so  as  to  tie  it  up 
beyond  the  life  of  the  iirst  who  takes  an  estate  of 
freehold,  and  the  nonage  of  the  tenant  in  tail  next 
in  remainder — i.  e.,  the  lives  of  persons  in  existence, 
and  21  years  more.  This  principle  applies  not  only 
to  land,  but  to  personal  property.  As  to  the 
accumulation  of  the  income  of  property,  an  attempt 
was  made  by  the  late  Mr  Thellusson  to  create  an 
immense  fortune  by  directing  the  income  of  his 
property  to  be  accumulated  during  the  lives  of 
all  his  children,  grandchddren,  and  great-grand- 
clnldren,  who  were  living  at  the  time  of  his  death, 
for  the  benefit  of  some  future  descendants,  to  be 
living  at  the  death  of  the  survivor.  The  probable 
amount  of  the  accumulated  fund  was  expected  to 
be  19  millions.      The  will   was  in  great  measure 

416 


PERPIGNAN— PERSECUTIONS. 


defeated  by  the  existing  law,  but  in  consequence  of 
80  conspicuous  an  attempt,  an  act  of  parliament 
was  passed,  called  the  Thellusson  Act  (39  and  40 
Geo.  III.  c.  98),  which  in  future  forbids  the  accumu- 
lation of  income  for  any  longer  time  than  the  life 
of  the  granter  or  settler,  or  21  years  from  his  death. 
In  Scotland,  so  far  from  the  above  doctrines  having 
been  early  adopted,  the  contrary  doctrine  was 
established.    See  Entail. 

PERPIGNAN,  a  town  of  France,  and  a  fortress 
of  the  first  rank,  capital  of  the  department  of 
Pyren6es-Orientales,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
Tet,  5  miles  from  the  Mediterranean,  and  40  miles 
by  railway  south  of  Narbonne.  It  commands  the 
passage  by  the  Eastern  Pyrenees  from  Spain  into 
France,  and  is  defended  on  the  south  by  a  citadel 
and  by  ramparts  flanked  with  bastions,  and  pro- 
tected by  raised  works.  The  works  underwent  a 
thorough  rej3air  in  1823,  and  P.  now  ranks  as  one 
of  the  first  strongholds  in  France.  Its  appearance 
is  exceedingly  picturesque.  From  a  distance,  its 
houses  are  seen  in  the  midst  of  a  forest  of  orchards; 
and  a  closer  examination  shews  a  collection  of 
narrow  streets,  covered  with  awnings;  houses  of 
semi-Moresque  construction,  with  wooden  balconies 
and  courts,  and  other  evidences  of  Spanish  influence. 
The  cathedral,  a  massive  building,  begun  in  1324 ; 
the  belfry  of  St  Jacques  and  the  Castiller  (now 
used  as  a  military  prison),  with  its  battlements  and 
machicolations,  give  character  to  the  town.  P. 
contains  barracks  for  5000  men,  a  council-house, 
palace  of  justice,  mint,  a  college,  numerous  schools, 
museums,  and  scientific  societies.  Good  vin  ordinaire 
(red)  is  grown  in  the  vicinity;  woollen  cloths, 
playing-cards,  leather,  &c,  are  manufactured,  and 
there  is  a  good  trade  in  wine,  brandy,  wool,  and 
silk.     Pop.  23,462. 

P.,  as  capital  of  the  former  county  of  Roussillon, 
remained  long  in  the  hands  of  the  kings  of  Aragon, 
and  in  1349,  King  Pedro  founded  a  university  here. 
In  1642,  it  was  taken  by  Louis  XIII. ;  and  since 
that  time,  the  town  itself,  together  with  the  county 
of  Roussillon,  has  remained  in  the  possession  of  the 
French. 

PERRAULT,  Charles,  a  French  writer,  born 
at  Paris,  12th  January  1628,  was  the  son  of  an 
advocate,  and  received  a  good  education.  In  1651, 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Paris  bar,  and  obtained 
a  considerable  measure  of  success  as  a  pleader; 
but  having  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  minister 
Colbert,  he  was  erelong  diverted  from  the  practice 
of  his  profession  by  receiving  the  appointment  of 
Controller-general  of  the  Royal  Buildings.  In  1671, 
the  influence  of  Colbert  procured  for  him  an  en- 
trance into  the  French  Academy,  into  which  learned 
body  he  introduced  several  important  reforms. 
What  first  made  his  name  well  known  was  his 
famous  controversy  with  Bodeau  regarding  the 
comparative  merits  of  the  ancients  and  moderns, 
which  originated  in  a  poem  of  P.'s,  entitled  Le  Siecle 
de  Louis  le  Grand,  read  before  his  confreres  of  the 
Academy,  and  intended  to  prove  that  modern  authors 
were  superior  to  Homer,  Herodotus,  Plato,  Aristotle, 
Virgil,  &c.  It  was  followed  up  by  an  elaborate  and 
methodically  written  Parallele  des  Anciena  et  des 
Modernea  (4  vols.  1688—1698),  which,  though  an 
able  and  learned  performance,  is  a  complete  failure 
in  its  logic.  Boileau  was  his  keenest  ojiponent,  and 
fiercely,  not  to  say  rudely,  assailed  him  in  his 
Reflexions  sur  Longin,  t»  which  P.  replied  with 
equal  acrimony,  but  not  with  equal  wit,  in  his 
Apologie  des  Femmea  (1694).  One  good  effect  of 
this  quarrel  was  to  turn  P.'s  attention  still  more 
closely  and  critically  to  his  contemporaries,  the 
result  of  which  was  an  admirable  work,  Hommes 
416 


Illustres  du  Steele  de  Louis  XIV.,  containing  200 
critical  biographies.  But  the  work  that  has  far 
more  than  any  other  preserved  his  name  is  his  Contes 
dea  Fees,  or  Fairy  Tales.  See  Novels.  The  grace, 
liveliness,  and  ingenious  child-like  fancy  displayed 
in  these  charming  compositions,  are  beyond  all 
praise,  and  when  we  remember  that  their  author 
was  far  advanced  in  years  when  he  wrote  them, 
the  feat  seems  miraculous.  '  Second  childhood  '  is 
not  always  so  like  the  '  first,'  as  that  of  P.  seems 
to  have  been.     P.  died  16th  May  1703. 

PERRY,  an  agreeable  beverage  made  by  ferment- 
ing the  juice  of  pears.  It  is  extensively  made  in 
Worcestershire,  Gloucestershire,  Herefordshire,  and 
Devonshire,  and  forms,  with  cider,  the  chief  diet- 
drink  of  those  districts.  It  contains  from  five  to 
nine  per  cent,  of  alcohol.  The  best  pears  for  making 
perry  are  those  which  from  their  rough  taste  are 
least  agreeable  for  eating. 

PE'RSEA.    See  Avocado  Pear. 

PERSECUTIONS,  The  Ten,  of  the  Christian 
Church,  is  the  name  by  which  are  known  in  eccle- 
siastical  history  certain  periods  of  special  severity 
exercised  towards  the  rising  community  of  Christians, 
for  the  purpose  of  compelling  them  to  renounce  their 
new  creed,  and  to  conform  to  the  established  religion 
of  the  empire.  The  Christian  community  were  at 
all  times  regarded  with  suspicion  and  dislike  in  the 
Roman  empire — the  constitution  of  Rome  not  only 
being  essentially  intolerant  of  those  new  religions 
which,  like  the  Christian,  were  directly  aggressive 
against  the  established  religion  of  the  state,  but 
being  particularly  hostile  to  private  associations 
and  private  assemblages  for  worship,  such  as  those 
which  every  Christian  congregation  by  its  very 
nature  presented ;  and  thus  there  are  very  few 
periods,  during  the  first  three  centuries,  in  which  it 
can  be  said  that  the  church  enjoyed  everywhere  a 
complete  immunity  from  persecution.  But  the 
name  is  given  particularly  to  certain  periods  when 
either  new  enactments  were  passed  against  Chris- 
tianity, or  the  existing  ones  were  enforced  with 
unusual  rigour.  The  notion  of  ten  such  periods  is 
commonly  accepted  almost  as  an  historical  axiom ; 
and  it  is  not  generally  known  that  this  precise 
determination  of  the  number  is  comparatively  recent. 
In  the  4th  c.,no  settled  theory  of  the  number  of 
persecutions  seems  to  have  been  adopted.  Lac- 
tantius  reckons  up  but  six  ;  Eusebius  does  not  state 
what  the  number  was,  but  his  narrative  supplies 
data  for  nine.  Sulpicius  Severus,  in  the  5th  c,  is 
the  first  who  expressly  states  the  number  at  ten; 
but  he  only  enumerates  nine  in  detail,  and  in 
completing  the  number  to  ten,  he  adds  the  general 
persecution  which,  at  the  coming  of  Antichrist, 
is  to  precede  the  end  of  the  world.  The  fixing  of 
ten  as  the  number  seems  to  have  originated  in  a 
mystic  allusion  to  the  ten  horns  of  the  beast  in  the 
Apocalypse  (xvii.  12). 

It  need  hardly  be  said,  however,  that  this  is  only 
a  question  of  words,  the  diversity  of  enumeration 
arising  from  the  different  notions  attached  by  the 
several  historians  to  the  designation  general.  If 
taken  quite  strictly  to  comprise  the  entire  Roman 
empire,  the  number  must  fall  below  ten ;  if  used  more 
loosely  of  local  persecutions,  the  number  might  be  very 
largely  increased.  The  ten  persecutions  commonly 
regarded  as  general  are  the  following  :  the  persecu- 
tion under  Nero,  64  a.d.  ;  under  Doinitian,  95  A.D. ; 
under  Trajan,  107  a.d.  ;  under  Hadrian,  125  a.d.  ; 
under  Marcus  Aurelius,  165  a.d.  ;  under  Septimius 
Severus,  202  a.d.  ;  under  Maximinus,  235  A.D. ; 
under  Decius,  249  a.d.  ;  under  Valerianus,  257  a.d.  ; 
under  Diocletian,  303  a.d.  The  extent  and  the 
duration  of  some  of  these  have  been  the  subject  of 


PERSEPOLIS. 


considerable  controversy,  and  indeed  an  animated 
discussion  was  maintained  for  a  long  period  aa  to 
the  probable  total  number  of  victims  in  the  pagan 

persecutions  of  the  church.  Such  controversies  are 
beyond  the  scope  of  this  publication.  It  is  quite 
certain  that  there  have  been  exaggerations  <>n  the 
Christian  as  well  as  on  the  advene  side  ;  but  it  lias 
been  shewn  beyond  the  possibility  of  doubt,  and  the 
most  recent  explorations  have  continued  the  argu- 
ments, that  the  data  on  which  the  estimates  <>f 
Dodwell  and  Gibbon,  the  most  prominent  advocates 
of  the  theory  of  the  small  number,  were  founded, 
were  uncertain,  and  even  fallacious  ;  and  that,  not  to 
Bpeak  of  the  many  victims  of  the  constantly  recur- 
ring local  violences,  the  number  who  fell  in  each  of 
the  above-named  persecutions  was  both  large  in 
itself,  and  spread,  in  most  cases,  over  a  considerable 
extent  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  most  violent,  as 
well  as  the  most  widely-spread  of  these  persecutions, 
were  those  under  Nero,  Trajan,  Maximums,  Decius, 
and  Diocletian.  The  last-named,  though  called  by 
Diocletian's  name,  was  in  reality  far  less  the  work 
of  that  emperor  than  of  his  colleague  Galerius  ;  but 
it  was  extremely  cruel,  and,  with  occasional  inter- 
ruptions, continued  from  the  year  303  down  to  the 
victory  of  Constantine  over  Maxentius — a  period  of 
nearly  ten  years. 

PERSE'POLIS  (Persian  City),  the  Greek  trans- 
lation of  the  lost  name  of  the  capital  of  ancient 
Persia  (Parm-Karta?),  was  situated  on  the  river 
Araxes  (Bendemir),  to  the  east  of  the  river  Medus 
(Polwat,  or  River  of  Murghab),  in  the  plain  of 
Merdusht,   about  35  miles   to  the    north-east    of 


Shiraz,  on  the  road  to  Ispahan.     A  certain  number 
of  most  remarkable  ruins  is  all  that  now  remains  of 

that  city,  with  which,  according  to  ancient  writers, 
*  no  other  city  could  lie  compared  either  in  beauty 
or  in  wealth,'  and  which  was  generally  designated 
'The  Glory  of  the  East.'  Darius  II 
Xerxes,  Artaxerxes,  and  other  Achamenides,  each 
in  his  turn  contributed  towards  its  a_"_rr.'uidisemeiit. 
Alexander  the  Great,  in  his  march  of  conquest,  is 
said  to  have  destroyed  1*.  completely  ;  hut  this 
must  probably  only  he  understood  to  apply  to  some 
of  the  chief  palaces.  It  may  also  he  presumed  that 
after  the  fall  of  the  Achsemenides,  that  extension  of 
the  original  town  (afterwards  known,  and  important 
in  history  up  to  within  a  recent  period,  as  [stakbar), 
on  which  were  situated  the  royal  edifices  and 
temples  used  as  the  royal  treasuries  up  to  the  time  of 
Epiphanes,  gradually  fell  into  decay.  The  situation 
of  these  structures,  overlooking  the  vast  luxuriant 
plain  of  Merdusht,  is  described  in  terms  of  rapturous 
enthusiasm  by  every  traveller  from  (Jhardin  to  our 
own  day.  Three  groups  are  chiefly  distinguishable  in 
the  vast  ruins  existing  on  the  spot.  First,  the 
Chehel  Minar  (Forty  Pillars),  with  the  Mountain  of 
the  Tombs  (Ilachmed),  also  called  Takht-i-Jamshid 
or  the  structure  of  Jamshld,  after  some  fabulous 
ancient  kins;,  popularly  supposed  to  be  the  founder 
of  Persepolis.  The  next  in  order  is  Naksh-i- 
Rustam,  to  the  north-west,  with  its  tombs;  and  the 
last,  the  building  called  the  Haram  of  Jamshld. 
The  most  important  is  the  first  group,  situated  on 
a  vast  terrace  of  cyclopean  masonry  at  the  foot  of 
a  lofty  mountain-range.     The  extent  of  this  terrace 


Ruins  of  Persepolis. 
(Copied  from  Fergusson's  Palaces  of  Nmeoeh  and  Persepol'13  Restored.) 


is  about  1500  feet  north-by-south,  and  about  800  east- 
by-west,  and  it  was,  according  to  Diodorus  Siciilus, 
once  surrounded  by  a  triple  wall  of  1G,  32,  and  60 
cubits  respectively  in  height,  for  the  triple  purpose 
of  giving  strength,  inspiring  awe,  and  defence.  The 
whole  internal  area  is  further  divided  into  three 
terraces — the  lowest  towards  the  south ;  the  central 
being  800  feet  square,  and  rising  45  feet  above  the 

tuain  ;  and  the  third,  the  northern,  about  550  feet 
ong,  and  35  feet  high.  No  traces  of  structures  are 
to  be  found  on  the  lowest  platform  ;  on  the 
northern,  only  the  so-called  '  Propylrea '  of  Xerxes  ; 
but  the  central  platform  seems  to  have  been  occupied 
by  the  foremost  structures,  which  again,  however, 
do  not  all  appear  to  have  stood  on  the  same  level. 
There  are  distinguished  here  the  so-called '  Great  Hall 
of  Xerxes'  (called  Chehel  Minar,  by  way  of  eminence), 
the  Palace  of  Xerxes,  and  the  Palace  of  Darius, 
towering  one  ahove  the  other  in  successive  elevation 
from  the  ground.  The  stone  used  for  the  buildings 
339 


is  dark-gray  marble,  cut  into  gigantic  square  block«, 
and  in  many  cases  exquisitely  i>olished.  The  ascent 
from  the  plain  to  the  great  northern  platform  is 
formed  by  two  double  nights,  the  steps  of  which 
are  nearly  22  feet  wide,  34  inches  high,  and  1 5 
inches  in  the  tread,  so  that  several  travellers  have 
been  able  to  ascend  them  on  horseback.  What 
are  called  the  Propylaea  of  Xerxes  on  this  platform 
are  two  masses  of  stone-work,  which  probably  formed 
an  entrance-gateway  for  foot-passengers,  paved  with 
gigantic  slabs  of  polished  marble.  Portals,  still 
standing,  bear  figures  of  animals  15  feet  high,  closely 
resembling  the  Assyrian  bulls  of  Nineveh.  The 
building  itself,  conjectured  to  have  been  a  hall  82 
feet  square,  is,  according  to  the  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions, as  interpreted  by  Rawlinson,  the  work  ot 
Xerxes,  and  reads  as  follows  : 

'  The  great  god  Auramajda,  he  it  is  who  has- 
given  this  world,  and  who  has  given  life  to  man- 
kind, who  has   made  Xerxes   king,  both  king  *nd 


PERSEUS— PERSIA. 


lawgivei  ot  the  people.  1  am  Xerxes  the  king,  the 
great  kiug,  the  king  of  kings,  the  king  of  the  many- 
peopled  countries,  the  supporter  also  of  the  great 
world,  the  son  of  King  Darius,  the  Achwmenian. 

'Says  Xerxes  the  king,  by  the  grace  of  Auramajda, 
I  have  made  this  gate  of  entrance  ;  there  is  many 
another  nobler  work  besides  this  Persepolis  which  I 
have  executed,  and  which  my  father  has  executed ; '  &c. 

An  expanse  of  162  feet  divides  this  platform  from 
the  central  one,  which  still  bears  many  of  those 
columns  of  the  Hall  of  Xerxes  from  which  the  ruins 
have  taken  their  name.  The  staircase  leading  up  to 
the  Chehel  Minar,  or  Forty  Pillars,  is,  if  possible, 
still  more  magnificent  than  the  first ;  and.  the  walls 
are  more  superbly  decorated  with  sculptures,  repre- 
senting colossal  warriors  with  spears,  gigantic  bulls, 
combats  with  wild  beasts,  processions  and  the  like; 
while  broken  capitals,  shafts,  pillars,  and  countless 
fragments  of  buildings,  with  cuneiform  inscriptions, 
cover  the  whole  vast  space  of  this  platform,  350 
feet  from  north  to  south,  and  380  from  east  to  west. 
The  Great  Hall  of  Xerxes,  perhaps  the  largest  and 
most  magnificent  structure  the  world  has  ever  seen, 
is  computed  to  have  been  a  rectangle  of  about  300 — 
350  feet,  and  to  have  consequently  covered  105,000 
square  feet,  or  24  acres.  The  pillars  were  arranged 
in  four  divisions,  consisting  of  a  centre  group  six 
deep  every  way,  and  an  advanced  body  of  twelve 
in  two  ranks,  the  same  number  flanking  the  centre. 
Fifteen  columns  are  all  that  now  remain  of  the 
number.  Their  form  is  very  beautiful.  Their 
height  is  GO  feet,  the  circumference  of  the  shaft  16, 
the  length  from  the  capital  to  the  torus,  44  feet. 
The  shaft  is  finely  fluted  in  52  divisions;  at  its 
Lower  extremity  begin  a  cincture  and  a  torus,  the 
first,  two  inches  in  depth,  and  the  latter,  one  foot, 
from  whence  devolves  the  pedestal,  shaped  like  the 
cup  and  leaves  of  the  pendent  lotus,  the  capitals 
having  been  surmounted  by  the  double  semi-bull. 
Behind  the  Hall  of  Xerxes  was  the  so-calied 
Hall  of  Hundred  Columns,  to  the  south  of  which  are 
indications  of  another  structure,  which  Fergusson 
terms  the  Central  Edifice.  Next  along  the  west  front 
stood  the  Palace  of  Darius,  and  to  the  south  the 
Palace  of  Xerxes,  measuring  about  86  feet  square, 
similarly  decorated,  and  of  similar  grand  proportions. 
— For  a  further  and  more  minute  description,  we 
refer  to  the  travels  of  Niebuhr,  Ker  Porter,  Rich,  and 
other  travellers ;  to  Fergusson's  Palaces  of  Nineveh 
■  and  Persepolis  Restored,  and  to  Vaux's  Nineveh  and 
Persepolis.  See  also  the  articles  Cyrus,  Darius, 
^Xerxes,  Cuneiform,  and  Persian  Architecture. 

PE'RSEUS,  also  Perses,  the  last  king  of  Mace- 
donia, was  the  eldest  son  of  Philip  V.,  and  was  born 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  3d  c.  B.C.  He  was  trained 
to  a  military  life  from  his  earliest  years,  and  after 
bringing  about  the  death  of  his  younger  brother, 
Demetrius,  who  was  a  favourite  both  with  the 
Macedonians  and  the  Romans,  he  succeeded  his 
father  on  the  throne  179  B.C.  Philip  had  long 
foreseen  that  a  contest  between  Rome  and  Macedon 
'/as  inevitable,  and  he  had  carefully  prepared  for  it, 
to  that  P.,  on  his  accession,  found  himself  fore- 
armed. Meanwhile,  he  governed  Macedon  with  great 
prudence   and  moderation,   and   became   decidedly 

fopular  with  his  subjects  and  neighbours.  Seleucus 
V.  (Philopator)  gave  him  his  daughter  Laodice  in 
marriage  ;  Prusias,  the  Bithynian  king,  married  his 
sister  ;  the  Greek  states  looked  favourably  on  his 
projects,  and  his  envoys  were  well  received  even  at 
Carthage.  The  Romaus  took  the  alarm,  and — after 
some  delusive  negotiations — sent  an  army  into 
Thessaly  (171  B.C.).  The  war  lasted  four  years  ;  in 
the  first  three,  the  advantages  were  so  little  on  the 
side  of  the  Romans,  that  there  was  a  widespread 
feeling  in  P. 'a  favour  in  the  countries  bordering  on 
418 


the  Levant  and  the  Archipelago.  In  the  beginning 
of  the  fourth  campaign  (168  B.C.),  L.  ^Emilius 
Paul  us  arrived,  and  took  command  of  the  Roman 
forces.  A  great  battle  was  fought  at  Pydna  (June 
22),  in  which  the  army  of  P.  was  utterly  routed. 
The  king  himself  was  soon  afterwards  forced  to 
surrender,  and  conveyed  to  Rome,  where  he  adorned 
the  triumph  of  the  conqueror.  He  died  in  captivity 
at  Alba,  a  few  years  later. 

PERSRUS,  in  Grecian  Mythology,  the  son  cl 
Zeus  and  Danae  (q.  v.),  and  grandson  of  Acrisius. 
He  was  brought  up  at  Seriphos,  one  of  the  Cyclades, 
where  Polydec^es  reigned,  who,  wishing  to  get  rid 
of  him  for  private  reasons,  sent  him,  when  yet  a 
youth,  to  bring  the  head  of  the  Gorgon  Medusa,  on 
the  pretence  tiiat  he  wanted  to  present  it  as  a  bridal 
gift  to  Hippodamia.  P.  set  forth  under  the  protec- 
tion of  Athene  and  Hermes,  the  former  of  whom 
gave  him  a  mirror,  by  which  he  could  see  the 
monster  without  looking  at  her  (for  that  would  have 
changed  him  into  stone)  ;  the  latter,  a  sickle  ;  while 
the  nymphs  provided  him  with  winged  sandals,  and 
a  helmet  of  Hades,  or  invisible  cap.  After  numerous 
wonderful  adventures,  he  reached  the  abode  of 
Medusa,  who  dwelt  near  Tartessus,  on  the  coast  of 
the  ocean,  and  succeeded  in  cutting  off  her  head, 
which  he  put  into  a  bag,  and  carried  off.  On  his 
return,  he  visited  Ethiopia,  where  he  liberated  and 
married  Andromeda,  by  whom  he  subsequently  had 
a  numerous  family,  and  arrived  at  Seriphos  in  time 
to  rescue  his  mother  from  the  annoyance  of  the  too 
ardent  addresses  of  Polydectes,  whom,  along  with 
some  of  his  companions,  he  changed  into  stone. 
After  this,  he  went  to  Argos,  from  which  Acrisius 
fled  to  Thessaly,  and  P.  assumed  the  vacant  throne. 
But  this,  like  many  other  details  of  the  myth,  is 
differently  narrated.  P.  was  worshipped  as  a  hero  in 
various  parts  of  Greece,  and,  according  to  Herodotus, 
in  Egypt  too.  In  ancient  works  of  art,  the  figure  of 
P.  much  resembles  that  of  Hermes. 

PERSEVE'RANCE  OF  SAINTS,  a  doctrine 
necessarily  resulting  from  the  most  essential  parts 
of  the  Calvinistic  system,  and  therefore  held  by 
almost  all  who  adopt  the  Calvinistic  or  Augustinian 
doctrines.  It  is  advocated  not  only  by  arguments 
from  other  doctrines,  as  those  of  election,  atone- 
ment, the  intercession  and  mediatorial  dominion  of 
Christ,  imputed  righteousness,  and  regeneration, 
but  also  from  many  texts '  of  Scripture,  as  those 
which  declare  eternal  life  to  be  always  connected 
with  believing,  and  those  which  encourage  the 
believer  to  depend  on  the  faithfulness,  love,  and 
omnipotence  of  God.  To  an  objection  very  com- 
monly urged  against  it,  that  it  tends  to  make  men 
careless  concerning  virtue  and  holiness,  its  advocates 
reply,  that  this  objection  is  only  valid  against  a 
doctrine  very  different  from  theirs,  the  true  doctrine 
of  Perseverance  of  Saints  being  one  of  perseverance 
in  holiness,  and  giving  no  encouragement  to  a  con- 
fidence of  final  salvation  which  is  not  connected 
with  a  present  and  even  an  increasing  holiness. 

PE'RSHORE,  a  market-town  in  the  county  of 
Worcester,  and  9  mdes  south-east  of  the  city  of 
that  name,  on  the  Avon.  It  contains  two  churches — 
that  of  St  Andrew's,  small  and  ancient ;  and  the 
church  of  the  Holy  Cross,  in  Norman  and  Early 
English,  with  a  lofty  square  tower.  This  church  is 
the  only  remaining  portion  of  the  ancient  abbey- 
churrh  of  the  same  name.  Pop.  (18711  2«2*5.  who 
are  employed  in  wool-stapling,  in  manufacturing 
agricultural  implements,  and  in  raising  fruits  and 
vegetables  for  the  markets  of  the  large  manufactur- 
ing towns  in  the  vicinity. 

PER' SI  A,  called  by  the  natives  Iran  (seo 
Aryan   Race),   the  most  extensive  and  powerful 


PERSIA. 


rii.iiu1  kingdom  of  Western  Asia,  is  bounded  on  the 
N.  l.\  the  great  plain  of  Khiva,  the  Caspian  Sea, 
anil  the  Trans-Caucasian  provinces  of  Russia;  on 
tlic  E.  hy  Bokhara,  Afghanistan,  and  Beluchistan; 
on  the  S.  by  the  Strait  of  Ormuz  and  the  Persian 
Gulf;  mid  on  the  W.  by  the  Bhat-el-Arab  and 
Asiatic  Turkey.  It  contains  about  648,000  English 
square  miles,  and  consists  for  the  most  part  of  a 
great  tableland  or  elevated  plateau,  which  in  the 
centre  and  on  the  east  side  is  almost  a  dead  level ; 
but  on  the  north,  west.  Mini  smith,  is  covered  with 
a  broad  belt  of  mountain-region,  here  and  there 
Interspersed  with  tracts  of  desert  and  small  fertile 
plains.  The  mountain-system  of  P.  has  its  root 
in  the  north-west  corner  of  the  kingdom,  and  is 
a  continuation  of  the  Taurus,  Armenian,  and 
Caucasian  chains.  The  Taurus  chain  enters  P.  a 
little  to  the  north-east  of  Lake  Van  (q.  v.),  and 
then  turns  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  ramifying 
into  numerous  parallel  chains,  which  traverse  the 
west  and  south  of  the  country,  covering  it  for  a 
width  of  from  100  to  330  miles.  At  its  south- 
eastern extremity,  this  chain  joins  the  Jcbel- 
Abad,  which  runs  eastward  through  the  centre  of 
the  province  of  Kerman,  and  forms  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  plateau.  The  range  is  generally 
limestone,  and  like  all  other  mountains  of  the  same 
character,  presents  many  caves  and  grottoes.  The 
province  of  Azerbijan,  in  the  north-west,  is  almost 
wholly  mountainous.  On  the  east  side  of  Azerbijan, 
a  spur  of  the  Caucasus,  separated  from  it,  however, 
by  the  valley  of  the  Kur  and  Araxes,  runs  south- 
wards at  some  little  distance  from,  and  parallel  to, 
the  shore  of  the  Caspian,  at  the  south-west  corner 
of  which  it  becomes  more  elevated,  and  as  the 
majestic  range  of  the  Elburz  takes  an  easterly  direc- 
tion, following  the  line  of  the  Caspian  coast  at  a 
distance  varying  from  12  to  60  miles.  On  reaching 
Astrabad,  it  divides  into  three  great  parallel  ranges 
of  somewhat  inferior  elevation,  which  pursue  first 
an  east,  and  then  a  south-east  direction,  joining  the 
Paropamisus  in  Afghanistan.  Many  of  the  hills  in 
the  Elburz  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow  ;  and 
the  highest  peak,  Mount  Demavend,  is  more  than 
20,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  Persian  mountains  are 
mostly  of  a  primitive  character ;  granite,  porphyry, 
felspar,  and  mountain  limestone  enter  largely  into 
their  composition  ;  they  also,  in  great  part,  exhibit 
indications  of  volcanic  action — Demavend  itself 
being  evidently  an  extinct  volcano ;  and  the  destruc- 
tive earthquakes  which  are  still  of  frecpient  occur- 
rence in  the  north  and  north-west  of  P.,  indicate 
the  presence  of  subterranean  fires.  The  Elburz 
on  the  north,  the  Zagros  on  the  west,  the  Kerman 
Mountains  on  the  south,  and  Afghanistan  on  the 
east,  are  the  boundaries  of  the  Persian  plateau, 
which  ranges  from  2000  to  5000  feet  above  sea- 
level,  the  lowest  portion  being  the  Great  Salt  Desert, 
in  the  north-west  of  Khorassan,  which  has  2000  feet 
of  elevation  above  the  sea ;  while  the  average  eleva- 
tion of  the  whole  plateau  above  the  sea  is  about 
3700  feet.  The  lower  level,  out  of  which  the  upland 
rises,  is  called  the  Duslttistan,  or  '  Level  Country,' 
and  stretches  along  the  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  Gulf  of  Ormuz,  south  of  the  Bakhtiyari  and 
Kerman  ranges,  and  also  along  the  Caspian  Sea, 
between   it   and  the   Elburz.      The   aspect   of   the 

Elateau,  diversified  as  it  is  for  the  most  part  with 
ills  and  valleys,  mountain  and  plain,  is,  contrary 
to  what  might  naturally  be  expected,  dreary  and 
forbidding.  The  interior  mountains  are  everywhere 
bare  and  arid,  unrelieved  by  trees  or  shrubs,  and 
present  the  appearance  of  huge  masses  of  gray 
rock  piled  one  on  the  other,  or  starting  in  abrupt 
ridges  from  the  level  plain.  The  plains  are  equally 
unattractive;     and    those    which    are    not    deserts, 


consist  either  of  gravel  which  1ms  been  washed  down 
from  the  mountain  (dopes  or  accumulated  into  deep 
innl  extensive  lieds  during  some  former  revolution 
of  nature,  or  of  n  bard  dry  clay.  To  render  Buch  a 
country  fertile,  requires  the  presence  of  abundant 
water;  but  unfortunately  tor  i\,  nature  1ms  been 
remarkably  Bparing  in  this   respect      The  whole  of 

the  saBt  mid  centre  of  the  country  is  entirely  des- 
titute <>f  rivers;  the  country  Bouth  of  the  Kerman 
Mountains  is  very  meagrely  supplied,  the  rivere, 
Buch  us  they  are,  being  almost  wholly  confined  to 
|  the  western  and  the  Caspian  provinces. 

Almost  the  whole  of  Khorassan  (q.  v.),  the  north 
half  of  Kerman  (q.  v.),  the  east  of  Irak-Ajemi 
(q.  v.),  which  form  the  great  central  plain,  and 
detached  portions  of  all  the  other  provinces,  with 
the  exception  of  those  on  the  Caspian  Sea,  forming 
more  than  three-fourths  of  the  surface  of  1'.,  are 
desert.  In  some  parts  of  this  waste,  the  surface 
is  dry,  and  produces  a  scanty  herbage  of  saline 
plants;  in  other  parts,  it  is  covered  with  salt 
marshes,  or  with  a  dry,  hard,  salt  crust,  sometimes 
of  considerable  thickness,  which  glitters  and  flashes 
in  the  sunlight,  forcing  the  traveller  on  these 
inhospitable  wastes  to  wear  a  shade  to  protect  his 
eyes ;  but  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  this  region 
consists  of  sand,  sometimes  so  light  and  impalpable 
as  to  be  shifted  hither  and  thither  by  the  slightest 
breeze.  This  great  central  desert  contains  a  few 
oases,  but  none  of  great  extent.  The  largest  of  the 
salt  deserts  of  P.  is  the  '  Dasht  Beyad,'  commonly 
known  as  the  Great  Salt  Desert  of  Khorassan, 
which  lies  in  the  north-west  of  that  province,  and 
is  400  miles  in  length,  by  250  miles  in  breadth. 

Some  parts  of  P.,  however,  are  of  exceeding 
fertility  and  beauty  ;  the  immense  valleys,  some 
of  them  100  miles  in  length,  between  the  various 
ranges  of  the  Kerman  Mountains,  abound  with  the 
rarest  and  most  valuable  vegetable  productions; 
great  portions  of  the  provinces  of  Fars,  Khuzis- 
tan,  Ardelan,  and  Azerbijan,  have  been  lavishly 
endowed  by  nature  with  the  most  luxuriant  vegeta- 
tion ;  while  the  Caspian  provinces,  and  the  southern 
slopes  of  the  Elburz,  are  as  beautiful  as  wood,  water, 
and  a  fine  climate  can  make  them — the  mountain- 
sides being  clothed  with  trees  and  shrubs,  and  the 
plains  studded  with  nature's  choicest  products. 

Hirers. — P.  has  hardly  one  river  that  can  properly 
be  termed  navigable,  though  some  of  them  are 
several  hundred  miles  in  length,  and  of  great  width 
and  volume  of  water;  the  few  that  are  of  sufficient 
importance  to  deserve  mention  are— the  Karun, 
which  rises  in  the  mountains  to  the  south  of 
Ispahan,  flows  first  west,  and  then  south-south- 
west, receiving  many  tributaries  in  its  course, 
and  falls  into  the  Shat-el-Arab  (q.  v.),  near  Moham- 
merah  ;  the  Kerkhah  (or  Karasu  of  the  Turks), 
nearly  equal  to  the  Karun  in  size,  and  rising  in  the 
same  range,  which  flows  first  westward,  and  then, 
south-south-east,  watering  the  west  side  of  Luristan 
and  Khuzistan,  and  joins  the  Tigris  a  little  above 
its  junction  with  the  Euphrates  ;  the  Kizil-Uzun,  or 
Sefid-Rud  ('White  River'),  which  springs  from  the 
Sahund  range,  and  flows  in  an  easterly  direction, 
falling  into  the  Caspian  Sea  a  little  to  the  east 
of  Resht.  The  Aras,  or  Araxes  (q.  v.),  is  by  far  the 
largest  river  in  P. ;  but  it  can  scarcely  be  considered 
a  Persian  river,  as  it  never  enters  the  country,  but 
merely  forms,  for  some  distance,  the  northern 
boundary  towards  Russia.  The  rivers  which  flow 
to  the  southwards  receive,  in  the  latter  part  of 
their  course,  few  tributaries,  and  fertilise  only  a 
narrow  strip  of  land  on  each  side  of  them,  except 
when  their  waters  are  applied,  by  means  of  canals 
or  other  works,  to  the  artificial  irrigation  of  the 
soiL     This  mode  of  increasing  and  extending  the 

419 


PERSIA. 


productive  powers  of  the  country  was  much  em- 
ployed in  ancient  times;  hut  the  constant  change 
of  masters,  and  the  never-ending  disturbances  under 
which  P.  has  so  long  suffered,  led  to  the  neglect  of 
the  practice,  and  most  of  these  specimens  of  the 
architectural  skill  and  laborious  industry  of  the  an- 
cient Persians  are  now  in  a  ruinous  condition.  The 
Caspian  provinces  abound  in  rivers,  hut  the  greater 
number  of  them,  from  the  proximity  of  the  Elburz 
Mountains  to  the  Caspian,  are  mere  mountain  tor- 
rents, which  become  dry  in  summer. 

Lakes. — P.,  as  a  natural  consequence  of  the  nature 
and  situation  of  its  surface,  abounds  with  saline  lakes, 
and  there  are  nearly  thirty  of  them  having  no  visible 
outlets.  The  chief  lake  is  Lake  Urumiah  (q.  v.),  in 
Azerbijan.  Lake  Bakhtegan,  in  the  east  of  Pars,  the 
receptacle  for  the  drainage  of  the  northern  half  of 
that  province,  is  about  60  English  miles  in  length,  by 
9  in  breadth.     Lake  Shiraz  (q.  v.)  is  much  smaller. 

Climate  and  Products. — The  climate  is  necessarily 
very  varied.  What  the  Younger  Cyrus  is  reported 
to  have  said  to  Xenophon  regarding  the  climate, 
*  that  people  perish  with  cold  at  the  one  extremity, 
while  they  are  suffocated  with  heat  at  the  other,'  is 
literally  true.  P.  may  be  considered  to  possess 
three  climates — that  of  the  southern  Dushtistan, 
of  the  elevated  plateau,  aud  of  the  Caspian  pro- 
vinces. In  the  Dushtistan,  the  autumnal  heats 
are  excessive,  those  of  summer  more  tolerable, 
while  in  winter  and  spring  the  climate  is  delight- 
ful. The  cold  is  never  intense,  and  snow  seldom 
falls  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Kerman  range. 
The  rains  are  not  heavy,  and  occur  in  winter  and 
spring.  The  district  is  extremely  unhealthy.  On 
the  plateau,  the  climate  of  Fars  is  temperate,  and 
as  we  proceed  northwards,  the  climate  improves, 
attaiuing  its  greatest  perfection  about  Ispahan. 
Here  the  winters  and  summers  are  equally  mild, 
and  the  regularity  of  the  seasons  appears  remark- 
able to  a  stranger.  To  the  north  and  north-west  of 
this,  the  winters  are  severe ;  and  in  Kurdistan,  the 
greater  part  of  Azerbijan,  and  the  region  of  the 
Elburz,  the  climate  is  quite  alpine.  The  desert 
region  of  the  centre  and  east,  and  the  country  on 
its  border,  endure  most  oppressive  heat  during 
summer,  and  piercing  cold  in  winter.  The  Casjiian 
provinces,  from  their  general  depression  below 
the  sea-level,  are  exposed  to  a  degree  of  heat  in 
summer  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  West  Indies, 
and  their  winters  are  mild.  Rains,  however,  are 
frequent  and  heavy,  and  many  tracts  of  low  country 
are  marshy  and  extremely  unhealthy.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Caspian  provinces,  the  atmosphere 
of  P.  is  remarkable  above  that  of  all  other  countries 
for  its  dryness  and  purity,  a  fact  frequently  proved 
by  exposing  pieces  of  polished  iron  to  the  action  of 
the  air,  and  finding  whether  or  not  they  rust. 

The  cultivated  portions  of  P.,  when  supplied 
with  moisture,  are  very  fertile,  producing  an 
immense  variety  of  crops.  The  chief  cultivated 
products  are  wheat  (the  best  in  the  world),  barley, 
and  other  cereals,  cotton  (of  which,  according 
to  the  statement  of  the  Persian  ambassador  at 
London  in  1861,  enough  coidd  be  grown  in  the 
southern  provinces  to  supply  the  manufactories  of 
Western  Europe),  sugar,  rice,  and  tobacco.  The 
vine  flourishes  in  several  provinces,  and  the  wines  of 
Shiraz  are  celebrated  in  Eastern  poetry.  Mulberries 
are  also  largely  cultivated,  and  silk  is  one  of  the 
most  important  products  of  the  kingdom.  The 
forests  on  the  slopes  of  the  Elburz  abound  with  wild 
animals,  as  wolves,  tigers,  jackals,  boars,  buffaloes, 
foxes,  and  the  Caspian  cat.  Lions  and  leopards  also 
abound  in  Mazanderan.  Among  domestic  animals, 
the  horse  and  camel  hold  the  first  place.  The 
horses  have  always  been  celebrated  as  the  finest 
420 


in  the  East.  They  are  larger  and  more  handsome, 
but  less  fleet  than  the  Arabian  horses.  Immense 
herds  of  sheep  and  goats  feed  upon  the  mountain 
slopes  of  the  southern  provinces,  and  yield  their 
owners  a  rich  product  in  wool  and  goat-hair  of 
the  very  finest  quality.  The  wool  of  the  goats 
is  spun  into  various  fabrics,  which,  in  softness 
and  beauty,  almost  vie  with  those  of  Cashmere. 
The  Caspian  rivers  abound  with  fish,  es]>ecially 
sturgeon,  great  quantities  of  which  are  cured  and 
exported  to  Russia.  The  mineral  products  of  P. 
are  insignificant,  with  the  sole  exception  of  salt. 
None  of  the  precious  metals  are  found.  Iron  is 
abundant  in  Azerbijan,  but  is  little  worked ;  copper 
occurs  in  considerable  quantity  in  the  mountains 
of  Mazanderan  and  Kerman;  and  lead,  antimony, 
sulphur,  and  naphtha  also  abound.  But  the  most 
celebrated  mineral  product  of  P.  is  the  turquoise, 
which  is  found  in  the  Fironz  Koh,  one  of  the 
Elburz  Mountains,  and  in  a  hill  40  miles  west- 
north-west  of  Nishapur.  The  former  mine  is  not 
now  worked,  but  the  mines  in  the  latter  place  still 
yield  these  gems  in  abundance ;  and  if  they  were 
properly  worked,  the  yield  might  be  greatly  increased. 
The  gems,  however,  are  generally  defaced  by  flaws, 
and  do  not  possess  a  high  mercantile  value. 
Marble  of  different  kinds,  coal,  freestone,  and  slate, 
are  found  in  various  places.  At  Dalki,  in  Fars,  are 
two  fountains  of  bitumen  or  black  naphtha. 

Inhabitants. — The  population  of  P.  is  naturally 
divisible  into  two  classes,  the  settled  and  the  nomad. 
The  settled  population .  are  chiefly  Tajiks,  the 
descendants  of  the  ancient  Persian  race,  with  an 
intermixture  of  foreign  blood — Turkish,  Tartar, 
Arab,  Armenian,  or  Georgian.  To  this  class  belong 
the  agriculturists,  merchants,  artisans,  &c.  From 
having  long  been  a  subject  race,  they  have  to  a 
large  extent  lost  their  natural  independence  and 
manliness  of  character,  and  acquired,  instead, 
habits  of  dishonesty,  servility,  and  cunning.  The 
Tajiks  are  Mohammedans  of  the  Shiite  sect,  with 
the  exception  of  the  few  remaining  Parsees  or 
Guebres  (q.  v.),  who  are  found  in  Kerman  and  Fars, 
and  still  retain  their  purity  of  race  and  religious 
faith.  The  nomad  or  pastoral  tribes,  or  eylats  (eyl,  a 
clan),  are  of  four  distinct  races — Turkomans,  Kiu-ds, 
Luurs,  and  Arabs.  Their  organisation  is  very  similar 
to  that  which  formerly  subsisted  among  the  Highland 
clans  of  Scotland,  with  the  exception  that  the  former 
are  nomad,  while  the  latter  inhabited  a  fixed  locality. 
Each  tribe  is  ruled  by  its  hereditary  chief  (ujak),  and 
under  him  by  the  heads  of  the  cadet  branches  (tirehs) 
of  his  family.  Of  the  four  races,  the  Turkoman  is 
by  far  the  most  numerous,  and  forms  at  the  present 
day  the  ruling  race  in  Persia.  The  Kurds  are  few 
in  number,  the  greater  part  of  their  country  and 
race  being  under  the  sway  of  Turkey.  The  Arabs 
are  also  few  in  number,  and  at  the  present  day  can 
hardly  be  distinguished  from  the  Persians,  having 
adopted  both  their  manners  and  language.  The 
Luurs  are  of  nearly  pure  Persian  blood.  The  nomad 
races,  especially  the  Turkomans,  profess  the  Sunni 
creed ;  they  are  distinguished  from  the  Tajiks  by 
their  courage,  manliness,  and  independence  of  char- 
acter ;  but  they  are  inveterate  robbers,  and  since 
their  entrance  into  the  country  in  the  10th  c,  it  has 
been  continually  distracted  by  civd  wars  and  revo- 
lutions. According  to  a  careful  estimate.  May,  1868, 
the  pop.  was  4,400,000,  of  whom  1,700,000  are  no- 
mads. Hitherto  the  pop.  has  been  estimated  at  1 "' 
millions,  and  classed  according  to  their  religions  be 
lief:  7,500,000  Shiites;  500,000  Shiites  not  ortho- 
dox; 1,500,000  Sunnites.  The  remaining  500,000 
includes  Christians  of  several  denominations  to  the 
number  of  74,000,  of  whom  26,000  are  Armenians, 
25,000  Xostorians,  16,000  Jews,  and  7000  Guebres. 


PERSIA. 


Notwithstanding  its  ancient  civilisation,  almost 
the  same  barbarism  now  prevails  in  P.  as  in  other 
Mohammedan  countries,  and  few  traces  remain  of 
the  intellectual  culture  which  in  ancient  times  dis- 
tinguished the  country.  The  insecurity  of  property 
has  prevented  the  improvement  of  land,  the  exten- 
sion of  trade,  and  public  works  of  every  kind.  The 
roads  are  utterly  neglected.  The  houses,  those  of 
the  wealthiest  people  not  excepted,  appear  con- 
temptible, being  generally  built  of  earth  or  mud, 
and  are  grouped  together,  even  in  the  principal 
towns,  with  little  attention  to  either  uniformity  or 
order  in  their  arrangement.  They  scarcely  ever 
exceed  one  story  in  height,  and  they  are  surrounded 
by  high  blank  walls.  The  public  buildings,  such  as 
mosques,  colleges,  and  caravansaries,  are  of  similar 
appearance  to  the  ordinary  houses,  and  built  of  the 
same  materials.  The  interior,  however,  of  the 
houses  of  the  rich  are  sometimes  perfect  paradises  of 
luxury  and  elegance ;  and  however  much  dwellings 
constructed  of  mud  may  offend  a  European  eye,  it 
is  questionable  whether,  with  all  its  disadvantages, 
mud  is  not  a  better  building  material  than  wood 
or  stone  in  a  country  possessing  such  a  climate 
as  Persia.  The  miserable  look  of  the  towns  is, 
however,  greatly  improved  by  the  beauty  of  the 
gardens  which  surround  them.  These  gardens  are 
planted  with  forest  and  fruit  trees,  and  some  of  them, 
especially  in  Irak  and  Kerman,  are  of  rare  beauty. 

Manufactures  and  Trade. — The  trade  of  P.  is 
comparatively   of    little    importance.      Silk   is   the 

freat  staple,  and  is  produced  in  every  province, 
ut  chiefly  in  those  of  the  north  ;  cotton  and  woollen 
fabrics,  shawls,  carpets,  and  felts  are  largely  manu- 
factured for  use  and  export  in  Khorassau.  The 
Bilk  goods,  which  consist  of  satin,  sarcenet,  brocades, 
velvet,  &c,,  and  are  made  exceedingly  strong  and 
durable,  are  of  inferior  quality,  and  are  chiefly 
exported  to  Turkey  and  Russia.  Trade  is  carried  on 
by  caravans  with  the  interior  of  Asia  and  the  chief 
towns  of  P.,  such  as  Tebriz,  Abu-Shehr,  Ispahan, 
Shiraz,  Teheran,  and  Kazbin.  These  caravans 
exchange  the  products  of  P.  for  muslin,  leather, 
skins,  nankeen,  china,  glass,  hardware,  gums,  dye- 
stuffs,  and  spices.  The  trade  of  the  Caspian  Sea  is 
monopolised  by  the  Russians,  who  visit  periodically 
the  three  ports  of  Enzelli,  Balf  urustsh,  and  Astrabad. 
Bushire,  Bassorah,  and  Gombroon  are  the  ports  in 
the  Persian  Gulf  through  which  trade  with  India 
and  the  other  countries  on  the  shores  of  the  Indian 
Ocean  is  carried  on.  The  exports  consist  of  raw  silk, 
cotton,  tobacco,  drugs,  &c. ;  and  the  imports  from 
India  and  Europe,  of  broad-cloths,  cotton  goods,  jew- 
elry, arms,  cutlery,  watches,  earthen,  glass,  and  metal 
wares,  &c.  The  greater  part  of  the  European  com- 
merce with  P.  is  now  carried  on  over  the  northern 
frontier  through  Tauris.  In  1867  the  imports  and 
exports  over  this  frontier  were  £1,776,694  and  £475,- 
678  respectively.  The  entire  external  commerce  of 
P.  may  be  valued  at  £4,000,000. 

Government,  Taxation,  Education,  <Lc. — The 
government  of  P.  is  a  pure  despotism,  limited 
only  by  domestic  intrigues,  dread  of  private  ven- 
geance, and  an  occasional  insurrection.  The  last- 
named  is  the  principal  check  against  unjust  govern- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  monarch,  while  the 
two  former  operate  as  powerful  restraints  on  his 
ministers.  The  monarch,  who  has  the  title  of '  Shah ' 
and  'Padishah,'  possesses  absolute  authority  over 
the  lives  and  property  of  his  subjects ;  and  his 
deputies,  the  governors  of  provinces  and  districts, 
possess  simdar  authority  over  those  under  them  ; 
their  actions  are,  however,  liable  to  revision  by  the 
Shah,  who  may  summarily  indict  any  punishment 
upon  them  for  real  or  alleged  misgovernment. 
Oppression  of  the  working  and  mercantile  classes  is 


almost  a  necessity  of  such  a  form  of  government. 
The  capitalists  of  the  country,  a  numerous  clajs, 
dare  not  exhibit  their  wealth,  much  less  invest  it 
in  any  mercantile  transactions,  lest  they  should 
thereby  excite  the  cupidity  of  some  rapacious 
governor.  The  central  government  consists  of 
the  Sndri-Azem,  or  Grand  Vizier,  who  is  inferior 
in  authority  to  the  Shah  alone;  the  l&madod- 
Dowlet,  or  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs ;  the  Emin-i- 
Dowlet,  or  Minister  of  Finance ;  the  Nizamed- 
Dowlet,  or  Minister  of  the  Interior;  the  L'jx!'k:r- 
nourvis,  or  War  Minister;  and  various  superinten- 
dents  of  the  administration  of  justice,  of  commerce, 
agriculture,  industry,  and  public  works,  the  com- 
mander-in-chief, and  the  master  of  the  ceremonies. 
The  law,  which  in  civil  cases  is  administered  by 
Mollahs  (q.  v.),  in  criminal  cases  by  a  state  court, 
is  founded  on  the  Koran  and  on  tradition.  The 
punishments  commonly  inflicted  are  tines,  flogging 
(the  bastinado),  and  death,  either  by  decapitation, 
stabbing,  or  torture.  The  governors  of  provinces, 
who  are  always  chosen  from  the  governing  race,  the 
Turkomans,  and  are  generally  of  the  blood-royaL 
though  they  oppress  to  the  utmost  the  poor  Tajiks, 
are  seldom  able  to  protect  their  provinces  from  the 
ravages  of  the  predatory  eylat  hordes,  who,  though 
nominally  subject  to  the  Shah,  are  governed  bv 
their  own  khans,  and  are  really  independent.  The 
revenue  is  derived  from  a  tax  on  the  gross  pro- 
duce of  land,  which  varies  from  10  to  20  per 
cent,  on  the  whole ;  from  the  crown-lands  (which 
are  being  constantly  increased  by  confiscations) ; 
from  the  church-lands — which  since  the  time  of 
Nadir  Shah  (q.  v.)  have  been  in  the  hands  of 
the  Shah ;  from  a  tax  on  cattle,  flocks,  and  even 
bees,  and  many  other  imposts.  There  is  also 
a  heavy  property  and  income  tax ;  and  the 
various  duties  which  are  levied  on  imports  in 
transitu,  are  almost  numberless.  Besides  all  these, 
capitation  and  door-taxes  are  levied  specially  on 
Armenians,  Jews,  and  Guebres.  The  revenue 
derived  from  these  exactions  is  greatly  increased 
by  presents,  which  all  those  who  are  in  any  way 
dependent  on  court-favour  are  bound  to  make  to  the 
Shah  on  certain  days,  and  which  amount  annually 
to  nearly  £1,000,000.  The  revenue  is  divided  into 
two  portions,  one  of  which  goes  into  the  '  Spiritual 
Treasury,'  or  Beit-ul-Mdl,  and  is  expended  on 
mosques,  payment  of  judges  and  clergy,  assistance 
of  poor  Moslems,  public  works  and  institutions, 
such  a3  roads,  bridges,  schools,  &c,  subsidies  to 
pilgrims  to  holy  places,  and  to  the  Prophet's 
descendants,  &c. ;  the  other,  which  is  by  far  the 
larger,  goes  into  the  crown  treasury,  which  is 
charged  with  the  maintenance  of  the  Shah,  his 
family,  servants,  and  court,  and  the  defraying  of 
all  public  expenses,  salaries,  &c,  unconnected  with 
religion.  The  receipts,  in  1868,  were  calculated  to 
amount  to  £1,744,664,  in  money,  besides  payment  in 
barley,  rice,  wheat,  and  silk,  valued  at  £220,336. 
making  a  total  revenue  equal  to  £1,965.  In  Persia 
there  is  no  public  debt,  and  all  extra  expenses  are 
at  once  met  by  extra  taxation.  The  proportion  of 
the  revenue  which  is  applied  to  the  support  of 
schools  for  public  instruction,  is  small,  and  educa- 
tion is  thus  necessarily  in  a  very  low  state.  The 
sciences  of  astronomy,  metaphysics,  physics,  and 
mathematics,  are  nominally  studied;  but  the  astro- 
nomy consists  of  the  Ptolemaic  system,  largely 
intermixed  with  astrology,  and  the  other  sciences 
as  taught  are  simdarly  composed  of  the  debris  of 
effete  systems  and  ancient  superstitions. 

Political  Divisions,  <L-c— From  the  earliest  times 
down  to  the  present  century,  P.  was  divided  into 
seven  or  eight  great  divisions ;  but  about  the  time 
when   it   was    attempted   to   introduce    European 


PERSIA. 


civilisation  into  the  country,  and  discipline  into  the 
army,  the  country  was  anew  divided  into  25  prov- 
inces— viz.,  the  three  Caspian  provinces  of  Chilan, 
Mazanderan,  and  Astrabad,  in  the  north ;  Azer- 
bijan,  Ardelan  or  Persian  Kurdistan,  Luristan,  and 
Khnzistan,  in  the  west ;  Fars,  Laristan,  and  Kerinan 
with  Mogistan,  in  the  south;  while  the  great  prov- 
ince of  Irak-Ajemi  in  the  centre  was  divided  into 
Khamsah,  Kasbin,  Teheran,  Ilainadan,  Kum,  and 
Ispahan  ;  and  that  of  Khorassan  in  the  east  into 
Ye/.d,  Tabas,  Ghayn  and  Hirjun,  Turshiz,  Meshid, 
Damghan,  Semnun,  and  the  Dasht  Beyad,  or  the 
Great  Salt  Desert.  The  western  and  northern  prov- 
inces are  well  sprinkled  with  towns  and  large  villages, 
but  ths  most  )f  the  others  consist  of  little  more  than 
the  chief  town  and  its  suburbs,  the  rest  being  either 
desert,  or  in  the  hands  of  the  wild  pastoral  tribes. 
There  are  many  interesting  ruins  of  ancient,  popu- 
lous, and  celebrated  cities  in  Persia,  for  example,  Per- 
sepolis  (q.  v.),  Phages  or  Rb.6,  Shahpur,  Istakhar, 
Tus,  Merv,  Shushan,  Hamadan,  &c. ;  and  the  monu- 
ments and  inscriptions  found  at  some  of  these  places 
form  a  highly-interesting  study  to  the  historian  and 
the  antiquary.  See  Behistun.  In  modern  times, 
Tabriz  or  Tauris,  Kazbin,  Ispahan,  and  Shiraz,  have 
been  in  succession  the  seats  of  royalty,  and  at  present 
Teheran  is  the  favoured  city. 

Army. — The  army  consists  (1868)  of  105,500, 
of  which  70,000  are  regular  infantry,  30,500  cav- 
alry, regular  and  irregular,  and  5000  artillerymen; 
of  these  but  one-third  are  regularly  employed,  and 
are  contributed  by  the  nomad  tribes,  being  almost 
their  sole  acknowledgment  of  subjection  to  the 
Shah.  This  irregular  cavalry,  which  forms  the 
bravest  portion  of  the  Persian  army,  is  equal  to 
the  Cossacks  in  the  Ru  sian  army,  and  much  su- 
perior to  the  Turkish  Sultan's  Bashi-Bazouks. 
Abbas  Pasha,  the  grandfather  of  the  present 
Shah,  attempted  to  organise  a  portion  of  the 
army  according  to  European  tactics,  but  he  was 
unsuccessful. 

History. — According  to  the  Shah  Nameh  of 
Firdusi  (q.  v.),  the  history  of  P.  begins  some  thou- 
sands of  years  before  the  Christian  era.  Little 
has  yet  been  done  towards  extracting  the  grains  of 
historical  truth  that  may  be  contained  in  the  mass 
of  fable  that  constitutes  the  native  Persian  annals ; 
although  hopes  are  cherished  that  by  aid  of  the 
many  inscriptions  and  monuments  that  are  being 
daily  discovered,  light  may  yet  be  thrown  upon 
many  points.  In  the  meautime,  we  must  rest 
contented  with  the  accounts  derived  from  Greek 
writers.  The  north-western  part  of  Irau,  anciently 
called  Media  (q.  v.),  was,  at  the  earliest  period  known 
to  the  Greeks,  a  part  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  but 
the  Medes  revolted,  and  (708  B.C.),  under  Dejoces, 
established  an  empire  which  subdued  both  that  of 
Assyria  and  their  own  kindred  tribes  of  Persis.  See 
Media.  About  537  b.  c,  the  Persians  under  Cyrus 
(q.  v.)—  the  Kai-Khusru  of  the  Persians— (559  — 
529  B.C.)  rebelled,  subdued  their  former  masters,  the 
Medes  (who  from  this  time  became  amalgamated 
with  them),  and  established  a  mighty  empire,  which 
included,  besides  P.,  as  far  as  the  Oxus  and  Indus, 
Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Mesopotamia. 
His  son,  Cambyses,  a  most  ferocious  and  blood- 
thirsty tyrant  (529—522  B.  a),  subdued  Tyre, 
Cyprus,  and  Egypt.  After  the  brief  rule  of  the 
usurper  Smerdis  (522—521  b.  a),  Darius  I.  (q.  v.), 
surnamed  Hystaspes  —the  Gushtasp  of  the  Persians 
— (521 — 4S5  B.  c),  mounted  the  throne.  He  was  a 
politic  and  energetic  prince,  and  succeeded  in  firmly 
establishing  his  dynasty,  and  adding  Thrace  and 
Macedonia  to  his  empire ;  but  his  two  attempts  to 
subdue  Greece  were  completely  foiled,  the  first  by 
the  Thracians,  and  the  second  by  the  Athenians  at 
422 


Marathon  (490  b.  c).  His  son,  Xerxes  I.  (485—  465 
B.  c.) — the  Isfundear  of  the  Persians — renewed  the 
attempt  to  subdue  the  Greek  states,  and  though  at 
first  successful,  the  defeats  of  Salamis  and  Plataja 
compelled  him  to  limit  himself  to  a  defensive 
warfare,  which  exhausted  the  resources  of  his 
kingdom.  His  son,  Artaxerxes  I.  (465  —  425 
B.  c),  surnamed  Longimanus  (the  Bahman  of 
the  Persians,  better  known  as  Ardeshir  Diraz- 
dust),  was  a  valiant  prince,  but  he  was  unable  to 
stay  the  decadence  of  P.,  which  had  now  com- 
menced. He,  however,  crushed  a  formidable 
rebellion  in  Egypt,  though  his  wars  with  the 
Greeks  and  Ionians  were  unsuccessful.  The  empire 
now  became  a  prey  to  intestine  dissensions,  which 
continued  during  the  reigns  of  his  successors, 
Xerxes  IT.,  Sogdianus,  Darius  II.,  Artaxerxes  II., 
and  Artaxerxes  III.  Darius  III.  Codomannus 
(336—329)  (the  Darab  II.  of  the  Persians),  the 
last  of  the  dynasty,  was  compelled  to  yield  his 
throne  to  Alexander  (q.  v.)  the  Great,  king  of 
Macedon  (known  as  Secunder  by  the  Persians),  who 
reconquered  all  the  former  provinces  of  P.,  and 
founded  a  vast  empire,  which,  at  his  death  in 
324  B.  c,  was  divided  into  four  parts,  P.  along 
with  Syria  falling  to  the  share  of  the  Seleueidse 
(q.  v.),  and  its  old  dependency,  Egypt,  to  the 
Ptolemies  (q.  v.).  The  Seleucidas  soon  lost  Bactria 
(now  Balkh),  which  became  independent  under  a 
series  of  Greek  sovereigns  ;  and  about  246  B.  c, 
P&rthia  (q.  v.) — now  Northern  Khorassan— also 
rebelled  under  Arsaces  I.  (the  Ashk  of  the  Persian 
writers),  who  founded  the  dynasty  of  the  Arsacidae, 
under  whom  the  greater  part  of  P.  was  wrested 
from  the  Greeks,  and  maintained  against  both  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  The  Greek  empire  of  Bactria, 
which  is  said  to  have  included  a  great  part  of 
Hindustan,  was  overthrown  by  an  influx  of  nomad 
tribes  from  Turkestan,  and  these  invaders  having 
been  driven  out  by  the  Parthians,  Bactria  was 
added  to  their  empire.  But  the  dynasty  of  the 
Arsacidse  was  brought  to  an  end  by  a  Persian 
named  Ardeshir  Babegan,  who  managed  to  gain 
possession  of  Fars,  Kerman,  and  nearly  the  whole 
of  Irak,  before  Arduan,  the  Parthian  king,  took  the 
field  against  him.  At  last,  a  great  battle  was 
fought  (218  A.  D.)  on  the  plain  of  Hormuz,  in  which 
the  Persians  were  completely  victorious.  Babegan 
was  now  hailed  as  Ardeshir,  king  of  P.,  and  'Shahan 
Shah,'  or  king  of  kings.  The  history  of  this  dynasty 
will  be  found  under  the  head  of  Sassanid^e.  The 
Sassanian  kings  raised  P.  to  a  height  of  power  and 
prosperity  such  as  it  never  before  attained,  and 
more  than  once  perilled  the  existence  of  the  Eastern 
Empire.  The  last  king  was  driven  from  the  throne 
by  the  Arabs  (636  A.  D.),  who  now  began  to  extend 
their  dominion  in  all  directions  ;  and  from  this 
period  may  be  dated  the  gradual  change  of  character 
in  the  native  Persian  race,  for  they  have  been  from 
this  time  constantly  subject  to  the  domination  of 
alien  races.  During  the  reigns  of  Omar  (the  first 
of  the  Arab  rulers  of  P.),  Othinan,  Ali,  and  the 
Ommiades  (634 — 750),  P.  was  regarded  as  an  out- 
lying province  of  the  empire,  and  was  ruled  by 
deputy  governors  ;  but  after  the  accession  of  the 
Abbaside  dynasty  (750  A.  D.),  Bagdad  became  the 
capital,  and  Khorassan  the  favourite  province  of  the 
early  and  more  energetic  rulers  of  this  race,  and  P. 
consequently  came  to  be  considered  as  the  centre  and 
nucleus  of  the  califate.  But  the  rule  of  the  califs  soon 
became  merely  nominal,  and  ambitious  governors, 
or  other  aspiring  individuals,  established  independ- 
ent principalities  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 
Many  of  these  dynasties  were  transitory,  others 
lasted  for  centuries,  and  created  extensive  and 
powerful  empires.      The  chief  were  the  Tahekitj&j 


PEKS1A. 


(820—872),  a  Turkish  dynasty  in  Khorassan  ;  the 
Soffakii'k-s  (Persian,  S0!<  —  903),  in  Seiatan,    Pars, 

Irak,  ami  Mazamleian ;  the  Samani,  in  Transoxiana, 

Khorassan,  and  Seiatan;  the  Dii.kmi  (Persian,  933 
—Ki56),  in  Western  Persia;  ami  the  Qhizhbviob 

(q.  v.),  in  Eastern  Persia.  These  dynasties  sup- 
planted each  other,  and  were  finally  rooted  out  by 
the  Seliuks  (q.  v.),  whose  dominion  extended  from 
the  Hellespont  to  Afghanistan.  A  branch  of  this 
dynasty,  which  ruled  m  Khaurezm  (now  Khiva,  q.  v.) 
gradually  acquired  the  greater  part  of  Persia,  driving 
out  the  Ghiznevidea  and  their  successors,  the 
Oiiuridks  (q.  v.) ;  but  they,  alone  with  the  numerous 
petty  dynasties  which  had  established  themselves  in 
the  south-western  provinces,  were  all  swept  away 
by  the  Mongols  (q.  v.)  under  (ir.Nuins-KiiAN  (q.  v.) 
and  his  grandson,  Hulaku-khan,  the  latter  of 
whom  founded  a  new  dynasty,  the  Pebso-Mongol 
[1253  1335).  This  race  becoming  effeminate,  was 
supplanted  by  the  Eylkiianians  in  1335,  but  an 
irruption  of  the  Tartars  of  Turkestan  under  Tmi'R 
(q.  v.  i  again  freed  P.  from  the  petty  dynasties  which 
misruled  it.  After  the  death  of  Timur's  son  and 
successor.  Shah  ltokh,  the  Turkomans  took  posses- 
sion of  the  western  part  of  the  country,  which, 
however,  they  rather  preyed  upon  than  governed  ; 
while  the  eastern  portion  was  divided  and  sub- 
divided among  Timur's  descendants,  till,  at  the 
close  of  the  loth  o,  they  were  swept  away  by  the 
Uzbeks  (q.  v.),  who  joined  the  whole  of  Eastern 
P.  to  their  newly-founded  khanate  of  Khiva.  A 
new  dynasty  now  arose  (1500)  in  Western  P.,  the 
first  prince  of  which  (Ismail,  the  descendant  of 
a  long  line  of  devotees  and  saints,  the  objects  of 
the  highest  reverence  throughout  Western  P.), 
having  become  the  leader  of  a  number  of  Turkish 
tribes  who  were  attached  by  strong  ties  of  grati- 
tude to  his  family,  overthrew  the  power  of  the 
Turkomans,  and  seized  Azerbijan,  which  was  the 
seat  of  their  power.  Ismail  rapidly  subdued  the 
western  provinces,  and  in  1511  took  Khorassan 
and  Balkh  from  the  Uzbeks ;  but  in  1514,  he  had 
to  encounter  a  much  more  formidable  enemy — to 
wit,  the  mighty  Selim  (q.  v.),  the  Sultan  of  Turkey, 
whose  zeal  for  conquest  was  further  inflamed 
by  religious  animosity  against  the  Shiites,  or. '  Sec- 
taries,' as  the  followers  of  Ismail  were  termed. 
The  Persians  were  totally  defeated  in  a  battle  on 
the  frontiers ;  but  Selim  reaped  no  benetit  from  his 
victory,  and  after  his  retreat,  Ismail  attacked  and 
subdued  Georgia.  The  Persians  dwell  with  rapture 
on  the  character  of  this  monarch,  whom  they  deem 
not  only  to  be  the  restorer  of  P.  to  a  prosperous 
condition,  and  the  founder  of  a  great  dynasty,  but 
the  establisher  of  the  faith  in  which  they  glory  as 
the  national  religion.  His  son  Tamasp  (1523 — 
1576),  a  prudent  and  spirited  rider,  repeatedly 
drove  out  the  predatory  Uzbeks  from  Khorassan, 
sustained  without  loss  a  war  with  the  Turks,  and 
assisted  Homayun,  the  son  of  Baber,  to  regain  the 
throne  of  Delhi.  After  a  considerable  period  of 
internal  revolution,  during  which  the  Turks  and 
Uzbeks  attacked  the  empire  without  hiuderance, 
Shah  Abbas  I.  the  Great  (1585— 162S),  ascended 
th3  throne,  restored  internal  tranquillity,  and 
repelled  the  invasions  of  the  Uzbeks  and  Turks. 
In  1605,  he  inflicted  on  the  Turks  such  a  terrible 
defeat  as  kept  them  quiet  during  the  rest  of  hi3 
reign,  and  enabled  him  to  recover  the  whole  of 
Kurdistan,  Mosul,  and  Diarbekir,  which  had  for 
a  long  time  been  separated  from  P. ;  and  in  the  east, 
Candahar  was  taken  from  the  Great  Mogul  Abbas's 
government  was  strict,  but  just  and  equitable ; 
roads,  bridges,  caravansaries,  and  other  conveniences 
for  trade,  were  constructed  at  immense  expense,  and 
the  improvement  and  ornamentation  of  the  towns 


were  in  it   neglected.      Ispahan   more   than   doubled 
its  population  during  his  reign.     His  tblerano 
remarkable,    considering   both    the   opinions    of    hi-* 
ancestors    and    subjects;    for    he    encouraged    the 
Armenian  Christians  to  settle  in  the  country,  ^>\ 
knowing  that  their  peaceable  and  industrious  habits 
would  help  to  advance  the  prospeni)     t'  his   king- 
dom.    His  successors,  Shah  Sufi  (1628—1641),  Shah 
Abbas  II.  (1041  -1666),  and  Shah  Soliman  (1666  - 
1694),   were   undistinguished    by   any   remarkable 
talents,  but  the  former  two  were  sensible  and  judi- 
cious rulers,  and  advanced  the  prosperity  of  their 
subjects.     During  the  reign  of  Sultan  Hussein  (1004 
— 1722),    a    weak    and    bigoted    fool,    priests    and 
slaves   were  elevated  to  the    most  important  and 
responsible    otlices    of    the    empire,    and    all     who 
rejected  the  tenets  of  the  Shiites  were 
The  consequence  was  a  general  discontent,  of  which 
the  Afghans   (q.   v.)   took  advantage  by   dei  ; 

their  independence,  and  seizing  Candahar  (1709). 
Their  able  leader,  Meer  Vais,  died  in  1715;  but  his 
successors  were  worthy  of  him,  and  one  of  them, 
Mahnmd,  invaded  P.  (1722),  defeated  Hussein's 
armies,  and  besieged  the  king  in  Ispahan,  till  the 
inhabitants  were  reduced  to  the  extremity  of  dis- 
tress. Hussein  then  abdicated  the  throne  in 
favour  of  his  conqueror,  who,  on  his  accession, 
immediately  devoted  his  energies  to  alleviate  the 
distresses  and  gain  the  confidence  of  his  new 
subjects,  in  both  of  which  objects  he  thoroughly 
succeeded.  Becoming  insane,  be  was  d 
in  1725  by  his  brother  Ashraf  (1725—1729);  but 
the  atrocious  tyranny  of  the  latter  was  speedily  put 
an  end  to  by  the  celebrated  Nadir  Shah  (q.  v.),  who 
first  raised  Tamasp  (1729—1732)  and  his  son,  Abbas 
II.  (1732—1736),  of  the  Suffavean  race,  to  the  throne, 
and  then,  on  some  frivolous  pretext,  deposed  him, 
and  seized  the  sceptre  (1736—1747).  But  on  his 
death,  anarchy  again  returned  ;  the  country  was 
horribly  devastated  by  the  rival  claimants  for  the 
throne;  Afghanistan  (q.  v.)  and  Beloocbistan  (q.  v.) 
finally  separated  from  P.,  and  the  country  was  .split 
up  into  a  number  of  small  independent  states  till 
1755,  when  a  Kurd,  named  Kerim  Khan  (1755 — 
1770),  abolished  this  state  of  affairs,  re-established 
peace  and  unity  in  We:  tern  Persia,  and  by  his 
wisdom,  justice,  and  warlike  talents,  acquired  the 
esteem  of  his  subjects,  and  the  respect  of  neigh- 
bouring states.  After  the  usual  contests  for  the 
succession,  accompanied  with  the  usual  barbarities 
and  devastations,  Kerim  was  succeeded  in  1784 
by  Ali-Murad,  Jaafar,  and  Luft-Ali,  during  whoso 
reigns  Mazanderan  became  independent  under 
Aga-Mohammed,  a  Turkoman  eunuch  of  the  Kajar 
race,  who  repeatedly  defeated  the  royal  armies,  and 
ended  by  depriving  Luft-Ali  of  his  crown  (1795). 
The  great  eunuch-king  (as  he  is  frequently  called), 
who  founded  the  present  dynasty,  on  his  aecessiou 
announced  his  intention  of  restoring  the  kingdom 
as  it  had  been  established  by  Kerim  Khan,  and 
accordingly  invaded  Khorassan  and  Georgia,  sub- 
duing the  former  country  almost  without  ellort. 
The  Georgians  besought  the  aid  of  Russia ;  but  the 
Persian  monarch,  with  terrible  promptitude,  poured 
his  army  like  a  torrent  into  the  couutry,  and  devas- 
tated it  with  fire  and  sword  ;  his  conquest  was, 
however, hardly  completed,  when  he  was  assassinated, 
May  14,  1797.  His  nephew,  Futteh-Ali  (1797— 
1834),  after  numerous  conflicts,  fully  established  his 
authority,  and  completely  subdued  the  rebellious 
tribes  in  Khorassan,  but  the  great  commotions  in 
Western  Europe  produced  for  him  bitter  fruits.  He 
was  dragged  into  a  war  with  llussia  soon  alter  his 
accession,  and  by  a  treaty,  concluded  in  1797, 
surrendered  to  that  power  Derbend  and  several 
districts  on  the  Kur.    In  1802,  Georgia  was  declared 

423 


PERSIA— PERSIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


to  be  a  Russian  province.  War  with  Russia  was 
recommenced  by  P.,  at  the  instigation  of  France; 
and.  after  two  years  of  conflicts  disastrous  to  the 
Persians,  the  treaty  of  Gulistan  (October  12,  1813) 
gave  to  Russia  all  the  Persian  possessions  to  the 
north  of  Armenia,  and  the  right  of  navigation  in 
the  Caspian  Sea.  In  1826.  a  third  war,  equally 
unfortunate  for  P.,  was  commenced  with  the  same 
power,  and  cost  P.  the  remainder  of  its  possessions 
in  Armenia,  with  Erivan,  and  a  sum  of  18,000,000 
rubles  for  the  expenses  of  the  war.  The  severity 
exercised  in  procuring  this  sum  by  taxation,  so 
exasperated  the  people,  that  they  rose  in  insurrection 
(October  12,  1829),  and  murdered  the  Russian 
ambassador,  his  wife,  and  almost  all  who  belonged 
to,  or  were  connected  with  the  Russian  legation. 
The  most  humiliating  concessions  to  Russia,  and  the 
punishment  by  mutilation  of  1500  of  the  rioters, 
alone  averted  war.  The  death  of  the  crown-prince, 
Abbas- Mirza  (q.  v.),  in  1833,  seemed  to  give  the  final 
blow  to  the  declining  fortunes  of  P.,  for  he  was  the 
only  man  who  seriously  attempted  to  raise  his 
country  from  the  state  of  abasement  into  which  it 
had  fallen.  By  the  assistance  of  Russia  and  Britain, 
Mohammed  Shah  (1834—1848),  the  son  of  Abbas- 
Mirza,  obtained  the  crown,  but  the  rebellions  of 
his  uncles,  and  the  rivalry  of  Russia  and  Britain 
(the  former  being  generally  successful)  at  the 
Persian  court,  hastened  the  demoralisation  of  the 
country.  Mohammed  was  compelled  to  grant 
(1846)  to  Russia  the  privilege  of  building  ships  of 
war  at  Resht  and  Astrabad,  and  to  agree  to 
surrender  all  Prussian  deserters,  and  P.  became 
thus  more  and  more  dependent  on  its  powerful 
neighbour.  Nassr-ed  Din  succeeded  to  the  throne 
on  his  father's  death  in  1848;  and  the  new  govern- 
ment announced  energetic  reforms,  reduction  of 
imposts,  &c,  but  limited  itself  to  these  fine  promises, 
and  on  the  contrary,  augmented  the  taxes,  suffered 
the  roads,  bridges,  and  other  public  works  to  go  to 
ruin,  squandered  the  public  money,  and  summarily 
disposed  of  all  who  protested  against  their  acts. 
In  October  1856,  the  Persians  took  Herat  (q.  v.),  a 
town  for  the  permanent  possession  of  which  they 
had  striven  for  a  long  series  of  years ;  and  having 
thus  violated  the  terms  of  a  treaty  with  Britain, 
war  was  declared  against  them,  and  a  British  army 
was  lauded  on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf, 
which,  under  Generals  Outram  and 
Havelock,  repeatedly  defeated  the 
Persians,  and  compelled  them  to 
restore  Herat  (July  1857).  Since  this 
time,  treaties  of  commerce  have,  been 
concluded  with  the  leading  European 
powers ;  and  Russia,  Great  Britain, 
Turkey,  France,  and  Italy,  have 
consuls  in  the  chief  towns,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  Italy,  are  represented 
by  ministers  at  the  court  of  Teheran. 
PERSIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 
The  architecture  of  Persia  is  of  con- 
siderable interest,  both  on  its  own 
account,  and  as  supplementary  to  and 
explanatory  of  that  of  Assyria,  which, 
together  with  the  similar  edifices  in  Egypt,  is  the 
earliest  architecture  of  which  we  have  any  know- 
ledge. The  buildings  of  Persia  and  Assyria  closely 
resemble  one  another,  and,  owing  to  the  mode  and 
the  materials  in  which  they  were  constructed,  their 
remains  serve  to  illustrate  and  complete  each  other's 
histoiy.  In  Assyria,  where  no  solid  building- 
materials  exist,  the  walls  are  composed  of  masses  of 
sun-dried  brickwork,  lined  on  the  inside,  to  a 
certain  height  from  the  floor,  with  large  sculptured 
slabs  of  alabaster.  These  have  beeu  preserved  to 
us  by  the  falling  in  of  the  heavy  earthen  roofs,  with 

424 


which,  as  the  later  Persian  buildings  explain  to  us, 
the  Assyrian  palaces  were  covered.  The  explorations 
of  Layard  and  Botta,  and  the  specimens  brought 
home  by  the  former,  and  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
have  made  these  sculptures  familiar  to  us.  The 
subjects  usually  are  large  bulls  with  human  or  lions' 
heads ;  priests  with  human  bodies,  and  eagles'  or 
lions'  heads,  performing  religious  service  before  the 
'  sacred  tree.'  The  Assyrian  remains  are  all  of 
palace-temples,  buildings  somewhat  resembling  the 
Egyptian  temples  (which  were  also  palaces)  ;  and 
many  of  the  sculptures  represent  the  exploits  of  the 
kin<;  in  war  and  in  peace.  The  palaces  are  always 
raised  on  lofty  artificial  mounds,  and  approached  by 
magnificent  flights  of  steps. 

The  buildings  of  Assyria  extend  over  a  very  long 
period,  the  oldest  at  Nimroud  being  from  1300 
to  800  B.C.,  and  the  more  recent  at  Khorsabad  and 
Koyunjik  from  800  to  600  B.C.  To  these  succeeded 
Babylon  in  the  reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  the 
Birs  Nimroud  ;  but  these  are  mere  masses  of  decom- 
posed brickwork,  without  any  sculptures  of  harder 
material. 

After  Babylon  came  Pasargadse — where  the 
splendid  palaces  of  Cyrus  and  Cambyses  still  exist 
in  ruins — and  Persepolis,  the  capital  of  Darius  and 
Xerxes  (560 — 523  B.C.),  and  some  remains  are  still 
to  be  found  at  Susa,  Ecbatana,  and  Teheran.  At 
Persepolis,  we  find  the  very  parts  preserved  which 
at  Nimroud  and  Khorsabad  are  wanting ;  for  here 
there  is  abundance  of  stone,  and  the  pillars,  walls, 
doorways,  &c.  (which,  in  the  early  examples,  were 
no  doubt  of  wood,  and  have  decayed) ,  being  of  stone, 
are  still  preserved.  This  has  enabled  Mr  Fergusson 
to  'restore'  these  buildings,  and  to  produce  most 
interesting  designs,  shewing  not  only  how  the 
palaces  of  Persia  were  constructed  and  lighted,  but 
from  them  to  suggest  how  the  arrangements  of  all 
the  ancient  architecture  of  Egypt  and  Syria  must 
have  been  designed. 

The  halls  at  Persepolis  were  square  in  plan, 
having  an  equal  number  of  pillars  in  each  direction 
for  the  support  of  the  roof,  which  was  flat.  In  the 
centre,  a  portion  was  left  open  for  the  admission  of 
light,  and  sheltered  by  another  roof  raised  upon 
pillars.  The  accompanying  section  (rig.  1)  of  the 
Great  Hall  of  Xerxes  (from  Fergussou's  Handbook  oj 


Fig.  1.— Section  of  Hall  of  Xerxes  at  Persepolis. 


Architecture)  will  explain  this  arrangement.  This 
hall  is  the  most  splendid  building  whose  remains 
exist  in  this  part  of  the  world.  The  remains  of  the 
72  columns  with  which  it  was  adorned  are  still 
extant  (fig.  2).  The  hall  had  36  columns,  six  on  each 
side,  and  on  three  sides  had  an  external  portico,  each 
with  two  rows  of  six  columns.  These  columns  had 
capitals,  composed  of  bulls'  heads  and  shoulders 
(n<r.  3),  between  which  the  beams  of  the  roof  rested; 
while  others  were  ornamented  with  scrolls  like  the 
Ionic  order  (fig.  4).  The  bases  also  are  suggestive  of 
the  origin  of  that  Greek  style.     This  hall  wis  35C 


PERSIAN  GULF-PE11S1AN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


foel  by  800,  and  covered  mora  ground  than  any 
similar  buildings  of  antiquity,  or  any  medieval 
cathedral    except,   that   dt    Milan.      The   palaces    of 


Fig.  2. — Plan  of  Great  Hall  of  Xerxes  at  Persepolis. 

Persepolis  stand  on  lofty  platforms,  built  with  walls 
of  Cyclopean  masonry,  and  approached  by  magnifi- 
cent flights  of  stairs,  adorned,  like  the  palaces,  with 


Fig.  3.  Fig  4. 

Details  of  Persian  Architecture. 

sculptures  somewhat  similar  to  those  of  Assyria.  The 
Interiors  were  ornamented  with  paintings.  The  use 
of  the  arch  was  known  in  Assyria,  as  has  been  shewn 
by  the  subterranean  arched  conduits  discovered  by 
Lavard,  and  the  gates  of  Khorsabad  discovered  by  M. 
Place.  The  arches  of  the  latter  spring  from  the  backs 
of  sculptured  bulls,  and  are  beautifully  ornamented 
with  enamelled  bricks. 

PERSIAN  GULF,  an  arm  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
which  penetrates  between  Arabia  and  Persia  to  the 
extent  of  650  English  miles  in  a  general  north- 
westerly direction.  Its  bieadth  varies  from  55  miles 
at  the  mouth  to  250  miles,  and  the  area  is  estimated 
at  117,300  square  miles,  from  which  about  1930 
square  miles  must  be  subtracted  for  the  islands, 
which  are  scattered  over  the  western  half,  or  lie 
close  inshore   along   the    eastern    side.      The   chief 


of  these  islands  are  Ormuz  (q.  v.),  at  the  mouth  ; 
Ki&hm,  810  square  miles  in  extent;  and  the  Bahrein 

Islands  (q.v.),  chief  of  which  is  Samak.  The 
Great  Pearl  Bank  stretches  along  the  western  side 
from  Ras  Hassan  to  nearly  half-way  up  the  gulf. 
The  coast  is  mostly  formed  of  calcareous  rocks.  On 
the  Arabian  side,  it  is  low  and  sandy,  occasionally 
broken  by  mountains  and  cliffs  ;  while,  on  tho 
Persian  side,  it  is  higher  and  abrupt,  with  deep 
water  close  inshore,  owing  to  the  mountain-ranges 
of  Ears  and  Laristan  running  close  to  the  water '■ 
edge.  The  islands  are  partly  of  limestone  and 
partly  of  ironstone,  and  are  generally  destitute  of 
springs,  barren,  desolate,  and  presenting  numerous 
traces  of  volcanic  eruptions.  With  the  exception 
of  the  Shat-el-Arab  (q.v.),  the  P.  G.  receives  only 
insignificant  streams.  Its  eastern  side  present* 
abundance  of  good  anchorage,  either  in  the  numer- 
ous hays  or  in  the  lee  of  islands.  The  greater 
portion  of  its  shores  now  belongs  to  the  Imaum  of 
Muscat.  The  coasts  of  the  gulf  have  been  explored 
by  successive  British  expeditions,  the  last  of  which, 
in  lSlil — 1825,  made  a  complete  trigonometric 
survey  of  the  Arabian  shore.  The  order  of  the 
periodic  currents  in  this  gulf  is  precisely  the  reverse 
of  that  of  the  Red  Sea  (q.  v.)  currents,  as  they 
ascend  from  May  to  October,  and  descend  from 
October  to  May. 

Oriental  geographers  give  to  this  gulf  the  name  of 
the  '  Green  Sea,'  from  a  remarkable  strip  of  water, 
of  a  green  colour,  which  lies  along  the  Arabian 
coast.  It  is  strange  that  from  the  time  of  Nearchus, 
the  admiral  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who  was  the 
first  to  make  the  P.  G.  known  to  Europeans,  the 
Persians  have  never  ruled  supreme  over  its  surface. 

PERSIAN  LANGUAGE  and  LITERATURE. 
The  ancient  and  modern  idioms  of  Persia,  which 
are  in  general  designated  as  Iranian  or  West  Aryan, 
belong  to  the  great  class  of  the  Indo-Geruianic 
languages  ;  but  the  term  Persian  itself  applies  more 
particularly  to  the  language  as  it  is  now  spoken, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  throughout  Persia,  and  in  a 
few  other  places,  formerly  under  Persian  dominion, 
like  Bokhara,  &c.  The  more  important  and  better- 
known  of  the  ancient  idioms  are  (1)  the  Zend  (the 
East  Iranian  or  Bactrian  language,  in  two  dialects 
— the  '  Gatha  idiom,'  and  the  '  ancient '  or  '  classical 
Zend '),  which  died  out  in  the  3d  c.  B.  c. — one  of 
the  most  highly-developed  idioms,  rich  in  inflec- 
tions, in  the  verbs  as  well  as  in  the  nouns,  and  in 
the  former  almost  completely  agreeing  with  Vedio 
Sanscrit ;  yet  such  as  we  And  it  in  the  small  remains 
which  have  survived,  it  is  no  longer  in  the  full 
vigour  of  life,  but  almost  decaying,  and  gramma- 
tically somewhat  neglected ;  it  is  in  fact  held  by 
a  great  authority  on  the  subject  (Haug),  that  the 
grammar  was  never  fixed  in  any  way  by  rules.  To 
increase  the  difficulty  still  more,  the  texts — the 
Zoroastrian  books — never  seem  to  have  been  copied 
with  proper  care,  or  by  men  who  had  any  correct 
knowledge  of  the  language ;  so  that  the  critical 
restoration  of  the  literary  remains  is  mattei  of 
extreme  difficult}',  and  Zend  studies  in  general 
may  be  said  to  be  in  their  infar  cy  yet.  Geographi- 
cally, this  idiom  may  be  placed  in  Northern  Persia. 
Its  alphabet  is  of  Semitic  origin,  and  the  writing 
goes  from  right  to  left  (see  Zend,  Zend-Avesta). 
(2)  Ancient  Persian,  the  chief  remnants  of  which  are 
found  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  of  the  time  of 
the  Achsemenides,  discovered  in  the  ruins  of  Per- 
sepolis, on  the  rock  of  Behiatun,  and  some  other 
places  of  Persia  (see  Cuneiform).  Some  relics,  chiefly 
consisting  of  proper  names  for  gods  and  men,  and 
terms  for  vessels  and  garments,  have  survived  in 
the  writings  of  the  classical  period,  and  in  the 
Bible,   chiefly  in   DanieL       This   idiom   is    much 

425 


PERSIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


nearer  to  Zend  and  Sanscrit  than  to  modern 
Persian.  It  has  still  the  structure  of  an  ancient 
organic  Indo-Germanic  language,  with  the  distinct 
peculiarities  of  an  Iranic  tongue.  (3)  Pehlevi  (q.  v.) 
(West  Iranian,  Median,  and  Persian),  in  use  during 
the  period  of  the  Sassanides  (3d  to  7th  c.  a.d.), 
an  idiom  largely  mixed  with  Semitic    words,  and 

Foorer  in  inflections  and  terminations  than  Zend. 
fcs  remnants  consist  of  a  certain  number  of  books 
relating  to  the  Zoroastrian  religion,  of  coins  and 
inscriptions  ;  and  the  language  is  not  quite  the 
same  in  all  cases — according  to  the  larger  or  smaller 
infusion  of  foreign  words.  The  non-Iranian  element 
is  known  as  Huzvaresh,  and  is  simply  Chaldee ; 
while  the  Iranian  element  is  but  little  different  from 
modern  Persian.  There  are  three  distinct  idioms  to 
be  distinguished  in  Pehlevi,  and  the  writing  varies 
accordingly,  yet  it  is  not  certain  whether  the 
difference  arises  from  their  belonging  to  different 
districts  or  periods.  When,  however,  Pehlevi  ceased 
to  be  a  living  language,  and  the  restoration  of  the 
pure  Iranian  had  begun,  people,  not  daring  to 
change  the  writings,  chiefly  of  a  sacred  nature,  as 
they  had  descended  to  them  from  the  Sassanian 
times,  began  to  substitute,  in  reading,  the  Persian 
equivalents  to  the  Huzvaresh  words.  At  last  a 
new  form  of  commentaries  to  the  sacred  writings 
sprang  up,  in  which  more  distinct  and  clear  Zend 
characters  were  used,  where  each  sign  has  but  one 
phonetical  value,  and  where  all  the  foreign  Huzvaresh 
words  were  replaced  by  pure  Persian  ones  ;  and  this 
new  form  was  called  (4)  Pdzend.  The  transition 
from  the  ancient  to  the  modern  Persian  is  formed 
by  the  Parsee,  or,  as  the  Arabs  call  it,  Farsi,  in  use 
from  7U0  to  1100  A.D.,  once  the  language  purely  of 
the  south-western  provinces,  and  distinguished 
chiefly  by  a  peculiarity  of  style,  rigid  exclusion 
of  Semitic  words,  and  certain  now  obsolete  forms 
and  words  retained  in  liturgic  formulas.  It  is  the 
Persian  once  written  by  the  Parsees  or  tire-wor- 
shippers, and  is  in  other  respects  very  similar  to 
the  present  or  modern  Persian,  the  language  of  Jami, 
Nizaini,  and  Hatiz— from  1100  to  the  present 
time— with  its  numerous  dialects.  The  purest 
dialect  is  said  to  be  that  spoken  in  Shiraz  and 
Ispahan  and  their  neighbourhood.  In  general, 
the  language  is  pronounced  by  universal  consent 
to  be  the  richest  and  most  elegant  of  those  spoken 
in  modern  Asia.  It  is  the  most  sonorous  and 
muscular,  while  at  the  same  time  it  is  the  most 
elegant  and  most  flexible  of  idioms ;  and  it  is  not 
to  be  wondered  at,  that,  throughout  the  Moslem 
and  Hindu  realm,  it  should  have  become  the 
court  language,  and  that  of  the  educated  world 
in  general ;  holding  a  position  somewhat  similar 
to  that  which  the  French  language  held  up  to 
within  a  recent  period  in  Europe.  Its  chief 
characteristic,  however,  is  the  enormous  intermix- 
ture of  Arabic  words,  which,  indeed,  almost  make 
up  half  its  vocabulary.  Respecting  its  analytical 
and  grammatical  structure,  it  exhibits  traces  only 
of  that  of  the  ancient  dialects  of  Zend  aud  Achae- 
wenian,  of  which  it  is  a  direct  descendant.  The 
elaborate  system  of  forms  and  inflections  charac- 
teristic of  those  dialects  has  been  utterly  aban- 
doned for  combinations  of  auxiliary  words,  which 
form  independent  connective  links,  and  which 
impart  fulness  and  an  incredible  ease  to  speech 
and  composition,  but  which,  at  the  same  time, 
correspond  as  little  to  the  classical  notion  of 
inflection.  The  grammar  of  the  Persian  lan- 
guage has  been  called  '  regular ; '  but  the  fact 
is,  that  there  is  hardly  any  grammar  worth 
mentioning — at  all  events,  no  grammar  the  rules 
of  which  could  not  be  mastered  in  the  briefest 
possible  period.  To  begin  with  :  there  is  no  gender 
42G 


distinguished  in  declension  ;  the  plural  is  always 
formed  in  the  same  manner,  the  only  distinc- 
tion consists  in  animate  beings  receiving  the  affix 
dn,  while  the  inanimate  are  terminated  in  ha; 
further,  that  instead  of  the  inflection  in  the  differ- 
ent cases  found  in  the  ancient  languages,  either 
a  mar  (hitherto  unexplained)  is  prefixed,  or  a  rd 
(rdh  =  way,  by  reason  of,  Pehlevi,  Parsi)  is  affixed. 
Between  tlie  genitive  and  the  word  which  governs 
it,  also  between  a  noun  and  its  following  adjective, 
an  i  is  inserted.  This  is  the  whole  declension,  not 
only  of  the  noun,  but  also  of  the  adjective  and 
pronoun.  The  comparative  is  formed,  as  in  the 
mother-tongues,  by  the  addition  of  ter ;  the  super- 

|  lative  adds  terln,  which  is  New-Persian  exclusively. 

I  Not  even  the  pronouns  have  a  gender  of  their  own  ; 
the   distinction    between    masculine   and   feminine 

!  must  be  expressed  by  a  special  word,  denoting  male 
or  female.      There  is  no  article,  either  definite  or 

:  indefinite.  Singularity  of  a  noun  is  expressed  by 
an  appended  e,  a  remnant  of  aeva,  one.    The  flection 

i  of  the  verb  is  equally  simple.      There  is  a  set  of 

1  personal  terminations  for  all  tenses : — am,  i,  ad  or 
ast ;  im,  ed,  nd;  the  infinitive  ends  in  tan  or  dan, 
the  past  participle  in  tah  or  dah.  The  aorist  is 
formed  by  adding  to  the  root  the  terminations  am,  i, 

i  ad  ;  em,  ed,  and  ;  the  preterite  by  dropping  the  n  of 

;  the  infinitive,  and  substituting  the  usual  terminations. 
The  prefix  mi  or  hand  (Parsi  and  Huzvaresh  = 
always)  transforms  the  preterite  into  the  imperfect ; 

I  while  the  prefix  hi  or  bih  (the  present  of  the  verb 

I  'to  will')  alters  the  aorist  into  the  simple  future. 

|  The  other  tenses  are  compounds  of  the  past  parti- 
ciple and  auxiliary  verbs,  as  in  the  Teutonic  and 
other    modern    tongues.       The    passive   is   formed 

I  by  the  various  tenses  of  the  verb  shudan,  'to 
be,  to  go,  to  beware,'  being  placed  after  the  past 
participle.     As  to  syntax,  there  is  none,  or,  at  all 

i  events,  none  which  would  not  come  almost  instinc- 
tively to  any  student  acquainted  with  the  general 

,  laws  of  speech  and  composition.     As  the  time  of  its 

i  greatest  brilliancy  may  be  designated  that  in  which 
Firdusi  wrote,  when  Arabic  words  had  not  swamped 
it  to  the  vast  degree  in  which  it  is  now  found,  and 
were  still,  as  far  as  they  had  crept  in,  amenable 
to  whatever  rules  the  Persian  grammar  imposed 
upon  the  words  of  its  own  language. 

In  the  history  of  the  Persian  writing,  three  epochs 
are  to  be  distinguished.  First,  we  have  the  Cunei- 
form (q.  v.),  by  the  side  of  which  there  seems, 
however,  to  have  been  in  use  a  kind  of  Semitic 
alphabet  for  common  purposes.  This,  in  the  second 
period,  appears  to  have  split  into  several  alphabets, 
all  related  to  each  other,  and  pointing  to  a  common 
Syriac  origin  (such  as  the  different  kinds  of  Pehlevi 
characters  and  the  Zend  alphabet)  cleverly  adapted 
to  the  use  of  a  non-Semitic  language.  In  the  tliird 
period,  we  find  the  Arabic  alphabet  enlarged  for 
Persian  use  by  an  addition  of  diacritical  points  and 
signs  for  such  sounds  as  are  not  to  be  found  in 
Arabic  (p,  ch,  zh,  g).  The  characters  are  written  in 
a  somewhat  more  pending  manner  (Talik)  in  Persian, 
and  the  writing  is  thus  slightly  different  from  the 
usual  Arabic  NeskhL 

The  much-spoken-of  close  connection  between 
German  and  Persian — both  of  Indo-Germanic  kin 
— is  neither  more  nor  less  than  a  popular  fallacy, 
caused  by  a  misunderstood  dictum  of  Leibnitz  : 
'  Integri  versus  Persice  scribi  possunt  quos  Germanua 
intelligat,'  which  was  enthusiastically  taken  up  and 
'  proved '  by  Adclung,  Hammer- Purgstall,  and  others, 
and  which  has  even  led  to  the  assumption,  that  the 
Germans  came  direct  from  Persia,  or  that  the  Goths 
once  were  mixed  with  the  Persians.  We  only  men* 
tion  it  as  a  philological  absurdity  of  bygone  days. 
Of   the   Literature   of    the   Persians  before    lht 


PERSIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


Mohammedan  conquest,  we  shall  Dot  Speak  here,  1  nit 
refer  to  the  special  articles  Zknd,  I'kiii.ia  i,  Parsers, 
&c.  The  literary  period  now  under  consideration 
is  distinguishable  by  the  above-mentioned  infusion 
of  Arabic  words  into  (he  Persian  language,  import*  d 
together  with  the  Koran  ami  its  teachings,  The 
writers  are,  in  fact)  one  and  all,  Mohammedans. 
With  the  fanaticism  peculiar  to  conquering  religions, 
more  particularly  to  Islam,  all  the  representatives 

of  old  Persian  literature  and  science,  men  and 
matter,  were  ruthlessly  persecuted  by  Omar's  general, 
Saad  ll>n  Al>i  Wakkas.  The  consequence  was,  that 
for  the  first  two  or  three  centuries  after  the  con- 
quest, all  was  silence.  The  scholars  and  priests  who 
would  not  bow  to  Allah  and  his  Prophet  and  to 
the  oew  order  of  things,  and  who  had  found  means 
to  emigrate,  took  with  them  what  had  not  been 
destroyed  of  the  written  monuments  of  their 
ancient  culture  ;  wkde  those  that  remained  At  home 
were  forced  to  abandon  their  wonted  .studies. 
Yet,  by  slow  degrees,  as  is  invariably  the  case 
under  such  circumstances,  the  conquered  race 
transformed  the  culture  of  the  conquerors  to  such 
a  degree,  that  native  iutiueuce  soon  became  para- 
mount in  Persia,  even  in  the  matter  of  theo- 
logy— the  supreme  science.  It  is  readily  granted 
by  later  Mohammedan  writers,  that  it  was  out 
of  the  body  of  the  Persians  exclusively  that  sprang 
the  foremost,  if  not  all,  of  the  greatest  scholars  and 
authors  on  religious  as  well  as  grammatical  sub- 
jects, historians  aud  poets,  philosophers  and  men  of 
science ;  and  the  only  concession  they  made  con- 
sisted iu  their  use  of  the  newly-imported  Arabic 
tongue.  A  further  step  was  taken  when,  after  the 
Islam  sway  had  ceased,  the  Persians,  under  upstart 
native  dynasties,  returned  also  to  the  ancient  lan- 
guage of  their  fathers  during  the  first  centuries  of 
Mohammedanism.  The  revived  national  feeling, 
which  must  have  been  stirring  for  a  long  time  pre- 
viously among  the  masses,  then  suddenly  burst  forth 
in  prose  and  in  verse,  from  the  lips  of  a  thousand 
singers  and  writers.  The  literary  life  of  Persia,  the 
commencement  of  which  is  thus  to  be  placed  in 
the  9th  c.  A.D.,  continued  to  flourish  with  unabated 
healthy  vigour  for  five  centuries,  and  produced  a 
host  of  WTiters  in  every  branch  of  science  and 
belles-lettres,  of  whom  we  can  only  here  give  the 
most  rapid  of  surveys,  referring  for  the  most  impor- 
tant names  to  the  special  articles  throughout  this 
work.  Beginning  with  poetry,  we  hear,  under  the 
rule  of  the  third  of  the  Samaniiles,  Nasr  (about  952), 
of  Abul  Hasan  Rudegi,  the  blind,  who  rose  by  the 
king's  favour  to  such  an  eminence  that  he  had  200 
slaves  to  wait  upon  him.  But  little  has  remained 
of  his  1,300,000  distichs,  and  of  his  metrical  tran- 
slation of  Bidpai's  Fables.  About  10U0  A.D.,  we 
hear  of  Kabus,  the  Dilemite  prince,  as  the  author 
of  TIte  Perfection  of  B/ietoric,  and  Poems.  In  the 
time  of  the  Gasnevides,  chiefly  under  Mahmud, 
who  surrounded  himself  with  no  less  than  400 
court-poets,  we  find  those  stars  of  Persian  song, 
Ansari  (1039),  the  author  of  Wamik  and  Asra,  and 
80,000  other  distichs  and  Kassidahs  in  honour  and 
praise  of  the  king ;  further,  Ferruchi,  who,  besides 
his  own  poems,  also  wrote  the  first  work  on  the 
laws  of  the  Persian  metrical  art ;  and  above  all 
Firdusi  (q.  v.),  that  greatest  epic  poet,  the  author  of 
the  Shah-Nameh,  or  Book  of  Kings  ;  who  led  one 
of  the  most  brilliant  and  romantic  lives  that  ever 
fell  to  the  lot  of  genius,  and  ended  it  forgotten 
and  in  misery.  With  him,  but  darkened  by  his 
brightness,  flourished  Esedi,  his  countryman,  from 
Pus.  Among  the  poets  who  flourished  under  the 
Atabek  dynasty,  we  find  that  most  brilliant  Persian 
panegyrist,  Anhad  Addin  Enweri,  who,  with  his 
pr%ise,  well  knew  how  to  handle  satire.    The  best 


of  the  older  mystic  poets  of  thai  period  is  Senayl, 
nuthor  of  80,000  distiches  who  far  his  poem  //"</<- 
kut  was  nominated  official  singer  of  the  Bnfis.  Nizami 
(about  120H)  is  founder  of  the  romantic  epos:  the 
greater  part  of  his  Chamahe,  or  collection  of  five 
romantic    poems  [OhOKTU   and    Sldnn,    Mijiuin   and 

Leila,  to.),  being  almost  as  well  known  in  Europe 
as  it  is  in  the  East;  and  to  whom  Kisilaralan  tin 
king   presented   for  one   of   the.se:   poems    no   less 

than  fourteen  estates.  His  grave  at  Ocndsheh 
is  still  visited  by  many  a  pious  pilgrim.  And 
here  we  must  mention  that  the  branch  of  eastern 
theosophical  literature  pre-eminently  cultivated  in 
Persia  is  the  mystic  (Sutistic)  poetry,  which,  under 
Anacreontic  allegories,  in  glowing  Bongs  of  wine 
and  love,  represented  the  mystery  of  divine  love 
and  of  the  union  of  the  soul  with  God  (see 
NrnsMt.  In  this  province  we  find  chiefly  eminent 
poets  like  Senaji  (about  beginning  of  13th  c), 
and  Ferid  Eddin  Attar  (born  1-_'10),  the  renowned 
author  of  Paid  Xumeh  (Book  of  Counsel),  a  work 
containing  the  biographies  of  saints  up  to  his  day. 
His  principal  strength,  however,  lay  in  his  mystio 
poems;  and  such  are  the  depth  and  hidden  meaning 
of  his  rhymes,  that  for  centuries  after  him.  tin- 
whole  Moslem  world  has  busied  itself  with  com- 
mentaries and  conjectures  on  the  meaning  of  a 
great  part  of  his  sacred  poetry.  He  died  about 
1330,  more  than  a  hundred  years  old,  as  a  martyr. 
Greater  still,  in  this  peculiar  field,  is  Djalal  Eddin 
Rumi,  born  at  Balkh  (died  1206),  the  founder  of 
a  still  existing  most  popular  order  of  dervishes 
(Mewlewi).  His  poem  on  Contemplative  Life  has 
made  him  the  oracle  of  oriental  mysticism  up  to 
this  day.  He  wrote  also  a  great  number  of  lyrical 
poems,  which  form,  as  far  as  they  have  been  col- 
lected for  this  special  purpose,  a  breviary  for  the 
faithful  Sufi.  Anhadi  of  Meraga  (died  1297)  also 
deserves  mention. 

The  13th  c.  cannot  better  be  closed  than  with 
Sheik  Muslih  Eddin  Sadi  of  Shiraz  (died  1291), 
the  first  and  unrivalled  Persian  didactic  poet.  His 
Boston  and  (Julistan  (Itose-  and  Fruit-Garden)  are 
not  only  of  Eastern  but  also  of  European  celebrity, 
and  most  deservedly,  embodying  as  they  do  all  the 
mature  wisdom,  the  grace  and  happiness  of  com- 
position of  a  true  poet,  ripe  in  years  as  in  experience. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  14th  c,  we  meet  several 
meritorious  imitators  of  Sadi  in  didactic  poetry. 

But  far  above  all  these,  as  above  all  other 
Persian  lyrical  and  erotic  poets,  shines  Hafiz 
(q.  v.),  the  'Sugar-lip,'  who  sang  of  wine  and 
love,  and  nightingales  and  flowers,  and  who  so 
offended  mock-piety,  that  it  even  would  have  tried 
to  refuse  him  a  proper  burial,  had  not  the  oracle 
of  the  Koran  interposed.  After  him,  the  full  glory 
of  Persian  poetry  begins  to  wane.  Among  those 
that  came  after  him,  stands  highest  Djaini,  who 
died  in  1492,  a  poet  of  most  varied  genius,  second 
only  in  every  one  of  the  manifold  branches  to  its 
chief  master — in  panegyric  to  Enveri,  in  didactic  to 
Sadi,  in  romance  to  Nizami,  in  mysticism  to  Jelal- 
ed-din,  in  lyric  to  Sadi ;  and  he,  with  these  and 
Firdusi,  form  the  brightest  representatives  of 
Persian  poetry.  Most  brilliant,  however,  is  Djiimi  as 
a  romantic  poet  Of  jjrose  works,  we  have  by  him 
a  history  of  Sufis,  and  an  exceedingly  valuable 
collection  of  epistolary  models.  Before  concluding 
this  branch  of  literature,  we  must  take  notice  of  the 
dramatic  poetry  of  the  Persians,  which  is  not  with- 
out merit,  but  of  small  extent,  and  to  be  compared 
principally  with  the  ancient  French  mysteries. 

The  numerous  tales,  stories,  novels,  anecdotes, 
anthologies,  and  all  the  miscellaneous  entertaining 
literature  in  which  Persia  abounds— and  of  which  the 
best  known,  perhaps,  are  the  adaptation  of  Bidpai't 


PERSIAN  POWDER- PERSIGNY. 


tables ;  Anvari  Sukeili,  by  Husein  Vais  Kashifi  ;  the 
Tutitiiimeh,  or  Book  of  Parrots,  a  collection  of  fairy 
tales,  by  Nechshebi ;  the  Behari- Danish,  by  Inajeth 
Allah,  &c. — form  a  fit  transition  from  poetry  to 
prose,  for  little  more  is  to  be  said  of  Persian  poetry 
after  the  15th  century.  Modern  imitations  of 
ancient  classical  works,  such  as  the  New  Book  of 
Kings,  the  <$,/ta/i<7w/«iA-Arame/i,  which  treats  of  modern 
Persian  history ;  the  George  Nameh,  which  sings 
the  English  conquests  in  India,  &c,  are  hardly 
worth  pointing  out  in  so  brief  a  summary  as  ours. 
Of  native  writers  on  the  poets,  are  to  be  named 
Dewlet  Shah  (who  describes  the  poets  from  the  10th 
to  the  15th  centuries),  Sam  Mirsa  (the  poets  of  the 
16th),  and  Luft  Ali  Beg  (the  poets  of  modern  time). 
In  prose,  it  is  chiefly  history  which  deserves  our 
attention.  Able  rivals  of  the  great  Arabic  historio- 
graphers sprang  up  at  an  early  period.  For  the 
mythical  times,  or  those  of  which  no  knowledge, 
save  through  a  medium  of  half-legend,  has  reached 
later  generations,  Firdusi's  gigantic  epos  remains 
the  only  source.  But  after  the  chroniclers  we  find 
Fadhl  Allah  Reshid  Eddin,  the  vizier  of  Ghazan, 
born  1247  at  Hamadan,  who  was  executed  in 
1320.  He  wrote  the  Collector  of  Histories,  in  three 
volumes,  to  which  he  afterwards  added  a  fourth 
geographical  volume :  a  summary  of  the  history 
of  all  Mohammedan  countries  and  times,  containing 
besides  a  complete  history  of  sects.  Worthy  and 
contemporaneous  rivals  are  Faclir  Eddin  Moham- 
med Bina  Kiti,  author  of  a  universal  history ; 
and  Khodja  Abdallah  Wassaf,  the  panegyrist, 
the  model  of  grand  and  rhetorical  style.  His 
most  successful  imitator  in  the  14th  c  is  Abdel 
Ressak;  and  in  the  15th,  Sheref  Eddin  Ali  Yezdi, 
who  wrote  the  history  of  Timur.  Up  to  that  period, 
pomposity  of  diction  was  considered  the  principal 
beauty,  if  not  the  chief  merit,  of  a  classical  Persian 
history.  From  the  15th  c.  downwards,  a  healthy 
reaction  set  in,  and  simplicity  and  the  striving  after 
the  real  representation  of  facts,  became  the  pre- 
dominant fashion.  As  the  facile  princeps  among 
these  modern  historians  is  to  be  mentioned  Mirk- 
bond,  whose  Universal  History  (Banset  Essafa)  com- 
prises the  period  from  creation  to  the  reign  of  Sultan 
Hasan  Beikara,  in  seven  books.  After  him  are  to 
be  mentioned  his  son  Khondemir,  Gaffari,  Moslih 
Eddin  Mohammed  Lari,  and  Abu  Tahir  of  Tortosa 
in  Spain,  who  wrote  the  Derab  Nameh,  a  biographi- 
cal work  on  the  Persian  and  Macedonian  kings,  and 
the  ancient  Greek  physicians  and  philosophers. 

Among  Indian  historians — and  they  form  a  most 
important  class — who  wrote  in  Persian,  we  have 
Mohammed  Kasim  Ferishtah  (1640),  who  wrote  the 
ancient  history  of  India  up  to  the  European  con- 
quest ;  Mohammed  Hashim,  Abul  Fadel  Mobarrek 
(Akbar  Nameh) ;  further,  Abdel  Ressak  (History  of 
the  Padishahs),  Mirza  Mehdi,  Gholam  Hussein  Khan, 
and  others.  One  of  the  most  recent  works  of  this 
description  is  the  Measiri  Sultariuje,  which  contains 
the  history  of  the  present  dynasty  of  Persia,  and 
Which  was  published  in  Teheran,  1825,  and  trans- 
lated by  Bridges  (Bond  1833). 

Biographies,  legends,  histories  of  martyrs,  and  the 
like  are  legion.  Most  of  the  biographies  of  the 
Prophet,  however,  are  taken  from  the  Arabic. 

Little  is  to  be  said  of  Persian  productions 
on  special  branches  of  exact  science.  There 
are  a  few  works  on  geography — more  generally 
treated  together  with  history— such  as  those  of 
Mestafi,  Ahmin  Ahmed  Rasi,  Berdshendi,  &c.  In 
theology,  little  beyond  translations  of  the  Koran, 
and  a  few  commentaries  on  single  chapters,  and  of 
some  portions  of  the  Traditions  (Sunnah),  has  been 
produced— the  Arabic  works  being  completely  suffi- 
cient, in  religious  matters,  for  all  Mohammedans. 
428 


For  the  history  of  earl}'  Persian  religion  are  of 
importance  the  Ulemai  Islam  and  the  Dabislan,  a 
description  of  all  the  creeds  of  the  East.  Juris- 
prudence has  likewise  to  shew  little  that  is  original, 
and  not  mere  translation,  partial  commentary,  or 
adaptation  in  Persian.  The  Hedadshah,  the  Inad- 
sluth,  the  Futawa  Alemgiri,  are  the  most  important 
legal  works  to  be  mentioned  here.  A  great  deal 
has  been  done  in  the  field  of  medicine,  surgery, 
pharmacy,  physical  sciences,  by  Persians ;  but  nearly 
all  their  chief  works  being  written  in  Arabic,  they 
do  not  concern  us  here.  Mathematics,  astronomy, 
and  philosophy,  have  received  due  attention ;  rhetoric, 
the  art  of  letter- writing,  metrical  and  poetical  arts, 
have  likewise  been  cultivated  with  great  assiduity, 
but  few  standard  works  are  to  be  enumerated. 
Grammar  and  lexicography  found  their  principal 
devotees  in  India ;  and  of  dictionaries,  the  FerhengU 
Shiuri,  Burhani  Katiu,  and  principally  the  Heft 
Kulzum  (the  Seven  Seas),  by  the  Sultan  of  Oude, 
deserve  attention.  Translations  from  Greek,  Indian, 
Arabic,  Turkish,  and  other  works  into  Persian, 
exist  in  great  abundauce,  and  some  of  them  have 
paved  the  way  to  the  knowledge  of  the  original 
sources  in  Europe. — Chief  authorities  and  writers 
on  the  subject  of  Persian  Language  and  Literature, 
are  Meniusky,  Richardson,  Lumsden,  Forbes,  Sil- 
vestre  De  Lacy,  Hammer-Purgstall,  Briggs,  Jones, 
Duperron,  Stewart,  Quatremere,  Wilken,  Defremery, 
Vullers,  Iken,  Kosegarten,  Ouseley,  Chodzko, 
Bland,  Sprenger,  Graff,  Brockhaus,  Dorn. 

PERSIAN  POWDER,  a  preparation  of  the 
flowers  of  the  composite  plant,  Pyrethrum  carneum 
or  roseuni,  which  are  dried  and  pidverised.  This 
powder  has  wonderful  efficacy  in  destroying 
noxious  insects,  and  is  extensively  used  for  that 
purpose  in  Russia,  Persia,  and  Turkey.  It  has 
lately  been  introduced  into  France  and  Britain, 
and  promises  to  be  of  great  use,  not  only  in  ridding 
houses  of  their  insect  pests,  but  in  aiding  the 
horticulturist  in  protecting  his  plants.  The  plant 
is  a  native  of  the  Caucasus,  where  the  flowers  are 
gathered  wild,  and  sent  to  be  manufactured  chiefly 
at  Teflis.  It  might  readily  be  cultivated  in  this 
country,  where  its  value  for  destroying  moths 
alone  would  render  it  a  profitable  crop.  Its  habit 
is  very  similar  to  that  of  camomile. 

PERSIGNY,  Jean  Gilbert  Victor,  Comte  de, 
whose  proper  name  was  FlALIN,  a  noted  adherent 
of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III.,  was  born  at  Snint- 
Germain-Lespinasse,  in  the  department  of  Loire, 
11th  January  1808,  entered  the  Ecole  de  Cavalerie  at 
Saumur  in  1S26,  and  obtained  an  appointment  to 
the  4th  regiment  of  hussars  in  1828.  At  this  period, 
Fialin  was  royalist  in  his  politics  ;  but  he  soon 
changed  to  a  liberal,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
July  revolution.  Insubordination,  however,  led  to 
his  final  expulsion  from  the  army  in  1833.  After  a 
brief  trial  of  Saint-Simonianism,  Fialin  was  con- 
verted to  the  Bonapartist  cause,  dropped  the  name 
of  Fialin,  and  took  up  that  of  P.  (from  an  'hereditary 
estate'),  with  the  title  of  Vicomte.  Introduced  to 
Louis  Napoleon  by  the  ex-king  Joseph,  he  at  once 
formed  the  most  intimate  relations  with  the  Prince, 
and  commenced  a  career  of  Bonapartist  propagan- 
dism  throughout  France  and  Germany,  in  which  he 
displayed  extraordinary  energy,  pertinacity,  aud 
fertility  of  resource.  He  had  the  chief  hand  in  the 
affair  of  Strasburg,  and  subsequently  apologised  for 
its  humiliating  failure  in  a  pamphlet  entitled  Bela- 
tion  de  V Enterprise  du  Prince  Napoleon  Louis  (Lond 
1837),  in  which  he  throws  the  blame  of  the  disaster  on 
'  Fate.'  He  also  took  part  in  the  descent  on  Boulogne, 
where,  like  his  master,  he  had  the  misfortune  to  be 
captured,   and    was    condemned    to    twenty    years 


PERSIMON-PERSONIFICATION. 


imprisonment.  His  confinement,  however,  after  a 
Bhort  time,  became  almost  nominal,  and  lie  beguiled 

his  leisure  by  literary  study,  a  partial  result  of  which 
may  he  seen  in  his  voluminous  memoir,  addressed 
to  the  Institute,  on  the  UtUUi  dea  Puramidea 
tPEgypte  (1844).  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  revol- 
ution in  1848,  P.  hurried  to  I'aris,  and  set  himself, 
with  all  his  accustomed  vigour  and  swiftness,  to 
organise  the  Bonapartists.  It  is  hardly  too  much 
to  attirm  that  it  was  this  dexterous  agitator  who 
made  his  master  President  of  the  Republic,  He 
was  then  appointed  aide-de-camp  to  the  President, 
and  Major-general  of  the  Parisian  National  Guard 
— perhaps  with  a  view  to  future  contingencies.  In 
1840,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Legislative 
Assembly,  and  immediately  signalised  himself  in 
parliament,  as  he  had  previously  done  out  of 
doors,  by  his  absolute  devotion  to  the  policy  of  the 
Elysee.  He  was  sent  to  Berlin  as  ambassador 
at  the  close  of  the  same  year,  and  afterwards  held 
other  high  diplomatic  offices ;  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  coup  d'etat  of  December  1851  ;  and,  in 
January  1862,  succeeded  M.  de  Morny  as  Minister 
of  the  Interior.  On  the  27th  of  May  following,  he 
married  a  grand-daughter  of  Marshal  Ney,  when 
the  president  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  Comte, 
and  presented  him  with  500,000  francs.  In  1855  and 
in  1850  he  became  ambassador  at  the  English  court, 
was  re-appointed  Minister  of  the  Interior  in  1860,  but 
removed  in  June,  1863,  and  left  the  most  favourable 
impression  on  English  statesmen  by  his  talent  and 
diplomatic  tact,  in  all  political  emergencies,  he  was 
the  most  confidential  ami  the  soundest  adviser  of  the 
emperor;  he  also  entered  heartily  into  his  liberal  com- 
mercial reforms;  and  though  an  implacable  opponent 
of  the  extreme  or  anarchic  republicans,  he  was  (like  a 
true  disciple  of  Bonaparte)  unfavourably  disposed  to- 
wards the  ultramontane  party  of  the  church,  as  his 
sharp  treatment  of  the  Socie'te  de  Saint-  Vincent  de 
ran',  demonstrated.  See  M.  Delaroa,  Le  Due  de  Per- 
sir/nr/  el  VEmpire,  1866.     He  died  in  1872. 

PERSI'MON.    See  Date  Plum. 

PE'RSIUS  (Aulus  Persius  Flaccus),  one  of  the 
most  famous  Roman  satirists,  was  born  at  Volaterra? 
in  Etruria,  34  A.  D.  He  was  of  a  distinguished 
equestrian  family,  was  educated  under  the  care  of 
the  Stoic,  Cornutus,  lived  on  terms  of  intimacy  with 
the  most  distinguished  personages  of  his  time  in 
Rome,  among  whom  were  Lucan  and  Seneca,  and 
died  24th  November  62  A.  D.,  in  the  28th  year  of  his 
age.  The  principal  authority  for  the  life  of  P.  is  an 
abridgment  of  a  '  commentary '  by  one  Probus 
Valerius,  which  presents  the  character  of  the  satirist 
in  a  most  amiable  light.  Modest  and  gentle  in  his 
manners,  virtuous  aud  pure  in  his  whole  conduct 
and  relations,  he  stands  out  conspicuously  from  the 
mass  oi  corrupt  and  profligate  persons  who  formed  the 
Roman  '  society '  of  his  age ;  and  vindicated  for  him- 
self the  right  to  be  severe,  by  leading  a  blameless  and 
exemplary  life.  His  six  Satires  are  very  commonly 
printed  with  those  of  Juvenal.  They  were  immensely 
admired  in  P.'s  own  day*  and  long  after,  all  down 
through  the  middle  ages.  The  Church  Fathers, 
Augustine,  Lactantius,  and  Jerome,  were  particu- 
larly fond  of  him— the  latter,  it  is  said,  has  quite 
saturated  his  style  with  the  expressions  of  the 
heathen  satirist ;  but  the  estimate  which  modern 
critics  have  formed  of  his  writings,  in  a  literary 
point  of  view,  is  not  quite  so  high.  They  are 
remarkable  for  the  sternness  with  which  they 
censure  the  corruption  of  morals  then  prevalent 
at  Rome,  contrasting  it  with  the  old  Roman 
austerity  and  with  the  Stoic  ideal  of  virtue.  The 
language  is  terse,  homely,  and  sometimes  obscure, 
from  the  nature  of  the  allusions  and  the  expressions 


used,  but  his  dialogues  are  the  most  dramatic  in  the 
Latin    tongue.     The  editio   prmeept  appeared   at 

Bome    in    1170;    later    editions  an     those   of   Isaac 

Casaubon  (Par.  1605),  Passow  (Leip.  1809),  John 
(Leip.  L843),  and  Beinrich  (Leip.  1844).  P.  has 
been  frequently  translated  ;  as  many  as  fourteen 
English,  twenty  French,  and  considerably  mon 
German  versions,  being  known.  The  two  best 
English  ones  are  those  by  Dryden  and  Gilford. 

PERSON  (Lat.  persona,  a  mask)  has  come,  from 
its  original  signification,  to  be  applied  to  the 
individual  wearing  the  mask,  and  thus  to  mean  in 
general  an  individual,  or  a  numerically  distinct 
being.  Beyond  the  idea  of  individuality,  it  involves 
that  of  a  sentient  or  intelligent  nature,  in  which 
it  differs  from  'substance'  or  'thing.'  The  theo- 
logical use  of  the  word,  although  strictly  identical 
with  its  philosophical  signification,  is  made  difficult 
of  apprehension  from  its  being  applied  to  the 
Christian  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  which  in  itself 
involves  a  mystery.  Nevertheless,  when  theologians 
declare  that  there  are  Three  Persons  in  one  God, 
they  intend  to  strictly  convey  that  each  of  the 
Three  Persons  is  a  Being  individually  subsisting  and 
numerically  distinct ;  and  the  difficulty  of  appre- 
hension is  derived,  not  from  these  terms,  but  from 
the  reconciliation  of  the  numerical  distinction  of 
Persons  with  the  unity  of  the  Divine  Nature. 

The  name  Persona,  Person,  was  first  applied  to  the 
Trinity  by  the  Latins ;  the  corresponding  Greek  word, 
Prosopon,  being  of  later  use.  The  earlier  Greek 
Fathers  used  the  word  Hypostasis,  substance, 
where  the  Latins  used  Persona,  and  considerable 
controversy  for  a  time  grew  out  of  this  diverse  use. 
It  became  apparent,  however,  that  the  difference 
was  but  of  words ;  and  after  the  condemnation  of 
the  Sabellian  heresy  (see  Sabellianism),  and  still 
more  after  the  council  of  Nicaea,  all  ambiguity  of 
words  being  at  an  end,  the  controversy  turned  upon 
the  substance  of  the  doctrine,  in  the  well-known 
form  of  the  Arian  controversy.     See  Arius. 

PE'RSONAL  ACTIONS,  in  English  Law,  &* 
actions  which  are  brought  to  try  the  right  to 
damages  for  breach  of  contract,  or  for  injuries  to 
the  person  or  personal  estate ;  in  contradistinction  to 
real  actions,  which  were  designed  to  try  the  right 
and  title  to  real  property. 

PERSONAL  EXCEPTION  means,  in  the 
Roman  law,  a  ground  of  objection  which  applies  to 
an  individual,  and  prevents  him  doing  something 
which,  but  for  his  conduct  or  situation,  he  might 
do.  The  term  is  adopted  in  the  law  of  Scotland. 
In  England,  it  is  generally  called  an  estoppel. 
Thus,  a  person  who  executes  a  deed  is  prevented 
by  personal  exception  or  estoppel  from  disputing 
the  obligation  thereby  contracted,  unless  a  case  of 
fraud  be  made  out. 

PE'RSONALTY,  in  English  Law,  means  all  the 
property  which,  when  a  man  dies,  goes  to  his 
executor  or  administrator,  as  distinguished  from  the 
realty,  which  goes  to  his  heir-at-law.  Personalty 
consists  of  money,  furniture,  stock  in  the  funds ; 
while  realty  consists  of  freehold  land  and  rights 
connected  with  land.  See  Intestacy,  Kin,  Nexi 
op. 

PERSONIFICA'TION  (called  by  the  Greeks 
Prosopopoeia)  is  a  figure  of  rhetoric  by  which 
inanimate  objects,  or  mere  abstract  conceptions,  are 
invested  with  the  forms  and  attributes  of  conscious 
life.  Oratory  and  poetry  often  derive  great  power 
and  beauty  from  the  employment  of  this  figure. 
Nowhere  do  we  find  more  sublime  examples  than  in 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  e.g.,  'The  sea  saw  it,  and 
fled.'    Such  abstract  conceptions  as  Wisdom,  Justice 


PERSONNEL— PERSPECTIVE. 


Charity,  are  often  personified  in  the  gravest  and 
most  argumentative  compositions. 

PERSONNEL,  in  speaking  of  an  army,  repre- 
sents the  officers  and  soldiers,  as  opposed  to  the 
materiel,  in  which  are  comprised  the  guns,  provisions, 
wagons,  and  stores  of  every  description. 

PERSPE'CTIVE  (Lat.  perspicio,  I  look  through), 
is  the  art  of  representing  natural  objects  upon  a 
plane  surface  in  such  a  manner  that  the  represen- 
tation shall  affect  the  eye  in  the  same  way  as  the 
objects  themselves.  The  distance  and  position  of 
objects  affect  both  their  distinctness  and  apparent 
form,  giving  rise  to  a  subdivision  of  perspective 
into  linear  perspective,  which,  as  its  name  denotes, 
considers  exclusively  the  effect  produced  by  the 
position  and  distance  of  the  observer  upon  the 
apparent  form  and  grouping  of  objects  ;  while  aerial 
perspective  confines  itself  to  their  distinctness,  as 
modified  by  distance  and  light.  The  necessity  of 
attending  to  the  principles  of  perspective  in  all 
pictorial"  drawing  is  apparent  when  we  consider, 
tor  instance,   that  a  circle,    when   seen  obliquely, 


taken,  from  an  eminence ;  but  when  the  station  ia 
on  a  level,  either  actual  or  assumed,  as  is  the 
case  when  a  statue  or  a  mountainous  landscape  ia 
figured,  the  horizontal  line  must  be  low.  The 
horizontal  line  in  nearly  all  cases  is  supposed  to 
be  level  with  the  spectator's  eye.  3.  The  vertical 
line,  which  is  drawn  from  the  supposed  position 
of  the  sketcher,  perpendicular  to  the  ground  and 
horizontal  lines,  meeting  the  latter  in  a  point  which 
is  called  the  point  of  sight,  or  centre  of  the  picture. 
The  vertical  line  has  no  representative  in  nature, 
and  is  merely  a  mechanical  adjunct  to  the  con- 
struction of  the  picture,  all  vertical  lines  in  nature 
being  parallel  to  it  in  the  picture.  The  point  of 
sight  being  the  point  directly  opposite  to  the 
observer,  is  properly  placed  in  the  centre  of  the 
picture,  for  it  is  most  natural  that  the  view  should 
lie  symmetrically  on  each  side  of  the  principal 
visual  line ;  but  this  is  not  by  any  means  a  univer- 
sal rule,  for  we  very  frequently  find  it  on  the 
right  or  left  side,  but  always,  of  course,  on  the 
horizontal  line.  All  lines  which  in  nature  are 
perpendicular  to  the  ground  line,  or  to  a  vertical 


Fig.  1. 
Illustrating  the  more  important  points  and  lines;  PVR  is  the  principal  visual  ray. 


appears  to  be  not  a  circle,  but  an  ellipse,  with  its  plane  which  is  raised  upon  it  as  a  base,  meet  in  the 

shortest  diameter  in  line  with  the  spectator,  and  point  of  sight,  which  is  thus  their  vanishing  point  (see 

its   longest   at   right   angles    to    this.      A    square,  the  line  of  the  tops  and  bottoms  of  the  pillars  in 

when  looked  at  from  a  position  opposite  the  centre  fig.  1).     The  points  of  distance  are  two  points  in  the 
of  one  of  its  sides,  appears 

as  a  trapezoid,   the    sides     p.D h.l.    | PS. 

which  are  perpendicular 
to  the  direction  of  vision 
appearing  to  be  parallel, 
while  the  other  two  appear 
to  converge  to  a  point  in 
front  of  the  spectator,  &c. 
For  the  same  reason,  two 
rows  of  parallel  pillars  of 
equal  height,  seen  from  a 
point  between  and  equidistant  from  each  row,  horizontal  line  on  each  side  of  the  point  of  sight, 
appear  not  only  to  converge  at  the  further  end,  but  and  in  a  '  direct '  sketch  are  at  a  distance  from  it 
to  become  gradually  smaller  and  smaller.  An  equal  to  the  horizontal  distance  of  the  sketcher's 
excellent  idea  of  ft  perspective  plan  can  be  easily  eye  from  the  ground  bne.  The  equality  of  distance 
obtained  by  interpooing  a  vertical  transparent  plane  of  these  points  from  the  point  of  sight  is  not, 
(as  of  glass — a  -vindow,  for  instance)  between  the  however,  necessary,  as  it  occurs  only  in  those 
observer  and  th*  objects  of  his  vision,  and  supposing  cases  where  the  lines,  of  which  the  points  of  distance 
that  the  object  he  sees  are  not  seen  through  the  are  the  vanishing  points,  are  inclined  (in  nature) 
glass,  but  pair  ted  on  it.  A  sketch  made  on  a  glass  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  the  base  fine  ;  but,  in  all  cases, 
plane  in  this  position  by  following  with  a  pencil  all  the  two  points  of  distance  are  about  twice  as  far 
the  lines  and  shades  of  the  objects  seen  through  it,  apart  as  the  eye  is  from  the  picture.  One  important 
the  eye  beinrr  all  the  time  kept  quite  steady,  would  use  of  the  points  of  distance  is  to  define  the  distance 
form  a  picrire  in  perfect  perspective.  In  practice,  of  objects  in  a  row  (fig.  1)  from  each  other.  For 
however  it  is  found,  unfortunately,  that  glass  is  not  this  purpose,  two  points  of  distance  are  not  neces- 
a  suitable  material  for  sketching  on,  and  that  the  sary,  as,  when  the  position  of  one  pillar  is  found, 
vertical  position  is  not  the  most  convenient ;  it  is  that  of  the  one  opposite  is  at  once  obtained  by 
therefore 'preferable  to  make  a  careful  study  of  the  drawing  a  line  parallel  to  the  base  or  ground  line, 
effects  produced  by  change  of  position  and  distance  We  have  seen  that  the  point  of  sight  is  the  vanish- 
on  the  appearance  of  objects  in  nature,  and  from  ing  point  of  all  level  lines  which  meet  the  ground 
the  results  of  this  to  compile  a  body  of  rules,  by  line  or  a  vertical  plane  on  it  at  right  angles,  and 
the  observance  of  which  painters  may  be  enabled  to  that  the  points  of  distance  (in  a  direct  picture)  are 
produce  an  effect  true  to  nature^  After  the  '  scope '  the  vanishing  points,  of  all  lines  which  cut  the 
(L  e.,  the  number  of  objects  to  be  introduced,  and  ground  line  it  aa  angle  of  45°;  but  there  are  many 
the  distance  at  which  they  are  to  be  viewed)  of  other  groups  of  parallel  lines  in  a  picture  which 


or  ground  line,  which  limits  the  sketch  towards 
the  operator,  and  is  the  base  line  of  the  picture. 
2.  The  horizontal  line,  which  represents  the  ordinary 

Eosition  of  the  sensible  horizon.  The  height  of  the 
orizontal  line  is  about  one-third  of  the  height  of 
the  picture,  when  the  sketcher  is  placed  at  or  little 
above  the  level  of  the  horizon ;  but  it  may  rise  in 
a  degree  corresponding  to  his  increase  of  elevation 
till  it  reaches  near  to  the  top  of  the  perspective 
plan.  The  general  rule  is  to  have  a  high  horizontal 
fine  when  the  view  is  taken,  or  supposed  to  be 
430 


points)  are  represented  in  fig.  2.  If  the  accidental 
point  is  above  thp  horizontal  line,  it  is  called  the 
accidental  point  afr'al — if  below,  the  accidental  point 
terrestrial ;  and  a  little  consideration  makes  it 
evident  that  these  points  may  or  may  not  be  sit- 
uated within  the  plane  of  the  "picture.  Such  are  the 
points  and  lines  necessary  for  the  construction  of 
a  plan  in  true  perspective;  and  from  the  above 
explanation,  we  may  deduce  the  two  general  prin- 
ciples: 1.  That  all  parallel  straight  lines  in  nature 
are    no    longer    parallel    when    projected    on    the 


PERSP I  RATION  -PER  TH 


perspective  plane,  but  meet  in  a  point  which  is 
called  tlu  vanishing  point,  sod  is  some  one  of  the 
three  abore  described,  aniens  these  lines  happen  to 
be  also  paralL  1  to  the  ground  line  or  the  vertical  line, 
in  which  case  they  remain  parallel  when  transferred 


• 

's.      / 

t 

s*^ 

"/lVv 

»'"'^\        -— ' 

C  i  \  \ 

..-•*"*"  ^^\\ 

v~-\ 

■sN 

**e~-^:^~''^ 

i     |\ 

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1        1      oc 

v — y 

1 

1 

I     !    > 

M " 

l> 

^'•^^ 

.    C.L.                                                                                              __] 

"^\ A tL_ 

p\  p\ 

Fig.  2. 
The  lines  0  O  converge  to  the  accidental  point  adi  ia',  and  P  P  to  the  accidental  point  terrestrial. 


to  the  picture  ;  and  2.  That  since  the  bodies  drawn 
below  the  horizontal  line  are  seen  as  if  from  above, 
those  above  as  if  from  below,  and  those  to  the  right 
and  left  of  the  point  of  sight  as  if  observed  from  the 
left  and  right,  it  follows,  that  straight  lineB  which 
in  the  picture  are  above  the  horizontal  line  lower 
themselves,  those  below  raise  themselves  to  it ; 
those  to  the  left,  following  the  same  law,  direct 
themselves  to  the  right,  and  vice  vend. 

Aerial  perspective,  consists  in  a  modulation  of 
the  brightness  and  colours  of  objects  in  accord- 
ance with  the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  the  depth 
of  the  body  in  the  perspective  plane  (i.  e.,  distance 
in  nature  from  the  ground  line),  and  other  accidents 
of  place  and  time.  As  the  distance  of  objects 
increases,  their  illuminated  parts  are  made  less 
brilliant,  anil  their  shaded  parts  more  feeble.  The 
bluish  tint  imparted  by  a  large  mas3  of  the  atmos- 
phere to  the  bodies  seen  through  it,  is  frequently 
imitated  by  the  mixing  of  a  sligbt  tint  of  blue  with 
the  colours  to  be  applied ;  a  yellow  object  thus 
assumes  a  greenish  tint ;  a  red  one,  a  violet  tint, 
&c.  The  air,  when  charged  with  vapour,  is  repre- 
sented by  a  diminution  of  the  brightness  of  colours, 
and  by  the  grayish  tint  imparted  to  them.  But  in 
this  part  of  the  subject,  rules  are  of  little  avail,  for 
experience  alone  can  guide  the  painter  in  faithfully 
copying  the  myriad  aspects  presented  by  nature. 

A  thorough  knowledge  of  perspective  is  a  sine 
qud  non  to  the  painter  or  designer,  and  though 
many  are  inclined  to  think  it  a  superfluity,  and 
that  the  sketcher  has  only  to  make  use  of  his  eyes, 
and  copy  justly,  the  very  fact  that  such  is  their 
opinion,  shews  that  they  have  never  made  the 
attempt ;  for  it  is  impossible  for  the  painter,  and 
much  more  so  for  the  designer,  to  execute  a  copy  of 
nature  with  sufficient  accuracy  by  the  sole  aid  of 
the  eye  and  hand,  a  fact  that  is  unfortunately  much 
too  frequently  proved  by  many  of  the  sketches 
exhibited  in  fine-art  collections.  Perspective  was 
known  to  the  ancients,  but  seems  to  have  become 
extinct  during  the  disturbances  that  convulsed 
Italy,  and  was  revived  by  Albert  Dlirer,  Pietro 
del  Borgo,  and  Bramantino  of  Milan  (1440),  whose 
body  of  rides  was  extended  and  completed  by 
Peruzzi  and  Ubaldi  ahout  1600.  l)r  Brook  Taylor 
was  the  first  Englishman  who  discussed  the  subject 
scientifically.  Works  on  perspective  are  now  abun- 
dant in  every  language. 

PERSPIRATION.    See  Sweat. 


PERTH,  a  city,  royal,  municipal,  and  parliamen- 
tary burgh,  and  capita]  of  the  county  of  the  same 
name,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tay, 
45  miles  north-north-west  of  Edinburgh  by  rail- 
way (through  Fife).    The  rduuming  scenery  of  the 

immediate     vici- 

,«'  °    ,-q  nity;    the  Tay,  a 

/       /'  broad  and   noble 

river,  sweeping 
southward  along 
its  eastern  side ; 
and  the  sii|>erb 
background  of  the 
Grampians  on  the 
north,  render  the 
site  of  the  '  Fair 
City'  exceedingly 
interesting  and 
beautiful  ;  while 
its  rank  as  in 
some  soit  the 
ancient  metro- 
polis of  Scotland, 
the  important  rdle 
it  has  played  in 
the  history  of  the 
associations    with 


country,  and  the  picturesque 
which  history  and  fiction  have  invested  it,  claim  for 
it  a  high  rank  among  the  cities  of  Scotland.  A 
handsome  bridge  of  nine  arches,  880  feet  in  length, 
and  stretching  over  a  water-way  590  feet  in  width, 
connects  the  town  with  the  suburb  of  Bridgend, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  Further  down,  the 
Perth  and  Dundee  Railway  crosses  the  river  on 
a  tine  stone  and  iron  bridge  (opened  in  1S64),  which 
also  admits  foot-passengers.  The  appearance  of 
P.  is  much  enhanced  by  two  beautiful  public  parks, 
called  the  North  and  South  Inches.  The  water- 
supply,  obtained  from  the  Tay,  is  filtered,  raised  by 
steam  into  two  elevated  reservoirs,  and  thence  dis- 
tributed over  the  town,  rising  to  the  upper  stories 
of  the  highest  houses.  Among  the  most  interest- 
ing public  buildings  are  the  church  of  St  John,  an 
ancient  structure  in  the  Pointed  Style,  surmounted 
by  a  massive  square  tower  ;  the  County  Buildings, 
a  Grecian  edifice  ;  the  local  prison,  and  the  Peniten- 
tiary or  General  Prison,  formerly  used  as  a  depot  for 
French  prisoners,  and  now  one  of  the  largest  build- 
ings of  the  kind  in  Scotland.  The  Penitentiary  is 
the  General  Prison  for  Scotland,  and  all  criminals 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  long  periods  are  con- 
fined here.  The  town  also  contains  a  statue  of  ths 
late  Prince  Consort,  erected  in  1864;  Marshall's 
Monument,  erected  in  honour  of  a  former  lord 
provost,  and  containing  a  public  library  and  the 
Museum  of  the  Antiquarian  and  Natural  History 
Society  ;  Sharp's,  and  other  educational  institutions. 
The  river  is  navigable  to  P.  for  vessels  of  con- 
siderable burden.  Wincey  and  striped  shirting  are 
manufactured ;  gloves,  which  at  one  time  were  a 
staple  manufacture,  are  no  longer  made.  There  are 
dye-works,  iron-foundries,  breweries,  &c. ;  and  ship- 
building is  also  carried  on.  The  salmon-fishery 
on  the  Tay  is  very  valuable  (250  tons  of  fish  being 
exported  annually  to  London  alone).  In  1872.  266 
vessels,  of  19,513  tons,  entered  and  cleared  the  port. 
Five  fairs  are  held  annually,  and  horse-races  take 
place  every  year  on  the  North  Inch.  P.  has  a  charter 
as  a  royal  burgh  from  King  William  the  Lion  (1165 
— 1214).  It  returns  a  member  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. Pop.  (1871)  of  royal  and  parliamentary  burgh, 
26.356. 

PERTH,  the  Five  Articles  of,  memorable  in 
the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Scotland,  were  five 
articles  agreed  upon  in  a  meeting  of  the  General 
Assembly  of   the   Church  of   Scotland,  convened  at 

431 


TERTHES— PERTHSHIRE. 


Perth,  by  command  of  James  VI.,  on  25th  August 
1618.  These  Articles  enjoined  kneeling  at  the  Lord's 
Supper,  the  observance  of  Christmas,  Good  Friday, 
Easter,  and  Pentecost,  and  confirmation,  and  sanc- 
tioned the  private  administration  of  baptism  and  of 
the  Lord's  Supper.  They  were  highly  obnoxious  to 
the  Presbyterians  of  Scotland,  not  only  on  their 
own  account,  but  as  part  of  M  ai  tempt  to  change 
the  whole  constitution  of  the  cLurch ;  and  because 
they  were  adopted  witb"mt  fruf  discussion  in  the 
Assembly,  and  in  merfe  compliance  with  the  will 
of  the  king,  who  was  also  regarded  as  having  unduly 
interfered  with  the  constitution  of  the  Assembly 
itself.  They  were,  however,  rati  lied  by  the  parlia- 
ment on  4th  August  1621 — a  day  long  remembered 
in  Scotland  as  Black  Saturday — were  enforced  by 
the  Court  of  High  Commission,  and  became  one  of 
the  chief  subjects  of  that  contention  between  the 
king  and  the  people,  which  produced  results  so 
grave  and  sad  for  both,  in  the  subsequent  reign. 
The  General  Assembly  of  Glasgow,  in  1638,  declared 
that  of  Perth  to  have  been  '  unfree,  unlawful,  and 
null,'  and  condemned  the  Five  Articles. 

PERTHES,  Friedricii  Christopit,  an  eminent 
German  publisher,  distinguished  not  only  in  his 
professional  capacity,  but  for  his  sincere  piety  and 
ardent  patriotism,  was  born  at  Rudolstadt,  21st 
April  1772.  In  his  15th  year,  he  was  apprenticed 
to  a  Leipzig  bookseller,  with  whom  he  remained 
six  years,  devoting  much  of  his  leisure  time  to  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge.  In  1793,  he  passed  into 
the  establishment  of  Hoffmann,  the  Hamburg  book- 
seller ;  and  in  1796,  started  business  on  his  own 
account ;  and,  by  his  keen  and  wide  appreciation  of 
the  public  wants,  his  untiring  diligence,  and  his 
honourable  reputation,  he  ultimately  made  it  the 
most  extensive  of  the  kind  in  modern  Germany. 
During  the  first  few  years  or  so  of  his  Hamburg 
apprenticeship,  his  more  intimate  friends  had  been 
either  Kantian  or  sceptical  in  their  opinions,  and  P., 
who  was  not  distinguished  for  either  learning  or 
speculative  talent,  had  learned  to  think  with  his 
friends  ;  but  a  friendship  which  he  subsequently 
formed  with  Jacobi  (q.  v.),  and  the  Holstein  poet 
and  humorist,  Matthias  Claudius,  led  him  into  a 
serious  but  liberal  Christianity.  The  iron  rule 
of  the  French  in  Northern  Germany,  and  the 
prohibition  of  intercourse  with  England,  nearly 
ruined  trade,  yet  P.,  even  in  this  great  crisis  of 
affairs,  found  ways  and  means  to  extend  his.  He 
endeavoured  to  enlist  the  intellect  of  Germany 
on  the  side  of  patriotism,  and  in  1810  started 
the  National  Museum,  with  contributions  from  Jean 
Paul  Richter,  Count  Stolberg,  Claudius.  Fouque, 
Heeren,  Sartorius,  Schlegel,  Gorres,  Arndt,  and 
other  eminent  men.  Its  success  was  far  beyond  P.'s 
expectations,  and  encouraged  him  to  continue  his 
patriotic  activity,  till  Hamburg  was  formally  incor- 
porated with  the  French  empire.  He  subsequently 
took  a  prominent  part  in  forcing  the  French  garrison 
to  evacuate  Hamburg,  12th  March  1813 ;  and  on  its 
re-occupation  by  the  French,  he  was  one  of  the  ten 
Hamburgers  who  were  specially  excepted  from 
pardon.  After  peace  had  been  restored  to  Europe, 
P.  steadily  devoted  himself  to  the  extension  of 
his  business,  and  to  the  consolidation  of  the  sen- 
timent of  German  national  unity,  as  far  as  that 
coidd  be  accomplished  by  literature  and  speech. 
In  1822,  he  removed  to  Gotha,  transferring  his 
Hamburg  business  to  his  partner  Besser.  Here 
he  laid  himself  out  mainly  for  the  publication 
of  great  historical  and  theological  works.  His 
subsequent  correspondence  with  literary,  political, 
and  theological  notabilities — such  as  Niebuhr  (one 
of  his  dearest  friends),  Neander,  Schleiermacher, 
Lttcke,  Nitszch,  Tholuok,  Schelling,  and  Umbreit — 
132 


is  extremely  interesting,  and  throws  a  rich  light 
upon  the  recent  inner  life  of  Germany.  He  died 
ISth  May  1843.— See  Friedrkh  Perthes'  Leben  (12th 
edit.  1853),  written  by  his  second  son,  Clemens 
Theodor  Perthes,  Professor  of  Law  at  Bonn. — The 
uncle  of  Friedrich  Christoph  P.  was  Jotiann  Geor. 
Justus  Perthes,  who  established  a  publishing  and 
bookselling  house  at  Gotha  in  1785,  which  ban 
acquired  in  the  hands  of  his  sons,  a  great  reputa- 
tion, and  from  which  issues  the  famous  Almanack 
de  Gotha.     He  died  in  1816. 

PE'RTHSHIRE,  one  of  the  most  important 
counties  in  Scotland,  is  bounded  on  the  S.  by 
the  shires  of  Stirling  and  Clackmannan ;  on  the 
N.  by  Inverness  and  Aberdeen ;  on  the  W.  by 
Argyle  and  Dumbarton ;  and  on  the  E.  by  Forfar, 
Fife,  and  Kinross.  It  extends  from  east  to  west 
about  70  miles,  and  from  north  to  south  abont  1 6 
miles.  Its  area  is  2834  miles,  or  1,814,063  acres,  of 
which  above  32,000  are  covered  with  water.  It 
is  divided  into  the  Highland  and  Lowland  districts, 
the  former  occupying  much  the  larger  surface, 
and  these  are  subdivided  into  10  divisions  —  viz., 
Menteith,  Strathearn,  Gowrie,  Stormont,  Strath^ 
ardle,  Glenshee,  Athole,  Breadalbane,  Rannoch,  and 
Balquidder.  P.,  from  its  insular  position  and  other 
advantages,  has  a  comparatively  mild  climate;  and 
the  soil,  in  Strathearn,  Carse  of  Gowrie,  and  other 
less  extensive  tracts,  being  mostly  composed  of  a 
rich  loam,  crops  of  all  kinds  are  brought  to  the 
utmost  perfection.  These  districts  are  also  famed 
for  their  fruit  and  floral  productions.  P.  is  not  lesa 
distinguished  for  its  magnificent  mountain,  lake, 
and  river  scenery.  The  Grampians  hei-e  attain  to 
nearly  their  maximum  height,  Ben  Lawers  being 
within  a  few  feet  of  4000  in  altitude ;  while  Ben 
More  is  3S1S;  and  several  others  above  3000.  The 
lakes  are  numerous,  the  principal  of  which  are 
Lochs  Tay,  Ericht,  Rannoch,  Tummel,  Lydock, 
Garry,  Lyon,  and  Dochart.  There  are  several 
streams  of  note,  the  principal  being  the  Tay,  which 
is  fed  by  numerous  other  streams,  and  is  said  to 
discharge,  as  much  water  into  the  sea  as  any  other 
river  in  the  kingdom.  These  lakes  and  streams 
afford  excellent  fishing,  and  the  Tay  is  valuable  for 
its  salmon,  yielding  in  rent  about  £12,000  a  year. 

According  to  the  last  agricultural  statistics,  taken 
in  1872,  the  entire  number  of  acres  under  all  kinds 
of  crops,  bare  fallow  and  grass,  was  327,696;  under 
corn  crops,  108,593;  under  green  crops,  51,873; 
clover,  sanfoin,  and  grasses  under  rotation,  89,750; 
permanent  pasture  and  meadow  land  (exclusive  of 
heath  or  mountain  land),  74,140.  The  total  number 
of  horses  used  for  agriculture,  etc.,  was  reported  the 
same  year  to  be  13,009;  of  cattle,  81,702;  of  sheep, 
673,778;  and  of  pigs,  11,620.  The  valued  rent  of 
P.  for  1674  was  equal  to  £28,330;  the  value  for  1872 
—1873  whs  £817,492,  exclusive  of  £134,483  for 
railways  and  water-works.  The  rate  of  assessments, 
general  and  special,  is  £l  Is.  9d.  per  £100. 

The  monuments  of  hoar  antiquity  to  be  found  in 
this  county  afford  an  interesting  Held  of  investigation 
for  the  curious.  Lying  northward  of  the  Roman 
wall,  Perthshire  comprises  the  sceues  of  the  last 
struggle  for  independence  which  the  inhabitants  of 
the  lowland  di",tricts  o2  Scotland  made  against  those 
formidable  enemies  ff  theirs,  who  were  regarded  as 
invincible.  The  last  battle  fought  by  the  Caledonians 
against  the  Romans  was  at  Mons  Gramp,  or,  as  it 
should  be  read,  Graup,  supposed  to  be  indicated  by 
the  great  camp  at  Ardoch,  between  Dunblane  and 
Crief,  and  which  does  not  at  all  seem  to  be  connected 
with  the  Grampian  Range.  In  this  final  struggle,  the 
result  of  which  was  that  the  Lowlanders  were  de- 
feated, Agricola  commanded  the  conquering  host,  and 
the  Caledonians  were  led  by  a  chief  named  Galgacus. 


PERTINAX— PERTURBATIONS. 


'I'lic  rate  of  assessments  on  t lie  land  for  lv73 — 18T4 
amounted  to  81*.  9d.  per  BlOO. 

Tlie  Old  Red  Sandstone,  granite,  and  slate  abound. 
In  this  anility  are  situated  some  of  the  stateliest 
mansions  in  Scotland,  but,  except  Scone  Palace,  none 
of  them  contain  any  historical  memorials  ;  and  the 
objects  of  interest  to  the  antiquarian  are  confined  to 
hedrals  of  Dunblane  and  Dunkeld,  the  Abbey 
of  Uulross,  and  a  few  Druidical  and  Roman  remains. 
There  are  two  royal  burghs,  Perth  and  Culross, 
besides  which  there  are  several  villages  of  consider- 
able site,  where  trade  in  tlax,  &c.  is  carried  on  to 
some  extent.  The  population  in  1S01  was  133,51)0  ; 
inhabited  houses,  22,035;  parliamentary  constit- 
uency in  1SG3,  was  3541.  l»0p.  (1871)  127,768. 

PERTINAX,  Helvius,  Roman  emperor,  was 
born,  according  to  Dio  Cassius,  at  Alba-Pompeia,  a 
Roman  colony  of  Liguria,  August  1,  1'2G  a.  d.  He 
received  a  good  education,  and,  entering  the  military 
service,  rose  through  the  various  grades  till  he 
obtained  the  command  of  the  first  legion,  at  the 
head  of  which  he  signalised  himself  in  Rhajtia  and 
Noricum  against  the  native  tribes.  In  179,  he  was 
chosen  consul,  aided  to  repress  the  revolt  of  Avitus 
in    Syiia,    and   was    governor   successively   of    the 

Erovinces  of  Mcesia,  Dacia,  and  Syria.  Being  sent 
y  the  Emperor  Commodus  to  take  the  command 
of  the  turbulent  legions  in  Britain,  these  troops, 
against  his  will,  proclaimed  him  emperor ;  on  which 
he  solicited  to  be  recalled,  and  was  appointed 
proconsul  of  Africa,  prefect  of  Rome,  and  consul 
(a  secoud  time)  in  192.  On  the  death  of  Corn- 
modus,  his  assassins  almost  forced  P.  to  accept 
of  the  purple,  which  with  great  hesitation  he  did ; 
but,  in  spite  of  his  promise  of  a  large  donation,  he 
was  unable  to  gain  over  the  praetorian  guard. 
His  accession  was,  however,  hailed  with  delight 
by  the  senate  and  people,  who  were  rejoiced  to 
have,  as  ruler,  an  able  captain,  instead  of  a 
ferocious  debauchee ;  and  P.,  encouraged  by  this 
favourable  reception,  announced  his  intention  of 
carrying  out  an  extensive  series  of  reforms,  having 
reference  chiefly  to  the  army,  in  which  he  hoped  to 
re-establish  the  ancient  Roman  discipline.  Unfor- 
tunately for  his  reforms  and  himself,  he  was  attacked 
by  a  band  of  the  rebellious  praetorians,  two  months 
and  twenty-seven  days  after  his  accession ;  and 
disdaining  to  flee,  was  slain,  and  his  head  carried 
about  the  streets  of  Rome  in  triumph.  From  his 
history,  nothing  can  be  gathered  respecting  his 
character  and  talents  (except  in  military  afl'airs) ; 
but  the  respect  and  esteem  in  which  he  was  held 
by  the  senate  and  people  of  Rome,  argue  well  in 
favour  of  his  disposition. 

PERTURBATIONS,  in  Physical  Astronomy,  are 
the  disturbances  produced  in  the-  simple  elliptic 
motion  of  one  heavenly  body  about  another,  by  the 
action  of  a  third  body,  or  by  the  non-sphericity  of 
the  principal  body.  Thus,  for  instance,  were  there 
no  bodies  in  space  except  the  earth  and  moon,  the 
moon  would  describe  accurately  an  ellipse  about  the 
earth's  centre  as  focus,  and  its  radius-vector  would 
pass  over  equal  areas  in  equal  times ;  but  only  if 
both  bodies  be  homogeneous  and  truly  spherical,  or 
have  their  constituent  matter  otherwise  so  arranged 
that  they  may  attract  each  other  as  if  each  were 
collected  at  some  definite  point  of  its  mass.  The 
oblateness  of  the  earth's  figure,  therefore,  produces 
perturbations  in  what  would  otherwise  be  the  fixed 
elliptic  orbit  of  the  moon.  Again,  when  we  consider 
the  sun's  action,  it  is  obvious  that  in  no  position  of 
the  moon  can  the  sun  act  equally  upon  both  earth 
and  moon  ;  for  at  new  moon,  the  moon  is  nearer  to 
the  sun  than  the  earth  is,  and  is  therefore  more 
attracted  (in  proportion  to  its  mass)  than  the  earth 
340 


— that  is,  the  difference  of  the  sun's  actions  on  the 
earth  and  moon  is  equivalent  to  a  force  tending  to 
draw  the  moon  away  from  the  earth.  At  lull  moon, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  earth  (in  proportion  to  its 
mass)  is  more  attracted  than  the  moon  is  by  the 
sun  ;  and  the  perturbing  influence  of  the  sun  is 
again  of  the  nature  of  a  force  tending  to  separate 
the  earth  and  moon.  About  the  quarters,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  sun's  attraction  (mass  for  m 
nearly  the  same  in  amount  on  the  earth  and  moon, 
but  the  direction  of  its  action  is  not  the  same  on  the 
two  bodies,  and  it  is  easy  to  see  that  in  this  case  the 
perturbing  force  tends  to  bring  the  earth  an  1  moon 
nearer  to  each  other.  For  any  given  position  of  the 
moon,  with  reference  to  the  earth  and  sun,  the 
difference  of  the  accelerating  effects  of  the  sun  on 
the  earth  and  moon  is  a  disturbing  force  ;  and  it  is 
to  this  that  the  perturbations  of  the  moon's  orbit, 
which  are  the  most  important,  and  amongst  the 
most  considerable,  in  the  solar  system,  are  due. 
[By  the  word  difference,  just  employed,  we  are  of 
course  to  understand,  not  the  arithmetical  difference, 
but  the  resultant  of  the  sun's  direct  acceleration  of 
the  moon,  combined  with  that  on  the  earth  reversed 
in  direction  and  magnitude ;  as  it  is  only  with  the 
relative  motions  of  the  earth  and  moon  that  we  are 
concerned.]  This  disturbing  force  may  be  resolved 
into  three  components  ;  for  instance,  we  may  have 
one  in  the  line  joining  the  earth  and  moon,  another 
parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  and  perpendicular 
to  the  moon's  radius- vector,  and  a  third  peqiendicular 
to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  The  first  component, 
as  we  have  already  seen,  tends  to  separate  the 
earth  and  moon  at  new  and  full,  and  to  bring 
them  closer  at  the  quarters  ;  but  during  a  whole 
revolution  of  the  moon,  the  latter  tendency  is  more 
than  neutralised  by  the  former;  that  is,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  sun's  disturbing  force,  the  moon  is 
virtually  less  attracted  by  the  earth  than  it  would 
have  been  had  the  sun  been  absent.  The  second 
component  mainly  tends  to  accelerate  the  moon's 
motion  in  some  parts  of  its  orbit,  and  to*  retard  it  at 
others.  The  third  component  tends,  on  the  whole, 
to  draw  the  moon  towards  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic. 
We  cannot,  of  course,  enter  here  into  even  a  com- 
plete sketch  of  the  analysis  of  such  a  question  as 
this ;  but  we  may  give  one  or  two  very  simple 
considerations  which  will,  at  all  events,  indicate 
the  nature  of  the  grand  problem  of  perturbations. 

The  method,  originally  suggested  by  Newton, 
which  is  found  on  the  whole  to  be  the  most  satis- 
factory in  these  investigations,  is  what  is  called  the 
Variation  of  Parameters,  and  admits  of  very  simple 
explanation.  The  path  which  a  disturbed  body 
pursues  is,  of  course,  no  longer  an  ellipse,  nor  is  it 
in  general  either  a  plane  curve  or  re-entrant.  But 
it  may  be  considered  to  be.  an  ellipse  which  is  under- 
going slow  modifications  in  form,  position,  and  dimen- 
sions,  by  the  agency  of  the  disturbing  forces.  In  fact, 
it  is  obvious  that  any  small  arc  of  the  actual  orbit 
is  a  portion  of  the  elliptic  orbit  which  the  body 
would  pursue  for  ever  afterwards,  if  the  disturbing 
forces  were  suddenly  to  cease  as  it  moved  in  that 
arc.  The  parameters,  then,  are  the  elements  of  the 
orbit ;  that  is,  its  major  axis,  eccentricity,  longi- 
tude of  apse,  longitude  of  node,  inclination  to  the 
ecliptic,  and  epoch ;  the  latter  quantity  indicating 
the  time  at  which  the  body  passed  through  a  parti- 
cular point,  as  the  apse,  of  its  orbit.  If  these  be 
given,  the  orbit  is  completely  known,  with  the 
body's  position  in  it  at  any  given  instant.  If  there 
be  no  disturbing  forces,  all  these  quantities  are 
constant ;  and  therefore,  when  the  disturbing  forces 
are  taken  into  account,  they  change  very  slowly, 
as  the  disturbing  forces  are  in  most  cases  very 
small     To  give  an  instance  of  the  nature  of  their 


PERTURBATIONS. 


changes,  let  us  roughly  consider  one  or  two  simple 
cases"  First,  to  find  the  nature  of  some  of  the 
effects  of  a  disturbing  force  acting  in  the  radius- 
vector,  and  tending  to  draw  the  disturbed,  from 
the  central,  body.  Let  S  be  the  focus,  P  the  nearer 
apse,  of  the  undisturbed  elliptic  orbit.  When  the 
moving  body  passes  the  point  M,  the  tendency  of 
the  disturbing  force  is  to  make  it  describe  the 
dotted  curve  in  the  figure— i.  e.,  the  new  direction 


Fig.L 

of  motion  will  make  with  the  line  MS  an  angle 
more  nearly  equal  to  a  right  angle  than  before  ; 
and  therefore  the  apse  Q  in  the  disturbed  orbit  will 
be  sooner  arrived  at  than  P  would  have  been  in  the 
undisturbed  orbit— that  is,  the  apse  regredes,  or 
revolves  in  the  contrary  sense  to  that  of  Ms  motion. 
Similarly,  the  effect  at  Mj  is  also  to  make  the  apse 
regrede  to  Qx.  At  M2  and  M3,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  tendency  is  to  make  the  apse  progrede.  Also, 
as  the  velocity  is  scarcely  altered  by  such  a  force, 
the  major  axis  remains  unaltered.  Thus  at  M 
the  eccentricity  is  diminished,  and  at  Mj  increased, 
since  the  apsidal  distance  is  increased  at  M,  and 
diminished  at  Mv 

Next,  consider  a  tangential  accelerating  force. 
Here  the  immediate  effect  is  to  increase  the  velo- 
city at  any  point  of  the  orbit,  and  therefore  to  make 
it  correspond  to  a  larger  orbit,  and,  consequently, 
a  longer  periodic  time.  Conversely,  a  retarding 
force,  such  as  the  resistance  of  a  medium,  diminishes 
the  velocity  at  each  point,  and  thus  makes  the 
motion  correspond  to  that  in  an  ellipse  with  a  less 
.major  axis,  and  therefore  with  a  diminished  periodic 
.time.  This  singular  result,  that  the  periodic  time 
•  of  a  body  is  diminished  by  resistance,  is  realised  in 
the  case  of  Encke's  comet,  and  this  observed  effect 
furnishes  one  of  the  most  convincing  proofs  of  the 
existence  of  a  resisting  medium  in  interplanetary 
Bpace. 

Again,  the  effect  of  a  disturbing  force  continually 
directed  towards  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  is  to 
make  the  node  regrede.      Thus,  if  N'N  represent 

the   ecliptic,  NM 
//  Q  a  portion   of  the 

orbit,  the  ten- 
dency of  the 
disturbing  force 
at  M  is  to  make 
MQ  the  new  orbit, 
and  therefore  N' 
the  node.  Thus 
the.  node  regredes, 
and  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  orbit 
to  the  ecliptic  is  diminished,  when  the  planet  has 
just  passed  the  ascending  node.  In  the  second 
figure,  let  Mx  be  a  position  of  the  planet  near  the 
descending  node  Nr  The  effect  of  the  disturbing 
force  is  to  alter  the  orbit  to  MNX'.  Thus,  again, 
431 


Fig.  2. 


the  node  regredes,  but  the  inclination  is  increased. 

If  NN'  and   NjN/  in  these  figures   represent  the 

earth's  equator,  the 

above  rough  sketch 

applies    exactly   to 

the     case    of     the 

moon  as  disturb*  d 

by   the    oblatemss 

of  the  earth.     The 

reaction      of      the 

moon  on  the  earth 

gives  rise  to  the  Precession  of  the  Equinoxes  (q.  v.). 

By  processes  of  this  nature,  Newton  subjected  the 
variation  of  the  elements  of  the  moon's  orbit  to 
calculation,  and  obtained  the  complete  explanation 
of  some  of  the  most  important  of  the  lunar  inequali- 
ties. See  Moon.  Others  of  them— for  instance, 
the  rate  of  progression  of  the  apse — cannot  be 
deduced  with  any  accuracy  by  these  rough  investi- 
gations, but  tax,  in  some  cases,  the  utmost  resources 
of  analysis.  Newton's  calculation  of  the  rate  of 
the  moon's  apse  was  only  about  half  the  obsers'ed 
value  ;  anil  Clairaut  was  on  the  point  of  publishing 
a  pamphlet,  in  which  a  new  form  was  suggested 
for  the  law  of  gravitation,  in  order  to  account  for 
the  deficiency  of  this  estimate ;  when  he  found,  by 
carrying  his  analysis  further,  that  the  expression 
sought  is  obtainable  in  the  form  of  a  slowly  con- 
verging series,  of  which  the  second  term  is  nearly 
as  large  as  the  first.  The  error  of  the  modern 
Lunar  Tables,  founded  almost  entirely  on  analysis, 
with  the  necessary  introduction  of  a  few  data  from 
observation,  rarely  amounts  to  a  second  of  arc  ;  and 
the  moon's  place  is  predicted  four  years  beforehand, 
in  the  Nautical  Almanac,  with  a  degree  of  precision 
which  no  mere  observer  could  attain  even  from 
one  day  to  the  next.  This  is  the  true  proof,  not 
only  of  the  law  of  gravitation,  but  of  the  Laws  of 
Motion  (q.  v.),  upon  which,  of  course,  the  analytical 
investigation  is  based. 

With  respect  to  the  mutual  perturbations  of  the 
planets,  we  may  merely  mention  that  they  are 
divisible  into  two  classes,  called  periodic  and  secular. 
The  former  depend  upon  the  configurations  of  the 
system — such,  for  instance,  is  the  diminution  of  the 
inclination  of  the  moon's  orbit,  after  passing  the 
ascending  node  on  the  earth's  equator,  already 
mentioned,  or  its  increase  as  the  moon  comes  to  the 
descending  node.  The  secular  perturbations  dej>end 
upon  the  period  in  which  a  complete  series  of  such 
alternations  have  been  gone  through,  and  have,  in 
the  case  of  the  planets,  complete  cycles  measured 
by  hundreds  of  years. 

A  very  curious  kind  of  perturbation  is  seen  in 
the  indirect  action  of  the  planets  on  the  moon. 
There  is  a  secular  change  of  the  eccentricity  of  the 
earth's  orbit,  due  to  planetary  action,  and  this 
brings  the  sun,  on  the  average,  nearer  to  the  earth 
and  moon  for  a  long  period  of  years,  then  for  an 
equal  period  takes  it  further  off.  One  of  the  effects 
of  the  sun's  disturbing  force  being,  as  we  have  seen, 
to  diminish,  on  the  whole,  the  moon's  gravity 
towards  the  earth,  this  diminution  will  vary  in 
the  same  period  as  the  eccentricity  of  the  earth's 
orbit ;  and  therefore  the  moon's  mean  motion  will 
be  alternately  accelerated  and  retarded,  each  process 
occupying  an  immense  period. 

With  special  reference  to  the  planetary  motions,  we 
may  notice  that  the  major  axis  of  each  planetary 
orbit  is  free  from  all  secular  variations ;  and  those 
affecting  the  inclination  and  eccentricity  are  con- 
fined within  small  limits,  and  ultimately  compensate 
themselves.  These  facts,  which  have  been  clearly 
and  beautifully  demonstrated  by  Laplace  and 
Lagrange,  assure  the  stability  of  the  planetary 
orbits,  5  we  neglect  the  effects  of  resistance  due  to 


PERU. 


the  interplanetary  matter ;  which,  however,  must, 
in  the  Ions  run,  bring  all  the  bodies  of  the  system 
into  collision  with  the  sun,  and  finally  stop  the 
rotation  of  the  sun  itself. 

Newton  commenced  the  investigation  of  perturba- 
tions by  considering  those  of  the  moon  ;  Eider 
followed  with  a  calculation  of  Saturn's  inequalities  ; 
while  Clairaut,  D'Alembert,  and  others  successively 
gave  those  of  the  other  planets. 

Every  one  knows  that  it  was  by  observim;  the 
perturbations  of  Uranus,  and  thence  discovering  the 

direction  of  the  disturbing  force,  that  Adams  and 
Leverrier  were  led  to  their  great  and  simultaneous 
discovery  of  the  planet  Neptune. 

PERU',  an  important  maritime  republic  of  South 
America,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Ecuador,  on  the 
W.  by  the  Pacific,  on  the  S.  and  S. E.  by  Bolivia, 
and  on  the  E.  by  Brazil.  It  lies  in  lat.  3°  25' — 
21"  3ll'  S.,  and  in  long.  G70—  81°  2tf  \V.  The  general 
outline  resembles  a  triangle,  the  base  of  which  is 
formed  by  the  boundary  line  between  P.  and 
Ecuador  on  the  north.  Its  area  is  estimated  at 
502,760  square  miles;  mid  its  population  about 
2,500,000.  The  area  of  P.,  however,  can  only  he 
given  Approximately,  as,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Andes,  and  between  the  Amazon  and  the  Ptirus, 
there  is  a  wide  and  unexplored  expanse  of  country, 
upon  which  both  1*.  and  Brazil  have  claims,  which 
have  not  yet  been  determined.  The  country  is  1100 
miles  in  length,  7S0  miles  in  extreme  breadth  along 
the  northern  boundary,  but  is  little  more  than  50  miles 
wide  in  the  extreme  south.  Following  the  general 
direction,  and  not  including  windings,  the  coast-line 
is  16G0  miles  in  length.  The  shores  are  in  general 
rocky  and  steep;  in  the  south,  lofty  cliffs  rise 
from  the  sea,  and,  in  some  places,  the  water  close 
inshore  has  a  depth  of  from  70  to  80  fathoms. 
Further  north,  however,  sandy  beaches  occur,  and 
in  the  extreme  north,  the  shores  are  often  low  and 
sandy,  and  covered  with  brushwood.  Owing  to  the 
comparative  unfrequency  of  bays  and  inlets  along 
the  coast,  the  harbours  are  few  and  unimportant. 
Those  of  Callao  (the  port  of  Lima)  and  Payta  afford 
the  most  secure  anchorage,  and  the  others  are 
Trujillo,  Canete,  Pisco,  Camana,  Islay,  Ilo,  Arica, 
and  Iquique.  Landing  by  boats  is  always  danger- 
ous, on  account  of  the  dreadful  surf,  occasioned  by 
the  swell  of  the  Pacific,  which  perpetually  beats 
upon  the  coast ;  and  when  goods  or  passengers 
require  to  be  landed  on  unsheltered  shores,  recourse 
is  had  to  the  primitive  balsas,  or  rafts,  worked  by 
the  natives,  and  capable  of  carrying  two  or  three 
persons. 

Islands. — The  islands  on  the  Peruvian  coast, 
although  valuable,  are  extremely  few  in  number,  and 
small  in  extent.  In  the  north,  are  the  Lobos  (L  e., 
Seal)  Islands,  forming  a  group  of  three,  and  so 
called  from  the  seals  which  frequent  them.  The 
largest  of  them,  Lobos  de  Tierra,  is  5  miles  long  by 
2  miles  broad,  and  the  others,  lying  30  miles  south- 
west, are  much  smaller.  On  their  eastern  and  more 
sheltered  sides,  they  are  covered  with  guano,  and 
the  quantity  on  the  whole  group  is  stated  at 
4,000,000  tons.  The  Chincha  Islands,  famous  as  the 
source  from  which  Europe  has  been  supplied  with 
Peruvian  guano  (see  Guano)  since  1841,  also  form 
a  group  of  three,  and  are  situated  in  the  Bay  of 
Pisco,  about  12  miles  from  the  mainland,  and  in 
lat  13°— 14°  S.,  long.  76'— 77°  W.  They  lie  in  a 
Une  running  north  and  south,  and  are  called  the 
North,  Middle,  and  South  Islands  respectively.  They 
closely  resemble  each  other  in  size,  formation,  and 
general  character.  Each  island  presents,  on  the 
eastern  side,  a  wall  of  precipitous  rock,  with  rocky 
pinnacles  in  the  centre,  and  with  a  general  slope 
towards    the   western    shore.       The    cavities    and 


Inequalities  of  tU-  surface  are  filled  with  gnano.  and 
this  material  coven  the  western  -lopes  of  the  islands 
to  within  s  few  feet  of  the  water's  edge.  There  is 
no  vegetation.  The  North  Island  has  an  area  of  202 
acres,  It  is  formed  of  felspar  and  quartz,  and  is 
slowly  but  certainly  decreasing  in  size.  'His  island 
is  wholly  covered  with  thick  layers  of  guano,  which 
is  quarried  in  some  places  to  a  depth  of  hi  feet  Nu- 
merous convicts  have  been  employed  in  cutting  the 
guano  and  loading  the  vessels.  The  Middle  Island, 
on  which  there  are  140  acres  occupied  by  guano,  has 
been  worked  to  some  extent,  and  in  this  rase  the 
labourers  are  Chinese,  In  1861  the  guano  upon  the 
islands  was  estimated  at  9,538,735  tons.  The  exports 
in  the  two  years  186!)  and  ]v:n  were  estimated  at 
880,000  tons,  valued  at  aboul  84(1.5011.(1(10.  and  of 
this  amount  320,000  tons  were  carried  to  Britain  and 
50,000  to  the  United  States. 

The  grand  physical  feature  of  the  country,  and 
the  source  of  all  its  mineral  wealth,  is  the  great 
mountain  system  of  the  Andes.  A  general  descrip- 
tion of  the  formation  and  character  of  the  Peruvian 
Andes  is  given  under  the  article  Andes  (q.  v.). 

Surface,  Soil,  and  Climate. — The  surface  of  P.  is 
divided  into  three  distinct  and  well-denned  tracts 
or  belts,  the  climates  of  which  are  of  every  variety 
from  torrid  heat  to  arctic  cold,  and  the  productions 
of  which  range  from  the  stunted  herbage  of  the  high 
mountain-slopes,  to  the  oranges  and  citrons,  the 
sugar-canes  and  cottons,  of  the  luxuriant  tropical 
valleys.  These  three  regions  are  the  Coast,  the 
Sierra,  and  the  Montana. — The  Coast  is  a  narrow 
strip  of  sandy  desert  between  the  base  of  the 
Western  Cordillera  and  the  sea,  and  extending  along 
the  whole  length  of  the  country.  This  tract,  varying 
in  breadth  from  30  to  60  miles,  slopes  to  the  shore 
with  an  uneven  surface,  marked  by  arid  ridges  from 
the  Cordillera,  and  with  a  rapid  descent.  It  is  for 
the  most  part  a  barren  waste  of  sand,  traversed, 
however,  by  numerous  valleys  of  astonishing  fertility, 
most  of  whiun  are  watered  by  streams,  that  have 
their  sources  high  on  the  slopes  of  the  Cordillera. 
Many  of  the  streams  are  dry  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  year.  Between  these  valleys  extend  deserts, 
which  are  sometimes  90  miles  in  width.  These  are 
perfectly  trackless,  being  covered  with  a  fine,  shift- 
ing, yellow  sand,  which  is  often  carried  about  by 
the  wind  in  pillars  of  from  80  to  100  feet  in  height. 
In  the  coast-region,  properly  so  called,  rain  is 
unknown.  This  is  caused  by  the  coast  of  P.  being 
within  the  region  of  perpetual  south-east  trade- 
winds.  These  winds,  charged  with  vapours  from  the 
Atlantic,  strike  upon  the  east  coast  of  South 
America,  and  traverse  that  continent  obliquely, 
distributing  rains  over  Brazil.  But  their  vapour 
is  thoroughly  condensed  by  the  lofty  Cordilleras,  and 
their  last  particles  of  moisture  are  exhausted  in 
powdering  the  summits  of  these  ranges  with  snow, 
after  which  they  fall  down  upon  the  coast  of  P.,  cool1, 
and  dry.  The  want  of  rain,  however,  is  com- 
pensated for  to  some  extent  by  abundant  and 
refreshing  dews,  which  fall  during  the  night.  The 
climate  of  the  coast  is  modified  by  the  cool  winds. 
In  the  valleys,  the  heat,  though  considerable,  is 
not  ojipressive.  The  highest  temperature  observed 
at  Lima  in  summer  is  85°,  the  lowest  in  winter 
is  61°  F. 

The  Sierra  embraces  all  the  mountainous  region 
between  the  western  base  of  the  maritime  Cordillera 
and  the  eastern  base  of  the  Andes,  or  the  Eastern 
Cordillera,  These  ranges  are,  in  this  country,  about 
100  miles  apart  on  an  average,  and  have  been  estim- 
ated to  cover  an  area  of  200,000  square  miles. 
Transverse  branches  connect  the  one  range  with  the 
other,  and  high  plateaux,  fertile  plains,  and  deep 
tropical  valleys  he  between  the  lofty  outer  barriera 

135 


PERU. 


The  superiority  in  elevation  alternates  between  the 
two  principal  ranges.  The  east  range,  or,  as  it  is 
generally  called,  the  Andes,  lias  the  superiority  in 
height  in  the  southern  half  of  this  mountain 
system.  It  abuts  upon  the  plain,  from  the  Bo- 
livian frontier,  in  a  majestic  mass,  surmounted  by 
stupendous  pinnacles,  rugged  in  outline,  and  most 
frequently  rising  in  splintered  needle-like  peaks, 
covered  with  snow.  North  of  lat.  13°  S.,  however, 
the  Western  Cordillera  assumes  the  grander  char- 
acter, and  preserves  it  until  it  crosses  the  northern 
frontier.  The  scenery  of  the  Western  Cordillera  is 
broader  and  more  massive  in  character,  and  its 
summits  less  pointed  than  those  of  the  Andes. 
Rugged  paths,  sometimes  so  narrow  as  barely  to 
afford  footing  to  the  mules  which  are  invar- 
iably used  in  such  ascents,  lead  up  its  steep 
sides.  Occasionally,  from  these  narrow  passes, 
gaping  and  apparently  bottomless  precipices  slide 
perpendicularly  downward  from  the  very  feet  of  the 
traveller,  and  the  prospect  is  rendered  still  more 
hideous  by  the  distant  roar  of  a  torrent,  hidden  by 
mists,  at  the  bottom  of  the  ravine.  Occasionally, 
also,  the  mountain  route  leads  over  abysses  500  feet 
in  depth,  across  which,  by  way  of  bridge,  a  few 
poles  are  thrown,  which  roll  about  in  an  uncomfort- 
able manner  under  the  feet.  In  traversing  these 
dangerous  passes,  which  line  the  huge  rocks  like 
aerial  threads,  the  traveller  often  comes  upon 
scenery  of  the  most  picturesque  and  beautiful 
description.  The  clefts  and  sides  of  the  hills,  even 
at  altitudes  which  might  be  called  alpine,  are  clothed 
with  wild-flowers,  many  of  which,  now  long  cultiv- 
ated in  Britain,  have  become  highly  prized  among 
us  as  garden-plants.  Verbenas,  lupines,  blue  and 
scarlet  salvias,  fuchsias,  calceolarias,  and  the  fragrant 
heliotrope,  add  a  sense  of  beauty  to  the  sense  of 
power  which  the  stupendous  scenery  imparts.  The 
following  are  the  most  striking  and  distinctive 
physical  features  of  the  Sierra,  beginning  from  the 
south :  1.  The  plain  of  Titicaca,  partly  in  P.,  and 
partly  in  Bolivia,  is  enclosed  between  the  two  main 
ridges  of  the  Andes,  and  is  said  to  have  an  area  of 
30,000  miles— greater  than  that  of  Ireland.  In  its 
centre  is  the  great  Lake  Titicaca,  12,846  feet  above 
sea-level,  or  1600  feet  above  the  loftiest  mountain 
pass  (the  Col  of  Mont  Cervin)  of  Europe.  The  lake 
is  115  miles  long,  from  30  to  60  miles  broad,  from 
70  to  180  feet  deep,  and  400  miles  in  circumference. 
Its  shape  is  irregular ;  it  contains  many  islands, 
and  several  peninsulas  abut  upon  its  waters.  2. 
The  Knot  of  Cuzco. .  The  mountain-chains  which 
girdle  the  plain  of  Titicaca  trend  toward  the  north- 
west, and  form  what  is  called  the  Knot  of  Cuzco. 
The  Knot  comprises  six  minor  mountain-chains,  and 
has  an  area  thrice  larger  than  that  of  Switzerland. 
Here  the  valleys  enjoy  an  Indian  climate,  and  are 
rich  in  tropical  productions ;  to  the  north  and  east 
of  the  Knot  extend  luxuriant  tropical  forests,  while 
the  numberless  mountain-slopes  are  covered  with 
waving  crops  of  wheat,  barley,  and  other  cereals, 
and  with  potatoes ;  and  higher  up,  extend  pasture- 
lands,  where  the  vicuna  and  alpaca  feed.  3.  The 
vailey  of  the  Apurimac,  30  miles  in  average  breadth, 
and  extending  noi'th-west  for  about  300  mdes.  This 
valley  is  the  most  populous  region  of  Peru.  4.  The 
Knot  of  Pasco.  From  Cuzco  proceed  two  chains 
toward  the  north-west;  they  unite  again  in  the 
Knot  of  Pasco.  This  Knot  contains  the  table-land 
of  Bombon,  12,300  feet  above  sea-level ;  as  well  as 
other  table-lands  at  a  height  of  14,000  feet,  the 
highest  in  the  Andes  ;  otherwise,  however,  the  phy- 
sical features  of  the  country  resemble  those  of  the 
vicinity  of  Cuzco.  5.  The  vale  of  the  river  Maranon. 
This  valley,  which  is  upwards  of  300  miles  in  length, 
is  narrow,  deep,  and  nearer  the  equator  than  any 


other  valley  of  the  Sierra,  and  consequently,  it  is 
the  hottest  portion  of  this  region  ;  and  its  vegeta- 
tion is  thoroughly  tropical  in  character.  The  con- 
formation of  the  surface  of  the  Sierra  is  of  the  most 
wonderful  description.  After  the  table-lands  of 
Tibet,  those  of  the  Peruvian  Andes  are  the  highest 
in  the  world ;  but,  unlike  those  of  Tibet,  which 
are  mere  grassy  uplands,  the  tabledands  of  P.  are 
the  seat  of  a  comparatively  high  civilisation,  and 
are  studded  over  with  towns  and  villages,  perched 
on  heights  exceeding  in  elevation  the  summits  of  the 
Jungfrau  and  the  Wetterhorn.  Nor  are  such  towirs 
the  mere  eyries  of  miners  who  are  tempted  to  ascend 
thus  high  in  search  of  the  precious  metals ;  for, 
even  at  this  elevation,  the  climate  is  pleasant,  and 
wheat,  maize,  bai-ley,  rye,  and  potatoes  thrive 
well.  The  city  of  Cuzco,  situated  in  a  region  of 
rare  beauty,  and  enjoying  a  temperate  climate,  is 
11,380  feet  above  sea-level,  or  2000  feet  higher  than 
the  Great  St  Bernard.  The  climate  of  the  Sierra, 
howrever,  is  not  always  so  charming.  In  general 
terms,  it  may  be  described  as  mild  and  variable, 
with  moderate  rains.  In  the  district  of  Paucar- 
tambo,  rain  falls  300  days  in  the  year.  A  country, 
however,  of  such  an  uneven  surface,  of  snow-covered 
peaks  and  tropical  valleys,  embraces  every  variety 
of  climate.  In  all  the  lower  regions  of  the  country 
the  climate  is  warm,  but  healthy ;  in  the  uplands, 
and  on  the  highest  plateaux,  it  is  often  inclement. 
Violent  storms  beat  upon  the  plain  of  Titicaca ;  and 
terrific  tempests,  accompanied  with  thunder  and 
lightning,  roll  frequently  around  the  table-lands  of 
Pasco  (q.  v.) ;  where,  indeed,  the  climate  is  so  cold, 
that  but  for  the  mines,  which  have  attracted  hither 
a  numerous  population,  this  region  might  have 
remained  uninhabited.  At  the  height  of  9000  feet 
above  sea-level,  the  mean  temperature  is  60°  Fabr., 
and  the  variation  throughout  the  year  is  not  great. 
The  highest  peaks  of  the  country  reach  to  upwards 
of  22,000  feet,  and  many  peaks  in  both  ranges  are 
from  17,000  to  20,000  feet  high.  In  the  Western 
Cordillera,  and  in  the  south  of  the  country,  are 
four  volcanoes — Candarave,  Ubinas,  Ornate,  and 
Arequipa.  The  soil  of  the  Sierra  is  of  great  variety; 
but  wherever  it  is  cultivated,  it  is  productive. 

The  Montana,  forming  two-thirds  of  the  entire 
area  of  the  country,  stretches  away  for  hundreds  of 
leagues  eastward  from  the  Andes  to  the  confines  of 
Brazil.  On  the  N.,  it  is  bounded  by  the  Amazon, 
on  the  S.  by  Bolivia.  It  consists  of  vast  impene- 
trable forests  and  alluvial  plains,  is  rich  in  all  the 
productions  of  tropical  latitudes,  is  of  inexhaustible 
fertility,  and  teems  with  animal  and  vegetable  life. 
It  is  still,  however,  almost  wholly  unproductive  to 
man.  The  silence  of  its  central  forests  has  never 
been  disturbed  by  the  civilised  explorer,  and  its  only 
human  inhabitants  are  a  few  scattered  tribes  of 
Indians.  The  Montana  is  watered  by  numberless 
streams,  and  by  a  large  number  of  important  rivers. 
It  belongs  wholly  to  the  basin  of  the  Amazon. 
Along  the  head-waters  of  the  Purus,  which,  flowing 
through  beautiful  forest-covered  plains,  approaches 
to  within  60  miles  of  Cuzco,  there  were  at  one  time 
numerous  Spanish  farms,  where  great  tracts  of 
forests  had  been  cleared,  and  where  crops  of  coco, 
cocoa,  sugar,  and  other  tropical  productions,  were 
regularly  raised.  These  farms  have  since  1S61  been 
abandoned,  and  the  encroaching  forest  has  already 
obliterated  their  sites.  The  upper  waters  of  the 
Purus  are  the  headquarters  of  a  savage  and  bar- 
barously cruel  tribe  of  wijd  Indians  called  Chunchos. 
These,  untamable  savages  have  shewn  the  greatest 
hostility  to  the  advance  of  civilisation.  They 
murdered  the  settlers,  or  drove  them  to  take  refuge 
in  some  less  advanced  settlement.  When  Mr 
Markham  visited  this  region   in  1853,  a  few  farm* 


PERU. 


•till  existed  ;  from  a  paper,  however,  which  he  com- 
municates to  the  Journal  of  (he  Royal  Geographical 
Society,  and  which  is  dated  L861,  it  would  appear 
that  the  Chunchos  have  finished  their  barbarous 
work,  for  the  settlers  have  either  all  been  massacred 
or  driven  back  from  the  forest,  so  that  now  not  a 
■ingle  settlement  remains.  The  rich  valleys  of  Ban- 
eartambo,  once  covered  with  flourishing  Spanish 
farms,  have  again  become  o.ie  vast  tropical  forest. 
The  virgin  soil  of  the  Montana  is  of  amazing 
fertility;  while  its  climate,  though  not  oppressively 
hot,  is  healthy.  The  forests  consist  of  huge  trees, 
of  which  some  are  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of 
their  wood,  others  for  their  valuable  gums  and 
resins,  and  others  as  timber  trees.  A  rank  under- 
growth of  vegetation  covers  the  country,  and  the 
trees  are  often  chained  together  and  festooued  with 
parasites  and  closely-matted  creepers.  In  this 
region,  for  the  most  part  undisturbed  by  the  voice 
of  man,  civilised  or  savage,  animal  lite  flourishes  in 
endless  variety,  and  birds  of  the  brightest  plumage 
flit  among  the  foliage.  Among  the  products  which 
are  yielded  here  in  spontaneous  abundance,  are  the 
inestimable  Peruvian  hark  (see  Cinchona),  India- 
rubber,  gum-copal,  vanilla,  indigo,  copaiba,  balsam, 
cinnamon,  saisaparilla,  ipecacuanha,  vegetable  wax, 
&c.  On  the  western  fringe  of  the  Montana,  where 
there  are  still  a  few  settlements,  tobacco,  sugar, 
coffee,  cotton,  and  chocolate,  are  cultivated  with 
complete  success. 

Hydrography. — The  hydrography  of  P.  may  be 
said  to  be  divided  into  three  systems — those  of 
Lake  Titicaca,  the  Pacilic,  and  the  Amazon.  The 
streams  that  How  into  Lake  Titicaca  are  few  and 
inconsiderable.  The  rivers  which,  having  their 
sources  in  the  Western  Cordillera,  flow  west  into 
the  Pacific,  are  about  60  in  number ;  but  many  of 
them  are  dry  in  summer,  and  even  the  more  import- 
ant are  rapid  and  shallow,  have  a  short  course,  are 
not  navigable  even,  for  canoes,  and  are  mainly  used 
for  the  purpose  of  irrigation.  All  the  great  rivers 
of  Peru  are  tributaries  of  the  Amazon.  The 
Maranon,  rising  between  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Cordilleras,  and  flowing  tortuously  to  the  north- 
north-west,  is  generally  considered  to  be  the  head- 
water of  the  Amazon  (q.  v.).  The  Huallaga  rises 
near  the  town  of  Huanuco,  and  flows  northward  to 
the  Amazon.  It  is  navigable  for  600  miles,  the 
head  of  its  navigation  (for  canoes)  being  at  Tingo 
Maria,  within  1U0  miles  of  its  source.  The  Yuca- 
yali,  or  Ucayali,  an  immeuse  river,  enters  the  Amazon 
210  miles  below  the  Huallaga.  Its  tributaries  and 
upper-waters,  among  which  are  the  Pampas  and  the 
Apurimac,  drain  the  greater  portion  of  the  Peruvian 
Sierra.  The  Purus,  which  reaches  to  the  valleys  of 
Paucartambo,  within  60  miles  of  Cuzco,  has  not  yet 
been  explored.  We  know  several  of  its  sources, 
and  that  it  enters  the  Amazon  by  four  mouths,  a 
little  above  Barra.  It  flows  through  what  is  per- 
haps the  richest  and  most  beautiful  region  of  Peru. 
Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  explore  this 
river,  none  of  which,  however,  down  to  1S02,  appear 
to  have  met  with  any  success.  The  facilities  which 
it  seems  to  afford  for  the  transport  of  most  valuable 
products,  have  long  been  acknowledged  by  the 
Peruvian  government.  One  of  the  chief  head-waters 
of  the  Purus  is  the  Madre  de  Dios.  In  1869  the  gov- 
ernment took  an  important  step  towards  colonising 
the  Amazon  region,  and  opened  the  headlands  of  that 
river  to  foreign  commerce.  Its  navigation  has  been 
declared  free,  and  a  railway  projected  to  connect  Lima 
with  its  head  waters.  The  coast  of  P.  is  traversed  by 
telegraphs,  and  one  with  Panama  has  Keen  proposed. 
A  progressive  spirit  has  been  awakened  under  the 
Presidency  of  Balta. 

Productions,  Exports  and  Imports,  Revenue,  &C — 


The  wealth  and  resources  of  P.  consist,  not  in  manu- 
factures, but  entirely  in  mineral,  vegetable,  and 
animal  products.  As  no  statistics  are  taken  in  the 
country  it  is  impossible  to  give  the  quantity  and 
value  of  the  productions,  and  of  the  exports  and 
imports,  even  approximately.  Of  the  precious 
metals,  the  production  lias  greatly  fallen  off  since 
P.  became  an  independent  state ;  and  this  country, 
which  once  stood  in  the  same  relation  to  Spain  that 
Australia  does  to  Creat  Britain,  now  contributes 
little  to  the  metallic  wealth  of  the  world,  The 
inmiense  stores  of  gold  and  silver  found  here  by  the 
.Spanish  invaders  represented  the  accumulation  of 
centuries,  and  that  among  a  people  who  used  the 
precious  metals  only  for  the  purposes  of  ornamenta- 
tion. Nevertheless,  P.  possesses  vast  metallic  riches. 
The  Andes  abound  in  mines  of  gold,  silver,  copper, 
lead,  bismuth,  &c.  ;  and  in  the  Montana,  gold  is 
said  to  exist  in  abundance  in  veius  and  iu  pools  00 
the  margins  of  rivers.  The  export  of  specie,  of 
which  a  portion  consisted  in  coined  money  and 
plate,  amounted  in  1S59,  according  to  Mr  Mark- 
ham,  to  only  £200,000.  This  comparatively  insig- 
nificant amount  of  produce  in  a  coimtry  so  rich  in 
the  precious  metals,  is  to  be  accounted  for  chiefly 
by  the  unscientific  and  improvident  manner  in 
which  the  mining  operations  are  carried  on.  A 
grievance,  from  which  this  republic  suffers  much,  is 
the  want  of  good  coinage.  It  can  hardly  be  said 
that  Peruvian  coinage  exists,  inasmuch  as  that  in 
circulation  is  from  the  mint  of  Bolivia.  The  British 
acting-consul  at  the  Peruvian  port  of  Islay,  writing 
in  1S63,  says,  however,  that  a  new  Peruvian  coinage 
is  in  contemplation,  and  will  no  doubt  be  promptly 
introduced.  But  besides  the  precious  metals,  P. 
possesses  other  most  important  mineral  resources. 
In  addition  to  the  guano  to  which  allusion  has 
already  been  made,  another  important  article  of 
national  wealth  is  nitrate  of  soda,  which  is  found  in 
immense  quantities  in  the  province  of  Tarapaca. 
This  substance,  which  is  a  powerful  fertiliser  (see 
Nitre),  is  calculated  to  cover,  in  this  province 
alone,  an  area  of  50  square  leagues,  and  the  quantity 
has  been  estimated  at  63,000,000  tons.  In  1868. 
1,020,055  cwts.,  and  in  1869,  891,151  cwts.,  were  im- 
ported into  G.  Britain.  Here  also  great  quantities  of 
borax  are  found.  The  working  of  this  valuable 
substance,  however,  is  interdicted  by  government, 
which  has  made  a  monopoly  of  it,  as  it  has  of 
the  guano  ;  but  such  small  parcels  of  it  as  have 
been  exported  bring  about  £30  per  ton  in  the 
English  market. 

The  vegetable  productions  of  P.  are  of  every 
variety,  embracing  all  the  products  both  of  temper- 
ate and  tropical  climes.  The  European  cereals 
and  vegetables  are  grown  with  perfect  success, 
together  with  maize,  rice,  pumpkins,  tobacco, 
coffee,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  &c.  Fruits  of  the  most 
delicious  flavour  are  grown  in  endless  variety 
Cotton,  for  which  the  sod  and  climate  of  P.  are 
admirably  adapted,  is  now  produced  here  in  gradu- 
ally increasing  quantity.  The  land  suited  to  the 
cultivation  of  this  plant  is  of  immense  extent,  and 
the  quality  of  the  cotton  grown  is  excellent.  The 
animals  comprise  those  of  Europe,  together  with 
the  Lama  (q.  v.)  and  its  allied  species.  In  1869, 
3,300.345  lhs.  of  lama  and  alpaca  wool  were  im- 
ported into  Great  Britain.  Although  P.  produces 
so  much  excellent  wool,  almost  the  whole  of  the 
woollen  fabrics  used  as  clothing  by  the  Indians  are 
manufactured  in  Yorkshire,  England.  m 

Ancient  Civilisation  and  History.—P.,  the  origin 
of  whose  name  is  unknown,  is  now  passing  through 
its  third  historical  era,  and  is  manifesting  its 
third  phase  of  civilisation.  The  present  era  may 
be  said  to  date  from  the  conquest  of  the  country 


PERU. 


by  the  Spaniards  in  the  early  part  of  the  16th  c. : 
the  middle,  era  embraces  the  rule  of  the  Incas;  and 
the  earliest  era,  about  which  exceedingly  little  is 
known,  is  that  Pre-Incarial  period,  of  unknown 
duration,  during  which  a  nation  or  nations  living  in 
large  cities  flourished  in  the  country,  and  had  a 
civilisation,  a  language,  and  a  religion  different,  and 
perhaps  in  some  cases  even  more  advanced  than 
those  of  the  Incas  who  succeeded  them,  and  overran 
their  territories.  Whence  these  Pre-Incarial  nations 
came,  and  to  what  branch  of  the  human  family 
they  belonged,  still  remain  unanswered  questions. 
Their  existence,  however,  is  clearly  attested  by 
the  architectural  remains,  sculptures,  carvings,  &c, 
which  they  have  left  behind  them.  Ruins  of  edifices 
constructsd  both  before  the  advent  of  the  Incas, 
and  contemporary  with,  and  independently  of,  them, 
are  found  everywhere  throughout  the  country.  On 
the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca,  for  example,  are  the 
ruins  of  Tia-Huanacu,  consisting  of  sculptured 
monolithic  doorways,  one  of  which  is  10  feet  high, 
and  13  feet  wide  ;  of  pillars,  21  feet  high,  placed  in 
lines  at  regular  distances;  and  of  immense  masses  of 
hewn  stone,  some  38  feet  long  by  18  broad.  In 
1S46,  several  colossal  idols  were  excavated,  some 
being  30  feet  long,  IS  wide,  and  G  thick.  The  idols 
are  in  the  form  of  statues,  and  the  ears  are  not 
enlarged  by  the  insertion  in  the  lobes  of  silver 
rings,  as  those  of  sculptured  figures,  executed 
in  Incarial  times  invariably  are.  The  ancient 
fragments  of  buildings  on  these  shores  were  beheld 
with  astonishment  by  the  earliest  of  the  Incas, 
who,  by  their  own  confession,  accepted  them  as 
models  for  their  own  architecture.  The  name 
Tia-Huanacu  is  comparatively  modern,  having  been 
conferred  by  one  of  the  Incas;  neither  history  nor 
tradition  has  handed  down  the  original  name.  The 
ruins  stand  at  a  height  of  12,930  feet  above  sea-level, 
and  one  of  the  many  mysteries  which  have  crowded 
around  this  ancient  site  is,  that  this  spot,  in  the 
midst  of  what  is  now  generally  a  frozen  desert,  and 
where  the  i-arity  of  the  air  must  be  so  great  as  to  be 
hurtful,  should  have  been  chosen  as  the  seat,  as  it 
is  generally  believed  to  have  been,  of  an  ancient 
government.  Of  the  character  and  degree  of  the 
civilisation  of  the  Pre-Incarial  races,  almost  nothing 
is  known.  It  is  worthy  of  note,  however,  that  at 
Pachacamac,  25  miles  south  of  Lima,  where  there 
are  the  remains  of  a  now  wholly  deserted  city,  and 
of  a  great  temple,  the  religion  seems  to  have  been  a 
pure  Theism;  for  when  the  Peruvians  of  Cuzco 
carried  their  victorious  arms  across  the  Cordilleras 
to  this  district,  they  beheld  this  temple  (the  doors 
of  which  are  said  to  have  been  of  gold  inlaid  with 
precious  stones)  with  astonishment,  not  only  because 
it  rivalled  if  not  surpassed  in  splendour  the  famous 
Temple  of  the  Sun  at  Cuzco,  but  because  it  contained 
no  image  or  visible  symbol  of  a  god.  It  was  raised 
in  honour  of  an  invisible  and  mysterious  deity,  whom 
the  inhabitants  called  Pachacamac,  the  Creator  of 
the  World  (from  two  words  of  the  ancient  Peruvian 
language.  Pacha,  the  earth ;  and  Camac,  participle 
if  "the  verb  Camani,  to  create).  The  Peruvians  did 
not  dare  to  destroy  this  temple,  but  contented 
themselves  with  building  by  its  side  a  Temple  of 
the  Sun,  to  the  worship  of  which  they  gradually 
won  over  the  inhabitants. — For  further  information 
regarding  Pre-Incarial  times  and  races,  see  W. 
Bollaert's  Antiquities,  Ethnology,  die.  of  South  America 
(Lond.  1860). 

Regarding  the  origin  of  the  Incas,  nothing  definite 
can  be  said.  We  have  no  authorities  on  the  subject 
gave  the  traditions  of  the  Indians,  and  these,  besides 
beint*  outrageously  fabulous  in  character,  are  also 
conflicting.  It  appears,  however,  from  all  the 
traditions"  that  Manco,  the  first  Inca,  first  appeared 
433 


on  the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca,  with  his  wife  llama 
Ocllo.  He  announced  that  he  and  his  wife  were 
children  of  the  Sun,  and  were  sent  by  the  glorious 
Inti  (the  Sun)  to  instruct  the  simple  tribes.  He  is 
said  to  have  carried  with  him  a  golden  wedge,  or. 
as  it  is  sometimes  called,  a  wand.  Wherever  this 
wedge,  on  being  struck  upon  the  ground,  should 
sink  into  the  earth,  and  disappear  for  ever,  there 
it  was  decreed  Manco  should  build  his  capital. 
Marching  northward,  he  came  to  the  plain  of  (Juzco, 
where  the  wedge  disappeared.  Here  he  founded 
the  city  of  Cuzco,  became  the  first  Inca  (a  name 
said  to  be  derived  from  the  Peruvian  word  for  the 
Sun),  and  founded  the  Peruvian  race,  properly  so 
called.  Manco,  or  Manco  Capac  (i.  e.,  Manco  tlie 
Ruler),  instructed  the  men  in  agriculture  and  the 
arts,  gave  them  a  comparatively  pure  religion,  and 
a  social  .and  national  organisation  ;  while  his  wife, 
Mama  Ocllo,  who  is  also  represented  as  being  his 
sister,  taught  the  women  to  sew,  to  spin,  and  to 
weave.  Thus,  the  Inca  was  not  only  ruler  of  his 
people,  but  also  the  father  and  the  high  priest. 
The  territory  held  by  Manco  Capac  was  small, 
extending  about  90  miles  from  east  to  west,  and 
about  80  miles  from  north  to  south.  After  intro- 
ducing laws  among  his  people,  and  bringing  them 
into  regularly  organised  communities,  'he  ascended 
to  his  father,  the  Sun.'  The  year  generally  assigned 
as  that  of  his  death,  after  a  reign  of  forty  years,  is 
10G2  a.  D.  The  progress  of  the  Peruvians  was 
at  first  so  slow  as  to  be  almost  imperceptible. 
Gradually,  however,  by  their  wise  and  temperate 
policy,  they  won  over  the  neighbouring  tribes,  who 
readily  appreciated  the  benefits  of  a  powerful  and 
fostering  government.  Little  is  clearly  ascertained 
regarding  the  early  history  of  the  Peruvian  kingdom, 
and  the  lists  given  of  its  early  sovereigns  are  by 
no  means  to  be  trusted.  They  invented  no  alphabet, 
and  therefore  could  keep  no  written  record  of  their 
affairs,  so  that  almost  all  we  can  know  of  their 
early  history  is  derived  from  the  traditions  of  the 
people,  collected  by  the  early  Spaniards.  Memoranda 
were  indeed  kept  by  the  Peruvians,  and,  it  is  said, 
even  full  historical  records,  by  means  of  the  quipn, 
a  twisted  woollen  cord,  upon  which  other  smaller 
cords  of  different  colours  were  tied.  Of  these  cros3 
threads,  the  colour,  the  length,  the  number  of  knots 
upon  them,  and  the  distance  of  one  from  another, 
all  had  their  significance ;  but  after  the  invasion  of 
the  Spaniards,  when  the  whole  Peruvian  system  of 
government  and  civilisation  underwent  disloca- 
tion, the  art  of  reading  the  quipus,  seems  either 
to  have  been  lost,  or  was  effectually  concealed. 
Thus  it  is  that  we  have  no  exact  knowledge  of 
Peruvian  history  further  back  than  about  one 
century  before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards.  In 
1453,  Tupac  Inca  Yupanqui,  the  eleventh  Inca, 
according  to  the  list  given  by  Garcilasso  de  la 
Vega,  greatly  enlarged  his  already  wide- spread 
dominions.  He  led  his  armies  southward,  crossed 
into  Chili,  marched  over  the  terrible  desert  of 
Atacama,  and  penetrating  as  far  south  as  the  river 
Maule  (lat.  36°  S.),  fixed  there  the  southern, 
boundary  of  Peru.  Returning,  he  crossed  the 
Chilian  Andes  by  a  pass  of  unequalled  danger  and 
difficulty,  and  at  length  regained  his  capital,  which 
he  entered  in  triumph.  WhUe  thus  engaged,  his 
son,  the  young  Huayna  Capac,  heir  to  the  fame  as 
well  as  the  throne  of  his  father,  had  marched 
northward  to  the  Amazon,  crossed  that  barrier, 
and  conquered  the  kingdom  of  Quito.  In  M75f 
Huayna  Capac  ascended  the  throne,  and  under  him 
the  empire  of  the  Incas  attained  to  its  greatest 
extent,  and  the  height  of  its  glory.  His  sway 
extended  from  the  equatorial  vallev  of  the  Amazon 
to   the    temperate   plains    of    Chili,    and   from   the 


PERU. 


gaudy  Bhorcs  of  the  Pacific  to  the  marshy  sources 
<>1  tlio  Paraguay.  Of  this  immense  territory,  Cuzco, 
as  its  name  implies  (the  word  Bigniflea  navel),  was 
the  great  centre;    great  roads  branched  off  from  it 

to  the  north,  south,  east,  and  west,  and  ramified 
through  every  part  of  the  kingdom.  The  greatest 
highway  of  the  country  was  that  which  led  from 

Quito  through  Cuzco  into  the  Chilian  dominions. 
In  its  construction,  galleries  were  «ut  for  leagues 
through  the  living  rock  ;  rivers  were  crossed  by 
bridges  of  plaited  osiers,  that  swung  in  the  air; 
precp]  ices  were  ascended  by  staircases  artificially 
:ut,  and  valleys  were  filled  up  with  solid  masonry. 
It  was  from  1500  to  2000  miles  long,  was  about  20 
feet  broad,  and  was  built  of  heavy  hags  of  freestone. 
Upon  all  the  great  routes  were  posts  or  small 
buildings,  about  live  miles  apart,  attached  to  which 
were  a  number  of  runners,  whose  business  it  was 
to  carry  forward  the  dispatches  of  government. 
By  means  of  these  messengers,  fresh  fish  caught 
on  one  day  at  Lurin,  on  the  Pacific,  is  said  to  have 
been  eaten  the  next  day  at  Cuzco.  The  distance 
between  these  places  is  3H0  miles,  and  the  road 
traverses  the  wildest  and  most  mountainous  country 
in  the  world.  Order  anil  civilisation  accompanied 
conquest  among  the  Peruvians,  anil  each  tribe  that 
was  vanquished  found  itself  under  a  careful  paternal 
government,  which  provided  for  it,  and  fostered  it 
in  every  way. 

The  government  of  P.  was  a  pure  but  a  mild 
despotism.  The  Inca,  as  the  representative  of  the 
Sun,  was  the  head  of  the  priesthood,  and  presided 
at  the  great  religious  festivals.  He  imposed  taxes, 
made  laws,  and  was  the  source  of  all  dignity  and 
power.  He  wore  a  peculiar  head-dress,  of  which 
the  tasselled  fringe,  with  two  feathers  placed 
upright  in  it,  were  the  proper  insignia  of  royalty. 
Of  the  nobility,  all  those  descended  by  the  male 
line  from  the  founder  of  the  monarchy,  shared, 
in  common  with  the  ruling  monarch,  the  sacred 
name  of  Inca.  They  wore  a  peculiar  dress,  enjoyed 
special  privileges,  and  lived  at  court ;  but  none  of 
them  could  enter  the  presence  of  the  Inca  except 
with  bare  feet,  and  bearing  a  burden  on  the  shoul- 
ders, in  token  of  allegiance  and  homage.  They 
formed,  however,  the  real  strength  of  the  empire. 
and,  being  superior  to  the  other  races  in  intellectual 
power,  they  were  the  fountain  whence  flowed  that 
civilisation  and  social  organisation  which  gave  P.  a 
position  above  every  other  state  of  South  America. 
Prior  to  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  P.  contained 
a  population  of  30,000,000 — twelve  times  greater 
than  it  is  at  the  present  day.  The  empire  was 
divided  into  four  parts,  into  each  of  which  one  of  the 
great  roads  branched  from  Cuzco.  Each  of  the  four 
provinces  was  administered  by  a  viceroy  or  governor. 
The  nation  was  further  subdivided  into  depart- 
ments of  10,000  inhabitants,  each  also  administered 
by  a  governor ;  and  there  were  other  subdivisions 
into  various  numbers,  the  lowest  of  which  was  ten, 
and  every  one  of  which  was  ruled  by  head-men,  who 
were  responsible  for  offenders,  and  were  required 
to  see  that  those  under  them  enjoyed  the  rights  to 
which  they  were  entitled.  The  governors  and  chief 
rulers  were  selected  from  the  Inca  aristocracy.  The 
laws  related  almost  wholly  to  criminal  matters,  and 
were  few,  and  remarkably  severe.  Theft,  adultery, 
murder,  blasphemy  against  the  Sun,  and  burning  of 
bridges,  were  all  capital  crimes.  The  territory  of 
the  empire  was  divided  into  three  portions,  and  from 
these  portions  were  derived  the  revenue  that  sup- 
ported the  Sun,  the  Inca,  and  the  people  respectively. 
The  numerous  priesthood,  and  the  costly  ceremonial 
of  the  national  worship,  were  supported  by  the 
firsi:  the  royal  household  and  the  government 
expenditure  were  defrayed  out  of   the  second ;   and 


the  people,  at  so  much  per  head,  divided  the  third 
of  these  portions.  There  was  a  new  division  of  the 
soil  every  year,  and  the  extent  of  land  apportioned 
to  each  householder  was  regulated  by  the  numbers 
in  his  family.  It  might  be  supposed  that  this 
arrangement  would  be  fatal  to  improvement  of  the 
soil,  and  to  the  pride  iii  and  love  of  home;  but  this 
was  not  the  case  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  at  each 
partition  of  the  soil,  the  tenant  was,  as  a  rule, 
confirmed  in  his  occupation.  The  three  divisions 
were  cultivated  by  the  people,  the  territory  appor- 
tioned to  the  Sun  being  attended  to  tirst,  that 
belonging  to  the  people  themselves  next,  and 
lastly,  the  division  belonging  to  the  Inca.  The 
labour  on  the  Inca's  share  of  the  land  was 
engaged  in  by  the  whole  population  at  the  same 
time,  and  the  work  was  lightened  by  the  national 
songs  and  ballads,  and  the  scene  made  picturesque 
by  the  holiday  attire  of  the  workers.  The  manu- 
factures of  the  country  were  managed  in  the  same 
way,  the  people  labouring  first  in  making  clothes 
for  themselves,  and  afterwards  giving  their  work  to 
the  Inca.  The  mines  were  worked  by  the  people, 
but  no  one  gave  more  than  a  certain  amount  of  time 
to  the  government  service  (during  which  time  he 
was  maintained  at  the  government  expense),  and 
after  discharging  the  stipulated  amount  of  duty,  he 
was  succeeded  by  another.  Money  was  unknown 
among  the  Peruvians.  They  were  a  nation  of 
workers,  but  they  wrought  as  the  members  of  one 
family,  labour  being  enforced  on  all  fo"  the  benefit 
of  all. 

The  national  policy  of  the  Peruvians  had  its 
imperfections  and  drawbacks,  and  though  cap  ible 
of  unlimited  extension,  it  was  not  capable  of 
advancement.  It  was  in  the  last  degree  conserva- 
tive, and  was  of  such  a  nature  that  the  introduction 
of  reform  in  any  vital  particular  must  have  over- 
turned the  whole  constitution.  Nevertheless,  the 
wants  of  the  people  were  few,  and  these  were  satis- 
fied. Their  labour  was  not  more  than  they  could 
easily  perform,  and  it  was  pleasantly  diversified 
with  frequent  holidays  and  festivals.  They  lived 
contentedly  and  securely  under  a  government 
strong  enough  to  protect  them;  and  a  sufficiency  of 
the  necessaries  of  life  was  obtained  by  every  indi- 
vidual. Still,  in  the  valleys  of  the  Cordilleras  and 
on  the  plain  of  Cuzco,  may  be  heard  numberless 
songs,  in  which  the  Peruvian  mourns  the  happy  days 
of  peace,  security,  and  comfort  enjoyed  by  his 
ancestoi-s.  Further,  they  revered  and  loved  their 
monarch,  and  considered  it  a  pleasure  to  serve  him. 
With  subjects  of  such  a  temper  and  inclination,  the 
Incas  might  direct  the  eutire  energies  of  the  nation 
as  they  chose  ;  and  it  is  thus  that  they  were  able  to 
construct  those  gigantic  public  works  which  would 
have  been  wonderful  even  had  they  been  performed 
with  the  assistance  of  European  machinery  and 
appliances. 

The  Peruvian  system  of  agriculture  was  brought 
to  its  highest  perfection  only  by  the  prodigious 
labour  of  several  centuries.  Not  only  was  the 
fertile  soil  cultivated  with  the  utmost  care,  but 
the  sandy  wastes  of  the  coast,  unvisited  by  any 
rains,  and  but  scantily  watered  by  brooks,  were 
rendered  productive  by  means  of  an  artificial  system 
of  irrigation,  the  most  stupendous,  perhaps,  that  the 
world  has  ever  seen.  Water  was  collected  in  lakes 
among  the  mountains,  led  down  the  slopes  and 
through  the  sands  of  the  coast,  apparently  doomed 
to  sterility,  by  canals  and  subterranean  passages 
constructed  on  a  vast  scale,  and  the  ruins  of  which, 
to  be  seen  at  the  present  day,  attest  the  industry, 
ingenuity,  and  admirable  patience  of  the  Peruvians. 
The  aqueducts,  which  were  sometimes  between 
400  and  500  miles  in  length,  were  in  some  cases 
°  433 


PERU. 


tunnelled  through  massive  rocks,  and  carried  across 
rivers  and  marshes.  They  were  constructed  of 
large  slabs  of  freestone,  fitting  so  closely  as  to 
require  no  cement,  and  answering  perfectly  the 
purpose  for  which  they  were  intended,  for  the  sandy 
wastes  were  converted  into  productive  fields  and 
rich  pasture-lands,  and  the  coast  teemed  with  indus- 
trious inhabitants.  In  the  valley  of  Santa,  there 
were  once  700,000  inhabitants  ;  there  are  now  only 
12,000:  in  that  of  Ancullama,  there  were  30,000 
individuals  ;  there  are  now  only  425.  The  fields  on 
the  coast  were  also  enriched  with  the  manure  of 
sea-fowls,  which  has  since  come  to  be  known  as 
guano.  Fragments  of  the  aqueducts  still  remain, 
and  are  surveyed  with  astonishment  by  the  traveller, 
who  wonders  that  such  works  could  have  been  con- 
structed by  a  people  who  appear  to  have  employed 
no  machinery,  had  no  beasts  of  burden,  who  did  not 
know  the  secret  of  the  true  arch,  and  who  did  not 
use  tools  or  instruments  of  iron.  But  the  triumphs 
of  industry  were  not  more  decided  on  the  coast 
than  they  were  in  the  Sierra.  Here,  at  elevations 
visited  now  only  by  the  eagle  and  the  condor,  the 
rocky  heights,  riven  by  innumerable  chasms  and 
deeply-cut  precipices,  were  crowned  with  waving 
crops  of  wheat  and  maize.  Where  the  mountain- 
slopes  were  too  steep  to  admit  of  cultivation,  terraces 
were  cut,  soil  was  accumulated  on  them,  and  the  level 
Burfaces  converted  into  a  species  of  hanging-gardens. 
Large  flocks  of  lamas  were  grazed  on  the  plateaux ; 
while  the  more  hardy  vicunas  and  alpacas  roamed 
the  upper  heights  in  freedom,  to  be  driven  together, 
however,  at  stated  periods,  to  be  shorn  or  killed. 
The  wool  yielded  by  these  animals,  and  the  cotton 
grown  in  the  plains  and  valleys,  were  woven  into 
fabrics  equally  remarkable  for  fineness  of  texture 
and  brilliancy  Of  colour. 

The  character  of  the  architecture  of  the  Peruvians 
has  already  been  alluded  to.  The  edifices  of  Incarial 
times  are  oblong  in  shape  and  cyclopean  in  construc- 
tion. The  materials  used  were  granite,  porphyry, 
and  other  varieties  of  stone  ;  but  in  the  more  rainless 
regions,  sun-dried  bricks  were  also  much  used.  The 
walls  were  most  frequently  built  of  stones  of  irre- 
gular size,  but  cut  with  such  accuracy,  and  fitting 
into  each  other  so  closely  at  the  sides,  that  neither 
knife  nor  needle  can  be  inserted  in  the  seams. 
Though  the  buildings  were  not,  as  a  rule,  more 
than  from  12  to  14  feet  high,  they  were  characterised 
by  simplicity,  symmetry,  and  solidity.  The  Peruvian 
architects  did  not  indulge  much  in  external  decor- 
ation ;  but  the  interior  of  all  the  great  edifices  was 
extremely  rich  in  ornament.  In  the  royal  palaces 
and  temples,  the  most  ordinary  utensils  were  of 
silver  and  gold;  the  walls  were  thickly  studded 
with  plates  and  bosses  of  the  same  metals ;  and 
exquisite  imitations  of  human  and  other  figures,  and 
also  of  plants,  fashioned  with  perfect  accuracy  in 
gold  and  sdver,  were  always  seen  in  the  houses  of 
the  great.  Hidden  among  the  metallic  foliage,  or 
creeping  among  the  roots,  were  many  brilliantly- 
coloured  birds,  serpents,  lizards,  &c,  made  chiefly  of 
precious  stones  ;  while  in  the  gardens,  interspersed 
among  the  natural  plants  and  flowers,  were  imita- 
tions of  them,  in  gold  and  silver,  of  such  truth  and 
beauty  as  to  rival  nature.  The  Temple  of  the  Sun 
at  Guzco,  called  Coricancha,  or  'Place  of  Gold,'  was 
the  most  magnificent  edifice  in  the  empire.  On  the 
western  wall,  and  opposite  the  eastern  portal,  was  a 
splendid  representation  of  the  Sun,  the  god  of  the 
nation.  It  consisted  of  a  human  face  in  gold,  with 
innumerable  golden  rays  emanating  from  it  in  every 
direction  ;  and  when  the  early  beams  of  the  morning 
sun  fell  upon  this  brilliant  golden  disc,  they  were 
reflected  from  it  as  from  a  mirror,  and  again  reflected 
throughout  the  whole  temple  by  the  numberless 
410 


plates,  cornices,  bands,  and  images  of  gold,  until 
the  temple  seemed  to  glow  with  a  sunshine  more 
intense  than  that  of  nature. 

The  religion  of  the  Peruvians,  in  the  later  ages  of 
the  empire,  was  far  in  advance  of  that  of  most 
barbarous  nations.  They  believed  in  a  Great  Spirit, 
the  Creator  of  the  universe,  who,  being  a  spirit, 
could  not  be  represented  by  any  image  or  symbol, 
nor  be  made  to  dwell  in  a  temple  made  with  hands. 
They  also  believed  in  the  existence  of  the  soul 
hereafter,  and  in  the  resurrection  of  the  body.  The 
after-life,  they  considered  to  be  a  condition  of  ease 
and  tranquillity  for  the  good,  and  of  continual 
wearisome  labour,  extending  over  ages,  for  the 
wicked.  But  while  they  believed  in  the  Creator 
of  the  world,  they  also  believed  in  other  deities, 
who  were  of  some  subordinate  rank  to  the  Great 
Spirit.  Of  these  secondary  gods,  the  Sun  was  the 
chief.  They  reverenced  the  Sun  as  the  source  of 
their  royal  dynasty;  and  every  where  throughout  the 
land,  altars  smoked  with  offerings  burned  in  his 
worship. 

About  the  year  1516,  and  ten  years  before  the 
death  of  Huayna  Capac,  the  first  white  man  had 
landed  on  the  western  shores  of  South  America ;  but 
it  was  not  till  the  year  1532,  that  Pizarro  (q.  v.),  at 
the  head  of  a  small  band  of  Spanish  adventurers, 
actually  invaded  Peru.  On  his  death-bed,  the  great 
Inca  expressed  a  wish  that  the  kingdom  of  Quito 
should  pass  to  Atahualpa,  one  of  his  sons  by  a 
princess  of  Quito  whom  he  had  received  among  his 
concubines,  and  that  all  his  other  territories  should 
fall  to  his  son  Huascar,  the  heir  to  the  crown,  and 
who,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  Incas,  should 
have  inherited  all  its  dependencies.  Between  these 
two  princes,  quarrels,  resulting  in  war,  arose;  and 
when  Pizarro  entered  P.,  he  found  the  country 
occupied  by  two  rival  factions,  a  circumstance  of 
which  he  took  full  advantage.  Atahualpa  had 
completely  defeated  the  forces  of  his  brother,  had 
taken  Huascar  prisoner,  and  was  now  stationed 
at  Caxamalca,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Andes, 
whither,  with  a  force  of  177  men,  of  whom  27  were 
cavalry,  the  dauntless  Spanish  leader,  in  September 
1532,  set  out  to  meet  him.  For  the  capture  of 
Atahualpa  by  the  Spaniards,  his  subsequent  life  and 
violent  death,  see  article  Atahualpa.  Shortly  after 
the  execution  of  the  Inca  at  Caxamalca,  the  adven- 
turers set  out  for  Cuzco.  Their  strength  had 
been  recently  increased  by  reinforcements,  and  they 
now  numbered  nearly  500  men,  of  whom  about 
a  third  were  cavalry.  They  entered  the  Peruvian 
capital,  15th  November  1533,  having  in  the  course 
of  their  progress  toward  the  city  of  the  Incas,  had 
many  sharp,  and  sometimes  serious  encounters  with 
the  Indians,  in  all  of  which,  however,  their  armour, 
artillery,  and  cavalry  gave  them  the  advantage. 
At  Cuzco  they  obtained  a  vast  amount  of  gold, 
the  one  object  for  which  the  conquest  of  P.  was 
undertaken.  As  at  Caxamalca,  the  articles  of  gold 
were  for  the  most  part  melted  down  iuto  ingots, 
and  divided  among  the  band.  Their  sudden  wealth, 
however,  did  many  of  them  little  good,  as  it 
afforded  them  the  means  of  gambling,  and  mmy 
of  them,  rich  at  night,  found  themselves  again 
penniless  adventurers  in  the  morning.  One  cavalier 
having  obtained  the  splendid  golden  image  of  the 
Sun  as  his  share  of  the  booty,  lost  it  in  play 
in  a  single  night.  After  stripping  the  palaces  and 
temples  of  their  treasures,  Pizarro  placed  Manco, 
a  son  of  the  great  Huayna  Capac,  on  the  throne  of 
the  Incas.  Leaving  a  garrison  in  the  capital,  he 
then  marched  west  to  the  sea-coast,  with  the 
intention  of  building  a  town,  from  which  he  could 
the  more  easily  repel  invasion  from  without,  and 
which  should  be  the  future  capital  of  the  kingdom. 


PERU. 


Choosing  the  banks  of  the  river  Rimac,  he  founded, 
about  six  miles  from  its  mouth,  the  Ciudiul  de  los 

Reyta,  'City  of  the  Kings.'  Subsequently,  its  name 
was  changed  into  Lima,  the  modified  form  of  the 
name  of  the  river  on  which  it  was  placed.  But 
the  progress  of  a  higher  civilisation  thus  begun, 
was  interrupted  by  an  event  which  overturned  the 
plans  of  the  general,  and  entailed  the  severest 
Bufferings  on  many  of  his  followers.  The  Inea 
Maneo,  insulted  on  every  hand,  and  in  the  most 
contemptuous  manner,  by  the  proud  Castilian 
soldiers,  effected  his  escape,  and  headed  a  formidable 
rising  of  the  natives.  Gathering  round  CuzCO  in 
immense  numbers,  the  natives  laid  siege  to  the 
city,  and  set  it  on  lire.  An  Indian  force  also 
invested  Xauxa,  and  another  detachment  threatened 
Lima.  The  siege  of  Cuzco  was  maintained  for  live 
months,  after  which  time  the  Peruvians  were  com- 
manded by  their  Inca  to  retire  to  their  farms,  and 
cultivate  the  soil,  that  the  country  might  be  saved 
from  famine.  The  advantages,  many,  though  un- 
important, which  the  Inea  gained  in  the  course  of 
this  siege,  were  his  last  triumphs.  He  afterwards 
retired  to  the  mountains,  where  he  was  massacred 
by  a  party  of  Spaniards.  More  formidable,  how- 
ever, to  Pizarro  than  any  rising  of  the  natives, 
was  the  quarrel  between  himself  and  Almagro, 
a  soldier  of  generous  disposition,  but  of  fiery  temper, 
who,  after  Pizarro,  held  the  highest  rank  among 
the  conquerors.  For  the  insurrection,  trial,  and 
execution  of  this  chief,  see  article  Almagro.  The 
condition  of  the  country  was  now  in  every  sense 
deplorable.  The  natives,  astonished  not  more  by 
the  appearance  of  cavalry  than  by  the  flash,  the 
sound,  and  the  deadly  execution  of  artillery,  had 
succumbed  to  forces  which  they  had  no  means  of 
successfully  encountering.  Meantime,  the  Almagro 
faction  had  not  died  out  with  the  death  of  its  leader, 
and  they  still  cherished  schemes  of  vengeance  against 
the  Pizarros.  It  was  resolved  to  assassinate  the 
General  as  he  returned  from  mass  on  Sunday,  26th 
June  1541.  Hearing  of  the  conspiracy,  but  attach- 
ing little  importance  to  the  information,  Pizarro 
nevertheless  deemed  it  prudent  not  to  go  to  mass 
that  day.  His  house  was  assaulted  by  the  con- 
spirators, who,  murdering  his  servants,  broke-  in 
upon  the  great  leader,  overwhelmed  him  by  numbers, 
and  killed  him  (see  Pizarro).  The  son  of  Almagro 
then  proclaimed  himself  governor,  but  was  soon 
defeated  in  battle,  and  put  to  death.  In  1542, 
a  council  was  called  at  Valladolid,  at  the  instigation 
of  the  ecclesiastic  Las  Casas,  who  felt  shocked  and 
humiliated  at  the  excesses  committed  on  the  natives. 
The  result  of  this  council  was,  that  a  code  of  laws 
was  framed  for  P.,  according  to  one  clause  of  which, 
the  Indians  who  had  been  enslaved  by  the  Spaniards 
were  virtually  declared  free  men.  It  was  also 
enacted  that  the  Indians  were  not  to  be  forced  to 
labour  in  unhealthy  localities,  and  that  in  whatever 
cases  they  were  desired  to  work  in  any  particular 
locality,  they  were  to  be  fairly  paid.  These  and 
similar  clauses  enraged  the  adventurers.  Blasco 
l^unez  Vela,  sent  from  Spain  to  enforce  the 
new  laws,  rendered  himself  unpopular,  and  was 
6eized,  and  thrown  into  prison.  He  had  come 
from  Spain,  accompanied  by  an  '  audience '  of 
four,  who  now  undertook  the  government.  Gonzalo 
Pizarro  (the  last  in  this  country  of  the  family 
of  that    name),   who   had    been    elected    captain- 

feneral  of  P.,  now  marched  threateningly  upon 
/ima.  He  was  too  powerful  to  withstand,  and 
the  audience  received  him  in  a  friendly  manner, 
and  after  the  administration  of  oaths,  elected  him 
governor  as  well  as  captain-general  of  the  country. 
The  career  of  this  adventurer  was  cut  short  by 
Pedro  de  la  Gasca,  who,  invested  with  the  powers 


of  the  sovereign,  arrived  from  Spain,  collected  8 
large  army,  and  pursued  Pizarro,  who  was  eventually 
taken  and  executed. 

A  series  of  petty  quarrels,  and  the  tiresome 
story  of  the  substitution  of  one  ruling  functionary 
for  another,  make  up  a  great  part  of  the  subse- 
quent history.  The  country  became  one  of  the 
four  vice-royalties  of  Spanish  America,  and  the 
Spanish  authority  was  fully  established  and  admin- 
istered by  successive  viceroys.  The  province  of 
Quito  was  separated  from  P.  in  1718;  and  in  1788j 
considerable  territories  in  the  south  were  detached,, 
and  formed  into  the  government  of  Buenos  Ay  res. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  Independence  in  South 
America,  the  Spanish  government,  besides  having 
much  declined  in  internal  strength,  was  distracted 
with  the  dissensions  of  a  regency,  and  torn  by  civil 
war;  nevertheless,  in  1820,  the  Spanish  viceroy  had 
an  army  of  23,000  men  in  Peru,  and  all  the  large 
towns  were  completely  in  the  hands  of  Spanish 
officials.  P.  was  the  last  of  the  Spanish  South 
American  possessions  to  set  up  the  standard  of 
independence.  In  August  1820,  a  rebel  army,  under 
General  San  Martin,  one  of  the  liberators  of  Chili, 
sailed  for  P.,  and  after  a  number  of  successes  both 
on  sea  and  land,  in  which  the  patriots  were  most 
effectively  assisted  by  English  volunteers,  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  country  was  proclaimed  28th  July 
1S21,  and  San  Martin  assumed  the  protectorate  of 
the  young  republic.  From  this  date  to  the  year  1860, 
21  rulers,  under  various  titles,  have  held  sway.  For 
the  first  24  years  of  its  existence  as  an  independent 
republic,  the  country  was  distracted  and  devastated 
by  wars  and  revolutions.  In  1845,  Don  Ramon 
Castilla  was  elected  president ;  and  under  hi8  firm 
and  sagacious  guidance,  the  country  enjoyed  an 
unwonted  measure  of  peace,  and  became  regularly 
organised.  Commerce  began  to  be  developed,  and 
important  public  works  were  undertaken.  The  term 
of  his  presidency  ended  in  1851,  in  which  year 
General  Ruiino  Jose  Echenique  was  elected  presi- 
dent. An  insurrection  followed,  and  Castillon  became 
president  in  1855.  Slavery,  which,  although  abol- 
ished by  the  charter  of  independence,  still  existed, 
was  put  an  end  to  by  a  decree  dated  October,  1854. 

On  the  14th  April,  1864,  the  Spaniards  took  pos- 
session of  the  Chincha  Islands,  and  demanded  indem- 
nification for  alleged  outrages  on  some  Basque 
emigrants.  In  January,  1865,  terms  of  peace  were 
offered  by  the  Peruvian  government  and  accepted, 
but,  proving  offensive  to  the  people,  an  insurrection 
broke  out,  which  resulted  in  the  fall  of  President 
Perez  and  the  establishment  of  a  dictatorship  under 
Prado,  who  also  became  President  in  1867,  an  alli- 
ance with  Chili  and  a  renewal  of  the  war  with  Spain. 
On  February  7,  1866,  the  combined  fleets  of  P.  and 
Chili  defeated  the  Spanish  squadron  off  the  island  of 
Chiloe,  and  in  May  the  enemy  was  repulsed  in  his 
attack  on  Callao.  In  1869,  by  common  consent, 
plenipotentiaries  were  appointed  to  meet  at  Wash- 
ington, where,  in  April,  1871,  the  United  States 
acting  as  a  mediator,  they  concluded  the  terms  of  an 
indefinite  truce  or  general  armistice,  which  may  .Se 
terminated  by  either  party  only  after  three  years'  pre 
vious  notice  to  the  other,  conveyed  through  the 
government  of  the  United  States. 

The  present  constitution,  proclaimed  Aug.  31,  1867, 
is  modelled  on  that  of  the  United  States.  In  1868, 
the  Senate  consisted  of  36,  and  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives of  86  members.  The  President  and  Vice 
President  are  both  elected  by  the  people  for  a  term  oi 
5  years.  The  present  President  is  Col.  Jose'  Balta, 
elected  in  1868.  The  Roman  Catholic  religion  is 
declared  the  religion  of  the  state,  and  the  public  exer- 
cise of  other  forms  is  prohibited. 

The  revenue  is  mainly  derived  from  the  sale  of 


PERUGIA-PERUVIAN  BARK. 


suano  (ilirect  taxation  fines  not  exist),  and  for  the 
two  years.  1869  and  1870,  was  estimated  at  $55,- 
•JO.3,900,  the  sales  of  guano  being  about  $40,500,000. 
The  expenses  were  estimated  at  $77,185,209.  The 
acknowledged  foreign  liabilities  on  Octohei'  1,  1870, 
were  £20,389,200,  most  of  which  is  a  British  rail- 
way loan. 

The  army,  in  1872,  consisted  of  13,200  men;  the 
navy,  6  monitors,  and  6  other  steamers.  The  arma- 
ment of  the  iron-clad  steam  frigate  Independence, 
built  in  London,  consists  of  Armstrong  gnns.  The 
two  iron-dads,  Atahualpa  and  Manco  Capac,  purchased 
of  the  United  States  in  1869,  have  revolving  turrets, 
aud  throw  500-pound  shot. 

PERU'GIA,  a  city  of  Central  Italy,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Utnbria,  stands  on  a  lofty 
elevation,  800  feet  high,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Tiber,  ten  miles  east  of  the  lake  of  the  same  name 
(ancient  Lacus  Trasimenvs),  and  84  miles  north  of 
Rome.  It  is  surrounded  with  walls  pierced  with 
numerous  gates,  of  which  the  Arch  of  Augustus  (so 
called  from  the  insertion  Augusta  Perusia  over  it, 
inscribed  by  Augustus)  is  the  finest.  It  is  the  see 
of  a  bishop,  and  contains  upwards  of  100  churches, 
and  about  50  monastic  establishments.  Its  streets 
are  wide,  and  there  are  several  squares  lined  with 
massive  buildings.  The  broad  Corso,  which  contains 
the  finest  edifices,  unites  two  squares,  one  of  which  is 
occupied  by  the  Duomo,  or  cathedral,  dedicated  to 
San  Lorenzo,  and  dating  from  the  end  of  the  15th 
century.  It  is  in  a  fine  bold  Gothic  style,  and  con- 
tains many  excellent  paintings,  carvings,  &c.  Many 
of  the  churches  and  convents  are  noble  Gothic 
structures,  and  all  of  them  are  more  or  less  famous 
for  their  pictures,  some  of  which  are  by  Raphael, 
Perugino,  and  other  great  masters.  In  the  vicinity 
of  the  city,  a  number  of  tombs,  supposed  to  mark  the 
site  of  the  necropolis  of  ancient  P.,  were  discovered 
in  1810.  The  tombs  contaiu  numerous  beautiful 
cinerary  urns,  in  marble  and  travertine ;  and  lamps, 
vases,  bronze  armour,  ornaments,  patera?,  &c,  were 
also  found,  but  have  for  the  most  part  been  re- 
moved to  a  neighbouring  villa.  The  university  of 
P.,  founded  in  1320,  and  liberally  endowed,  contains 
a  botanic  garden,  a  cabinet  of  mineralogy,  a  museum 
of  antiquities,  and  a  library  of  30,000  vols.,  with 
some  valuable  manuscripts.  It  is  attended  by  from 
300  to  400  students.  Besides  the  picture-gallery  of 
the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  there  are  numerous 
private  art-collections.  P.  contains  also  many  inter- 
esting palaces,  a  beautiful  fountain,  an  exchange, 
theatres,  &c.  Velvets,  silk-stuffs,  woollen  goods, 
soap,  brandy,  and  liqueurs  are  manufactured ;  and  a 
considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  corn,  oil,  wool, 
wine,  and  cattle.  Pop.  (1872),  inclusive  of  suburbs, 
49.503. 

P.,  the  ancient  Perusia,  was  one  of  the  twelve 
Etrurian  republics.  It  became  tributary  to  Rome 
294  B.C.  During  the  war  between  Mark  Antony 
and  Augustus,  it  was  taken  by  the  latter,  and  was 
burned  down.  It  was  captured  by  the  Goths  under 
Totila  at  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire.  Under 
Pope  Paul  III.,  it  was  united  to  the  Papal  States. 
In  18G0,  it  became  a  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy 
under  Victor  Emmanuel. 

PERUGIA,  Lake  of.    See  Teasimenus  Lacus. 

PERUGINO,  a  celebrated  Italian  painter,  whose 
real  name  was  Pietro  Vannucci,  was  born  at  Citta 
della  Pieve  in  Umbria,  about  1446,  but  having  after- 
wards established  himself  in  the  neighbouring  and 
more  important  city  of  Perugia,  where  he  had  the 
right  of  citizenship,  he  is  commonly  called  U  Peru- 
gino. It  is  generally  thought  that  he  studied  under 
Andrea  Verocchio  at  Florence.  He  executed  numer- 
ous excellent  works  in  various  cities,  particularly  in 
4i2 


Florence,  Siena,  Pavia,  Naples,  Bologna,  Rome,  and 
Perugia.  Sixtus  IV.  employed  him  in  the  Cappeila 
Sistina;  and  his  fresco  of  'Christ  giving  the  Keys 
to  Peter '  is  by  far  the  best  of  those  painted  on  the 
side-walls  of  that  chapel.  He  also,  along  with  other 
contemporary  painters,  decorated  the  Stanze  of  the 
Vatican ;  and  his  works  there  are  the  only  frescoes 
that  were  spared  when  Raphael  was  commissioned 
to  substitute  his  works  for  those  formerly  painted 
on  the  walls  and  ceilings.  The  fact  of  his  having 
had  Raphael  for  his  pupil,  has  no  doubt  in  one  way 
increased  the  reputation  of  P.,  but  it  has  also  in 
some  degree  tended  to  lessen  it,  as,  in  many  of  P.'a 
best  productions,  the  work  of  Raphael  is  confidently 
pointed  out  by  connoisseurs,  and,  indeed,  many 
important  pictures,  at  one  time  acknowledged  as  his, 
are  now  ascribed  to  his  great  pupiL  His  high 
standing  as  a  painter,  however,  is  established  by 
many  admirable  works,  in  which  no  hand  superior 
to  his  own  could  have  operated ;  and,  with  the 
exception,  perhaps,  of  Francia,  who  in  some  respects 
is  esteemed  his  equal,  he  is  now  acknowledged  as 
the  ablest  of  the  masters  of  that  section  of  the 
early  Italian  school  in  which  religious  feeling  is 
expressed  with  great  tenderness,  in  pictures  remark- 
able for  delicate  execution.  P.'s  works  are  also 
distinguished  by  rich  and  warm  colouring.  An 
excellent  example  of  this  master's  work  may  be 
studied  in  the  collection  of  the  National  Gallery, 
London — '  No.  2S8.  The  Virgin  Adoring  the  Infant 
Christ.'  P.'s  reputation  was  high,  when  the  intro- 
duction of  the  cinquecento  style,  by  Leonardo  and 
Michael  Angelo,  tended  to  throw  into  the  shade 
the  art  of  the  earlier  masters.  Disputes  ran  high 
between  the  leaders  of  the  old  and  new  styles, 
and  Michael  Angelo  is  said  to  have  spoken  con- 
temptuously of  P.'s  powers.  This,  of  course,  has 
biassed  Vasari's  opinion  in  his  estimate  of  the 
opponent  of  hi3  idol,  but  P.'s  reputation  now 
stands  very  high,  and  his  works  are  greatly 
esteemed.  Raphael  was  about  twelve  years  of 
age  when  he  was  entered  as  a  pupil  with  P., 
who  was  then  (1495)  engaged  on  the  frescoes  in 
the  Sala  del  Cambia  (the  Exchange)  at  Perugia, 
P.  died  at  Castello  di  Fontignano,  near  Perugia,  in 
1524. 

PERUVIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  Although 
the  buildings  of  Peru  were  erected  probably  about 
the  12th  c.  a.d.,  they  possess  an  extraordinary  like- 
ness to  those  of  the  Pelasgi  in  Europe.  This  resem- 
blance in  style  must  be  accidental,  arising  probably 
from  the  circumstance,  that  both  nations  used 
bronze  tools,  and  were  unacquainted  with  iron.  The 
Peruvian  walls  are  built  with  large  polygonal  blocks 
of  stone,  exactly  like  what  we  call  'Cyclopean 
masonry.'  The  jambs  of  the  doorways  slope  inwards, 
like  those  of  Etruscan  tombs,  and  have  similar 
lintels.  The  walls  of  Cuzco  are  good  examples  of 
this  style.  It  is  further  remarkable,  that  these 
walls  are  built  with  re-entering  angles,  like  the 
fortifications  which  were  adopted  in  Europe  only 
after  the  invention  of  gunpowder. 

PERUVIAN  BARK.  See  Cinchona.— But 
whilst  the  article  Cinchona  was  passing  through 
the  press,  an  important  event  was  taking  place  in 
the  introduction  of  cinchonas,  or  Peruvian  Bark 
trees  into  British  India.  This  had  long  been  urged 
on  the  East  India  Company  by  Dr  Royle,  but  was 
not  undertaken  till  after  his  death.  The  same  thing 
had  been  attempted  a  year  or  two  before  by  the 
Dutch  in  Java,  on  the  urgent  representations  of  the 
botauist  Blume,  but  with  very  imperfect  success, 
owing  to  their  having  procured  chielly  plants  of  a 
species  which  produces  bark  of  very  inferior  q  uality, 
and  yields  little  quinine.     But  Mr  Markhain,  who 


PERUVIAN  GOOSEBERRY— PESHITO. 


was  Bcnl  to  Sonth  America  by  the  East  India  Com- 
pany to  procnre  seeds  and  plants,  was  successful  in 
introducing  into  British  India,  in  the  latter  part  of 
1861,  a  number  of  the  very  best  species,  which  were 
planted  on  the  Neilgherry  Hills,  and  also  in  Cevlon 
and  the  Himalayas.  According  t<>  the  reportof  C. 
B.  Clarke,  Superintendent  of  Cinchona  Cultivation 
in  India,  the  number  of  trees  in  permanent  planta- 
tions at  Darjeeling,  in  the  Sikkim,  on  31st  March, 
1870,  amounted  to  1,500,758,  most  of  which  were  the 
0.  tnccirubra,  Cali8aya,micrantha,  and  officinalis,  the 
CWfaaya  heing  planted  at  the  rate  of  4000  per  acre, 
The  cultivation  of  cinchona  in  Java  was  proceeding 
satisfactorily,  870,000 having  been  transplanted'  th* 
produce  of  1870  was  estimated  at  about  8000  pounds 
ot  dry  bark  for  exportation,  and  the  preparation 
already  forms  nn  important  industry.  Some  of  the 
Java  cinchonas,  however,  contain  but  1.1  tn  3.5  per 
cent,  of  alkaloids,  ami  are  not  at  present  adapted  to 
the  production  of  quinine.  Some  of  the  Neilpherry 
cinchonas,  such  as  the  O.  mirabUif,  contain  13.V  per 
cent,  of  qninine  alkaloids.  Cinchonas  have  recently 
Keen  planted  in  St  Helena,  and  it  is  proposed  to 
attempt  plantations  in  Jamaica.  (See  Markham's 
Travels  In  Pern  and  India,  London,  1S62,  and  Edin- 
burgh Review,  October,  1863.) 

PERUVIAN  GOOSEBERRY.     See  Physalis. 

PESA'RO  (the  ancient  Pieaurum),  a  town  of 
Central  Italy,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  on  a  rocky  wooded  hill,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Foglia,  and  one  mile  from  the  mouth  of  that 
river  in  the  Adriatic — 20  miles  north-east  of 
Urbino.  Its  streets  are  broad,  and  it  is  surrounded 
by  walls  and  defended  by  a  citadel.  It  is  a  bishop's 
seat,  and  contains  a  cathedral  and  other  churches. 
The  couutry  in  the  vicinity  is  fruitful  and  beautiful ; 
the  figs  of  the  district  being  esteemed  the  best  in 
rtaly.  The  port  cannot  now  accommodate  vessels 
of  more  than  70  tons  burden  ;  but  is  large  enough 
to  contain  200  vessels  of  light  draught.  Silks,  pot- 
tery, glass,  and  leather  are  manufactured  ;  and  an 
active  trade  in  silk,  hemp,  and  woollen  goods  is 
carried  on.     Top.  10,740. 

PESCHIE'IJA,  a  frontier  town  and  fortress  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  and  a  member  of  the  famous  Quad- 
rilateral (<].  v.),  stands  partly  on  an  island  in  the 
cnanuel  of  the  Mincio,  and  partly  on  the  right 
bank  of  that  river,  at  its  outlet  from  the  Lake  of 
Garda,  The  town  itself  is  a  poor  place  of  less  than 
2000  inhabitants.  P.  commands  the  right  bank 
of  the  river,  and  in  connection  with  it  is  the 
extensive  work  called  the  'Salvi,'  which  covers 
the  approaches  of  the  river  in  that  direction. 
During  the  French  republican  war,  P.  was  a  simple 
pentagon.  Its  fortifications,  however,  have  been 
greatly  strengthened  by  the  Austrians.  It  is 
defended  by  walls  and  by  forts,  lunettes,  fosses, 
and  a  covered- way ;  and  the  purpose  which  it  is 
mainly  intended  to  serve,  besides  that  of  forming 
an  entrenched  camp  capable  of  accommodating  a 
considerable  number  of  troops,  is  to  harass  an  army 
attempting  to  cross  the  Mincio  by  Goito  or  Valeggio. 
In  the  island  portion  of  the  town  are  extensive 
barracks,  forming  three  sides  of  a  square.  P.  is  a 
station  on  the  Milan  and  Venice  Railway,  and  is  also  a 
station  of  the  steamers  that  ply  on  the  Lake  of  Garda. 
P.  was  taken  by  the  Piedmontese  under  King  Charles 
Albert  in  1848,  and  was  again  invested  by  them  in 
June,  1859,  alter  the  battle  of  Solferino.  The  con- 
clusion of  the  treaty  of  Villafranca,  however  (July  11, 
1859),  relieved  P.  from  a  siege,  and  it  was  included  in 
the  kingdom  of  Italy  by  treaty  of  Vienna,  1866. 

PESHAW'ER,  or  PESHAWUR,  an  important 
town,  on  the  north-west  frontier  of  India,  capital 
of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  18  miles  east  of  the 


eastern  extremity  of  Khyber  Pass,  and  150  miles 
east-south-east  of  Cabal.  It  is  defended  r.v  a 
bastioned  wall,  and  commanded  by  a  fort,  the  feai 

of  which  prevents  interna]  disturbances.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century,  1'.  bad 
I  mo. (mo  inhabitants.  Under  the  -tern  rule  of  the 
Sikhs,  however,  its  trade  languished,  and  it-  splendid 
mosques,  many  of  them  in  the  richest  .style  ot 
oriental  architecture,  fell  into  decay.  It  is  on  the 
route  from  Hindustan  to  Cabal  and  K  boras.- an  by 
the  Khyber  Pass,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  British 
garrison,  maintained  here  for  the  purpose  of  [ire- 
serving  the  security  of  the  route.  Under  British 
protection,  the  town  is  reviving,  trade  is  becoming 
more  active,  and  the  appearance  of  the  suburbs 
and  environs  is  improved.  Pop.  58,555.  The  prov- 
ince of  P.,  included  in  the  Punjab,  and  formerly  form- 
ing a  portion  of  Afghanistan,  is  about  2800  Bquare 
miles  in  extent,  and  lias  532,152  inhabitants.  It  is 
exceedingly  fruitful.  The  division  of  P.,  which  in- 
cludes the  province  of  P.  and  two  others,  has  an  area 
of  7767  square  miles  and  a  population  of   1.035,785. 

PESHI'TO,  or  rather  PE8HITT0  (Syr.,  not,  as 
generally  supposed, '  simple,'  '  faithful,'  scil.  Version, 
but  the  '  explained,'  i.  e.,  translated,  Bible),  is  the 
name  given  to  the  authorised  Syriac  Version  of  the 
Old,  aud  the  greatest  part  of  the  New  Testament. 
This  versiou  holds  among  the  Syrian  Christians  the 
same  place  as  the  Vulgate  in  the  Roman,  and  the 
1  Authorised  Version '  in  the  English  Church.  Many 
are  the  traditions  about  its  origin.  Thus,  the 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  is  supposed  to 
date  from  the  time  of  Solomon  and  Hiram ;  or  to 
have  been  done  by  Asa,  the  priest ;  or,  again,  that 
it  belongs  to  the  time  of  the  Apostle  Thaddseua 
(Adams),  and  Abgar,  the  king  of  Osrhcene,  in  the 
1st  c.  after  Christ.  To  the  same  period  is  also 
supposed  to  belong  the  translation  of  the  New 
Testament,  which  is  ascribed  to  Achseus,  a  disciple 
of  Thaddseus,  the  first  Edessian  bishop  and  martyr. 
Recent  investigation  has  not  as  yet  come  to  any 
nearer  result  than  to  place  the  latter  vaguely  in 
the  2d,  and  the  former  in  the  3d  c,  and  to  make 
Judaic-Christians  the  authors  of  both.  Ephrsem 
Syrus  (q.  v.),  who  wrote  in  the  4th  c,  certainly  speaks 
of  the  P.  as  Our  Version,  and  finds  it  already 
necessary  to  explain  some  of  its  terms,  which  had 
become  obsolete.  Five  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment (the  Apocalypse  and  four  of  the  Epistles)  are 
wanting  in  all  the  MSS.,  having  probably  not  yet 
formed  part  of  the  canon  when  the  translation  was 
made.  The  version  of  the  Old  Testament  was  made 
direct  from  the  Hebrew,  and  by  men  imbued 
with  the  Palestinian  mode  of  explanation.  It 
is  extremely  faithful,  and  astonishingly  free  from 
any  of  those  paraphrastic  tendencies  which  pervade 
more  or  less  all  the  Targums  or  Aramaic  versions. 
Its  renderings  are  mostly  very  happy,  and  coin- 
cide in  many  places  with  those  of  the  Septuagint,  a 
circumstance  which  has  given  rise  to  the  erroneous 
supposition,  that  the  latter  itself  had  been  drawn 
upon.  Its  use  for  the  Old  Testament  is  more  of  an 
exegetical,  for  the  New  Testament,  more  of  a  critical, 
nature.  Anything  like  an  edition  of  the  P.  worthy 
of  its  name,  is  still  as  much  a  desideratum  as  is  a 
critical  edition  of  the  Septuagint  or  the  Targums, 
and  consequently  investigators  have  as  yet  been 
unable  to  come  to  anything  but  very  hazy  con- 
clusions respecting  some  very  important  questions 
connected  with  it  The  editio  princeps  of  the  New 
Testament  part  dates  Vienna  1555,  that  of  the 
Old  Testament  is  contained  in  the  Paris  Polyglot 
of  1645.  Several  portions  of  the  P.  have  been 
translated  again  into  Arabic.  The  Syriac  trans- 
lation of  those  parts  of  the  New  Testament  which 
are    not    to    be   found   in    the    P.,   but   are    no* 

4tf 


PESTALOZZI— PESTILENCE. 


Incorporated  into  our  Syriac  Bibles,  and  are  o*  late 
and  uncertain  date. 

PESTALOZZI,  Johann-Heinrich,  was  born  at 
Zurich,  12th.  January  1745.  His  family  belonged  to 
the  middle-class  gentry.  He  was  destined  for  the 
Christian  ministry,  but  turned  aside,  however,  from 
this  profession,  and  betook  himself  to  the  study  of 
law.  To  this  pursuit  he  did  not  long  remain  con- 
stant. The  perusal  of  Rousseau's  Em'de,  and  the 
unsatisfactory  political  condition  in  which  he  found 
Europe,  united  to  disgust  him  with  the  artificial  life 
of  cities,  and  he  accordingly  removed  to  the  country, 
to  devote  his  life  to  farming.  Purchasing  some 
waste  land  (after  he  had  acquired  the  necessary 
experience),  he  applied  himself  successfully  to  its 
cultivation,  marrying  about  the  same  time  the 
daughter  of  a  wealthy  merchant.  His  mind  con- 
tinuing to  be  afflicted  by  the  contemplation  of  the 
unhappy  condition  of  the  masses  of  the  people,  he 
devoted  himself,  during  the  intervals  of  his  work, 
to  the  consideration  of  the  means  best  suited  to 

!)romote  their  elevation.  He  was  convinced  that, 
>y  means  of  a  sound  education,  a  remedy  might 
be  found  for  the  many  evils  by  which  he  was 
surrounded,  and  by  which  society  was  infected. 
To  give  effect  to  his  theories,  he  converted  his  own 
house  into  an  orphan  asylum,  and  endeavoured, 
by  a  judicious  blending  of  industrial,  intellectual, 
and  moral  training,  to  afford  a  specimen  of  sound 
education,  and  one  so  contrived  as  to  be  practic- 
able as  a  national  scheme.  Meanwhile,  the  pur- 
suit of  his  benevolent  enterprises  involved  him, 
after  the  lapse  of  fifteen  years  (1775 — 1790),  in 
bankruptcy.  The  failure  of  his  plans,  and  the 
democratic  tendency  of  his  opinions,  brought 
upon  him  a  good  deal  of  contempt  and  opposition. 
His  only  consolation  was  having  saved  from 
degradation  and  neglect  upwards  of  100  children, 
and  having  issued  several  volumes  on  education, 
containing  the  results  of  his  experience,  and  his 
hopes  for  the  future  of  the  masses.  Many  sub- 
sequent attempts  to  found  schools  and  to  give  a 
specimen  of  rational  scholastic  training,  were  made 
by  P.,  with  varying  educational  success,  but  with 
invariable  pecuniary  embarrassment.  His  writings, 
meanwhile,  increased  in  number  and  importance. 
The  great  idea  which  lay  at  the  basis  of  his  method 
of  intellectual  instruction  was,  that  nothing  should 
be  treated  of  except  in  a  concrete  way.  Objects 
themselves  became  in  his  hands  the  subject  of  lessons 
tending  to  the  development  of  the  observing  and 
reasoning  powers — not  lessons  about  objects.  In 
arithmetic,  he  began  with  the  concrete,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  the  abstract ;  and  into  the  teaching  of 
writing,  he  for  the  first  time  introduced  graduation. 
Hia  special  attention,  however,  was  directed  to  the 
moral  and  religious  training  of  children,  as  distinct 
from  their  mere  instruction;  and  here,  too,  gradua- 
tion and  a  regard  to  the  nature  and  susceptibilities 
of  children,  were  conspicuous  features  of  his  system. 
Almost  all  P.'s  methods  are  now  substantially 
adopted  by  the  instructors  of  elementary  teachers 
in  the  Normal  Schools  of  Europe,  and  to  no  man 
perhaps  has  primary  instruction  been  so  largely 
indebted.  He  died  in  1827  at  Brugg,  in  the  canton 
of  Basel,  overwhelmed  with  mortifications  and 
disappointments. 

PESTH,  the  most  populous  and  important  com- 
mercial city  of  Hungary,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Danube,  opposite  Buda  (q.  v.),  and  171  miles  east- 
south-east  of  Vienna  by  railway.  It  occupies  a  low 
and  level  site,  and  contrasts  strongly  with  the  antique, 
picturesque,  and  rock-built  Buda,  on  the  other  side 
of  the  river.  The  two  cities  are  connected  by  a 
magnificent  suspension-bridge,  erected  in  1849,  and 
414 


which  spans  a  water-way  of  about  1500  feet.  Com« 
munication  is  also  facilitated  by  steam -ferries,  which 
cross  the  river  every  hour.  Along  the  P.  side  of  the 
river  runs  a  wide  quay,  paved  and  terraced,  and 
backed  by  a  handsome  row  of  buildings,  li  miles 
long.  The  city  consists  of  five  divisions— the  Inner, 
Leopold,  Theresa,  Joseph,  and  Francis  towns.  The 
Inner  town,  on  the  bank  of  the  Danube,  is  the 
oldest,  and  the  other  divisions  surround  it  in  the 
form  of  a  semicircle.  P.  is  the  seat  of  the  chief 
judicial  courts  of  Hungary.  Its  university,  founded 
at  Tyrnau,  was  transferred  to  Buda  in  1780, 
and  thence  was  removed  hither  in  1784.  It  is 
attended  by  upwards  of  1000  students,  who  are 
taught  by  50  professors,  and  is  richly  endowed. 
Attached  to  it  are  a  museum,  a  botanic  garden,  an 
observatory,  and  a  library  of  75,000  volumes.  Of 
the  chief  buildings  and  institutions,  the  principal 
are  the  synagogue,  a  large  and  beautiful  structure, 
completed  iu  1857;  the  New  Buildings  (Neugebaude) 
— an  immense  edifice,  now  used  as  barracks  and  as 
an  artillery  depot ;  the  gymnasium  ;  military  school ; 
academy  of  arts ;  national  museum,  with  a  library 
of  120,000  volumes,  and  valuable  collections  of 
coins,  medals,  and  antiquities ;  veterinary  school ; 
the  national  and  other  theatres  ;  and  the  Hungarian 
scientific  society.  The  town  contains  several  im- 
portant silk-spinning  factories,  and  the  principal 
articles  of  manufacture  are  silk,  cotton,  leather, 
jewellery,  and  musical  instruments.  The  distilling 
of  brandy,  and  the  grinding  of  grain  into  meal  and 
Hour,  are  among  the  most  important  branches  of 
industry.  There  are  168  flour-mills  driven  by 
water,  8  driven  by  wind,  and  4  by  steam.  Four 
great  fairs  take  place  here  annually,  which  draw 
together  a  concourse  of  more  than  30,000  strangers, 
and  at  which  exchanges,  amounting  in  value  to 
upwards  of  32,000,000  florins,  are  made.  In  the 
course  of  the  year,  about  8000  barges  unload  at  the 
quay,  and  the  trade  is  chiefly  in  wines,  raw  hides, 
honey,  wax,  and  an  inferior  spirit  made  from  plums. 
After  Vienna,  P.  has  the  greatest  trade  of  any  city 
On  the  Danube.  Fop.  in  1869,  157,275,  made  up  of 
the  most  various  nationalities — Germans,  Magyars, 
Slovaks,  Greeks,  and  Turks — the  majority  of  whom 
are  Roman  Catholics. 

P.  is  mentioned  for  the  first  time  in  the  12th  c.  ; 
but  although  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  Hungary, 
its  importance  dates  only  from  the  reigns  of  Maria 
Theresa  and  Joseph  II.  It  was  desolated  by  the 
Mongols  in  the  13th  c. ;  and  after  the  battle  of 
Mohacs  (q.  v.),  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks, 
who  held  it  till  16S6.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
ISth  c,  it  was  an  inconsiderable  town,  and  has 
only  risen  into  importance  within  the  last  100  years. 
It  has  suffered  much  from  inundations  of  the 
Danube  on  several  occasions,  on  one  of  which,  in 
183S,  22S0  houses  were  destroyed  In  May  1849, 
while  Gcirgei,  with  an  army  of  40,000  Hungarians, 
occupied  the  heights  above  Buda,  and  bombarded 
the  fortress,  which  was  held  for  the  imperial 
government  by  General  Hentzi,  the  latter  general 
retaliated  by  bombarding  P. ;  but  on  the  night  of 
the  20th  May,  the  Hungarians  stormed  and  took  the 
fortress  ;  and  on  the  following  morning,  raised  above 
its  battlements  the  standard  of  revolt.  On  the 
field  of  Rakos,  in  the  vicinity,  where  the  great 
national  assemblies  of  the  Magyars  used  to  be  held, 
horse-races,  on  the  English  model,  now  take  place 
annually. 

PE'STILENCE.  The  terms  Plague  and  Pesti- 
lence, corresponding  to  the  Greek  Loimos  and  the 
Latin  Pestis,  have,  until  recent  times,  been  used 
indiscriminately  to  denote  any  diseases  of  an  epid- 
emic character  which  affected  large  masses  of  the 
community,  and  were  remarkable  for  their  fatality, 


PESTO -PETER 


auch  iis  the  oriental  plague,  the  sweating  sickness, 
cholera,  certain  virulent  forms  of  fever,  <fcc.  'Thus,' 
says  Dr  Craigie,  in  his  learned  work  on  The  Practice 
of  Phytic  (vol.  i.  p,  349),  'the  term  Loimos  was 
applied  hy  the  Greeks  to  designate  a  species  of 
epidemic  remittent  fever;  and  the  plague  of  Athens 
described  hy  Tliucydides  is  manifestly  an  epidemic 
form  of  the  same  disease,  which  has  Keen  at  all  times 
in  the  summer  season  cndemial  on  the  coasts  and 
islands  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Archipelago.  The 
instances  of  Loimos,  so  frequently  mentioned  by 
Dionysius  of  Halicarnassns,  and  ol  Peetie,  so  often 
mentioned  by  Livy  and  other  Roman  historians  in 
the  early  history  of  Home,  are  manifestly  the 
remittent  or  remittent-continuous  fever,  which  has 
been  at  all  times  the  native  product  of  that  district, 
and  which  acquired,  after  inundations  of  the  Tiber, 
or  a  certain  train  of  weather,  the  characters  of  a 
very  generally  diffused,  a  very  malignant,  anil  a 
very  mortal  distemper.  Numerous  instances  of  a 
similar  inaccurate  mode  of  expression  occur  in 
designating  the  remittent  fevers  of  the  middle  ages 
and  of  modern  times  ;  and  we  rind,  even  in  the  early 
history  of  the  colonisation  of  the  West  Indian 
Islands  and  the  United  States,  frequent  examples  of 
the  term  plague  being  applied  to  the  remittent  fever 
of  these  regions,  and  especially  to  epidemic  attacks 
of  yellow  fever.'  During  the  middle  ages,  we  find 
the  term  Pestis  applied  to  numerous  disorders,  such 
as  syphilis,  small-pox,  erysipelas,  epidemic  sore 
throat,  petechial  fever,  the  sweating  sickness, 
gangrenous  pneumonia,  ergotism,  &c. 

Several  Hebrew  words  are  translated  pestilence  or 
plague,  in  the  authorised  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Some  of  these  pestilences  were  sent  as 
special  judgments,  and  are  beyond  the  reach  of 
inquiry ;  others  have  the  characteristics  of  modern 
epidemics,  in  so  far  as  their  action  was  not  unnatur- 
ally rapid,  and  they  were  general  in  their  attacks. 
Sufficient  data  are  not  in  our  possession  to  enable 
us  to  identify  with  certainty  any  of  these  epidemics. 
It  has  been  supposed  by  some  critics  that  in  some 
of  these  cases  (as  in  Deuteronomy,  xxviii.  27 ; 
Amos,  iv.  10 ;  and  Zechariah,  xiv.  18  ;  and  in  the 
case  of  Hezekiah)  the  oriental  plague  is  referred  to  ; 
but  Mr  Poole  (Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  BV>le,  .vol. 
ii.  p.  883)  is  of  opinion  that  there  is  not  any  distinct 
notice  of  this  disease  in  the  Bible. 

PE'STO.     See  Paestum. 

PETAL.    See  Corolla. 

PETA'RD,  an  instrument  for  blowing  open  gates, 
demolishing  palisades,  &c.  It  consists  of  a  half- 
cone  of  thick  iron  rilled  with  powder  and  ball ;  this 
is  firmly  fastened  to  a  plank,  and  the  latter  is  pro- 
vided with  hooks,  to  allow  of  its  being  attached 
securely  to  a  gate,  &c.  The  engineers  attached  the 
petard,  lighted  the  slow-match  by  which  it  was  to 
be  fired,  and  fled.  When  the  explosion  took  effect, 
a  supporting  column  charged  through  the  breach, 
while  the  defenders  were  yet  in  consternation.  The 
petard  has  been  almost  universally  superseded  by 
the  use  of  powder-bags.  Large  petards  contained 
as  much  as  13  lbs.  of  powder. 

PE'TCHARY,  the  popular  name  of  a  number  of 
Bpecies  of  the  genus  Tyrannus,  sometimes  ranked 
with  the  Shrikes  (Laniadoz),  and  sometimes  with  the 
Flj'-catchers  (Muscicapidw).  The  name  seems  to  j 
be  derived  from  the  cry  of  the  Gray  P.  ( T.  Domini- 
censis),  a  bird  very  common  in  the  warm  parts  of 
America  and  in  some  of  the  islands  of  the  West 
Indies,  gregarious  and  migratory,  spending  the 
spring  and  summer  in  the  islands,  and  retiring  to 
the  hottest  parts  of  the  mainland  from  the  end  of 
September  to  the  beginning  of  January.  Its  cry  is 
a  kind  of  shriek,  consisting  of  three  or  four  shrill 


notes,  incessantly  repeated.  The  entire  length  of 
the  Gray  P.  is  about  9J  inches.  It  is  a  very  bold 
and  strong  bird,  and  in  defence  of  its  young  will 
maintain  the  battle  against  any  hawk.  It  feeds 
partly  on  insects,  sometimes  on  humming-birds,  and 
partly  on  berries.  When  fat,  it  is  much  esteemed 
for  the  table,  and  great  numbers  are  shot  on  this 
account.— The  Common  P.  (T.  caudifasciatus)  it  one 
of  the  most  common  birds  of  the  West  Indies.  At 
certain  seasons  of  the  year,  when  very  fat,  it  is  in 
great  request  for  the  table.  This  bird  has  been 
observed  to  play  with  a  large  beetle,  as  a  cat  does 
with  a  mouse,  letting  it  drop,  and  catching  it  before 
it  can  reacli  the  ground.  It  is  a  very  hold  bird,  and 
does  not  scruple  to  attack  a  dog  passing  near  its 
nest. 

PETCHO'RA,  a  large  river  in  the  north  of 
European  Russia,  rises  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
Ural  Mountains,  flows  north  through  the  eastern 
parts  of  the  governments  of  Vologda  and  Archangel 
to  about  66°  25'  N.,  then  south-east  for  about  150 
miles,  and  finally  sweeping  toward  the  north, 
and  expanding  into  an  estuary  30  miles  wide  and 
full  of  islands,  falls  into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  after 
a  course  of  940  miles.  It  is  said  to  he  navigable 
for  large  river-boats  for  upwards  of  700  miles. 
The  estuary,  which  is  open  from  the  middle  of 
June  till  the  middle  of  September,  has  a  depth  of 
from  20  to  30  feet.  The  country  through  which 
this  river  flows  is  still  quite  uncultivated ;  dense 
forests  extend  on  both  sides,  and  the  character  of 
the  scenery  is  wild,  sombre,  and  melancholy.  The 
forests  abound  in  larchwood,  now  largely  used  in 
the  construction  of  iron-clad  vessels.  Within  recent 
years,  a  colony  has  settled  at  the  mouth  of  the  P., 
for  the  purpose  of  felling,  dressing,  and  exporting 
timber. 

PETE'CHI^E.  This  term  is  given  to  spots  of  a 
dusky  crimson  or  purple  colour,  quite  flat,  with  a 
well-defined  margin,  and  unaffected  by  pressure, 
which  closely  resemble  flea-bites.  These  spots 
result  from  a  minute  extravasation  of  blood  beneath 
the  cuticle.  They  occur  most  frequently  on  the 
back,  at  the  bend  of  the  elbow,  and  in  the  groin. 
They  indicate  an  altered  state  of  the  blood,  and  are 
often  symptoms  of  very  serious  diseases,  as  of 
typhus  fever,  plague,  scurvy,  &c.  They  likewise 
occur  in  very  severe  cases  of  small-pox,  measles,  and 
scarlet  fever,  when  their  presence  must  be  regarded 
as  indicative  of  extreme  danger. 

PETER,  St,  apostle,  named  originally  Simon,  was 
a  native  of  Bethsaida,  on  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret. 
His  father,  was  called  Jonas;  and  the  name  by 
which  P.  is  known  in  Christian  history  was  given  to 
him  by  our  Lord,  who  changed  his  name  of  origin 
(Bar-Jona)  into  Ceplias,a.  Syro-Chaldaic  word,  which 
means  '  rock '  or  stone,  and  for  which  Petra,  or,  in 
the  masculine  form,  P"tros,  is  the  Greek  equivalent. 
He  was  a  fisherman  by  occupation,  and,  together 
with  his  brother  Andrew,  was  actually  engaged  in 
this  occupation  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee  when  our 
Lord  called  both  to  be  his  disciples,  promising  to 
'make  them  fishers  of  men.'  For  this  invitation 
they  had  been  prepared  by  the  preaching  of  JohD 
the  Baptist,  and  they  accepted  it  without  hesitation. 
For  the  incidents  recorded  of  P.'s  life  as  a  disciple, 
we  must  refer  to  the  gospel  narrative.  These 
incidents  all  chiefly  evince  a  warm  and  impulsive 
character,  even  down  to  the  hour  of  weakness  in 
which  he  denied  his  Master.  It  is  plain  from 
the  gospel  narrative  that  he  was  regarded  by 
our  Lord  with  special  favour  and  affection,  and 
the  events  which  followed  the  ascension  of  our 
Lord  fall  in  with  this  inference  from  that  nar 
rative.     He  was  the    first   mover  of  the   election 

445 


PETER-PETER-PENCE. 


of  a  new  apoetle  in  the  room  of  Judas  Iscariot; 
he  was  the  spokesman  of  the  rest  ou  the  day  of 
Pentecost ;  he  it  was  who  answered  to  the  charges 
when  they  were  brought  before  the  council;  he 
is  the  chief  actor  in  the  tragic  scene  of  the  death 
of  Anauias  and  Sapphira ;  he  was  the  first  to 
break  down  the  wall  of  the  prejudice  of  race  by 
receiving  a  Gentile  convert  into  the  church ;  he 
was  the  first  to  propound  in  the  council  of 
Jerusalem  the  question  to  be  discussed  as  to 
the  obligation  of  the  Mosaic  observances.  The 
last  incident  of  P.'s  life  supplied  by  the  Scrip- 
ture narrative  is  his  presence  in  the  council  of 
Jerusalem,  49  A.D.  Of  his  subsequent  career,  our 
only  knowledge  is  derived  from  tradition.  His 
special  mission  was  to  the  Hebrew  race,  as  Paul's 
to  the  GentUe ;  and  he  is  supposed  to  have  preached 
through  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia,  and 
Bithyuia,  chiefly  to  those  of  his  own  nation  dis- 
persed in  these  countries,  all  which  are  named 
in  the  address  of  the  first  of  the  two  Epistles 
which  he  has  left.  Another  tradition  which,  until 
the  10th  c,  met  general  acceptance,  reports  that  he 
preached  at  Rome,  that  he  took  up  his  residence 
there  as  bishop,  and  that  he  there  suffered  martyr- 
dom. This  tradition  is  the  main  foundation  of  the 
Roman  claim  to  supremacy  in  the  church.  It  early 
encountered  the  opposition  of  the  reformers ;  its 
first  antagonist  being  a  writer  named  Velerius, 
whose  work  was  published  in  1520,  and  who  was 
followed  by  Flachius,  Salmasius,  and,  above  all, 
Spanheim.  This  view  has  found  a  few  supporters 
even  down  to  our  own  time  ;  but  the  whole  current 
of  scholarship,  Protestant  as  well  as  Catholic — from 
Scaliger,  Casaubon,  Usher,  Pearson,  Cave,  &c, 
down  to  Neander,  Gieseler,  Bertholdt,  Olshausen, 
and  others  in  our  own  country— has  accepted 
the  Roman  tradition  without  hesitation.  The  time 
of  his  going  to  Rome  has  also  been  the  subject  of 
much  discussion.  By  some,  he  is  alleged  not  to 
have  gone  to  Rome  till  the  year  63,  or,  at  all  events, 
a  short  time  before  his  martyrdom  ;  others  date  his 
first  visit  as  early  as  42  or  43,  without,  however, 
supposing  his  residence  after  this  date  to  have  been 
continuous.  In  his  first  Epistle,  it  is  implied  that 
at  the  time  of  writing  it  he  was  at  Babylon ;  and 
the  name  Babylon  is  by  many  critics  held  to  be 
employed  as  a  mystic  designation  of  Rome,  in  accord- 
ance with  a  practice  not  unusual  with  the  Hebrews 
and  other  orientals  ;  but  there  is  nothing  to  fix  very 
conclusively  the  date  of  this  Epistle.  He  is  held  by 
Roman  Catholic  writers  to  have  fixed  his  see  at 
Antioch  before  bis  coming  to  Rome;  but  of  this 
supposed  event  also,  the  date  is  uncertain.  His 
martyrdom  is  fixed  in,  with  much  probability,  the 
year  *G6,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  at  the  same 
time  and  place  with  that  of  St  PauL  P.  was  sen- 
tenced to  be  crucified,  and,  according  to  the  tradition 
(preserved  by  Eusebius  from  Origen),  prayed  that 
he  might  be  crucified  with  his  head  downwards, 
in  order  that  his  death  might  exceed  in  ignominy 
that  of  his  Divine  Master. 

PETER,  Epistles  General  of,  the  name  given 
to  two  Epistles  contained  in  the  canon  of  the  New 
Testameut.  They  are  called  general,  because  they 
are  not  addressed  to  particular  churches  or  persons, 
like  those  of  St  Paul  ;  but  (as  in  the  case  of  the 
1st  Epistle)  to  all  the  Christians  scattered  throughout 
Asia  Minor,  or  (as  in  the  case  of  the  2d)  to  the 
entire  body  of  Christians  without  exception.  The 
objects  of  the  1st  Epistle  are  to  strengthen  believers 
under  trials ;  to  exhort  them  to  the  earnest  perform- 
ance of  all  duties — personal,  social,  and  domestic ; 
and  to  demonstrate  how  thoroughly  that  performance 
depends  on  a  spiritual  recognition  of  Christ  and  his 
work.     There  is  a  strong  eschatological  tendency 


in  the  Epistle ;  the  apostle  seems  to  grow  more 
intensely  serious,  under  the  conviction  that  '  the  end 
of  all  things  is  at  hand'  (chap.  iv.  7).  That  the 
Epistle  is  the  composition  of  Peter  is  very  gener- 
ally admitted.  The  external  evidence  is  singularly 
strong ;  while  the  internal,  derived  from  a  con- 
sideration of  style,  sentiment,  and  doctrine,  is  equally 
so.  We  see  in  every  sentence  the  ardent,  impas- 
sioned, practical,  unspeculative  character  of  Peter, 
who  held  with  a  fine  Hebraic  vehemence  of  faith 
the  great  facts  and  principles  of  Christianity,  but 
could  not,  like  the  more  subtle  and  logical  Paid, 
give  them  a  systematic  representation.  Many 
critics  have  warmly  praised  the  beauty  and  strength 
of  the  language. — The  Second  Epistle  stands  in  a 
very  different  position  from  the  first.  So  far  as 
external  authority  is  concerned,  it  has  hardly  any. 
The  most  critical  and  competent  of  the  Fathers 
were  suspicious  of  its  authenticity ;  it  was  rarely 
if  ever  quoted,  and  was  not  formally  admitted  into 
the  canon  till  the  Council  of  Hippo,  393  A.  D.  The 
internal  evidence  is  just  as  unsatisfactory.  The 
great  difference  of  style  between  it  and  the  1st 
Epistle  i8  universally  admitted.  Bunsen,  Ullmann, 
and  Lange  hold  indeed  that  the  second  chapter  is 
an  interpolation,  but  consider  the  first  and  third 
genuine.  Many  of  the  ablest  critics,  however,  regard 
the  whole  Epistle  as  a  fabrication,  and  believe  that 
its  contents  prove  it  was  meant  as  an  attack  on 
the  Gnosticism  of  the  2d  century.  [See  the  remarks 
on  the  .Second  Epistle  of  Peter  in  Neander's  (?es- 
c/dchte  der  Pflanzung  und  Leitung  der  Kirche  durch 
die  Apostel.]  The  principal  arguments  adduced  for 
maintaining  its  apostolic  character  are — 1,  that  its 
rejection  would  endanger  the  authority  of  the 
canon ;  2,  that  it  is  inexplicable  how  the  church 
should  have  received  it  if  it  had  not  thought  that 
Peter  was  the  author. 

PETER  LOMBARD.    See  Lombard,  Peter. 

PETER-PENCE,  the  name  given  to  a  tribute 
which  was  collected  in  several  of  the  western  king- 
doms, and  offered  to  the  Roman  pontiff,  in  reverence 
of  the  memory  of  St  Peter,  of  whom  that  bishop 
was  believed  to  be  the  successor.  From  an  early 
period,  the  Roman  see  had  been  richly  endowed; 
and  although  its  first  endowments  were  chiefly  local, 
yet  as  early  as  the  days  of  Gregory  the  Great,  large 
estates  were  held  by  the  Roman  bishops  in  Cam- 
pania, in  Calabria,  and  even  in  the  island  of  Sicily. 
The  first  idea,  however,  of  an  annual  tribute  appears 
to  have  come  from  England,  and  is  by  some  ascribed 
to  Ina  (721  a. d.),  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  who 
went  as  a  pilgrim  to  Rome,  and  there  founded  a 
hospice  for  Anglo-Saxon  pdgrims,  to  be  maintained 
by  an  annual  contribution  from  England ;  by  others, 
to  Offa  and  Ethelwulf,  at  least  in  the  sense  of  their 
having  extended  it  to  the  entire  of  the  Saxon 
territory.  But  this  seems  very  uncertain ;  and 
although  the  usage  was  certainly  long  anterior 
to  the  Norman  Conquest,  Dr  Lingard  is  disposed 
not  to  place  it  higher  than  the  time  of  Alfred. 
The  tribute  consisted  in  the  payment  of  a  silver 
penny  by  every  family  possessing  land  or  cattle 
of  the  yearly  value  of  30  pence,  and  was  collected 
in  the  five  weeks  between  St  Peter's  and  St  Paul's 
Day  and  August  1.  In  the  time  of  King  John,  the 
total  annual  payment  was  £199,  8s.,  contributed 
by  the  several  dioceses  in  proportion,  which  will  be 
found  in  Lingard's  History  of  England,  voLiLp.  330. 
The  tax  called  Romescot,  with  some  variation,  con- 
tinued to  be  paid  till  the  reign  of  Henry  VIIL, 
when  it  was  abolished.  By  Gregory  VII.,  it  was 
sought  to  establish  it  for  France  ;  and  other  partial 
or  transient  tributes  are  recorded  from  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  Norway,  and  Poland.     This  tribute, 


PETER  THE  HERMIT— PETER  THE  CRUEL. 


however,  is  quite  different  from  tlie  payments  made 
annually  to  Rome  by  the  kingdoms  which  were 
held  t<>  be  feudatory  to  the  Roman  see — as  Naples, 
Aragon,  England  under  the  reign  of  John,  and 
several  other  kingdoms,  at  least  for  a  time. 

The  pope  having  Buffered  a  considerable  diminu- 
tion of  his  own  revenue  since  the  revolution  of  L848, 
an  effort  has  been  made  in  several  parts  of  Europe 
to  revive  this  tribute.  In  some  countries,  it  has 
been  very  successful,  and  the  proceeds  have  been 
among  the  chief  of  the  resources  by  which  Pius  IX. 
has  been  enabled  to  meet  the'  pressure  of  pecuniary 
embarrassments  under  which,  with  his  diminished 
territorial  possessions,  it  was  supposed  that  he  must 
necessarily  have  succumbed. 

PETER  THE  HERMIT,  the  first  mover  of  the 
great  medieval  drama  of  the  Crusades  (cj.  v.),  was 
of  gentle  birth,  and  a  native  of  Amiens,  where  he 
was  born  about  the  middle  of  the  11th  century. 
Having  been  educated  at  Paris,  and  afterwards  in 
Italy,  he  became  a  soldier.  After  serving  in  Flanders 
without  much  distinction,  he  retired  from  the  army, 
married,  and  had  several  children ;  but  on  the  death 
of  his  wife,  lie  became  a  monk,  and  ultimately 
a  hermit.  In  the  course  of  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy 
Laud  about  1093,  he  was  moved  by  observing  that 
the  Holy  Sepulchre  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
Infidel,  as  well  as  by  the  oppressed  condition  of  the 
Christian  residents  or  pilgrims  under  the  Moslem 
rule;  and  on  his  return,  spoke  so  earnestly  on  the 
subject  to  Pope  Urban  II.,  that  that  pontiff  warmly 
adopted  his  views,  and  commissioned  him  to  preach 
throughout  the  West  an  armed  confederation  of 
Christians  for  the  deliverance  of  the  Holy  City. 
Mean  in  figure,  and  diminutive  in  stature,  his  enthu- 
siasm lent  him  a  power  which  no  external  advant- 
ages of  form  could  have  commanded.  '  He  traversed 
Italy,'  writes  the  historian  of  Latin  Christianity, 
*  crossed  the  Alps,  from  province  to  province,  from 
city  to  city.  He  rode  on  a. mule,  with  a  crucifix  in 
his  hand,  his  head  and  feet  bare  ;  his  dress  was  a 
long  robe,  girt  with  a  cord,  and  a  hermit's  cloak  of 
the  coarsest  stuff.  He  preached  in  the  pulpits,  011 
the  roads,  in  the  market-places.  His  eloquence  was 
that  which  stirs  the  heart  of  the  people,  for  it  came 
from  his  own — brief,  figurative,  full  of  bold  apos- 
trophes ;  it  was  mingled  with  his  own  tears,  with 
his  own  groans  ;  he  beat  his  breast :  the  contagion 
spread  throughout  his  audience.  His  preaching 
appealed  to  every  passion — to  valour  and  shame,  to 
indignation  and  pity,  to  the  pride  of  the  warrior,  to 
the  compassion  of  the  man,  the  religion  of  the 
Christian,  to  the  love  of  the  brethren,  to  the  hatred 
of  the  unbeliever  aggravated  by  his  insulting  tyranny, 
to  reverence  for  the  Redeemer  and  the  saints,  to  the 
desire  of  expiating  sin,  to  the  hope  of  eternal  life.' 
The  results  are  well  known,  as  among  those  moral 
marvels  of  enthusiasm  of  which  history  presents 
occasional  examples.  All  France,  especially,  was 
stirred  from  its  very  depths ;  and  just  at  the  time 
when  the  enthusiasm  of  that  country  had  been 
already  kindled  to  its  fidl  fervour,  it  received  a 
sacred  ness  and  an  authority  from  the  decree  of  a 
council  held  at  Clermont,  in  which  Urban  himself 
was  present,  and  in  which  his  celebrated  harangue 
was  but  the  signal  for  the  outpouring,  through 
all  Western  Christendom,  of  the  same  chivalrous 
emotions  by  which  France  had  been  borne  away 
under  the  rude  eloquence  of  the  Hermit.  For  the 
details  of  the  expedition,  we  must  refer  to  the 
article  Crusades;  our  sole  present  concern  being 
with  the  personal  history  of  Peter,  Of  the  enor- 
mous but  undisciplined  army  which  assembled  from 
all  parts  of  Europe,  one  portion  was  committed  to 
his  conduct ;  the  other  being  under  the  command  of 
a  far  mora  skilful  leader,  Walter  the  Pennyless.    P. 


placed  himself  at  their  head,  mounted  upon  his  ass, 
with  his  coarse  woollen  mantle  and  his  rude  sandals. 
On  the  march  through  Eungary,  they  became 
involved  in  hostilities  with  the  Hungarians,  and 
suffered  a  severe  defeat  at  Semlin,  whence  they 
proceeded  with  much  difficulty  to  Constantinople. 
There  the  Emperor  Alexis,  filled  w.th  dismay  at 
the  want  of  discipline  which  they  exhibited,  was 
but  too  happy  to  give  them  supplies  for  their  onward 
march  ;  and  near  Nice,  they  encountered  the  army 
of  the  Sultan  Solyman,  from  whom  tiny  suffered  a 
terrible  defeat.  P.  accompanied  the  subsequent 
expedition  under  Godfrey  ;  but  worn  out  by  the 
delays  and  difficulties  of  the  siege  of  Anti>eh,  he 
was  about  to  withdraw  from  the  expedition,  and 
was  only  retained  in  it  by  the  influence  of  the  other 
leaders,  who  foresaw  the  worst  results  from  his 
departure.  Accordingly,  he  had  a  share,  although 
not  marked  by  any  signal  distinction,  in  the  siege 
and  capture  of  the  Holy  City  in  1099,  and  the 
closing  incident  of  his  history  as  a  crusader  was  an 
address  to  the  victorious  army  delivered  on  the 
Mount  of  Olives.  He  returned  to  Europe,  and 
founded  a  monastery  at  Huy,  in  the  diocese  of 
Liege.     In  this  monastery  he  died,  July  7,  1115. 

PETER  (Don  Pedro)  THE  CRUEL,  King  of 
Castile  and  Leon,  was  the  son  of  Alfonso  XI.  and 
Maria  of  Portugal,  and  was  born  at  Burgos,  30th 
August  1334.  "On  his  father's  death  (1350),  P. 
succeeded  to  the  throne  without  opposition,  but  left 
the  whole  exercise  of  power  to  his  mother,  Donna 
Maria,  and  Albuquerque,  his  father's  prime  minister 
and  chancellor.  But  by  the  instigation  of  his 
mistress  (afterwards  his  queen),  Marie  de  Padilla, 
P.  emancipated  himself  (1353)  from  the  guidance 
of  the  queen-mother  and  her  coadjutor  Albuquerque, 
taking  the  reins  of  government  in  his  own  hands. 
His  rule  being  much  more  impartial  than  that  of 
the  regency,  obtained  exceeding  popularity,  which 
was  increased  by  his  affable  manner  towards  the 
mass  of  his  subjects;  but  the  strict  justice  with 
which  he  decided  all  causes  between  the  rich  and 
poor,  the  clergy  and  the  laity,  combined  with  a 
haughty  and  imperious  carriage  towards  them, 
alienated  from  him  the  nobles  and  clergy.  The 
plottings  of  Albuquerque,  who  had  fled  to  Portugal, 
having  culminated  (1354)  in  an  outbreak  in  the 
province  of  Estremadura,  P.  marched  against  the 
rebels,  but  was  betrayed  by  his  brother,  Henry  of 
Trastamare,  and  taken  prisoner  (December  1354). 
Popular  opinion  now  declared  loudly  in  his  favour ; 
and  having  escaped  from  prison,  he  found  himself 
speedily  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army,  with  which, 
despite  the  excommunication  of  the  pope,  he  speedily 
reduced  his  opponents  to  submission.  But  this 
episode  in  his  career  had  a  disastrous  influence  on 
his  character  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  Betrayed  by 
his  relatives,  and  even  by  his  mother,  he  became 
suspicious  of  every  one ;  and  having  experienced  to 
the  full  the  power  of  his  enemies,  he  scrupled  not 
as  to  the  weapons  to  be  employed  against  them. 
The  rest  of  his  reign  was  devoted  to  the  destruction 
of  the  power  of  the  great  vassals,  the  establishment 
of  his  own  authority  on  the  ruins  of  their  feudal 
tyranny,  and  long  continued  and  bloody  wars  with 
the  kingdoms  of  Aragon  and  Granada.  As  the 
people,  however,  were  in  general  well  and  justly 
governed,  it  is  not  improbable  that  he  might 
have  retained  his  throne  in  spite  of  his  numerous 
enemies,  had  not  the  heavy  taxes  which  were 
imposed  to  maintain  the  cost  of  his  long  wars 
with  Aragon  and  Granada  dissipated  his  popu- 
larity. Henry,  who  had  fled  to  France,  now  seizing 
the  favourable  opportunity,  returned  (1366)  at 
the  head  oi  a  body  of  exiles,  backed  by  Bertrand 
du  Guesclin   (q.  v.)  with  an  army  of  mercenaries, 

447 


PETER  I 


and  aided  by  Aragon,  France,  and  the  pope.  P., 
however,  by  promising  to  England  the  sea-board 
of  Biscay,  with  the  provinces  of  Guipuzcoa  and 
Logrono,  and  supplying  a  contribution  of  56,000 
florins,  prevailed  upon  Edward  the  Black  Prince 
to  espouse  his  cause.  Edward  invaded  Castile  in 
the  spring  of  1367,  totally  defeated  Henry  and 
Du  Guesclin  at  Navarette  (April),  taking  the  latter 
prisoner  (releasing  him  almost  immediately  after), 
and  speedily  restoring  P.  to  the  throne.  But  the 
king  disgusted  his  chivalrous  ally  by  his  cruelty  to 
the  vanquished,  and  paid  no  heed  to  his  remon- 
strances; Edward  accordingly  repassed  the  Pyrenees, 
and  left  the  misguided  monarch  to  his  fate.  The 
whole  kingdom  groaned  under  his  cruelties  ;  rebel- 
lions broke  out  everywhere ;  and,  in  autumn  13G7, 
Henry  «*eturned  with  400  lances,  the  people  imme- 
diately nocking  to  his  standard.  P.'s  scanty  and 
ill-disciplined  forces  were  routed  at  Montiel  (14th 
March  1369),  and  himself  compelled  to  retire  for 
safety  within  the  town,  whence  he  was  treach- 
erously decoyed  and  captured  by  Du  Guesclin. 
He  was  carried  to  a  tent,  where  a  single  combat 
took  place  between  him  and  Henry,  in  which  the 
latter  would  have  been  slain,  had  not  some  of  his 
followers  come  to  his  aid,  and  slain  the  unfortunate 
P.,  23d  March  1369. 

PETER  I.,  ALEXIEVITCH,  Czar  of  Russia, 
generally  denominated  Peter  the  Great,  was  the 
sou  of  the  Czar  Alexei  Mikailovitch  by  his  second 
wife,  Natalia  Naryskine,  and  was  born  at  Moscow, 
9th  June  1672.  His  father,  Alexei,  died  in  1676, 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  eldest  son,  Feodor,  P.'s 
half-brother.  This  prince,  however,  died  in  1682 
without  issue,  after  naming  P.  as  his  successor,  to  the 
exclusion  of  his  own  full  brother,  Ivan.  This  step 
immediately  provoked  an  insurrection,  fomented  by 
the  children  of  the  Czar  Alexei's  first  marriage,  the 
most  prominent  among  whom  was  the  grand-duchess 
Sophia,  a  woman  of  great  ability  and  energy,  but  of 
unbounded  ambition.  Disdaining  the  seclusion 
customary  among  the  females  of  the  royal  family, 
she  shewed  herself  to  the  Strelitz  (q.v.),  excited  them 
to  fury  by  an  ingenious  story  of  the  assassination  of 
her  brother  Ivan,  and  then  let  them  loose  on  the 
supporters  of  P.'s  claims.  After  a  carnage  of  three 
days,  during  which  more  than  sixty  members  of  the 
most  noble  families  of  Russia  were  massacred,  she 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  coronation  (July  16S2)  of 
Ivan  and  P.  as  joint  riders,  and  her  own  appoint- 
ment as  regent.  Up  to  P.'s  coronation  his  educa- 
tion had  been  greatly  neglected,  but  after  this 
time  he  became  acquainted  with  Lieutenant  Franz 
Timmerman,  a  native  of  Strasburg,  who  gave  him 
lessons  in  the  mditary  art  and  in  mathematics ; 
after  which  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  fall  under 
the  guidance  of  Lefort  (q.  v.),  a  Genoese,  who 
initiated  him  into  the  sciences  and  arts  of  civilisa- 
tion, and  by  shewing  him  how  much  Muscovy  was 
in  these  respects  behind  the  rest  of  Europe,  influenced 
the  whole  of  his  future  career.  Lefort  also  formed 
a  small  military  company  out  of  the  young  men 
of  noble  family  who  attended  P.,  and  caused  P. 
himself  to  pass,  by  regular  steps,  from  the  lowest 
(that  of  drummer)  to  the  highest  grade  in  it,  render- 
ing him  all  the  while  amenable  to  strict  discipline. 
This  course  of  training,  in  all  probabdity,  saved  P. 
from  becoming  the  mere  savage  despot,  which  his 
brutal  and  passionate  disposition,  and  indomitable 
energy  inclined  him  to  be ;  it  also  protected  him  from 
the  jealousy  of  his  half-sister,  the  regent  Sophia,  who, 
seeing  him  absorbed  in  military  exercises  and  other 
studies,  imagined  that  he  had  wholly  given  himself 
up  to  amusement.  She,  however,  soon  discovered 
her  error,  for  P.,  contrary  to  her  wishes,  married 
(February  1689),  by  his  mother's  advice,  Eudoxia 


Feodorowna,  of  the  family  of  Lapoukin  ;  and  in 
October  of  the  same  year,  called  upon  his  sister  to 
resign  the  government.  In  the  ensuing  contest, 
P.  was  at  first  worsted,  and  compelled  to  flee  for 
his  life ;  but  he  was  speedily  joined  by  the  foreigners 
in  the  Russian  service,  with  v  Scotchman  named 
Patrick  Gordon  (q.  v.)  and  the  Swiss  Lefort  at 
their  head;  and  the  Strelitz,  who  were  his  antag- 
onist's mainstay,  flocking  to  his  standard,  she 
resigned  the  contest,  and  was  shut  up  in  a  con- 
vent, whence,  till  her  death,  in  1704,  she  did  not 
cease  to  annoy  him  by  her  intrigues.  On  October 
11,  1G89,  P.  made  his  public  entry  into  Moscow, 
where  he  was  met  by  Ivan,  to  whom  he  gave 
the  nominal  supremacy  and  precedence,  reserving 
the  sole  exercise  of  power  for  himself.  Ivan  only 
enjoyed  his  puppet  sovereignty  till  1696.  Though 
P.  was  all  his  life  under  the  dominion  of  ungovern- 
able passions  and  sensual  habits,  yet  during  great 
part  of  his  reign  he  was  so  exclusively  engaged  in 
projecting  and  carrying  out  his  schemes  for  the 
j  regeneration  of  Russia,  that  his  gross  animal  nature 
■  had  little  opportunity  of  displaying  itself. 

His  first  care,  on  assuming  the  government,  was 
to  form  an  army  disciplined  according  to  European 
\  tactics,    in    which    labour  he    was    greatly    aided 
I  by  the  valuable  instructions  of  Gordon  and  Lefort, 
I  both  of  whom  were  military  men,  and  had  served 
in  some  of  the  best  disciplined  armies  of  Western 
!  Europe.       He    also   laboured    to    create    a    navy, 
both   armed   and   mercantile ;   but  at   this    period 
Russia  presented  few  facilities  for  such  an  attempt, 
for  she  was  shut  out  from  the  Baltic  by  Sweden  and 
Poland    (the   former   of    whom  possessed  Finland, 
St  Petersburg  (then  called  Ingria),  and  the  Baltio 
provinces),  and  from  the  Black  Sea  by  Turkey,  which, 
,  extending  along  the  whole  of  the  north  coast,  had 
'  reduced  that  sea  to  the  rank  of  an  inland  lake ; 
leaving  only  the  White  Sea  and  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
!  with  the  solitary  port  of  Archangel,  available  for 
:  the  Russian  navy.     P.  thinking  the  possession  of  a 
i  portion  of  the   Black   Sea  would  best  supply  the 
required  facdities  of  accessible  sea-board  and  port, 
declared  war  against  Turkey,  and  took  (1696)  the 
city  of  Azof  at  the  mouth  of  the  Don,  after  a  long 
siege,  which  the  ineffective  condition  of  his  newly- 
disciplined  army  compelled  him  to  convert  into  a 
blockade.     Skilled  engineers,  architects,  and  artil- 
j  lerymen  were   now   invited  from  Austria,  Venice, 
Prussia,  and  Holland  ;  ships  were  constructed  ;  the 
I  army  further  improved  both  in  arms  and  discipline ; 
and  many  of  the  young  nobility  ordered  to  travel  in 
i  foreign  countries,  chiefly  in  Holland  and  Italy,  for 
the  purpose  of  acquiring  such  information  as  might 
{  be  useful  in  the  modernisation  and  civilisation  of 
their  country.     They  were  ordered  to  take  special 
notice  of  all  matters  in  connection  with  ship-build- 
ing  and   naval   equipments.     Others  were   sent  to 
Germany   to   study  the  mditary  art.     Not   quitA 
satisfied  with  this  arrangement,  P.  was  eager  to  see 
for  himself  the  countries  for  which  civilisation  had 
I  done  so  much,  and  which  had  so  highly  developed 
j  the  military  art,  science,  trade,  and  industrial  pur- 
suits ;    so  after  repressing  a  revolt  of  the  Strelitz 
(February  1697),  and  dispersing  them  among  the 
various  provinces,  he  intrusted  the  reins  of  govern- 
1  mentto  Prince  Romonadof ski, assisted  by  a  council  of 
!  three,  and  left  Russia  in  April  1697,  in  the  train  of 
\  an  embassy  of  which  Lefort  was  the  head.      In  the 
!  guise  of  an  inferior  official  of  the  embassy  he  visited 
I  the  three  Baltic  provinces,  Prussia,  and  Hanover, 
j  reaching  Amsterdam,  where,  and   subsequently  at 
Saardam,  he  worked  for  some  time  as  a   common 
!  shipwright.      His   curiosity  was  excessive ;    he  de- 
manded explanations  of   everything  which  he  did 
I  not  understand ;  and  to  his  practice  of  ship-building 


PETER  I.— PETER  II. 


and  kindred  trades,  he  added  the  study  of  astronomy, 
aatural  philosophy,  geography,  and  even  anatomy 
an. I  surgery.     On  receipt  of  an  invitation  from  \\  il- 

liam    III.,  King  of   England,  hfl  visited  that  country, 

and  for  three  months,  spent  partly  in  London  and 
partly  at  Deptford,  laboured  to  amass  all  sorts  of 
useful  information.  While  in  England  lie  received 
the  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L.  from  the  university 
of  Oxford  !  deleft  England  in  April  L698, carrying 
with  him  English  engineers,  artificers,  surgeons, 
artisans,  artillerymen,  &o.,  to  the  number  of  600, 
and  next  visited  Vienna,  for  the  purpose  of  inspect- 
ing the  emperor  of  Austria's  army,  then  the  best  in 
Europe.  He  was  about  to  visit  Venice  also,  when 
the  news  of  a  formidable  rebellion  of  the  Strelitz 
recalled  him  to  Russia,  which  lie  reached  by  way 
of  Poland,  arriving  at  Moscow  4th  September  1798. 
General  Gordon  had  already  crushed  the  revolt,  but 
these  turbulent  soldiers  had  so  enraged  P.  against 
them  by  their  frequent  outbreaks,  that  he  ordered 
the  whole  of  them  to  be  executed,  even  occasionally 
assisting  in  person  on  the  scaffold.  A  few,  however, 
were  pardoned,  and  sent  to  settle  at  Astrakhan.  The 
Czarina  Eudoxia,  who  was  suspected  of  complicity 
in  the  conspiracy,  which  had  been  the  work  of  the 
old  Russian  or  anti-reform  party,  was  divorced,  and 
shut  up  in  a  convent ;  the  czar's  own  sister, 
Martha,  was  likewise  compelled  to  take  the  veil. 
To  shew  his  gratitude  to  his  faithful  adherents, 
P.  conferred  upon  the  chief  of  them  the  Order  of  St 
Andrew,  now  tirst  instituted.  He  put  the  press 
on  a  proper  footing,  caused  translations  of  the  most 
celebrated  works  of  foreign  authors  to  be  made  and 
published,  and  established  naval  and  other  schools. 
At  this  period,  the  ordinary  arithmetic  was  first 
introduced  for  the  management  of  accounts,  these 
having  been  previously  kept  by  means  of  balls 
strung  on  a  wire  (the  Tartar  method).  P.  also 
introduced  the  mode  of  raising  revenue  by  taxation 
of  commodities  in  common  use.  Trade  with  foreign 
countries,  which  was  formerly  punished  as  a  capital 
crime,  was  now  permitted,  or  rather,  in  the  case 
of  the  principal  merchants,  insisted  upon.  Many 
improvements  in  dress,  maimers,  and  etiquette 
were  introduced  authoritatively  among  the  public 
functionaries,  and  recommended  to  the  people  at 
large.  Even  the  organisation  of  the  national  church 
could  not  escape  P.'s  reforming  zeal. 

In  1700,  P.,  desirous  of  gaining  possession  of 
Carelia  and  Ingria,  provinces  of  Sweden,  which  had 
formerly  belonged  to  Russia,  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  the  kings  of  Poland  and  Denmark  to  make  a 
combined  attack  on  Sweden,  taking  advantage  of 
the  tender  age  of  its  monarch,  Charles  XII.  ;  but 
he  was  shamefully  defeated  at  Narva,  his  raw  troops 
being  wholly  unable  to  cope  with  the  Swedish 
veterans.  P.  was  by  no  means  disheartened,  for, 
taking  advantage  of  the  Swedes  being  employed 
elsewhere,  he  quietly  appropriated  a  portion  of 
Incria,  in  which  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  new 
capital,  St  Petersburg,  27th  May  1703.  Great 
inducements  were  held  out  to  those  who  would 
reside  in  it,  and  in  a  few  years  it  became  the 
Russian  commercial  depot  for  the  Baltic.  In  the 
long  contest  with  Sweden,  the  Russians  were  almost 
always  defeated,  but  P.  rather  rejoiced  at  this,  as  he 
saw  that  these  reverses  were  administering  to  his 
troops  a  more  lasting  and  effective  discipline  than  he 
could  have  hoped  to  give  them  in  any  other  way. 
He  had  his  revenge  at  last,  in  totally  routing  the 
Swedish  king  at  Poltava  (q.  v.),  8th  July  1709,  and 
in  seizing  the  whole  of  the  Baltic  provinces  and  a 
portion  of  Finland  in  the  following  year.  His  suc- 
cess against  Sweden  helped  much  to  consolidate  his 
empire,  and  to  render  his  subjects  more  favourably 
disposed  towards  the  new  order  of  things.  After 
341 


re-organising  his  army,  he  prepared  for  strife  with 
the  'lurks,  who,  at  the  instigation  of  Charles  XII. 
(then  residing  at  (Sender),  had  declared  war  against 
him.    See  Ottoman  Empire.    In  this  conte 

was  reduced    to  such    strait.-,  that   he   despaired   of 

escape,  and,  Looking  forward  to  death  or  captivity 
wrote  a  letter  to  lus  chief  nobles,  cautioning  them 
against  obeying  any  orders  be  might  give  them  while 
a  captive,  and  advising  them  regarding  a  successor 
to  the  throne  in  case  of  his  death.  Hut  the  finesse 
and  ability  of  his  mistress,  Catharine,  afterwards 
his  wife  and  successor  (see  Catharine  I.),  extri- 
cated him  from  his  difficulties ;  and  a  treaty  was 
concluded  (23d  July  1711)  by  which  Peter  lost  only 
his  previous  conquest — the  port  of  Azof  and  the 
territory  belonging  to  it.  Shut  out  from  the  Black 
Sea,  the  possession  of  a  good  sea-board  on  the 
Baltic  became  the  more  necessary  to  him,  and  the 
war  against  Sweden  in  Pomerania  was  accordingly 
pushed  on  with  the  utmost  vigour.  On  2d  March 
1712,  his  marriage  with  his  mistress,  Catharine, 
was  celebrated  at  St  Petersburg  ;  and  two  months 
afterwards,  the  offices  of  the  central  government 
were  transferred  to  the  new  capital.  His  arms  in 
Pomerania  and  Finland  were  crowned  with  success, 
and  in  1713  the  latter  province  was  completely 
subdued.  P.  neglected  nothing  to  develop  the  naval 
power  of  the  empire,  and  the  strictness  with  which 
he  enforced  the  discharge  of  their  duties  on  his 
ministers  and  officers,  appears  from  the  refusal,  by 
the  court  of  admiralty,  of  the  czar's  own  applica- 
tion for  the  grade  of  vice-admiral,  until  by  defeating 
the  Swedish  fleet  at  Hangoend,  and  taking  the 
Aland  Isles,  and  several  coast-forts  in  Finland,  he 
had  merited  the  honour.  In  the  end  of  1716,  and 
beginning  of  1717,  in  company  with  the  czarina,  he 
made  another  tour  of  Europe,  this  time  visiting  Paris, 
where  he  was  received  with  great  empressement, 
and  returned  to  Russia  in  October  1717,  carrying 
with  him  books,  paintings,  statues,  &c,  to  a  large 
amount.  It  was  soon  after  this  time  that  he  ordered 
his  son  Alexei  (q.  v.)  to  be  executed,  and  many  of 
the  nobles  who  had  been  implicated  in  his  treason- 
able plans  were  punished  with  savage  barbarity.  In 
1721  peace  was  made  with  Sweden,  and  on  condi- 
tion of  that  power  giving  up  the  Baltic  provinces, 
Ingria  (now  government  of  St  Petersburg),  Viborg, 
and  Kexholm,  and  a  small  portion  of  Finland,  with 
all  the  islands  along  the  coast  from  Courland  to 
Viborg,  she  received  back  the  rest  of  Finland,  with 
a  sum  of  £400,000.  In  1722  P.  commenced  a  war 
with  Persia,  in  order  to  open  up  the  Caspian  Sea 
to  Russian  commerce  (see  Persia).  The  internal 
troubles  of  Persia  compelled  the  shah  to  yield  to 
the  demands  of  his  formidable  opponent,  and  to 
hand  over  the  three  Caspian  provinces  along  with 
the  towns  of  Derbend  and  Baku.  On  P.'s  return  to 
hi3  capital,  he  inquired  into  the  conduct  of  his 
linance  ministers,  and  punished  with  fines,  imprison- 
ment, and  even  death,  those  whom  he  detected  in 
fraudulent  acts.  To  save  the  empire  which  he  had 
established  and  constituted  from  being  abandoned  to 
the  weak  government  of  a  minor,  he,  in  February 
1722,  promulgated  his  celebrated  law  of  succession 
(see  Peter  II.).  For  the  last  years  of  his  life  he 
was  chiefly  engaged  in  beautifying  and  improving 
his  new  capital,  and  carrying  out  plans  for  the  more 
general  diffusion  of  knowledge  and  education  among 
his  subjects.  In  the  autumn  of  1724  he  was  seized 
with  a  serious  illness,  the  residt  of  his  imprudence 
and  now  habitual  excesses ;  and  after  enduring 
much  agony,  he  expired,  8th  February  1725,  in  the 
arms  of  the  empress. 

PETER  II.,  ALEXEIVITCH,  Czar  of  Russia, 
was  the  sole  male  representative  of  Peter  the 
Great,  being  the  son  of  the  unfortunate  Alexei  (see 


PETER  III.— PETERBOROUGH. 


Peter  T.)  by  his  wife  the  Princess  Charlotte  of 
Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel,  and  was  born  23d  Octo- 
ber 1715  at  St  Petersburg.  On  the  death  of  the 
Czarina  Catharine  I.,  he  ascended  the  throne,  May 
17,  17-7,  in  accordance  with  a  decree  of  Peter 
the  Great,  which  enjoined  that  each  czar  should 
name  his  successor  ;  and  the  ambitions  Menchikoff, 
who  hoped  to  govern  more  easily  in  the  name  of  a 
minor,  prompted  the  empress  to  choose  P.  In  order 
to  secure  himself  in  his  high  position,  Menchikoff 
affianced  one  of  his  daughters  to  the  youthful 
czar,  and  compelled  his  relative,  Anna  Petrowna, 
and  her  liusbaiid,  the  Duke  of  Holstein,  to  retire  to 
their  own  estates.  But,  notwithstanding  these  and 
other  precautions,  his  power  was  overturned  by  a 
mere  child,  a  playfellow  of  the  boy-ruler,  who  was 
of  the  powerful  family  of  Dolgorouki.  Instigated 
by  his  friends,  this  boy,  Ivan  Dolgorouki,  opened 
the  eyes  of  his  sovereign  to  the  humiliating  depen- 
dence in  which  he  was  held  by  Menchikoff,  and 
inspired  him  with  a  strong  desire  to  free  himself. 
The  plan  succeeded,  and  the  minister  and  his 
family  were  exiled  to  Siberia,  the  Dolgorouki  family 
taking  their  place  as  favourites.  The  marriage  of  a 
lady  of  this  family  with  P.  had  been  arranged,  and 
was  almost  on  the  point  of  being  celebrated,  when 
he  was  seized  with  small-pox,  and  died  at  St 
Petersburg,  January  29,  1730.  During  his  reign, 
the  three  Caspian  provinces,  Asterabad,  Ghilan,  and 
Mazanderan,  which  had  been  seized  by  Peter  the 
Great,  were  recovered  by  Persia. 

PETER  III.  FEODOROVITCH,  Czar  of  Russia, 
grandson  of  Peter  the  Great  (being  the  son  of  his 
eldest  daughter  Anna  Petrowna,  wife  of  Karl 
Friedrich,  Duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp),  was  born  at 
Kiel,  March  4,  1728,  and  on  November  18,  1742, 
was  declared  by  the  czarina  Elizabeth  (q.  v.),  her 
successor  on  the  throne  of  Russia.  From  the  time 
of  his  being  publicly  proclaimed  heir,  he  lived  at 
the  Russian  court ;  and,  in  obedience  to  the  wishes 
of  the  czarina,  married  Sophia- Augusta,  a  princess  of 
Ankalt-Zerbst,  who,  on  entering  the  Greek  Church 
(a  necessary  condition  of  marriage  of  a  foreigner 
with  the  czar  present  or  presumptive),  assumed  the 
name  of  Catharina  Alexiowna.  P.  succeeded  Eliza- 
beth on  her  death,  June  5,  1762 ;  and  his  first  act 
of  authority  was  to  withdraw  from  the  confederate 
league  of  France,  Austria,  and  Russia  against 
Prussia,  restoring  to  the  heroic  monarch  of  the 
latter  kingdom,  Frederic  II.,  the  provinces  of 
Prussia  Proper,  which  had  been  conquered  during 
the  Seven  Years'  War,  and  sending  to  his  aid  a  force 
of  15,000  men ;  a  line  of  conduct  which  seems  to 
have  been  prompted  solely  by  his  admiration  for 
the  Prussian  sovereign.  He  also  recalled  many  of 
the  political  exiles  from  Siberia,  among  whom  were 
L'Estocq,  Munnich,  and  the  Duke  of  Courland ; 
abolisned  the  sanguinary  law  which  proscribed  any 
one  who  should  utter  a  word  against  the  Greek 
church,  the  czar,  or  the  government ;  and  then 
attempted  the  realisation  of  his  favourite  project, 
which  was  to  recover  from  Denmark  that  portion 
of  Slesvig  which  had  been  ceded  to  her  in  1713, 
and  to  avenge  the  tyranny  and  annoyances  to  which 
his  family — that  of  Holstein-Gottorp— had  been 
subjected.  But  before  the  army  he  had  despatched 
could  reach  its  destination,  a  formidable  conspiracy, 
headed  by  his  wife,  and  supported  by  the  principal 
nobles,  had  broken  out  against  him.  This  con- 
spiracy originated  in  the  general  discontent  which 
was  felt  at  the  czar's  conduct  and  government;  for 
the  nobility  were  offended  at  his  liberal  innovations, 
and  the  preference  he  shewed  for  Germans;  the 
people  and  clergy,  at  his  indifference  to  the  national 
religion,  and  his  ill-concealed  contempt  for  Russian 
manners  and  customs;  while  the  whole  nation 
450 


murmured  at  his  servility  to  Frederic  II.  of  Prussia. 
His  wife  had  still  deeper  cause  for  dislike ;  for 
though  he  was  himself  addicted  to  drunkenness  and 
debauchery,  he  never  ceased  to  reproach  her  with 
her  infidelities,  and  had  even  planned  to  divorce 
her,  disinherit  her  son  Paul  (q.  v.),  and  elevate 
his  mistress  Elizabeth  Woronzof  to  the  conjugal 
throne.  The  revolution  broke  out  on  the  night  of 
the  Sth  July  1702  ;  P.  was  declared  to  have  for- 
feited his  crown,  and  his  wife  Catharine  was  pro- 
claimed czarina  as  Catharine  II.  (q.  v.)  by  tli€> 
Guards,  the  clergy,  and  the  nobility.  P.,  who  was 
then  at  Oranienbaum,  neglecting  the  counsels  of 
Field-marshal  Munnich,  who  proposed  to  march  at 
once  on  the  capital  at  the  head  of  the  regiments 
which  were  still  faithful,  or  at  anyrate  to  take  secure 
possession  of  Cronstadt  and  the  fleet,  soon  found 
even  the  opportunity  of  flight  cut  off,  and  was  com- 
pelled to  submit.  He  abdicated  the  crown  on  10th 
July,  and  on  the  14th  of  the  same  month  was  put 
to  death  by  Orlof  (q.  v.),  to  secure  the  safety  of  the 
conspirators. 

PE'TKRBOROUGH,  an  episcopal  city  and  par- 
liamentary borough  of  Northamptonshire,  stands  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Nen — which  is  thus  far  navi- 
gable for  boats — 37  miles  north-east  of  Northamp- 
ton, and  76  miles  ?iorth-north-west  of  London  by 
railway.  The  Great  Northern,  the  Eastern  Counties', 
the  Northampton  and  Peterborough,  and  the  Mid- 
land Counties'  railways  pass  the  city,  and  have 
stations  here.  P.  is  regularly  laid  out,  has  an 
excelleut  grammar-school  with  an  endowment,  a 
corn-exchange  in  the  Italian  style,  a  jail  and  house 
of  correction,  a  handsome  parish-church,  and  a 
number  of  chapels  and  meeting-houses,  schools,  and 
charitable  institutions. 

But  the  great  edifice  of  P.  is  the  famous  cathe- 
dral, which  holds  a  high,  if  not  the  highest  rank 
among  English  cathedrals  of  the  second  class. 
The  choir  and  eastern  aisles  of  the  transept  (built 
1118 — 1133)  are  early  Norman;  the  transept  (1155 
— 1177)  is  middle  Norman;  the  nave  (1177 — 
1193)  is  late  Norman  ;  the  western  transept  (dating 
from  the  same  period),  is  transition  Norman ; 
the  west  front,  which,  as  a  portico  (using  that  term 
in  its  classical  sense),  is  said  to  be  the  grandest 
and  finest  in  Europe,  is  early  English  ;  and  the 
eastern  aisle  (begun  in  1438,  but  not  completed 
till  152S),  is  Perpendicular.  The  beautiful  western 
front  consists  of  three  arches  81  feet  in  height, 
supported  by  triangular  piers  detached  from  the 
west  wall.  Each  arch  is  surmounted  by  a  beautiful 
pediment  and  cross.  The  front  is  flanked  on  each 
side  with  turrets  156  feet  high,  and  crowned  with 
pinnacles.  The  roof  of  the  nave  is  painted  in 
lozenge-shaped  divisions,  containing  figures  of  kings, 
bishops,  grotesques,  &c,  in  colours.  A  central  tower, 
lantern-shaped,  rises  at  the  intersection  of  the  nave 
and  transept.  In  the  north -choir  aisle,  a  slab  of 
blue  stone  still  covers  the  remains  of  Catharine  ol 
Aragon.  On  the  stone  is  carved  the  simple  inscrip- 
tion, 'Queen  Catharine,  A. D.  1536.'  In  July  1587, 
the  remains  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  were  brought 
here  from  Fotheringay  for  interment,  and  here  they 
rested  untd,  twenty-five  years  after,  they  were 
removed  to  Westminster  Abbey.  The  entire  length 
of  the  cathedral  is  476  feet  5  inches ;  the  breadth  of 
nave  and  aisles,  78  feet ;  height  of  the  ceiling  of  the 
church,  78  feet ;  breadth  of  the  church  at  the  great 
transepts,  203  feet;  height  of  lantern,  135  feet; 
length  of  western  front,  156  feet;  height  of  central 
tower  from  the  ground,  1  50  feet. 

P.  carries  on  an  active  trade  in  corn,  coal,  timber, 
lime,  bricks,  and  stone.  The  borough  returns  two 
members  to  the  House  of  Commons.  Population 
(1851),  8672;   (1861),  11,735;    (1871),  17,434. 


PETERBOROUGH— PETER'S,  ST,  CHURCH. 


The  city  had  it«  origin  in  a  great  Benedictine 
monastery,  founded  in  655  by  Oswy,  king  of 
Northumbria,  aad    Peada,  son   of  Penda,   U  i  n^c  of 

Mercia.    This  monastery,  which  became  < of  the 

wealthiest  and  must  important  in  England,  wax 
reared  in  honour  of  St  Peter;  but  it  was  not  until 
after  being  destroyed  by  tlic  Danes  in  807,  and 
rebuilt  about  960,  that  the  town  was  called  Peter- 
borough.    <>ii  the  dissolution  of  the  n asteries, 

this  magnificent  edilice  was  spared,  owing,  it  is 
supposed,  to  its  containing  the  remains  of  Queen 
Catharine  of  Aragon. —  Murray's  Handbook  to  the 
En'jl  ah  Oct  ih  edn  Us, 

PETERBOROUGH,  Lord.    See  Mordaunt. 

PETERHEA'D,  a  seaport  and  municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough,  Aberdeenshire,  stands  on  a 

Iieninsula,  the  most  eastern  point  of  land  ill  Scot- 
and,  44  miles  north-north-east  of  Aberdeen,  by  the 
Great  North  of  Scotland  Railway.  It  is  irregularly 
built,  is  clean,  and  is  paved  in  many  cases  with  the 
reddish  granite,  which  receives  its  name  from  the 
town.  A  large  portion  of  the  parish,  and  the  supe- 
riority of  the  town  of  P.  formerly  belonged  to  the 
Marischal  family,  1715.  This  valuable  possession 
became,  in  process  of  time,  by  purchase  the  property 
of  the  Merchant  Maiden  Hospital  of  Edinburgh,  the 
governors  of  which  have  latterly  done  much  in  the 
way  of  improvement  both  for  the  town  and  port. 
P.  contains  no  very  striking  edifices.  Its  pariah 
church  has  a  granite  spire,  IIS  feet  in  height,  and  a 
granite  pillar  of  the  Tuscan  order  stain  Is  on  the 
market-cross.  There  are  Episcopal,  Free  Church, 
Roman  Catholic,  and  other  chapels ;  an  academy 
and  other  schools,  and  two  libraries.  Recently, 
cloth  and  wincey  manufactures  have  been  intro- 
duced ;  ship-building  is  carried  on  to  a  considerable 
extent ;  herrings,  cod-fish,  butter,  grain,  and  granite 
are  exported,  and  lime,  wool,  and  general  mer- 
chandise are  imported.  P.  was  long  famous  as  the 
chief  depot  of  the  seal  and  whale-fisheries  in 
Britain  ;  but  within  recent  years  the  fisheries  have 
been  generally  unprofitable,  and  thi3  interest  has 
declined.  In  IS64  about  20  vessels,  a  larger  number 
than  that  sent  out  by  any  other  British  port,  were 
employed  in  the  different  branches  of  this  trade. 
The  coast-tisheries  are  still  vigorously  prosecuted, 
and  in  the  season  a  fleet  of  300  herring- boats  put 
out  from  the  harbours  in  the  evening.  P.  is  the 
second  fishing-station  in  Scotland.  In  1SG3,  upwards 
of  27,000  barrels  of  cured  herrings  were  exported  to 
the  Continent.  In  1872,  738  vessels,  of  52,945  tons, 
entered,  and  672,  of  49,275  tons,  cleared,  the  port. 
The  two  harbours  are  respectively  on  the  north  and 
south  side  of  the  isthmus  of  the  peninsula  on  which 
the  town  is  built,  and  a  passage  connecting  them  has 
been  cut  across  the  isthmus,  so  that  vessels  can  leave 
harbour  in  any  state  of  the  wind.  This  town  has 
often  been  proposed  as  a  Harbour  of  Refuge.  On  the 
south  side  of  the  bay  of  P.,  and  about  2i  miles  from 
the  town,  is  Buchanness,  and  near  it  are  the  pic- 
turesque ruins  of  Boddam  Castle.  Inverngie  and 
Ravenscraig  castles,  now  mere  ruins,  are  finely  situ- 
ated on  the  banks  of  the  Ujrie,  which  enters  the  sea  a 
mile  north  of  the  town.  P.  unites  with  the  Elgin 
(q.  v.)  boroughs  in  sending  n  member  to  parliament. 
Pop.  of  parliamentary  borough  (1851),  4762;  (1861), 
7541;   (1871),  11,506. 

PETERLOO  MASSACRE,  the  name  popularly 
given  to  the  dispersal  of  a  large  meeting  by  armed 
force  in  St  Peter's  Field,  Manchester,  Monday,  July 
16,  1819.  The  assemblage,  consisting  chiefly  of 
bodies  of  operatives  from  different  parts  of  Lanca- 
shire, was  called  to  consider  the  question  of  parlia- 
mentary reform,  and  the  chair,  on  open  hustings, 
Was  occupied  by  Mr  Henry  Hunt.     The  dispersal 


took  place  by  order  of  the  magistrate!  j  several 

troops  of  horse,  including  the  M neater  Yeomanry, 

being  concerned  in  the  affair,  of  which  an  account 
will  be  found  in  History  of  the  Peace,  by  Hairiet 
Martiueau,  edition  of   1858,  p.   107.      Five 

iiereona  were  killed  and  many  wounded.      St  Peter*! 
'".eld  is  now  covered  by  buildings.     Peterloo  was  a 
fanciful  term,  suggested  by  Waterloo. 
PETER'S,  St,  CHURCH,  at  Rome, is  the  larpest 

cathedral  in  Christendom.  It  stands  on  the  site  of 
a  much  older  basilica,  founded  by  Constantino,  a.  r, 
300,  over  the  reputed  grave  of  St  Peter,  and  near 
the  spot  where  he  is  said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom. 
This  basilica  was  of  great  size  and  magnificence  ;  but 
had  fallen  into  decay,  when  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  in 
1450,  resolved  to  erect  a  new  cathedral,  worthy  of 
the  dignity  and  importance  of  the  Roman  pontificate, 
then  in  the  zenith  of  its  power.  A  design  was 
accordingly  prepared  by  Rosselini  on  a  very  grand 
scale,  and  the  tribune  was  begun,  when  the  pope 
died.  The  new  building  remained  neglected  for 
about  half  a  century,  when  Julius  II.  resolved  to 
carry  out  the  building,  and  employed  Bramante, 
then  celebrated  as  an  architect,  to  make  a  new- 
design.  This  design  still  exists.  The  foundation 
stone  was  laid,  in  1400 ;  and  the  works  carried 
on  with  great  activity  till  the  death  of  the  p>pe 
in  1513.  Bramante,  who  died  the  following  year, 
was  succeeded  by  Baldassare  Peruzzi.  Almost 
every  architect  who  was  employed  during  the 
long  course  of  time  required  for  the  erection 
of  this  great  edifice,  proposed  a  new  design.  That 
of  San  Gallo,  who  succeeded  Peruzzi,  is  one  of 
the  best,  and  is  still  preserved.  It  was  not  till  his 
death  in  1546,  when  the  superintendence  devolved 
on  Michael  Angelo,  then  seventy- two  years  of  a;je, 
that  much  progress  was  made.  He  designed  the 
dome  ;  and  had  the  satisfaction,  before  his  death  in 
his  ninetieth  year  (1564),  of  seeing  the  most  arduous 
part  of  the  task  completed  ;  and  he  left  such  com- 
plete models  of  the  remainder  that  it  was  carried 
out  exactly  in  conformity  with  his  design  by  his 
successors,  Vignola  and  Giacomo  della  Porta,  and 
successfully  terminated  by  the  latter  in  1590  in 
the  pontificate  of  Sixtus  V.  The  design  of  Michael 
Angelo  was  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  but  the 
building  was  actually  completed  as  originally 
designed  by  Bramante  as  a  Latin  cross,  under  Paul 
V.,  by  the  architect  Carlo  Maderno.  The  portico 
and  facade  were  also  by  him.  He  is  much  blamed 
for  altering  Michael  Angelo's  plan,  because  the 
result  is  that  the  projecting  nave  prevents  the 
dome  (the  great  part  of  the  work)  from  being  well 
seen.  The  facade  is  considered  paltry,  and  too 
much  cut  up  into  small  pieces.  It  is  observable 
that  this  entrance  facade  is  at  the  east  end  of 
the  church,  not  the  west,  as  it  would  certainly  have 
been  north  of  the  Alps.  But  in  Italy  the  principle 
of  orientation  was  little  regarded. 

Maderno's  nave  was  finished  in  1612,  and  the 
facade  in  1614,  and  the  church  dedicated  by  Urban 
VIII.  in  1626.  In  the  front  of  the  portico  is  a 
magnificent  atrium  in  the  form  of  a  piazza,  enclosed 
on  two  sides  by  grand  semicircular  colonnades. 
This  was  erected  under  Alexander  VIL  by  the 
architect  Bernini. 

The  facade  of  the  cathedral  is  368  feet  long  and 
145  feet  high.  As  already  mentioned,  the  design 
is  not  generally  approved,  but  some  allowance  must 
be  made  for  the  necessities  of  the  case.  The 
balconies  in  the  front  were  required,  as  the  pope, 
at  Easter,  always  bestows  bis  blessing  on  the  people 
from  them.  Five  open  arches  lead  into  a  magnifi- 
cent vestibule,  439  feet  long,  47  feet  wide,  and  65 
feet  high,  and  adorned  with  statues  and  mosaics. 
Here  is  preserved   t   celet  rated  mosaic  of   St  _  Peter 


PETER'S,  ST,  COLLEGE— PETION  DE  VILLENEUVE. 


walking  on   the  sea,  called   the  Navicella,  designed 

by  Giotto  in  1298,  and  preserved  from  the  old 
basilica.  The  central  bronze  doors  are  also  relics 
saved  from  the  old  church.  On  entering  the 
interior  of  the  cathedral,  its  enormous  size  does  not 
produce  the  impression  its  grandeur  of  proportions 
should  do  on  the  spectator.  This  arises  from  the 
detads  being  all  of  an  excessive  size.  The  pilasters 
of  the  nave,  the  niches,  statues,  mouldings,  &c,  are 
all  audi  as  they  might  have  been  in  a  much  smaller 
church,  magnified.  There  is  nothing  to  mark  the 
scale,  and  give  expression  to  the  magnitude  of  the 
building.  The  figures  supporting  the  holy  water 
fountain,  for  example,  appear  to  be  those  of  cherubs 
of  a  natural  size,  but  when  more  closely  approached, 
turn  out  to  be  six  feet  in  height,  and  the  figures 
in  the  niches  are  on  a  still  more  colossal  scale. 
The  cathedral  is  613  feet  long,  and  450  feet 
across  the  transepts.  The  arch  of  the  nave  is  90 
feet  wide,  and  152  feet  high  The  diameter  of  the 
dome  is  1954  feet-  From  the  pavement  to  the 
base  of  the  lantern  is  405  feet,  and  to  the  top  of 
the  cross  434|  feet.  The  dome  is  thus  50  feet 
wider,  and  64  feet  higher  than  that  of  St  Paul's 
(q.  v.)  in  London. 

The  wall3  of  the  interior  are  adorned  with  plates 
of  the  richest  marbles,  and  copies  of  the  most  cele- 
brated paintings  executed  in  mosaic.  The  arch 
piers  have  two  stories  of  niches  with  statues  of 
saints,  but  these,  unfortunately,  are  in  a  debased 
style  of  art.  The  pavement  is  all  in  marbles  of 
different  colours,  arranged  in  beautiful  patterns 
designed  by  Giacomo  della  Porta.  The  dome  is, 
however,  the  finest  part  of  the  cathedral ;  it  is 
supported  on  four  great  arches.  Immediately 
under  the  dome  stands  the  high  altar  over  the 
grave  of  St  Peter.  It  is  surmounted  by  a  magni- 
ficent baldacchino  or  canopy,  in  bronze,  which 
was  designed  by  Bernini  in  1633,  and  executed 
with  bronze  stripped  from  the  Pantheon  by  Pope 
Urban  VIII.  Beneath  the  high  altar  is  the  shrine, 
in  which  112  lamps  burn  day  and  night.  The 
building  is  adorned  with  many  remarkable  monu- 
ments and  statues,  some  of  them  by  Michael  Angelo, 
Canova,  and  Thorwaldsen.  The  most  of  the  monu- 
ments are  erected  in  memory  of  the  popes,  but 
there  is  one  to  'James  III.,  Charles  III.,  and 
Henry  IX.,  kings  of  England,'  the  remains  of  the 
exiled  Stuarts  being  buried  in  the  vaults  beneath. 
The  '  Grotte  Vaticane,'  or  crypt,  has  been  most 
carefully  and  religiously  preserved  during  all  the 
changes  and  works  of  the  cathedral;  so  much  so, 
that  the  ancient  pavement  remains  undisturbed. 

As  a  work  of  architectural  art,  St  Peter's  is  the 
greatest  opportunity  which  has  occurred  in  modern 
times;  but,  notwithstanding  the  great  names  of 
the  men  who  were  engaged  upon  the  work,  it  is 
universally  admitted  to  be  a  grand  and  lamentable 
failure. 

PETER'S,  St,  COLLEGE,  Cambridge,  com- 
monly called  Peter-House,  was  founded  before  any 
other  college  now  existing  in  England — viz.,  in  1257, 
by  Hugh  de  Balshara,  Bishop  of  Ely,  and  was 
endowed  by  him  in  12S2,  with  a  maintenance  for 
a  master  and  14  fellows.  In  addition  to  the  14 
original  foundation-fellows,  there  are  eight  bye- 
fellows  on  different  foundations,  and  23  scholars. 
The  master  is  elected  by  the  society. 

PE'TERSBURG,  a  town  and  port  of  entry  of  Vir- 
ginia, on  the  south  bank  of  the  Appomatox  River,  and 
30  miles  S.  of  Richmond.  It  is  well  built,  and  is  in 
the  order  of  population  the  third  town  in  the  State. 
It  contains  churches  of  the  Presbyterians,  Methodists, 
Episcopalians,  Bapt:  its,  and  Catholics;  there  are  sev- 
eral cotton  and  woollen  factories,  forges,  and  nUmer- 
,1  ^«J 


ous  mills,  to  which  the  falls  in  the  river  furnish 
extensive  power.  It  is  connected  by  railroad  with 
Baltimore,  Wilmington,  N.  C,  Norfolk,  and  Rich- 
mond, In  the  late  war  of  secession  P.  was  an  im- 
portant military  point  in  the  defence  of  Richmond, 
and  was  the  scene  of  many  sanguinary  encounters. 
On  June  16,  1864,  it  was  bombarded  by  Gen.  Grant, 
who  failed  to  carry  it  by  assault,  and  withdrew,  having 
lost  10,000  men.  It  was  eventually  taken  by  the  L'uiou 
army  on  the  2d  of  April,  1865.  Pop.,  in  1880,  21,668. 
PETERSBURG,  St.  See  St  Petersburg. 
PE'TERSFIELD,  a  parliamentary  borough  and 
market-town  in  Hampshire,  23  miles  east-north- 
east of  Southampton,  and  55  miles  south-west  of 
London  by  railway.  It  is  a  pleasant  country-town, 
and  contains  a  Noi'man  parish  chapel  of  the  12th  c., 
and  an  educational  institution,  called  Churcher'a 
College.  An  equestrian  statue  of  William  III., 
once  richly  gilt,  stands  in  the  market-place.  P. 
returns  a  member  to  the  House  of  Commons.  Pop. 
(1861)  of  borough,  5655;    (1871),  6104. 

PETERWA'RDEIN,  the  capital  of  the  Slavonio- 
Servian  military  frontier,  and  one  of  the  strongest 
fortresses  in  the  Austrian  dominions,  is  situated  in 
a  marshy,  unhealthy  locality  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Danube,  50  miles  north-west  of  Belgrade.  The 
ordinary  garrison  consists  of  2000  men,  besides 
which  the  town  and  suburbs  contain  a  population 
of  about  4600,  mostly  Germans.  The  most  ancient 
part  of  the  fortifications,  the  Upper  Fortress,  ia 
situated  on  a  rock  of  serpentine,  which  on  three 
sides  rises  abruptly  from  the  plain.  P.,  situated  on 
a  narrow  peninsula  formed  by  a  loop  of  the  Danube, 
occupies  the  site  of  the  Eoman  Acumincum  {acumen, 
point),  and  is  said  to  have  been  named  in  honour  of 
Peter  the  Hermit,  who  marshalled  here  the  soldiers 
of  the  first  crusade.  In  1638,  the  fortifications 
were  blown  up  by  the  imperialists,  and  the  town 
was  soon  after  burned  to  the  ground  by  the 
Turks;  but  at  the  Peace  of  Tassarowitz,  on  21st 
July  1718,  it  remained  in  the  possession  of  the 
emperor.  It  was  here  trat,  on  *>th  August,  1716, 
Prince  Eugene  obtained  a  grea*-  victory  over  the 
Grand  Vizier  Ali. 

PE'TIOLE.     See  Leavks. 

PETION  DE  VILLENEUVE  Jerome,  noted 
for  the  part  he  played  in  the  first  French  Revolu- 
tion, was  the  son  of  a  procurator  at  Chartres,  and 
was  born  there  in  1753.  He  was  practising  as  an 
advocate  in  his  native  city,  when  he  was  elected 
in  17S9  a  deputy  of  the  Tkra  Etat  to  the  States- 
General.  His  out-and-out  republican  principles, 
and  his  facile  oratory,  sonorous  rather  than 
eloquent,  quickly  made  him  popular,  though  he 
had  an  essentially  mediocre  understanding,  and 
was  altogether  a  windy,  verbose  personage.  He 
was  a  prominent  member  of  the  Jacobin  Club, 
and  a  great  ally  of  Robespierre;  the  latter  was 
called  the  '  Incorruptible,'  and  P.  the  '  Virtuous.' 
He  was  sent  along  with  Barnave  and  Latour- 
Maubourg  to  bring  back  the  fugitive  royal  family 
from  Varennes,  and  in  the  execution  of  this 
commission  he  acted  in  an  extremely  unfeeling 
manner.  He  afterwards  advocated  the  deposition 
of  the  king,  and  the  appointment  of  a  popularly 
elected  regency,  and  along  with  Robespierre  received, 
30th  September  1791,  the  honours  of  a  public 
triumph.  On  the  18th  of  November,  he  was  elected 
Maire  tie  Paris  in  Bailly's  stead,  the  court  favouring 
his  election,  to  prevent  that  of  Lafayette.  In  this 
capacity  he  encouraged  the  demonstrations  of  the 
lowest  classes,  and  the  arming  of  the  populace. 
But  as  the  catastrophe  drew  near,  he  awuke  to 
a  sense  of  its  terrible  nature,  and  sought  in  vain 
to    arrest  the   torrent.     On  the    triumph   of  the 


PETITIO  PRINCIPII— PETRA. 


Terrorists,  P.'s  popularity  declined,  and  he  joined 
the  Girondists.  On  the  king's  trial,  he  voted  for 
death,  but  with  delay  o!  execution  and  appeal  to 
the  people,  upon  which  he  became  Buspected  of 
being  a  royalist,  and  of  partaking  in  the  treason 
of  Dumourio&  He  was  thrown  into  prison,  2d 
June  171*3,  on  the  fall  of  the  Gironde,  but  escaped 
from  prison,  and  joined  the  other  Girondists  at 
Caen.  Upon  the  defeat  of  their  army  by  that  of 
the  Convention,  he  fled,  in  July  17".'!.  into  Bretagne, 
and  in  company  with  Buzot  reached  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Bourdeaux,  which,  however,  had 
already  submitted.  A  short  time  after,  P.'s  and 
Buzot's  corpses  were  found  iu  a  corn-field  near  St 
Emilion,  partly  devoured  by  wolves.  They  were 
supposed  to  have  died  by  their  own  hands.  P.'s 
character  has  been  defended  by  Madame  de  Genlis 
and  Madame  Roland.  It  appears  that  he  was 
extremely  virtuous  in  all  his  domestic  relations;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  his  public  career  shews  him  to 
have  been  weak,  shallow,  ostentatious,  and  vain. 
Les  QZuvres  de  Prthm,  containing  his  speeches, 
and  some  small  political  treatises,  were  published 
in  1793. 

PETI'TIO  PRINCI'PII  ('a  begging  of  the  prin- 
ciple or  question ')  is  the  name  given  in  Logic  to 
that  species  of  vicious  reasoning  in  which  the  pro- 
position to  be  proved  is  assumed  in  the  premises 
of  the  syllogism. 

PETITION  (Lat.  peto,  I  ask),  a  supplication 
preferred  to  one  capable  of  granting  it.  The  right 
of  the  British  subject  to  petition  the  sovereign  or 
either  House  of  Parliament  for  the  redress  of 
grievances  is  a  fundamental  principle  of  the  British 
constitution,  and  has  beeii  exercised  from  very  early 
times.  The  earliest  petitions  were  generally  for  the 
redress  of  private  wrongs,  and  the  mode  of  trying 
them  was  judicial  rather  than  legislative.  Receivers 
and  triers  of  petitions  were  appointed,  and  proclama- 
tion was  made  inviting  all  persons  to  report  to  the 
receivers.  The  receivers,  who  were  clerks  or  masters 
in  Chancery,  transmitted  the  petitions  to  the  triers, 
who  were  committees  of  prelates,  peers,  anil  judges, 
who  examined  iuto  the  alleged  wrong,  sometimes 
leaving  the  matter  to  the  remedy  of  the  ordinary 
courts,  and  sometimes  transmitting  the  petition  to 
the  chancellor  or  the  judges,  or,  if  the  common  law 
afforded  no  redress,  to  parliament.  Receivers  and 
triers  of  petitions  are  still  appointed  by  the  House 
of  Lords  at  the  opening  of  every  parliament,  though 
their  functions  have  long  since  been  transferred  to 
parliament  itself.  The  earlier  petitions  were  gener- 
ally addressed  to  the  House  of  Lords ;  the  practice 
of  petitioning  the  House  of  Commons  hrst  became 
frequent  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV. 

Since  the  Revolution  of  16S8,  the  practice  has 
been  gradually  introduced  of  petitioning  parliament, 
not  so  much  for  the  redress  of  specific  grievances, 
as  regarding  general  questions  of  public  policy. 
Petitions  must  be  in  proper  form  and  respectful 
in  language ;  and  there  are  cases  where  petitions  to 
the  House  of  Commons  will  only  be  received  if 
recommended  by  the  crown,  as  where  an  advance 
of  public  money,  the  relinquishment  of  debts  due 
to  the  crown,  the  remission  of  duties  payable  by 
any  person,  or  a  charge  on  the  revenues  of  India 
have  been  prayed  for.  The  same  is  the  case  with 
petitions  praying  for  compensation  for  losses  out 
of  the  public  funds.  A  petition  must,  in  ordinary 
cases,  be  presented  by  a  member  of  the  House  to 
which  it  is  addressed  ;  but  petitions  from  the  cor- 
poration of  London  may  be  presented  by  the  sheriffs 
or  lord  mayor.  Petitions  from  the  corporation  of 
Dublin  have  also  been  allowed  to  be  presented  by 
the  lord  mayor  of  that  city,  and  it  is  believed  that 


a  similar   privilege  would  be   acceded  to  the    lord 
provost  of  Edinburgh. 

The  practice  of  the  House  of  Lords  is  to  allow 
a  petition  to  be  made  the  subject  of  a  debate  when 
it  is  pres<  uted  ;  and  unless  a  debate  lias  arisen  on 
it,  no  public  record  is  kept  of  its  substance,  or  the 
parties  by  whom  it  is  signed.  In  the  II 
Commons,  petitions  not  relating  to  matti  rs  of 
urgency  are  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Public 
Petitions,  and  in  certain  cases  ordered  to  be  printed. 

In  the  five  years  ending  ls-)2  the  number  of  p<  • 

til  ions  presented  to  the  House  of  C mons  was  70,078 ; 

in  the  five  years  ending  1872,  101,578. 

PETITION  OF  RIGHTS,  a  declaration  of 
certain  lights  and  privileges  of  the  subject  obtained 
from  King  Charles  1.  in  his  first  parliament.  It 
was  so  called  because  the  Commons  stated  their 
grievances  in  the  foim  of  a  petition,  refusirg  to 
accord  the  supplies  till  its  prayer  was  gra 
The  petition  professes  to  be  a  mere  corroboration 
and  explanation  of  the  ancient  constitution  of  the 
kingdom  ;  and  after  reciting  various  statutes, 
recognising  the  rights  contended  for,  prays  'that 
no  man  be  compelled  to  make  or  yield  any  gift, 
loan,  benevolence,  tax,  or  such  like  charge,  without 
common  consent  by  act  of  parliament;  that  none 
be  called  upon  to  make  answer  for  refusal  so  to  do  ; 
that  freemen  be  imprisoned  or  detained  only  by  the 
law  of  the  land,  or  by  due  process  of  law,  and  not 
by  the  king's  special  command,  without  any  charge  ; 
that  persons  be  not  compelled  to  receive  soldiers 
and  mariners  iuto  their  houses  against  the  laws  and 
customs  of  the  realm ;  that  commissions  for  pro- 
ceeding by  martial  law  be  revoked.'  The  king  at 
first  eluded  the  petition,  expressing  in  general  terms 
his  wish  that  right  should  be  done  according  to  the 
laws,  and  that  his  subjects  shoidd  have  no  reason 
to  complain  of  wrongs  or  oppressions  ;  but  at  length, 
on  both  Houses  of  Parliament  insisting  on  a  fuller 
answer,  he  pronounced  an  unqualified  assent  in  the 
usual  form  of  words,  '  Soit  fait  comme  il  est  desire? 
on  the  2Gth  of  June  1628. 

PE'TRA  (Heb.  Sela,  both  names  signify  '  P^ock ') 
was  anciently  the  capital  of  the  Nabathajans,  and 
was  situated  in  the  'desert  of  Edom'  in  Northern 
Arabia,  about  72  miles  north-east  of  Akabah — a  town 
at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Akabah,  an  arm  of  the  Red 
Sea.  It  occupied  a  narrow  rocky  valley  overhung 
by  mountains,  the  highest  and  most  celebrated  of 
which  is  Mount  Hor,  where  Aaron,  the  first  Hebrew 
high-priest,  died,  and  was  thus  in  the  very  heart  of 
the  region  hallowed  by  the  forty  years'  wanderings 
of  the  Israelites.  The  aboriginal  inhabitants  were 
called  Horim  ('  dwellers  in  caves ').  It  was  then 
conquered  by  the  Edomites  or  idumeans  (but  it 
never  became  their  capital) ;  and,  in  the  3d  or  4th 
c.  B.C.,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Nabatha-ans, 
an  Arab  tribe,  who  carried  on  a  great  transit-trade 
between  the  eastern  and  western  parts  of  the 
world.  It  was  finally  subdued  by  the  Romans  in 
105  A.  D.,  and  afterwards  became  the  seat  of 
a  metropolitan;  but  was  destroyed  by  the  Moham- 
medans, and  for  1200  years  its  very  site  remained 
unknown  to  Europeans.  In  1812,  BurckLardi  first 
entered  the  valley  of  ruins,  and  suggested  that  thei 
were  the  remains  of  ancient  Petra.  Six  years  later 
it  was  visited  by  Messrs  Irby,  Mangles,  Banks,  and 
Leigh,  and  iu  1828  by  M.M.  Laborde  and  Lin  ant, 
and  since  then  by  numerous  travellers  and  tourists 
to  the  East,  as  Bartlett,  Porter,  and  Dean  Stanley. 
Laborde's  drawings  give  us  a  more  vivid  impres- 
sion of  the  ruins  of  P.  than  any  descriptions,  how- 
ever picturesque.  These  ruins  stand  in  a  small  open 
irregular  basin,  about  half  a  mile  square,  through 
which    runs    a   brook,   and    are    best  approached 


PETRA— PETRARCA. 


by  an  extraordinary  chasm  or  ravine,  called  the 
Sik,  narrowing  as  it  proceeds  till  in  some  places 
the  width  is  only  12  feet,  while  the  rocky  walls 
pf  red  sandstone  tower  to  the  height  of  300  feet. 
Hardly  a  ray  of  light  can  pierce  this  gloomy 
gorge,  yet  it  was  once  the  highway  to  J'.,  and  the 
remains  of  an  ancient  pavement  can  he  traced 
beneath  the  brilliant  oleanders  that  now  cover  the 
oathway.     All  along  the  face  of  the  rocky  walls  are 


rows  of  cave-tombs,  hewn  out  of  the  solid  ston^,  and 
ornamented  with  facades.  These  are  also  numerous 
elsewhere.  Originally,  they  were  probably  dwellings 
of  the  living,  not  of  the  dead  -a  supposition  justified 
by  an  examination  of  their  interior;  but  when  the 
Nabathseans  built  the  city  proper  in  the  little  basin 
of  the  hills,  they  were  in  all  likelihood  abandoned, 
and  then  set  apart  as  the  family-sepulchres  of  those 
who  had  formerly  been  'dwellers  in  the  clefts  r4 


, 


Petra — Mount  Seir. — From  Laborde. 


the  rocks.'  The  principal  ruins  are — 1.  El-Khuzneh 
('the  Treasure-house'),  believed  by  the  natives  to 
contain,  buried  somewhere  in  its  sacred  enclosure, 
the  treasures  of  Pharaoh.  It  directly  faces  the 
mouth  of  the  gorge  we  have  described,  and  was 
the  great  temple  of  the  Petrasaus.  2.  The  Theatre, 
a  magnificent  building,  capable  of  containing  from 
3000  to  4000  spectators.  3.  The  Tomb  with  the 
Triple  Range  of  Columns.  4.  The  Tomb  with  Latin 
Inscription.  5.  The  Deer  or  Convent,  a  huge 
monolithic  temple,  hewn  out  of  the  side  of  a  cliff, 
and  facing  Mount  Hor.  6.  The  Acropolis.  7. 
Kusr  Fardn,  or  Pharaoh's  palace,  the  least  incom- 
plete ruin  of  Petra.  Most  of  the  architecture  is 
Greek,  but  there  are  also  examples  of  the  influence 
of  Egypt,  pyramidal  forms  being  not  imknown. 

PETRARCA,  Francesco,  the  first  and  greatest 
lyric  poet  of  Italy,  was  the  son  of  a  Florentine 
notary  named  Petracco,  who  belonged  to  the  same 
political  faction  as  the  poet  Dante,  and  went  into 
exile  along  with  him  and  others  in  1302.  Petracco 
took  up  his  residence  at  Arezzo,  and  here  the  future 
poet  was  born  in  the  month  of  July  1304.  His 
original  name  was  Francesco  di  Petracco,  which  he 
subsequently  changed  to  that  by  which  he  is  now 
known.  When  P.  was  about  eight  years  of  age,  his 
father  removed  to  Avignon,  where  the  papal  court 
was  then  held ;  and  here,  and  at  the  neighbouring 
town  of  Carpentras,  the  youth  studied  grammar, 
rhetoric,  and  dialectics.  Contrary  to  his  own 
inclination,  but  in  compliance  with  the  wish  of  his 
father,  he  spent  seven  years  in  the  study  of  law  at 
Montpellier  and  Bologna ;  but  in  1326  his  father 
151 


died,   and   P.   now  devoted  himself  partly  to   the 
gaieties  of  Avignon,  and  partly  to  classical  studies, 
or  rather  to  the  study  of  the  Latin  classics,  as  it 
was    only  towards    the    end   of    his»  life   that   he 
attempted   to   master   Greek.      At    this    time,   he 
ranked  among  his  friends,  the  jurist  Soranzo,  John 
of  Florence,  the  apostolic  secretary,  Jacopo  Colonna, 
Bishop  of  Lombes  in  Gascon y,  and  his  brother,  the 
Cardinal  Giovanni,  Azzo  da  Corregio,  lord  of  Parma, 
and  many  other  noble  and  learned  personages.     His 
illustrious  admirers — among  whom  were  emperors, 
popes,  doges,  kings,  and  sovereign-dukes — obviously 
thought  themselves  honoured  by  their  intimacy  with 
the  son   of  a   poor  notary,   and   some   were   even 
forward  in  proffering  him  their  favour.      But  the 
great  event  in  P.'s  life  (viewed  in  the  light  of  its 
literary  consequences)    was   his  lenderly  romantic 
and  ultimately  pure  passion  for  Liiira — the  golden- 
haired,    beautiful   Frenchwoman.      Some    Blight   ob- 
scurity still  hangs  over  his  relation  to  this  lady,  but 
it  was  almost  certain  that  she  was  no  less  a  paragon 
of  virtue  than   of  loveliness.     He   met   her  on   the 
6th  of  April,    1327,   in  the  church  of   St  Clara  in 
Avignon,   and   at  once  and  for   ever  fell  deeply  in 
love   with   her.      The   lady   was   then    19,    and   had 
been    married  for    two    years    to    a    gentleman  of 
Avignon,   named  Hugues  de  Sade.     For  ten  years, 
P.  lived  near  her  in  the  papal  city,  and   frequently 
met  her  at  church,  in  society,  at  festivities,  &c.     He 
sung  her  beauty  and  his  love  in  those  sonnets  whose 
mellifluous  conceits  ravished  the  ears  of  his  contem- 
poraries, and  have  not  yet  ceased  -to  charm.     Laura 
was   not  insensible   to    a   worship  which   nude    aa 


PETREL-PETR01CA. 


emperor  (Charles  IV.)  beg  to  be  introduced  to  her, 
ami  tn  be  allowed  to  kiss  her  Forehead ;  but  she 

seems  to  have  kept  the  too- passionate  poet   at  a 

proper  distance.     Only  once  did  lie  dare  t ake 

an  avowal  of  Ins  love  in  her  presence,  and  then  be 
was  sternly  reproved.  In  l.'i.'fs,  1'.  withdrew  From 
Avignon  to  the  romantic  valley  of  Vaucltue,  where 
be  lived  for  some  years,  spending  his  tune  almost 
solely  in  literary  pursuits.  A  most  brilliant  honour 
awaited  him  at  Rome,  in  1341,  where,  on  Easter- 
day,  h:  w;is  crowned  in  the  Capitol  with  the  laurel- 
wreath  of  the  poet.  The  ceremonies  winch  marked 
tins  coronation  were  a  grotesque  medley  of  pagan 
and  Christian  representations.  P.  was,  however,  as 
ardent  a  scholar  as  he  was  a  poet;  and  throughout 
his  whole  life,  he  was  occupied  in  the  collection  of 
Latin  KISS.,  even  copying  Borne  with  his  own  hand. 
To  obtain  these,  he  travelled  frequently  throughout 
France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  Spain.  His  own  Latin 
works  were  the  first  in  modern  times  in  which  the 
language  was  classically  written.  The  principal  are 
his  Epxstolce,  consisting  of  letters  to  his  numerous 
friends  and  acquaintances,  and  which  rank  as  the  best 
of  his  prose  works;  De  Vitis  Virorum  lUusbrium ; 
De  Remediis  utriusque  FortuncB;  De  Vita  Solitaria; 
Serum  Memoranda  rum  Libri  IV.;  De  Contemptu 
Mundi,  &c.  Besides  his  prose-epistles,  P.  wrote 
numerous  epistles  in  Latiu  verse,  eclogues,  and  an 
epic  poem  called  Africa,  on  the  subject  of  the 
second  Punic  War.  It  was  this  last  production 
which  obtained  for  him  the  laurel-wreath  at  Rome. 
P.,  it  may  be  mentioned,  displayed  little  solicitude 
about  the  fate  of  his  beautiful  Italian  verse,  but 
built  his  hope  of  his  name  being  remembered  on  his 
Latin  poems,  which,  it  has  been  said,  are  now  only 
remembered  by  bis  name.  In  1353  be  finally  lett 
Aviguon,  and  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in 
Italy — partly  at  Milan,  where  he  spent  uearly  ten 
years,  and  partly  at  Parma,  Mantua,  Padua,  Verona, 
Venice,  and  Home.  At  last,  in  137<>,  he  removed 
to  Arqua,  a  httle  village  prettily  situated  among 
the  Enganean  Hills,  where  he  spent  his  closing 
years  in  hard  scholarly  work,  much  annoyed  by 
visitors,  troubled  with  epileptic  fits,  not  overly  rich, 
but  serene  in  heart,  and  displaying  in  his  life  and 
correspondence  a  rational  and  beautiful  piety.  He 
was  found  dead  in  his  library  on  the  morning  of  the 
18th  Jnly  1374,  his  head  dropped  on  a  book  ! — P. 
was  not  only  far  beyond  his  age  in  learning,  but 
had  risen  above  many  of  its  prejudices  and  super- 
stitions. He  despised  astrology,  and  the  childish 
medicine  of  his  times ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  he 
had  no  liking  for  the  conceited  scepticism  of  the 
medieval  savants;  and,  in  his  De  sui  Ipsius  et 
multorum  aliorum  Ignorantia,  he  sharply  attacked 
the  irreligious  speculations  of  those  who  had 
acquired  a  shallow  free-thinking  habit  from  the 
study  of  the  Arabico- Aristotelian  school  of  writers, 
such  as  Averrhoes.  P.  became  an  ecclesiastic,  but 
was  contented  with  one  or  two  inconsiderable 
benefices,  and  refused  all  offers  of  higher  ecclesi- 
astical appointment. — The  Italian  lyrics  of  P. — the 
chief  of  which  are  the  Rime,  or  Canzoniere,  in  honour 
of  Laura — have  done  far  more  to  perpetuate  his 
fame  than  all  his  other  works.  Of  Italian  prose, 
he  has  *Jb  left  a  line.  The  Rime,  consisting  of 
sonnets,  canzonets,  madrigals,  were  composed 
during  a  period  of  more  than  forty  years;  and  the 
later  ones — in  which  P.'s  love  for  Laura,  long  since 
laid  in  her  grave,  appears  purified  from  all  earthly 
taint,  and  beautiful  with  something  of  a  beatific 
grace — have  done  as  much  to  refine  the  Italian  lan- 
guage as  the  Divina  Commedia  of  Dante.  Of  his 
Rime,  there  have  been  probably  more  than  300 
editions.  The  first  is  that  of  Venice,  1470 ;  the 
most  accurate  is  that  by  Marsand  (2  vols.,  Padua, 


1819).  Collective  editions  of  his  whole  works  have 
also  been  published  (Basel,  L495,  1554,  and  1581, 
ci  ■>■"/.)  His  liie  has  employed  many  writers,  among 
whom  may  be  mentioned  Bellutello,  Beccadelh, 
Tomasini,  De1  la  Bastie,  JL»e  Sades,  Tiraboschi, 
Baldelli,  and  Ugo  Foscolo. 

PB'TREL  [Procettaria),  a  genus  of  birds,  some- 
times ranked  among  Laridet  (q.  v.),  and  some  times 
constituted   into    a    separate   Family,   Procellarida 

which  is  now  subdivided  into  several  genera,  and 
distinguished  by  having  the  lull  hocked  at  the  tip, 
the  extremity  of  the  upper  mandible  being  a  hard 
nail,  which  a|«|»ars  as  if  it  were  artieulat  d  to  the 
rest,  the'  nostrils  united  into  a  tube  which  lies  along 
the  back  of  the  upper  mandible,  and  the  hind-toe 
merely  rudimentary.  They  possess  great  power  of 
wing,  and  are  among  the  most  strictly  oc< 
birds,  being  often  seen  at  great  distances  from  land. 
Among  the  Procellaridce  are  reckoned  the  fulmars 
(q.  v.),  Shearwaters  (q.  v.),  iVc,  and  the  small  birds 
designated    Storm    Petrels,    8torm    Birds,    and 

MoTHEfl  CAREY'S  CHICKEN&  These  form  tie 
Thalamdroma  of  recent  ornithological  systems,  tin* 
name  (Or.  sea-runner)  being  given  to  them  iu 
allusion  to  their  apparent  running  along  the  surface 
of  the  waves,  which  they  do  in  a  remarkable  manner, 
and  with  great  rapidity,  particularly  when  tlie  sea 
is  stormy,  and  the  molluscs  and  other  animals 
forming  their  food  are  brought  in  abundance  to  the 
surface — now  descending  into  the  very  depth  of  the 
hollow  between  two  waves,  now  touching  their 
highest  foamy  crests,  and  Hitting  about  with  perfect 
safety  and  apparent  delight.  Hence  also  their  name 
Petrel,  a  diminutive  of  Peter,  from  the  apostle 
Peter's  walking  on  the  wTater.  From  the  frequency 
with  which  tlocks  of  these  birds  are  seen  in  stormy 
weather,  or  as  heralds  of  a  storm,  they  are  very 
unfavourably  regarded  by  sailors.  They  have  very 
long  and  pointed  wings,  passing  beyond  the  point  of 
the  tail ;  and  the  tail  is  scpiare  in  some,  Blightly 
forked  in  others.  Their  flight  much  resembles  that 
of  a  swallow.  They  are  to  be  seen  in  the  seas  of  all 
parts  of  the  world,  but  are  more  abundant  in  the 
southern  than  in  the  northern  hemisphere.  The 
names  Storm  P.  and  Mother  Carey's  Chicken  are 
sometimes  more  particularly  appropriated  to  Thalas- 
sidroma  pelcn/ica,  a  bird  scarcely  larger  than  a  lark, 
and  the  smallest  web-footed  bird  known,  of  a  sooty 
black  colour,  with  a  little  white  on  the  wings  and 
some  near  the  tail.  Two  or  three  other  species  are 
occasionally  found  on  the  British  shores;  but  tins 
is  the  most  common,  breeding  in  crevices  of  the 
rocks  of  the  Seilly  Isles,  St  Kilda,  the  Orkneys, 
Shetland  Isles,  &c.  Like  many  others  of  the  family, 
it  generally  has  a  quantity  of  od  in  its  stomach, 
which,  when  wounded  or  seized,  it  discharges  by 
the  mouth  or  nostrils;  and  of  this  the  people  of  St 
Kilda  take  advantage,  by  seizing  the  birds  during 
incubation,  when  they  sit  so  closely  as  to  allow 
themselves  to  be  taken  with  the  hand,  aud  collecting 
the  od  in  a  vessel. 

PETRIFACTION,  a  name  given  to  organic 
remains  found  in  the  strata  of  the  earth,  because 
they  are  generally  more  or  less  mineralised  or  made 
into  stone.  The  word  has  fallen  very  much  into 
disuse,  having  given  place  to  the  terms  Fossd  (q.  v.) 
and  Organic  Remains. 

PETROI'CA,  a  genus  of  bird's  of  the  family 
Sylviadce,  natives  of  Australia,  nearly  allied  to  the 
Redbreast,  and  to  which  its  familiar  name  Uobin 
has  been  given  by  the  colonists.  The  song,  call- 
note,  and  manners  of  P.  multicolor,  a  species 
abundant  in  all  the  southern  parts  of  Australia, 
very  much  resemble  those  of  the  European  bird,  but 
its  plumage  is  very  different:  the  male  having  the 


PETROLEUM-PETTY  OFFICERS. 


head,  throat,  and  back  jet-black,  the  forebead  snowy- 
white,  one  longitudinal  and  two  oblique  bands  of 
white  on  the  wings,  and  the  breast  bright  scarlet ; 
tbe  female  is  brown,  with  red  breast.  There  are 
several  other  species,  birds  of  beautiful  plumage. 

PETROLEUM,  coal  oil,  mineral  tar  (Gr.  petra,  a 
rock,  and  elaion,  oil),  an  inflammable,  oi'y  liquid, 
having  a  strong  bituminous  smell,  sometimes  thin, 
transparent,  and  pale,  and  sometimes  viscid,  opaque, 
anil  black.  The  term  Naphtha  (q.  v.)  is  generally  ap- 
plied to  the  thinner,  lighter-coloured  varieties,  or  to  the 
more  volatile  portions  distilled  from  the  native  oil, 
while  the  darker  are  known  as  Mineral  tar,  and  the 
intermediate  as  Petroleum.  It  occurs  ahum  intly  at 
Baku,  on  the  Caspian  Sea,  in  Burmah,  Trim  ad,  and 
in  the  U.  States  and  Canada.  The  last-named  supply 
most  of  the  petroleum  of  commerce,  and  the  wells  of 
Northern  Pennsylvania,  about  the  head  waters  of  the 
Alleghany  R.,  are  the  most  prolific  sources.  The  Amer- 
ican product,  in  1868,  was  3.965,000;  in  1869,  4,717,- 
000  ;  and  in  1870,  6,535,000  bbls. ;  and  in  1 2  years,  from 
1859  to  1 870, 34,388,100  bbls.  of  crude  petroleum.  The 
chief  bulk  of  Pennsylvania  P.  appears  to  be  numerous 
Hydro-carbons  (q.  v.),  homologies  of  marsh  gas.  On 
distilling  P.  at  100°,  light  oil,  chiefly  Benzol  (q.  v.), 
passes  over ;  at  120°  to  1 60°,  the  common  burning  oil  is 
distilled  and  the  heavy  oil  remains,  fit  only  for  lubri- 
cating purposes,  or  the  production  of  Paraffin  (q.  v.). 

The  rock  oil  of  Western  Pennsylvania  and  elsewhere 
had  long  been  known  as  Seneca  oil,  but  no  practical 
movements  were  made  towards  obtaining  it  in  abun- 
dance until  1854,  when  a  company  was  formed  for 
boring  on  Oil  Creek,  Venango  Co.,  Pa.,  which  proved 
successful  in  1858.  A  well  bored  to  the  depth  of  72 
ft.  yielded  1000  gals,  daily,  and  which,  awakening  an 
extraordinary  enthusiasm,  led  to  much  reckless  expen- 
diture and  wild  gambling  speculation.  See  Daddow, 
S.  H.,  and  Bannan,  B.,  Coal,  Iron,  and  Oil,  Pottsville 
1866;  Bowen,  L.,  Coal  and  Coal  Oil,  Philada.,  1865. 

PETRO'NIUS,  O,  a  Roman  voluptuary  at  the 
eourt  of  Nero,  whose  profligacy  is  said  to  have  been 
of  the  most  superb  and  elegant  description.  We 
know,  however,  very  little  about  him.  He  was  at 
one  time  proconsul  of  Bithyuia,  was  subsequently 
appointed  consul,  and  is  certified  as  having 
performed  his  official  duties  with  energy  and 
prudence.  But  his  grand  ambition  was  to  shine 
as  a  court-exquisite.  He  was  a  kind  of  Roman 
Brummell,  and  Nero  thought  as  highly  of  him  as 
did  the  Prince  Regent  of  the  famous  Beau.  He  was 
entrusted  by  his  imperial  master  and  companion 
with  the  charge  of  the  royal  entertainments,  and 
thus  obtained  (according  to  Tacitus)  the  title  of 
Arbiter  Eleyantice.  Nero  would  not  venture  to 
pronounce  anything  comme  il  faut,  until  it  had 
received  the  approval  of  the  oracle  of  Roman  fashion. 
The  influence  which  he  thus  acquired  was  the  cause 
of  his  ruin.  Tigellinus,  another  favourite  of  Nero, 
conceived  a  hatred  of  P.,  brought  false  accusations 
against  him,  and  succeeded  in  getting  his  whole 
household  arrested.  P.  saw  that  his  destruction 
was  inevitable,  and  committed  suicide  (Go  B.  a),  but 
in  a  languid  and  graceful  style,  such,  he  thought, 
as  became  his  life.  He  opened  some  veins,  but  every 
now  and  then  applied  bandages  to  them,  and  thus 
stopped  the  flow  of  blood,  so  that  he  was  for  a 
while  enabled  to  gossip  gaily  with  his  friends,  and 
even  to  appear  in  the  streets  of  Cumoe  before  he 
died.  We  are  told  that  he  wrote,  sealed,  and 
despatched  to  Nero,  a  few  hours  before  his  death,  a 
paper  containing  an  account  of  the  tyrant's  crimes 
and  flagitious  deeds.  It  has  been  generally  sup- 
posed that  P.  is  the  author  of  a  well-known 
work  entitled,  in  the  oldest  MSS.,  Pelronii  Arbitri 
fhiijricon,  a  series  of  fragments  belonging  apparently 

406 


to  a  very  extensive  comic  novel  or  romance 
(see  Novels),  the  greater  portion  of  which  has 
perished,  but  there  is  really  no  satisfactory  evidence 
to  shew  whether  or  not  he  was  so.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  the  work  belongs  to  the  1st  c.  a.  i>. 
The  fragments  exhibit  a  horrible  picture  of  the 
depravity  of  the  times ;  but  there  is  no  indication 
that  the  author  disapproves  of  what  he  describes. 
The  editio  princeps  of  the  fragments  appeared  at 
Venice  in  1499  ;  later  editions  are  those  of  Bur- 
mann  (Traj.  ad.  Rhen.  1709 ;  2d  edit.  Amst.  1743), 
and  of  Antonius  (Leip.  1781). 

PETROPAVLO'VSK,  a  small  port  of  Russian 
Siberia,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Avatcha,  un 
the  east  coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Kamtchatka. 
Lat.  53°  N.,  long.  158°  44'  E  It  has  only  479 
inhabitants,  anil  has  lost  much  of  its  former  import- 
ance since  its  desertion  by  the  Russians  in  1S55, 
and  the  removal  of  its  garrison  to  Nikolaevsk. 

PETROZAVODSK,  an  important  mining-town 
in  the  north  of  European  Russia,  capital  of  the 
government  of  Olonetz,  stands  on  tbe  western  shore 
of  Lake  Onega,  300  miles  by  water  north-east  of 
St  Petersburg.  A  cannon-foundry  was  erected  here 
in  1701  by  Peter  the  Great,  who  himself  had  dis- 
covered the  rich  resources  of  this  northern  region 
in  iron  and  copper  ores.  The  town  itself  dates  from 
the  year  1703;  and  from  that  to  the  present  time, 
it  has  been  the  great  centre  of  the  mining  industry 
of  the  government.  The  Alexandrovsky  arms- 
factory  is  specially  deserving  of  notice.  It  was 
founded  in  1773,  and,  besides  other  arms,  it  has 
produced  in  all  3(),OiJ0  pieces  of  cast-iron  ordnance. 
Works  are  also  fitted  up  for  the  preparation  of 
steel.  Wood  abounds  in  the  vicinity,  and  there  is 
easy  communication  by  water  with  St  Petersburg. 
Pop.  10,648. 

PETSH,  or  IPEK  (i.  e.,  silk),  a  town  of  Euro- 
pean  Turkey,  in  Albania,  stands  on  the  Bistritza, 
or  White  Lrin,  65  miles  north-east  of  Scutari.  It 
is  a  pleasant  town  ;  the  houses  are  large  and  hand- 
some, and,  as  a  rule,  have  gardens  attached,  in 
which  fruit  and  mulberry-trees  are  cultivated. 
Water,  from  the  river,  is  led  up  into  all  the  houses. 
Silk  is  extensively  made,  tobacco  and  fruits  are 
largely  cultivated,  and  arms  manufactured.  P.  was 
formerly  the  residence  of  the  Servian  patriarchs. 
Pop.  8000. 

PETTY  BAG  OFFICE,  one  of  the  branches  of 
the  Court  of  Chancery,  now  regulated  by  statutes 
11  and  12  Vict.  c.  48,  and  12  and  13  Vict.  c.  109. 
The  clerk  of  the  petty  bag,  an  officer  appointed  by 
the  Master  of  the  Rolls,  draws  up  writs  of  summons 
to  parliament,  Comjes  cVelire  for  bishops,  writs  of 
Scire  facias,  and  all  original  writs.  A  great  deal  of 
miscellaneous  business  is  also  transacted  in  the 
petty  bag  office,  which  the  Lord  Chancellor  and 
Master  of  the  Rolls  are  empowered  to  regulate  and 
transfer  from  time  to  time.  In  the  petty  bag  office 
may  be  brought  any  personal  action  by  or  against 
any  officer  of  the  Court  of  Chancery,  in  respect  of 
his  service  or  attendance. 

PETTY  OFFICERS  in  the  royal  navy  are  an 
upper  class  of  seamen,  analogous  to  the  non-com- 
missioned officers  in  the  army.  They  comprise  the 
men  responsible  for  the  proper  care  of  the  several 
portions  of  the  ship,  the  foremen  of  artificers,  the 
signalmen,  aud  many  others.  They  are  divided 
into  three  classes :  chief  petty  officers,  at  2s.  3d.  a 
day  ;  1st  class  working  petty  officers,  at  2s.  a  day ; 
and  2d  class  working  petty  officers,  at  Is.  I0<i.  a  day. 
Petty  officers  are  appointed  and  can  be  degraded  by 
the  captain  of  the  ship.  Her  efficiency  much 
depends  on  this  useful  class  of  sailors. 


PETTY  SESSIONS-PE'ZENAS. 


PETTY  SESSIONS  is  the  court  constituted  by 
two  or  more  justice!  of  the  pesos  in  England, 
when  sitting  iii  the  administration  of  their  ordinary 
jurisdiction.  Though  for  many  purposes  statutes 
suable  one  justice  to  do  acts  auxiliary  to  the  hear- 
big  and  adjudication  of  a  matter,  yet  the  jurisdic- 
tion to  adjudicate  is  generally  conferred  upon  the 
justices  in  petty  sessions,  in  which  case  there  must 
be  at  least  two  justices  present)  and  this  is  called  a 
petty  sessions,  as  distinguished  from  quarter  sessions, 
which  generally  may  entertain  an  appeal  from  petty 
sessions.  For  the  purpose  of  securing  always  suffi- 
cient justices,  the  whole  of  the  counties  of  England 
art,  subdivided  into  what  are  called  petty  sessional 
divisions,  those  justices  who  live  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  being  the  members  who  form  the 
court  of  such  division.  This  subdivision  of  counties 
is  confirmed  by  statute,  and  the  justices  at  quarter 
sessions  have  power  from  time  to  time  to  alter  it. 
Each  petty  sessions  is  held  in  some  town  or  village 
which  gives  it  a  name,  and  a  police-court  or  place  is 
appropriated  for  the  purpose  of  the  sittings  of  the 
court.  There  is  a  clerk  of  each  petty  sessions, 
usually  a  local  attorney,  who  advises  the  justices, 
and  issues  the  summons  and  receives  the  fees  made 
payable  for  steps  of  the  process.  The  justices  in 
petty  sessions  have  a  multifarious  jurisdiction,  which 
they  exercise  chiefly  by  imposing  penalties  author- 
ised by  various  acts  of  parliament,  as  penalties 
against  poachers,  vagrants,  absconding  workmen 
and  apprentices,  &c.  They  also  have  j  urisdiction  to 
hear  charges  for  all  indictable  offences,  to  take 
depositions  of  witnesses,  and,  if  they  think  a  case  of 
Suspicion  is  made  out,  to  commit  the  party  for  trial 
at  the  quarter  sessions  or  assizes,  and  to  bind  over 
the  witnesses  to  attend.  See  also  Justice  of  the 
Peace. 

PETU'NTA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Solan acece,  natives  of  the  warmer  parts  of 
America.  They  are  herbaceous  plants,  very  nearly 
albed  to  Tobacco,  and  with  a  certain  similarity  to 
it  in  the  general  appearance  of  the  foliage,  which 
has  also  a  slight  viscidity,  and  emits  when  handled 
a  disagreeable  smelL  but  the  flowers  are  very  beau- 
tiful, and  varieties  improved  by  cultivation  are 
amongst  the  favourite  ornaments  of  our  greenhouses 
ami  flower-borders.  The  petunias,  although  peren- 
nial, are  veiy  often  treated  as  annuals,  sown  on  a 
hot-bed  in  spring,  and  planted  out  in  summer,  in 
which  way  they  succeed  very  well  even  in  Scotland. 
They  are  tall  plants,  with  branching  weak  stems, 
and  may  readily  be  made  to  cover  a  trellis.  Although, 
when  treated  as  greenhouse  plants,  they  become 
half-shrubby,  they  do  not  live  more  than  two  or 
three  years.  The  name  P.  is  from  the  Brazilian 
Petun.  The  first  P.  was  introduced  into  Britain  in 
1825. 

PETU'NTZE,  a  white  earth  used  by  the  Chinese 
in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain,  and  said  to  consist 
of  comminuted  but  undecomposed  felspar.  It  is 
fusible,  and  is  used  for  glazing  porcelain. 

PE'TWORTH,  or  SUSSEX  MARBLE,  is  a  thin 
layer  of  bmestone,  composed  of  the  shells  of  fresh- 
water Paludinae.  It  has  been  long,  but  not  exten- 
sively used  for  ornamental  purposes.  A  polished  slab 
of  it  was  found  in  a  Roman  building  at  Chichester, 
and  pillars  formed  of  it  exist  in  the  cathedrals  of  Chi- 
chester and  Canterbury. 

PEWS  (anciently  pues ;  Old  Fr.  puys ;  Dutch, 
puyes ;  Lat.  podium,  'anything  on  which  to  lean;' 
iappnyer),  enclosed  seats  in  churches.  Church- 
seats  were  in  use  in  England  some  time  before  the 
Reformation,  as  is  proved  by  numerous  examples 
still  extant,  the  carving  on  some  of  which  is  as  early 
as   the   Decorated   Period,  i.e.,  before   1400  A.  D.  y 


and  records  as  old  as  1450,  speak  of  such  seats  by 
the  name  olpues.    They  were  originally  plain  fixed 

benches,  all  racing  east,  with  partitions  of  wain- 
scoting about  three  feet  high,  and  sides  of  the  width 
of  the  seat,  panelled  or  carved  ;  the  sides  sometimes 

rising  above  the  wainscoting,  and  ending  in  limals 
Or  poppies,  o-  else  ranging  with  it  and  linishtd  with 

a  moulding.      After   the    Reformation,    probably 

under  the  influence  of  the  Puritans,  who,  objecting 
to  some  parts  of  the  service  which  they  were  com- 
pelled to  attend,  sought  means  to  conceal  their 
nonconformity,  pews  grew  into  large  and  high 
enclosures,  containing  two  or  four  seats,  lined 
with  baize,  and  fitted  with  doors,  desks,  and 
cushions.  Pews  were  early  assigned  to  particular 
owners,  but  at  first  only  to  the  patrons  of  churches. 
A  canon  made  at  Exeter,  iu  1287,  rebukes  quar- 
relling for  a  seat  in  church,  and  decrees  that  none 
shall  claim  a  seat  as  his  own  except  noblemen 
and  the  patrons.  Gradually,  however,  the  system 
of  appropriation  was  extended  to  other  inhabitants 
of  the  parish,  to  the  injury  of  the  poor,  and  the 
multiplication  of  disputes. 

Tie  law  of  pews  in  England  is  briefly  this.  All 
church-seats  are  at  the  disposal  of  the  bishop,  and 
may  be  assigned  by  him,  either  (1)  directly  by 
faculty  to  the  holders  of  any  property  in  the  parish ; 
or  (2)  through  the  churchwardens,  whose  duty  it  is, 
as  officers  under  the  bishop,  to  'seat  the  parishioners 
according  to  their  degree.  In  the  former  case,  the 
right  descends  with  the  property,  if  the  faculty  can 
be  shewn,  or  immemorial  occupation  proved.  In 
the  latter,  the  right  can  at  any  time  be  recalled, 
and  lapses  on  the  party  ceasing  to  be  a  regular 
occupant  of  the  seat.  It  appears  that  by  common 
law  every  parishioner  has  a  right  to  a  seat  in  the 
church,  and  the  churchwardens  are  bound  to  place 
each  one  as  best  they  can.  The  practice  of  letting 
pews,  except  under  the  church-building  acts,  or 
special  local  acts  of  parliament,  and,  much  more,  of 
selling  them,  has  been  declared  illegal. 

In  Scotland,  pews  in  the  parish  churches  are 
assigned  by  the  heritors  (q.  v.)  to  the  parishioners, 
who  have  accordingly  the  preferable  claim  on  them ; 
but  when  not  so  occupied,  they  are  legally  open  to 
all.  As  is  well  known,  pews  in  dissenting  churches 
are  rented  as  a  means  of  revenue  to  sustain  general 
charges.  In  some  parts  of  the  United  States,  pews 
in  churches  are  a  matter  of  annual  competition,  and 
bring  large  sums.  Latterly,  in  England,  there  has 
been  some  discussion  as  to  the  injuriously  exclusive 
character  of  the  '  pew  system,'  and  a  disposition  has 
been  manifested  to  abolish  pews  altogether,  and 
substitute  movable  seats  available  by  all  indiscri- 
minately. Several  pamphlets  have  appeared  on  the 
subject.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  churches  on  the 
Continent  pews  are  seldom  to  be  seen. 

PEWTER,  a  common  and  very  useful  alloy  of 
the  metals,  tin  and  lead.  Two  other  kinds  of  pewter 
have  a  more  compound  character.  Common,  or  ley- 
pewter,  consists  of  4  parts  of  tin  and  1  part  of  lead ; 
plate-pewter  is  made  of  100  parts  of  tin,  8  parts  of 
antimony,  2  parts  each  of  bismuth  ind  copper  ; 
another  kind,  called  trifle,  is  composed  of  S3 
part3  of  tin  and  17  parts  of  antimony.  Although 
these  are  the  standard  formulas,  each  kind  is  often 
much  varied  to  suit  the  purposes  of  the  manufac- 
turer ;  the  chief  alteration  being  the  addition  of 
a  large  proportion  of  lead  to  the  last,  and  a  large 
increase  of  the  same  metal  in  the  other  two. 

PEZENAS,  a  manufacturing  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Herault,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river  of  that  name,  25  miles  west-south-west  of 
Montpellier.  It  stands  in  a  district  remarkable  for 
its  beauty,  and  so  well  cultivated  as  to  have  received 
J  457 


PFEFFERS— PH  AETHON . 


the  name  of  the  Garden  of  IRhault.  It  is  famous  for 
its  healthy  climate  and  clear  sky.  The  vicinity  pro- 
daces  excellent  wine,  and  woollen  and  linen  goods 
are  manufactured.  The  trade,  however,  is  chiefly 
in  liquors,  and  P.  is  known  as  one  of  the  principal 
brandy-markets  of  Europe.    Pop.  (1872)  6824. 

PFE'FFERS,  an  extraordinary  and  much-visited 
locality  in  the  Canton  of  St  Gall,  Switzerland, 
five  miles  south-east  of  Sargans.  It  has  been 
famous  since  the  middle  of  the  11th  c.  for  its 
hot  baths,  situated  2180  feet  above  sea-level,  and 
52i »  feet  above  the  village  of  Ragatz.  The  old  baths 
of  P.  are  built  on  a  ledge  of  rock  a  few  feet  above 
the  roariug  torrent  of  the  Tamina,  and  are  hemmed 
in  by  walls  of  rock  towering  above  them  to  the 
height  of  600  feet,  and  so  far  burying  the  baths 
within  the  gorge,  that  even  in  the  height  of  sum- 
mer, sunlight  appears  above  them  only  from  ten 
to  four.  Above  the  old  baths,  the  walls  of  the 
ra\ine  of  the  Tamina  contract  until  they  meet, 
covering  up  the  river,  which  is  there  seen  from  a 
cavernous  gap.  The  hot-springs  are  reached  from 
the  baths  by  means  of  a  railed  platform.  This  plat- 
form, leading  to  the  hot  spring,  is  secured  to  the 
rocks,  and  the  Tamina  churns  its  way  through  the 
cleft  30  or  40  feet  below.  The  waters  of  the  hot 
spring  are  now  conveyed  to  Ragatz  (about  two  miles 
below  P.)  by  wooden  pipes,  12,5i)0  feet  long.  The 
waters,  as  they  issue  from  the  spring,  have  a  tem- 
perature of  100°  Fahr.  A  pint  of  the  water,  which 
is  used  both  for  drinking  and  bathing,  contains 
only  about  three  grains  of  saline  particles. 

PFEIFFER,  Ida  {nee  Reyer),  a  celebrated 
female  traveller,  was  born  at  Vienna,  October  15, 
1707,  and  from  her  earliest  years  shewed  a  resolute 
and  fearless,  but  not  unfemiuiue  disposition.  Iu 
1S20,  she  married  an  advocate,  named  Pfciffer,  from 
whom  she  was  obliged  to  obtain  a  separation,  after 
she  had  borne  him  two  sons,  Oscar  and  Alfred, 
whose  education  devolved  on  herself.  When  she 
had  settled  them  in  life,  and  was  free  to  act  as  she 
pleased,  she  at  once  proceeded  to  gratify,  at  the  age 
of  45,  her  long-cherished  inclination  for  a  life  of 
travel  and  adventure.  Her  first  expedition  was  to 
the  Holy  Land.  She  left  Vienna  in  March  1842,  and 
returned  in  December  of  the  same  year,  having 
traversed,  alone  and  without  guide,  European  and 
Asiatic  Turkey,  Palestine,  and  Egypt.  She  pub- 
lished an  account  of  her  eastern  rambles  in  the 
following  year  (Iieise  einer  Wiener  inn  iti  das  Ileilige 
Land),  which,  like  all  her  other  works,  has  gone 
through  many  editions,  and  been  translated  into 
French  and  English.  Iu  1845,  she  visited  Northern 
Europe — Sweden,  Norway,  Lapland,  and  Iceland — 
and  recorded  her  impressions  in  her  Re'se  nach  dem 
Skandinawisch,  Norden  und  der  Insel  Island  (2  vols. 
1846).  But  these  journeys,  which  would  have 
satisfied  most  women,  were  but  little  excursions  in 
the  eyes  of  this  insatiable  nomade,  and  only  served 
to  whet  her  appetite  for  something  vaster.  She 
I  solved  on  a  voyage  round  the  world ;  and  on  the 
2Sth  of  June  1846,  sailed  from  Hamburg  in  a 
Danish  brig  for  Brazil.  Her  descriptions  of  the 
scenery  of  that  country  and  of  the  inhabitants — 
both  native  Indians  and  Brazilians — are  exceedingly 
interesting.  She  then  sailed  round  Cape  Horn  to 
Chile,  and  thence,  after  some  time,  across  the  Pacific 
to  Otaheite,  China,  and  Calcutta;  crossed  the  Indian 
peninsula  to  Bombay,  whence  she  took  ship  for  the 
Persian  Gulf,  landed  at  Bassora,  traversed  a  great 
part  of  Western  Asia,  Southern  Russia,  and  Greece, 
and  re-entered  Vienna,  November  4,  1848.  Two 
years  later,  she  published  a  narrative  of  her  travels 
and  adventures,  entitled  Eine  Frauenfahrt  um  die 
Welt  (Vienna,  1850,  3  vols.).  As  a  small  recognition 
458 


of  her  services,  and  of  the  singular  energy,  fortitude, 
and  perseverance  of  her  character,  the  Austrian 
government  granted  Madame  P.  a  sum  of  £100. 
She  now  determined  to  go  round  the  world  again, 
but  by  a  different  route.  Proceeding  to  England, 
she,  in  May  1851,  took  ship  for  Sarawak,  rounding 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  penetrated  alone  to  the 
heart  of  Borneo,  visited  Java  and  Sumatra,  lived 
for  a  time  with  some  cannibal  tribes,  and  sailed 
from  the  Moluccas  to  California,  thence  to  Peru, 
scaled  the  peaks  of  Chimbonizo  and  Cotopaxi,  mada 
a  run  through  the  principal  of  the  United  States, 
and  returned  to  London  in  1854.  This  second 
voyage,  signalised  by  several  scientific  ol  servations, 
is  described  in  Meine  Zwnte  Weltieise  (Vien.  1856). 
But  the  more  she  travelled,  the  fiercer  became, her 
hunger  for  movement.  In  September  1856.  she  set 
out  on  what  was  to  be  her  last  expedition — namely, 
to  Madagascar.  After  enduring  terrible  hardships, 
she  got  away,  and  came  home  to  Vienua — to  die. 
Her  death  took  place  October  28,  1858. 

PFO  RZHEIM,  an  important  manufacturing 
town  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  on  the  northern 
border  of  the  Black  Forest,  stands  on  the  Ens,  at 
its  confluence  with  the  Nagold  and  Wurm,  55  miles 
south-south-east  of  Manheim,  and  on  a  recently- 
constructed  branch  of  the  Manheim  and  Bale 
Railway.  It  consists  of  the  town  proper — sur- 
rounded with  a  wall  and  ditch — and  the  suburbs ; 
contains  the  remains  of  au  ancient  castle,  formerly 
the  residence  of  the  Markgrafs  of  Baden-Durlach ; 
several  churches,  one  of  which,  the  Schlosskirche,  on 
a  height,  contains  a  number  of  monuments,  with 
marble  statues  of  the  princes  of  Baden  ;  a  convent 
for  noble  ladies ;  industrial  and  other  schools ; 
chemical  and  iron-works;  machine-shops,  tanneries, 
and  cloth  and  other  factories.  The  principal  articles 
of  manufacture  are  gold  and  silver  wares  and 
trinkets,  tl.e  chief  markets  for  which  are  Germany 
and  America.  An  important  trade  is  carried  on  in 
timber,  which  is  cut  in  tiie  neighbouring  forests, 
and  is  floated  down  to  Holland  by  the  Neckar  and 
Rhine.     Pop.  (1871)  19,801. 

PHiE'DRUS,  a  Latin  poet,  whose  works  consist 
of  fables.  He  was  probably  a  Thracian  or  Mace- 
donian, carried  to  Rome  as  a  slave  iu  his  childhood, 
and  brought  up  at  the  court  of  Augustus,  who 
emancipated  him.  Under  Tiberius,  he  was  exposed 
to  great  danger  from  the  hostility  of  Sejanus,  but 
lived  to  see  that  general's  overthrow,  and  died  at 
an  advanced  age,  probably  in  the  reign  of  Claudius. 
Five  books  of  fables,  after  the  manner  of  iEsop,  and 
called  Fabula  jEsopim,  have  been  usually  ascribed 
to  him.  The  faults  of  the  style  have  led,  however, 
to  the  suspicion,  not  merely  of  alterations  at  a  later 
date,  but  of  later,  and  even  much  later,  composition. 
The  dry  'morals'  have  been  supposed  to  indicate 
the  Middle  Ages  as  the  period  to  which  the  work 
should  probably  be  referred ;  but  its  authenticity 
is  generally  admitted.  The  first  edition  waa 
published  at  Troyes  in  1596.  The  text  has  subse- 
quently occupied  the  attention  of  some  of  the 
greatest  scholars  and  critics,  from  the  days  of 
Burmann  and  Bentley  to  the  present  time.  A  sixth 
book,  containing  32  fables,  has  receutly  been  dis- 
covered and  published,  of  the  authenticity  of  which, 
however,  there  are  greater  doubts  than  of  that  of 
the  other  books.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  J.  C 
Orelli  (Zurich,  1831). 

PHiENO'GAMOUS  PLANTS.  See  Phanero- 
gamous Plants. 

PHAETHON  (i.  e.,  the  shining),  in  the  writings 
of  Homer  and  Hesiod,  a  frequent  title  cf  Helios  the 
sun-god,  and  subsequently  employed  as  his  name.— 
P.,  in  Greek  mythology,  is  also  the  name  cf  a  sou  of 


PHAETON— PHALANX. 


Helios,  famous  for  his  unfortunate  attempt  to  drive    is  very   bushy.      Jt  is  Doctarna]   in   its    habits— Tht 
his  father's  chariot    Scutsely  had  the  presumptuous    Vulpine  P.*  (P.  vulplna),  also  called  the  Vulpish 


youth  seized  the  reins,  when  the  horses,  perceiving 
his  weakness,  ran  oil',  and  approaching  too  near  the 
Earth,  almost  set  it  on  fire.  Whereupon  the  Earth 
cried  to  Jupiter  for  help,  and  Jupiter  struck  down 
P.  with  a  thunderbolt  into  the  Eridanus  or  Pa 
His  sisters,  the  Heliades,  who  had  harnessed  the 

horses  of  fche  Sun,  were  changed  into  poplars,  and 
their  tears  into  amber. 
PHAETON.  See  Tropic  Bird. 
PHAGEDENA  (Gr.,  from  phagein,  to  eat  or 
corrode),  designates  a  variety  of  ulceration  in 
which  tiiere  is  much  infiltration,  and  at  the  same 
time  rapid  destruction  of  the  affected  part.  The 
sore  presents  an  irregular  outline,  and  a  yellowish 
surface  ;  it  gives  off  a  profuse  bloody  or  ichorish 
discharge,  and  is  extremely  painful  It  usually 
attacks  pers  'lis  whose  constitutions  are  vitiated  by 
scrofula,  by  the  syphilitic  virus,  by  the  abuse  of 
mercury,  by  intemperance,  &c.  It  not  very  unfre- 
quently  appears  in  the  throat  after  scarlatina  in  a 
severe  form.  If  relief  is  not  afforded  by  the  internal 
administration  of  opium  (to  allay  the  pain),  and  of 
quinia,  or  some  other  preparation  of  bark,  wine, 
beef-tea,  &c.  to  improve  the  tone  of  the  constitution, 
together  with  astringent  and  sedative  local  appli- 
cations, recourse  must  be  had  to  the  destruction  of 
the  part  by  strong  nitric  acid,  or  some  other  caustic. 
The  terrible  disease  known  in  civil  practice  as 
Sloughing  Phagedena,  and  in  military  and  naval 
practice  as  Hospital  Gangrene,  is  merely,  according 
to  some  of  our  highest  surgical  authorities,  a  state 
of  phagedena  in  its  fullest  development.  This  dis- 
order requires  for  its  development  the  influence  of 
some  of  those  undelincd  causes  which  regulate  the 
outbreak,  of  epidemics,  and  is  peculiarly  charac- 
terised by  its  contagious  and  infectious  nature.  It 
is  usually  engendered  by  the  overcrowding  of  sick 
and  wounded  men,  and  some  idea  of  its  virulence 
may  be  formed  from  the  fact  that  on  the  return  of 
the  French  fleet  from  the  Crimean  war,  no  less  than 
60  deaths  from  it  occurred  in  one  ship  in  the  course 
of  33  hours.  It  is  not  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
London  Hospitals ;  but  it  broke  out  in  the  Middlesex 
Hospital  in  1835,  in  University  College  Hospital  in 
1844,  and  in  St  Bartholomew's  and  St  George's 
Hospitals  in  1347  (Druitt's  Surgeon's  Vad°-mecum, 
8th  ed.,  p.  7'2,  note).  For  details  respecting  this 
disorder  the  reader  is  referred  to  Hennen's  Prin- 
ciples of  Military  Surgery,  Boggie  On  Hospital 
Gangrene,  and  the  article  on  '  Gangrene,'  by  Mr 
Holme3  Coote  in  Holmes's  System  of  Surgery,  voL  i. 
PHALACRG'CORAX.  See  Cormorant. 
PHAL^'NA.  See  Moth. 
PHA'LANGEB  cr  PHALANGIST  (Phalan- 
gista),  a  genus  of  marsupial  quadrupeds,  having  a 
rather  short  head,  short  ears,  short  woolly  fur,  a 
long  prehensile  tail,  sometimes  completely  covered 
with  hair,  and  sometimes  only  at  the  base,  and 
walj  towards  the  extremity;  the  dentition  some- 
whai  various  as  to  the  number  of  premolars,  the 
incisors  always  six  in  the  upper  jaw  and  rwo  in 
the  lower,  the  true  molars  eight  in  each  jaw,  the 
canines  of  the  lower  jaw  very  small,  and  close  to 
the  ircisors.  The  fore-paws  are  strong,  and  capable 
of  much  use  in  grasping  food  and  bringing  it  to  the 
mouth.  A  number  of  species  inhabit  Australia  and 
the  islands  to  the  north  of  it.  They  live  chiefly  in 
trees,  and  feed  on  insects,  small  animals  of  various 
kinds,  eggs,  and  fruits.  The  Sooty  P.  or  Tapoa 
(P.  fuligiuosa)  is  pretty  common  in  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  and  is  much  sought  after  on  account  of  its 
fur.  which  is  of  a  uniform  smoky-black  colour,  or 
tinned  with  chestnut,  warm  and  beautiful.     The  tail 


Opossum,  is  very  plentiful  and  widely  diffused  in 
Australia.  The  length  of  the  animal  from  the  point 
of  the  muzzle  to  the  rooi  of  the  tail  is  shorn  uf, 
inches;  the  tail  is  about  15  inches  long,  and  is 
bushy;    the  colour  is  grayish-yellow  on   the   npi«e> 


Vulpine  Phalanger  {P.  vulpina). 

parts,  and  tawny-buff  below.  The  fur  is  not  so 
much  valued  as  that  of  the  last  species,  but  is  used 
for  various  purposes.  The  flesh,  although  it  has  a 
strong  peculiar  flavour,  is  a  favourite  food  of  the 
Australian  aborigines. — Nearly  allied  to  this  genus, 
is  the  genus  Cuacus,  of  which  one  species,  whitish- 
gray,  spotted  with  brown,  is  plentiful  in  the  Molucca 
and  Papuan  Islands. — Albed  to  the  phalangers  also 
are  the  Flying  Phalangers  (q.  v.). 

PH  ALA'NGIDiE,  a  family  of  Trachearian  Arach- 
nida,  popularly  called  Harvest-men,  some  of  the 
species  appearing  in  great  numbers  in  fields  during 
the  hay  and  corn  harvests.  They  resemble  spiders 
in  their  general  form,  although,  their  organs  of 
respiration  are  very  different.  Their  legs  are 
extremely  long  and  slender.  Most  of  the  species 
are  very  agile. 

PHALANSTE'RIANISM  (from  Gr.  signifying 
phalanx  and  solid),  the  system  of  living  in  commu- 
nities called  phalansteries,  as  suggested  by  Fourier, 
the  French  socialist.     See  Fourierism. 

PHA'LANX,  the  ancient  Greek  formation  for 
heavy  infantry,  which  won  for  itself  a  reputation  of 
invincibility,  may  be  described  as  a  line  of  parallel 
columns,  rendered  by  its  depth  and  solidity  capable 
of  penetrating  any  line  of  troops.  The  oldest 
phalanx  was  the  Lacedaemonian  or  Spartan,  in  which 
the  soldiers  stood  eight  deep ;  the  Athenian  phalanx 
had  been  the  same,  until,  at  the  battle  of  Marathon, 
(4S0  B.C.)  Miltiades  reduced  the  depth  to  four  men 
in  order  to  increase  his  front.  When  Epaminondas 
organised  the  Theban  army  against  Sparta,  he  felt 
that  the  Spartan  line  of  battle  would  be  impreg- 
nable to  troops  organised  in  their  own  manner. 
He  therefore  increased  the  depth  and  lessened  the 
front  of  his  phalanx,  which  enabled  him  to  burst 
through  the  Spartan  line,  inflicting  the  sanguinary 
defeat  of  Leuctra  (371  B.C.).  Philip  of  Macedon  had 
learned  the  art  of  war  under  Epaminondas,  and 
when  he  resolved  to  make  his  state  a  military 
power,  he  formed  the  celebrated  Macedonian 
phalanx  (351  B.C.),  which  enabled  him  to  conquer 
Greece,  and  with  which  his  son  Alexander  subdued 
the  eastern  world.  The  Macedonian  phalanx,  as 
the  latest  form  that  organisation  assumed,  and  aa 
the  shape  in  which  the  phalanx  encountered  the 


PHALARIS— PHALLUS. 


military  skill  of  the  west,  is  deserving  of  description. 
The  line  was  1G  deep:  a  grand-phalanx  comprising 
16,3.84  hoplites,  or  heavy-armed  soldiers,  subdivided 
as  follows  :  the  grand-phalanx  was  composed  of  four 
phalanxes  or  divisions,  each  under  a  general  officer, 
called  a  phalangarch  ;  his  command  was  divided 
into  two  brigades  or  Hierarchies  (sometimes  called 
telarchie-s),  each  of  these  comprising  two  regiments, 
or  chili  archies,  of  four  battalions  or  syntagmata  each. 
A  syntagma  answered  accurately  to  a  modern  bat- 
talion, except  that  it  was  smaller.  It  was  a  perfect 
square,  with  16  men  each  way,  was  commanded  by 
a  syntagmatarch  or  xenagos  ;  and  had  an  adjutant, 
with  one  or  two  other  staff-officers  who  stood  behind. 
Eight  files  united  were  under  a  taxiarch,  four  under 
a  tetrarch,  corresponding  probably  to  a  modern 
captain,  two  tiles  were  under  a  dilochite  or  subaltern. 
A  single  file  of  16  men  was  called  a  lochos,  and  the 
best  man  was  placed  at  its  head  ;  a  picked  man,  the 
ouragos,  also  marching  in  the  rear.  The  arms  of  all 
these  phalanx-men  were  pikes  or  spears,  24  feet 
long,  of  which  6  feet  were  behind  and  IS  feet  held 
in  front  of  the  combatant.  As  each  man  occupied 
with  his  shield  three  feet,  the  phalanx,  when  it 
advanced,  had  six  tiers  of  spear-points  in  front,  a  wall 
of  steel  which  no  troops  could  withstand,  especially 
as  the  bearers  of  the  spears  were  pressed  on  by  the 
ten  ranks  in  their  rear.  By  rapid  movements  the 
phalanx  could  change  front,  form  in  close  column  of 
Byntagmata,  and  execute  other  critical  manoeuvres. 
■ — The  heavy-armed  phalanx  was  ordinarily  flanked 
by  peltastes  or  light  infantry,  similarly  formed,  but 
only  eight  deep,  while  the  cavalry  were  but  four 
deep.  The  phalanx,  as  representative  of  the  heavy 
formation,  came  in  contact  with  the  lighter  legion 
of  Rome  during  the  wars  of  Pyrrhus  in  Italy. — At 
the  great  battle  of  Heraclea  (279  B.C.),  the  phalanx 
won  the  day  ;  but  the  victory  was  attributable 
to  other  causes  as  much  as  to  any  superiority  of 
formation. 

PHA'LARIS,  a  tyrant  of  Agrigentum  in  Sicily, 
who  nourished  about  the  middle  of  the  6th  c.  B.C. 
According  to  the  prevalent  tradition,  he  was 
infamous  for  his  cruelty.  He  maintained  his  power 
for  16  years  by  the  aid  of  foreign  hirelings,  and,  it 
is  said,  by  putting  to  death  all  persons  of  eminence 
in  his  dominions ;  but  at  last  he  fell  a  victim  to 
popular  indignation.  He  gratified,  we  are  told,  his 
love  of  cruelty  by  causing  persons  to  be  roasted 
alive  in  a  brazen  bull,  which  was  made  for  that 
purpose — the  first  victim  being  the  maker,  Perdlus. 
Cicero  calls  him  the  'most  cruel  of  all  tyrants' 
(cnuldissimus  omnium  tyrannoruni).  But  some  doubt 
attaches  to  this  view  of  his  character,  partly  because 
many  of  the  crimes  laid  to  his  charge  are  intrinsically 
improbable,  and  paitly  because  later  traditions 
represent  him  as  fond  of  literature  and  philosophy, 
and  a  patron  of  learned  men.  Lucian  affirms  that 
he  was  naturally  a  man  of  a  mild  and  humane  dis- 
position. How  far  the  later  view  should  be  allowed 
to  modify  the  earlier,  it  is — in  the  absence  of  all 
reliable  knowledge — impossible  to  say.  It  is  under 
the  later  aspect  that  he  is  shewn  to  us  in  the  famous 
but  spurious  Epistles  of  Phalaris.    See  Bentlev. 

PHA'LAROPE  (Phalaropus),  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  family  Lobipedidaz  (q.  v.)  ;  having  a  rather  long, 
slender,  weak,  straight  bill,  resembling  that  of  the 
sandpipers,  which,  indeed,  they  otherwise  much 
resemble,  although  differing  in  their  aquatic  habits  ; 
the  greater  part  of  their  time  being  passed  in  swim- 
ming on  the  sea,  where  they  seek  molluscs  and 
other  small  marine  animals  for  their  food.  The 
Gray  P.  (P.  lobatus),  although  formerly  so  rare  a 
bird  in  Britain  that  Pennant  says  he  only  knew  of 
two  instances  of  its  occurrence  in  his  time,  is  now 
MO 


not  unfrequently  seen  in  its  autumn  migration  from 
its  northern  abode  to  its  southern  winter-quarters. 
It  breeds  in  the  Arctic  regions  both  of  the  old  and 
new  world,  migrating  southward  in  both  on  the 
approach  of  winter.  Its  entire  length  is  rather  more 
than  eight  inches.  The  tail  is  short.  It  is  a  beau- 
tiful bird,  and  remarkable  for  the  great  difference  of 
its  summer  and  winter  plumage,  the  prevailing  tint 
in  winter  being  a  delicate  gray,  whilst  in  summer 


Gray  Phalarope  (P.  lobatus). 

the  upper  parts  exhibit  a  fine  mixture  of  blacrc, 
white,  and  yellow,  and  the  breast  and  under  parts 
are  reddish  chestnut. — The  Red-necked  P.  {P. 
hyperboreans,  or  Lobipes  hyperboreus,  a  generic  dis- 
tinction being  made  by  Cuvier  and  others,  on  account 
of  the  sharper  and  more  slender  bill),  breeds  in  some 
of  the  northern  Scottish  islands,  although  it  is  more 
common  in  more  northern  regions,  aud,  like  the 
former,  is  found  in  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  world. 
It  is  rather  smaller  than  the  Gray  P.,  and  is,  like  it, 
very  graceful  in  form  and  movements,  aud  finely 
coloured.  The  phalaropes  are  very  fearless  of  man, 
and  very  easily  tamed.  Their  Mesh  is  oily  and 
unpalatable. 

PHA'LLUS,  a  representation  of  the  male  gener- 
ative organs,  used  at  certain  Dionysiau  festivals 
in  ancient  Greece,  as  a  symbol  of  the  powers  of 
procreation.  It  was  an  object  of  common  wor- 
ship throughout  the  nature-religion  of  the  East, 
and  was  called  by  manifold  names,  such  as 
Linga  (q.  v.),  Joni,  Pollear,  &c.  Originally,  it  had 
no  other  meaning  than  the  allegorical  one  of  that 
mysterious  union  between  the  male  and  female, 
which  throughout  nature  seems  to  be  the  sole  condi- 
tion of  the  continuation  of  the  existence  of  animated 
beings  ;  but  at  a  later  period,  more  particularly  when 
ancient  Rome  had  become  the  hot-bed  of  all  natural 
and  unnatural  vices,  its  worship  became  an  intoler- 
able nuisance,  and  was  put  down  by  the  senate  od 
account  of  the  more  thau  usual  immorality  to  which 
it  gave  rise.  Its  origin  has  given  rise  to  much 
speculation,  but  no  certainty  has  been  arrived  at  by 
investigators.  The  Phoenicians  traced  its  introduc- 
tion into  their  worship  to  Adonis,  the  Egyptians 
to  Osiris,  the  Phrygians  to  Atfys,  the  Greeks  to 
Dionysus.  The  common  myth  concerning  it  was  the 
story  of  some  god  deprived  of  his  powers  of  generation 
—an  allusion  to  the  sun,  which  in  autumn  loses  its 
fructifying  influence.  The  procession  in  which  it  was 
carried  about  was  called  Phallagogia,  or  Periphallia, 
and  a  certain  hymn  was  sung  on  that  occasion, 
called  the  Phallikon  Melos.  The  bearers  of  the 
phallus,  which  generally  consisted  of  red  leather, 
and  was  attached  to  an  enornxms  pole,  were  the 
Phallophoroi.  Phalli  were  on  those  occasions  worn 
as  ornaments  round   the  neck,  or  attached   to  th* 


PHALLUS-PHARISEES. 


body.  Aristotle  traces  the  origin  of  comedy  to  the 
ribaldry  and  the  improvised  jokes  customary  on 
those  festivals.  Phalli  were  often  attached  to 
statues,  and  of  a  prodigious  size  ;  sometimes  they 
even  movable.  At  a  procession  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphia,  a  phallus  was  carried  about  made  of 
gold,  and  120  yards  long.  Before  the  temple  of 
Venus  at  Hierapolis  there  stood  two  phalli,  1SU 
feet  high,  upon  which  a  priest  mounted  annually, 
and  remained  there  in  prayer  for  seven  days.  The 
phallus  was  an  attribute  of  Pan,  Priapus,  aud  to 
*  certain  extent  also  of  Hermes. 

PHALLUS,  a  genus  of  fungi  of  the  division 
Qasteromyeetet,  egg-shaped,  the  outer  covering  at 
lengtb  bursting  to  permit  the  growth  of  a  stem,  the 
receptacle  which  produces  the  spores,  and  which  is 
surmounted  by  a  rudimentary  pi  leu  8.  The  most 
common  American  species,  P.  impudieua  or  foetidus, 
popularly  called  Stinkkorn,  is  as  large  as  a  hen's 
egg,  growing  underground  in  thickets,  and  finally 
Bending  up  a  stem  4 — 6  inches  high,  the  fetid 
Bniell  of  which  is  felt  for  many  yards  around.  The 
egg  is  full  of  a  jellydike  substance.  The  growth  of 
the  stem  is  very  rapid,  and  it  soon  decays. 

PHANERO'GAMOUS  (Gr.  phaneros,  manifest ; 
game,  marriage)  PLANTS,  or  Ph^enogamous  (Gr. 
phaino,  to  shew)  Plants,  are  those  plants  which 
have  true  flowers,  and  in  which  the  sexual  organs 
(stamens  and  pistils)  are  distinctly  notable.  They 
are  also  called  Flowering  Plants,  being  by  all 
these  names  contradistinguished  to  Cryptogamous 
Plants  (q.  v.).  The  seeds  of  P.  P.  originate  from 
Ovules  (q.  v.),  and  already  contain  the  young  plant, 
more  or  less  perfectly  formed,  which  is  called  the 
embryo.  P.  P.  are  about  three-fourths  of  all  known 
plants.  Among  them  are  included  all  the  larger 
plants,  and  all  plants  of  great  importance  in  an 
economic  point  of  view.  They  are  generally  divided 
into  Monocotyledonous  or  Endogenous  Plaids,  and 
Dicotyledonous  or  Exogenous  Plants. 

PHA'RAOH.  The  name  given  by  the  Hebrews 
to  the  monarch  ruling  in  Egypt  at  the  time,  in  the 
same  manner  as  Caesar  was  applied  to  the  Roman 
emperors,  and  as  Khan  is  to  the  Tartar  and  Shah 
to  the  Persian  rulers.  The  word  is  of  uncertain 
etymology,  being  capable  of  two  derivations — viz., 
either  Pa  ra,  'the  Sun,'  which  is  the  leading  or 
first  title  of  all  Egyptian  monarchs,  or  the  popu- 
lar expression,  Pi  ouro,  or  Phouro,  '  the  King.'  It 
is  even  possible  to  derive  it  from  Pa  liar,  '  the 
Horus,'  another  title  of  Egyptian  monarchs.  The 
greatest  difficulties  have  been  encountered  in 
attempting  to  determine  the  particular  monarchs 
who  pass  under  this  name  in  the  Scriptures.  The 
first-mentioned  P.  is  the  one  in  whose  reign 
Abraham  visited  Egypt,  who  is  supposed  by  some 
chronologists  to  have  been  one  of  the  Shepherd 
Monarchs,  but  nothing  can  be  offered  beyond  mere 
conjecture  in  support  of  this  theory.  Another  P.  is 
the  one  in  whose  reign  Joseph  was  brought  to  Egypt, 
and  who  was  supposed  by  Eusebius  to  be  Apophi3, 
one  of  the  later  Shepherd  Kings  of  the  seventeenth 
dynasty,  who  are  known  from  the  monuments  to 
have  immediately  preceded  the  eighteenth.  Bunsen 
indeed  places  the  arrival  of  Joseph  in  the  reign  of 
Usertesen,  or,  as  he  reads  his  name,  Sesertesen  I.  of 
the  12th  dynasty,  in  which  indeed  a  famine  is  stated 
in  the  hieroglyphical  texts  to  have  happened,  and  in 
which  it  appears  numerous  officers  were  established 
to  take  charge  of  the  grain.  Arguments,  however, 
may  be  adduced  for  Joseph  having  arrived  in  the 
time  of  the  12th  dynasty,  from  the  fact  of  the 
establishment  of  the  family  of  Jacob  in  the  land 
of  Goshen,  the  importance  to  which  Joseph  had 
risen,  and  the  omission  of  the  name  of  any  of  the 


principal  Egyptian  cities  in  the  narrative,  and  the 
fact  oi  Joseph  having  married  Asenath,  the  daughter 

of  Potipherah,  priest  of  Heliopolis,  a  city  evidently 
the  seat  of  the  court  under  the  12th  dynasty,  as 
Onar  or  Avarii  was  under  the  Shepherds.  Equal 
difficulty  is  experienced  in  determining  the  P.  who 

reduced  the  Israelites  to  bondage,  employed  them 
in  the  labours  of  the  brick-field,  and  compiled 
them  to  build  the  treasure-cities  of  Pithom  and 
Rameses.  He  appears  to  have  meditated  the  total 
absorption  of  the  Hebrews  into  the  Egyptian  race. 
All  that  is  clear  from  the  narrative  is  that  the  city 
of  Rameses  was  called  after  his  name,  in  the  same 
manner  as  modern  forts  have  been  by  contemporary 
riders.  Now  frequent  mention  occurs  in  the  Papyri 
and  other  texts  of  the  Makatalu  en  Ramessu,  or 
Tower  of  Rameses  II.,  which  is  represented  on 
the  walls  of  Medinat-Abu  ;  and  this  has  induced 
Lepsius  and  Bunsen  to  depress  the  date  of  the 
Exodus  from  1491  B.  c.  to  the  close  of  the  nineteenth 
dynasty,  or  after  Rameses  II.,  a  point  controverted 
by  other  chronologists,  who  wish  to  elevate  it  to  the 
middle  of  the  18th  dynasty,  or  1732  B.  c.  To  syn- 
chronise the  former  date,  Lepsius  take3  the  rabbini- 
cal date  of  1314  B.  c.  for  the  Exodus,  or  1340  b.  c. 
for  the  birth  of  Moses.  The  P.  of  the  Exodus  is 
supposed  to  be  Merienptah  or  Menephthes,  the  son 
and  successor  of  Rameses  II.  Philologically,  this 
explanation  is  preferable,  as  the  fixed  point  in  the 
inquiry  is  the  name  of  the  Migdol  of  Rameses  found 
both  in  the  Scriptures  and  on  the  monuments  of 
Egypt.  Other  Pharaohs  are  mentioned;  as  the 
father  of  Tahpenes,  wife  of  Hadad  and  mother  of 
Genuboth ;  the  P.  whose  daughter  Solomon  married ; 
P.  Nechao,  or  Necho  II.,  who  gave  battle  to  Josiah, 
king  of  Judah,  whom  he  slew  at  Megiddo,  and  who 
made  war  against  the  Syrians,  defeated  them  at 
Magdolus,  and  took  Cadytus  or  Katsh,  on  the 
Arunata  or  Orontes.  He  was  subsequently  defeated 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  at  Carchemish,  607  B.  c.  P. 
Hophra,  was  the  Uaphris  or  Apries  of  the  Greeks 
whose  destruction  was  prophesied  by  Jeremiah, 
and  who  was  strangled  570  B.  c. — Bunsen,  jEgyptens 
Stelle,  iii.  p.  109  ;  Lepsius,  Einleit,  p.  317  ;  Nash,  The 
Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus  (Svo,  Lond.  1862). 

PHA'RISEES  (Perishin  or  Perushim,  Separ- 
atists), a  so-called  'Jewish  sect,'  more  correctly, 
however,  a  certain  Jewish  school,  which  probably 
dates  as  a  distinct  body  or  party  from  the  time  of 
the  Syrian  troubles,  and  whose  chief  tendency  it 
was  to  resist  all  foreign,  chiefly  Greek,  influences 
that  threatened  to  undermine  the  sacred  religion  of 
their  fathers.  They  most  emphatically  took  their 
stand  upon  the  Law,  together  with  those  inferences 
drawn  from  its  written  letter  which  had,  partly  from 
time  immemorial,  been  current  as  a  sacred  tradition 
among  the  people.  Out  of  the  small  band  of  the  Cha- 
sidim  (q.  v.),  the  P.  had  taken  their  rise  originally  as 
Chaberim,  Friends,  Colleagues,  Scholars — in  contra- 
distinction to  the  Am-Haarez,  or  common  people — 
and  their  chief  object  in  life  was  the  Divine  Law, 
its  study  and  further  development.  Principally 
distinguished  by  their  most  scrupulous  observance 
of  certain  ordinances  relating  to  things  clean  and 
unclean,  they  further  adopted  among  themselves 
various  degrees  of  purity,  the  highest  of  which, 
however,  was  scarcely  ever  reached  by  any  member 
of  their  community.  For  every  degree,  a  special 
course  of  instruction,  a  solemn  initiation,  and  a 
novitiate  was  necessary;  all  of  which,  together  with 
a  certain  distinction  in  dress,  seems  to  have  been 
imitated  from  them  by  the  Essenes  (q.  v.).  The 
name  of  P.  or  Perushim  was  probably  at  first 
bestowed  upon  them  in  derision  by  the  Sadducees  or 
Zadokites,  the  priestly  aristocracy  and  their  party, 
the  Patricians,  who  differed  from  them  politically, 

461 


PHARISEES. 


and  to  some  extent  also  in  religions  matters.  The 
P.  had  no  special  '  Confession  of  Faitb,'  or  articles 
of  creed  different  from  the  whole  body  of  Jews. 
The  Bible,  as  interpreted  by  the  traditional  Law, 
Was  their  only  code.  Obedience  to  this  Law, 
strictest  observance  of  all  religious  and  moral 
duties,  submission  to  the  Divine  will,  full  confidence 
in  the  wisdom  and  justice  of  Providence,  firm  belief 
in  future  reward  and  punishment,  chastity,  meek- 
ness, and  forbearance — these  were  the  doctrines 
inculcated  in  their  schools.  They  were,  in  fact, 
nothing  more  or  less  than  the  educated  part  of  the 
people,  who  saw  in  the  rigid  adherence  to  the  ancient 
religion,  such  as  it  had  developed  itself  in  the  course 
of  centuries,  the  only  means  of  saving  and  preserving 
the  commonwealth,  notwithstanding  all  its  internal 
and  external  troubles.  Hence,  they  wished  the 
public  affairs,  the  state  and  all  its  political  doings, 
to  be  directed  and  measured  by  the  standard  of  this 
same  Divine  Law ;  without  any  regard  for  those 
aristocratic  families  who  ruled,  or  at  all  events 
greatly  influenced  the  commonwealth.  These  con- 
sisted of  the  priestly  families,  the  Zadokites  (Sad- 
ducees,  q.  v.),  and  of  the  valiant  heroes  and  sagacious 
statesmen,  who  had  brought  the  Syrian  wars  to  a 
successful  issue,  and  had,  by  prudent  negotiations 
with  other  courts,  restored  the  nation  to  its  former 
greatness,  and,  on  their  own  part,  had  acquired 
wealth  and  fame,  and  freer  and  wider  views  of  life 
and  religion.  The  latter  held  the  modern  doctrine, 
that  religion  and  state  were  two  totally  different 
things  ;  that  God  had  given  man  the  power  of  taking 
his  matters  into  his  own  hands ;  and  that  it  was 
foolish,  to  wait  for  a  supernatural  interference,  where 
energy  and  will  were  all  that  was  required.  Natur- 
ally enough,  the  political  difference  between  the 
two  parties  by  degrees  grew  into  a  religious  one, 
since  the  Jewish  State  was  one  still  com- 
pletely pervaded  by  the  religious  element — as 
indeed  it  had  begun  as  a  theocracy,  and  could 
still,  to  a  certain  extent,  be  called  by  that  name. 
And  the  more  the  Sadducees  lost  their  influence 
— the  people  siding  with  the  P. — the  more  the 
religious  gidf  must  have  widened  between  them  ; 
although  the  divergence  between  them,  as  far 
as  our  authorities — Josephus,  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  the  Talmud — go,  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  of  a  very  grave  nature.  Thus,  the  P.  assumed 
the  dogma  of  immortality,  chiefly  with  a  view 
to  a  future  reward  of  good  and  evil  deeds  in  this 
world ;  while  the  Sadducees,  without  rejecting — 
as  we  are  erroneously  informed  by  Josephus — this 
dogma  in  the  least,  yet  held  that  there  was  nothing 
in  the  Scripture  to  warrant  it,  and,  above  all,  that 
there  was  no  need  of  any  future  reward ;  at  any- 
rate,  that  a  pious  life  with  a  view  to  this  was  not 
meritorious.  While  the  P.  held  all  the  traditional 
ordinances  in  equal  reverence  with  the  Mosaic 
ones,  tracing,  in  fact,  most  of  the  former  to  Sinai 
itself,  the  Sadducees  rejected,  or  rather  varied 
some  of  these  according  to  the  traditions  of  their 
own  families :  these  ordinances  chiefly  relating  to 
priestly  and  sacrificial  observances,  certain  laws 
of  purity,  and  some  parts  of  the  civil  law.  It  may 
perhaps  even  be  assumed,  with  the  most  recent 
investigators  (chiefly  Geiger),  that  the  P.  were 
the  representatives  of  a  newer  Halacha,  dictated 
by  an  oppositional  and  religious  and  national  zeal 
which  carried  them  far  beyond  the  original 
boundaries.  Certain  other  legal  differences  between 
the  two  parties,  such  as  the  application  of  the  laws 
of  inheritance  to  daughters,  or  of  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  master  for  his  servants,  are  nothing 
more  than  political  party-views  in  a  religious  mask, 
which  were  meant  to  meet  certain  special  isolated 
oases  only.     In  general,  the  P.  handled  justice  in  a 


much  milder  manner  than  their  antagonists,  who 
took  their  stand  upon  the  rigid  letter,  and  would 
hear  of  no  mercy  where  a  violation  of  the  code  was 
clearly  made  out.  Out  of  the  midst  of  the  P.  rose 
the  great  doctors  and  masters  of  the  Law  (So/erim, 
Scribes,  Nomodidaslcaloi,  teachers  of  the  Law),  and 
to  them  were  intrusted  by  the  later  rulers  the  most 
important  offices. 

Until  recently,  the  greatest  misconception  has 
prevailed  even  among  scholars  respecting  this 
self-sacrificing,  patriotic,  pious,  learned,  and  national 
party  of  progress.  That  there  were  among  them 
those  who  were  a  disgrace  to  any  party,  and, 
still  more,  to  their  strict  one,  no  one  knew  better 
than  the  P.  themselves,  and  in  bitterer  words  than 
were  ever  used  by  Christ  and  the  apostles,  the 
Talmud  castigates  certain  hyperpious  members  of 
their  own  community  as  the  '  plague  of  Pharisaism.' 
These  hypocrites  were  characteristically  styled  Ze- 
buim  [dyed,  painted  ones],  'who  do  evil  deeds  like 
Zimri,  and  require  a  godly  reward  like  Phinehas.' 
Seven  kinds  of  P.  are  enumerated  in  the  Talmud, 
six  of  whom  were  not  to  be  counted  as  real  Phari- 
sees— viz.  (1)  they  who  did  the  will  of  God  for 
earthly  motives ;  (2)  those  who  made  very  small 
steps,  or  said :  Wait  for  me — I  have  still  some  good 
deed  to  do ;  (3)  those  who  knocked  their  heads 
against  walls,  lest  they  might  look  at  a  woman  ; 
(4)  ex  officio  Saints ;  (5)  those  who  say :  tell  me  of 
another  duty  ;  (6)  those  who  are  pious,  because 
they  fear  God.  The  only  genuine  Pharisee  was  he 
'  who  did  the  will  of  his  Father  in  Heaven,  because 
he  loved  Him.'  Josephus' s  accounts,  distortions  in 
themselves,  have,  to  add  to  the  confusion,  been 
misunderstood  (thus,  for  example,  the  word  which 
he  uses  to  designate  the  three  parties,  never  meant 
'  sect,'  as  it  has  invariably  been  interpreted) ;  and 
the  position  of  Christ,  in  relation  to  the  P.,  can 
never  be  understood  properly  without  a  full  acquaint- 
ance with  the  circumstances  of  the  time,  to  which 
there  is  no  other  way  than  a  knowledge  of  that 
literature  (the  Talmud  and  Midrash)  which  lias  so 
long  been  neglected.  Christ  found  the  influence 
of  the  P.  predominant  among  the  people,  although 
the  Sadducees  (and  the  Boethiisians)  were  in  reality 
the  ruling  classes  and  allies  of  the  reigning  dynasty. 
He  naturally  sided  with  the  democratic  p-arty  of 
the  P.  against  that  of  the  proud  opposite  camp. 
As  for  the  religious  tendencies  of  the  latter,  the 
Sadducees  (q.  v.) — the  people  had  decided  that 
point  already  practically,  by  siding  with  the  Pha- 
risees. Once  only  an  allusion  is  made  also  to  the 
leaven  of  Herod  =  the  Sadduceos  (Mark  viii.  15, 
cf.  Matt.  xvi.  6).  But  it  was,  above  all  things, 
necessary  to  combat  the  ever-growing  tendency  to 
choke  up,  as  it  were,  all  real  piety  and  genuine 
virtue  of  heart  under  external  ceremonies  and 
observances,  which,  unless  guarded  against,  will 
appear,  instead  of  a  mere  symbol  and  memento, 
the  essence  of  religion  itself,  and  thus  become  in 
time  a  delusion  and  bondage,  and  end  in  that 
vile  hypocrisy,  against  which  the  Talmud  fights 
with  all  its  powers  of  derision,  and  Christ  inveighs 
in  much  more  vehement  terms  than  is  his  wont. 
It  was  not  in  themselves  that  these  '  oral  laws ' 
were  held  up  to  scorn.  They  were  a  necessary  and 
natural  growth,  and  acted,  in  the  main,  beneficially ; 
as  is  now  fully  recognised  by  scholars  of  eminence. 
(For  some  further  remarks  on  the  subject,  see 
Talmud.) 

Pharisaism — from  which  gradually  branched  off  the 
wild  democratical  party  of  Zealots  (Kannaim),  and 
which  for  the  last  time  represented  political  opinions 
in  the  revolution  of  Bar  Cochba — has,  from  the 
downfall  of  the  sanctuary,  and  the  final  destruction 
of  the  commonwealth,  to  this   day,  remained  the 


PHARMACOPOEIA— PHARYNX. 


principal  representative  of  Judaism  as  a  creed  only, 
badduceeism  dying  out,  or,  at  all  events,  producing 
nnlv  one  Buch  sterile  plant  ns  rXaraism.  Bee  Jewish 
Sects,  Sadducees. 

PHARMACOPOEIA.  This  term  has  been  applied 
to  various  works,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  (l) 
a  list  of  tin-  articles  of  the  Materia  Medica,  whether 
simple  ot  compound i  with  their  characters,  and  the 
tests  for  the  determination  of  their  purity;  and  (2)  n 
oollectiou  of  approved  receipts  <>r  prescriptions,  to- 
gether with  the  processes  for  articles  in  the  Materia 
Medica,  obtained  by  chemical  operations.  Almost 
every  civilised  country  of  importance  has  its  national 
pharmacopoeia,  amongst  which  those  of  the  United 
States,  Prance,  and  Prussia  deserve  specially  honour- 
able notice.  The  first  pharmacopoeia  published  under 
authority  appears  to  have  been  that  of  Nuremberg,  m 
the  year  1542.  Before  this  time,  the  hooks  chiefly  in 
use  amongst  apothecaries  were  the  treatises:  On  Sim- 
ple* hy  Avicenna  and  Serapion;  the  Liber  ServUoria 
of  Balchasim  hen  Aberazerim;  the  Antidotarium  of 
Johannes  Daniascenus  or  Me/.nc,  arranged  in  classes; 
and  the  Antidotarium  of  Nieolaus  de  Salerno,  which 
was  commonly  called  Nieolaus  Magnus,  to  distinguish 
it  from  an  abridgment  known  as  Nieolaus  Parvus, 

As  regards  the  British  Pharmacopoeias,  we  may 
notice  that  the  first  edition  of  the  London  Pharmaco- 
poeia (or,  more  correctly  speaking,  of  the  Pharmaco- 
poeia of  the  London  College  of  Physicians)  appeared 
in  1618,  and  was  chiefly  founded  on  the  works  of 
Mezne  and  Nieolaus  de  Salerno.  Successive  editions 
appeared  in  1627,  1635,  1650,  1697,  1721,  1746,  1787, 
1809,  1824,  1836,  and  1851;  and  form  an  important 
contribution  to  the  history  of  the  progress  of  pharmacy 
and  therapeutics  during  the  last  two  centuries  and  a 
half.  The  nature  and  the  number  of  the  ingredients 
that  entered  into  the  composition  of  many  of  the 
pharmaceutical  preparations  of  the  17th  and  18th 
centuries  would  astonish  most  of  the  practitioners 
and  patients  of  the  present  day.  In  the  earlier 
editions  we  find  enumerated  earth-worms,  snails, 
wood-lice,  frogs,  toads,  puppy  dogs,  foxes  ('a  fat  fox 
of  middle  age,  if  you  can  get  such  a  one '),  the  skull  of 
a  man  who  had  been  hanged,  the  blood  of  the  cat,  the 
nrine  and  excrements  of  various  animals,  &c. ;  and 
electuaries  were  ordered,  containing  50,  62,  and  in 
one  instance — Mathiolus  his  Great  Antidote  against 
Poison  and  Pestilence — 124  different  ingredients. 

The  Edinburgh  Pharmacopoeia  is  more  modern  than 
the  London,  the  first  edition  having  appeared  in  1699  ; 
while  the  Dublin  Pharmacopoeia  does  not  date  fur- 
ther back  than  1807. 

Until  the  Medical  Act  passed  in  1858,  the  right  of 
publishing  the  pharmacopoeias  for  England,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland  was  vested  in  the  Colleges  of  Physicians 
of  London,  Edinburgh,  and  Dublin  respectively;  and 
as  these  three  pharmacopoeias  contained  many  import- 
ant preparations,  similar  in  name  but  totally  different 
in  strength  (as,  for  example,  dilute  hydrocyanic  acid, 
solution  of  hydrochlorate  of  morphia,  &c.),  dangerous 
complications  arose  from  a  London  prescription  being 
made  up  in  Edinburgh  or  Dublin,  or  vice  versa.  By 
that  act  it  is  ordained  that  '  the  General  [Medical] 
Council  shall  cause  to  be  published,  under  their  direc- 
tion, a  book  containing  a  list  of  medicines  and  com- 
pounds, and  the  manner  of  preparing  them,  together 
with  the  true  weights  and  measures  by  which  they  are 
to  be  prepared  and  mixed ;  and  containing  such  other 
matter  and  things  relating  thereto  as  the  General 
Council  shall  think  fit,  to  be  called  British  Pharmaco- 
poeia, which  shall  for  all  purposes  be  deemed  to  be 
substituted  throughout  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
for  the  several  above-mentioned  pharmacopoeias.' 

In  the  United  States,  the  Massachusetts  Medical 
Society  published  a  Pharmacopoeia  in  1808,  and  the 
New  York  Hospital  issued  one  in  1816;  but  through- 


out the  United  States  the  practice  of  Pharmacy  wan 
er*eedmgly  unsettled,  and  a  National  Pharmacopoeia 
remained  a  great  desideratum.  Accordingly, on  Janu- 
ary I,  182(t.  a  general  medical  convention,  composed 
of  delegates  from  incorporated  and  nnincorpnrated 
medical  societies  throughout  the  United  States,  assem- 
bled at  Washington,  and  appointed  a  committee  of  five 
to  prepare  the  Pharmacopoeia  agreed  upon  by  the  con- 
vention. The  volume  was  published  in  1820,  and  a  sec- 
ond edition  in  1828;  subsequently,  arrangements  were 
made  for  decennial  revisions  of  the  work.  The  commit- 
tee of  1S40.  before  publishing  their  revision,  solicited 
the  co-operation  of  the  Colleges  of  Pharmacy  of  Boa- 
ton,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia;  and  in  the  call  foi 
the  convention  to  meet  in  1850,  the  incorporated  Col- 
leges of  Pharmacy,  and  medical  colleges  and  societies, 
were  invited  to  send  delegates;  and  in  this,  ;rs  in  the 
subsequent  revisions,  essential  service  has  bien  ten- 
dered to  the  committee  by  the  labours  of  the  Colleges 
of  Pharmacy.  The  revision  of  1830  was  published  in 
1831;  that  "of  1840  in  1842;  that  of  1850  in  1851; 
that  of  1860  in  1863;  nnd  that  of  1870  in  1873.  See 
Pharmacopceia,  in  Supplement,  vol.  x. 

PHA'RMACY  (from  the  Gr.  pharmacon,  a  medi- 
cine) is  that  department  of  Materia  Medica  (q.  v.) 
which  treats  of  the  collection,  preparation,  preserva- 
tion, and  dispensing  of  medicines.  It  is  synonymous 
with  Pharmaceutical  Chemistry. 

PHA'ROS.    See  Light-house. 

PHARSA'LUS,  now  Fersala,  anciently  a  town 
of  Thessaly,  to  the  south  of  Larissa,  on  the  river  Eni- 
peus,  a  branch  of  the  Peneus  (now  the  Salamhria), 
and  historically  notable  mainly  for  the  great  battle 
fought  here  between  Ca?sar  and  Pompey.  August  9, 
48  B.  C.  Pompey  had  about  45.000  legionaries.  Toon 
cavalry,  and  a  great  number  of  light-arrned  auxilia- 
ries. Caesar  had  22,000  legionaries  anil  1000  German 
and  Gallic  cavalry.  The  battle-cry  of  Caesar's  army 
was  '  Venus  victrixj  that  of  Pompey's  ^Hercules  in- 
victus.1  Caesar's  right  wing  began  the  battle  by  an 
attack  on  the  left  wing  of  Pompey,  which  was  speed- 
ily routed.  Pompey  fled  into  the  camp,  and  his  army 
broke  up  ;  Caesar's  troop  stormed  his  camp  aliout  mid- 
day, and  he  himself,  awaking  as  from  stupefaction, 
fled  to  Larissa.  whither  Ca?sar  followed  him  next  day. 
Caesar,  according  to  his  own  account,  lost  only  30  cen- 
turions and  200  soldiers;  other  accounts  make  his 
loss  1200.  On  Pompey's  side  about  6000  legionaries 
fell  in  battle,  and  more  than  24,000,  who  had  fled, 
were  taken,  whom  Cajsar  pardoned,  and  distributed 
among  his  troops. 

PHARYNGOBRA'NCHII,  a  sub-order  of  Lepto 
cardian  fishes,  characterised  by  respiratory  processes 
projecting  from  above  the  pharynx  into  the  large  cav- 
ity of  the  mouth.  The  P.  have  a  tubular  heart,  and 
are  the  lowest  in  organisation  of  all  fishes.  The  spe- 
cies are  very  few.     See  Laxcelet. 

PHARYNGOGNA'THI,  a  group  of  percifonr. 
fishes,  in  the  system  of  Muller  and  Owen ;  partly 
Acanthopterous  and  partly  Malacopterovs  in  the  sys- 
tem of  Cuvier;  some  of  them  also  Cycloid,  ami  seme 
Ctenoid.  In  Cope's  system  the  latter  only  are  in- 
cluded under  this  name,  and  are  a  subdivision  of  the 
perciform  order.  Their  common  characteristic  is  the 
union  of  the  lower  pharyngeals  into  one  bone. 

PHA'RYKX(Gr.)  is  the  name  of  that  part  of 
the  alimentary  canal  which  lies  behind  the  ni.-e, 
mouth,  and  larynx.  It  is  a  museulo-meml  ranous 
sac,  situated  upon  the  cervical  portion  of  the  verte- 
bral column,  and  exter  Jing  from  the  base  of  the 
skull  to  the  level  of  the  fifth  cervical  vertebra, 
where  it  becomes  continuous  with  the  CEsophagua 
(q.  v.).  Its  length  is  about  four  inches  and  a  halt, 
it  is  broader   in    its   transverse   than  in  its   antero- 

463 


PHASCOGALE*-PHASES. 


posterior  diameter,  and  its  narrowest  point  is  at 
its  termination  in  the  oesophagus.  Seven  foramina 
or  openings   communicate  with  it — viz.,  the   two 


Jflg.  1. — The  Pharynx  laid  open  from  behind  : 
1,  a  section  of  the  ba^e  of  the  skull  ;  2,  2,  the  walls  of  the 
pharynx  drawn  to  either  side ;  3,  3,  the  posterior  nares, 
separated  by  the  vomer  ;  4,  4,  the  extremities  of  the  Eusta- 
chian tubes;  5,  the  soft  palate;  6,6,  7,  7,  its  postirior  and 
anterior  pillars;  8,  the  root  of  the  tongue;  9,  the  epiglottis 
overhanging;  10,  the  opening  of  the  larynx  ;  11,  the  posterior 
part  of  the  larynx  ;  12,  the  opening  into  the  oesophagus,  whose 
external  surface  is  seen  at  13 ;  14,  the  trachea. — (From 
Wilson.) 

posterior  nares  or  nostrils,  at  the  upper  and  front 
part  of  the  P. ;  the  two  Eustachian  tubes,  opening 
on  the  outer  surface  of  the  preceding  orifices ;  the 
mouth ;  the  larynx  ;  and  the  oisophagus. 

The  P.  is  composed  of  an  external  muscular  coat ; 


Fig.  2.— External  View  of  the  Muscles  of  Pharynx  : 
I,  the  orbicularis  oris  muscle;  2,  the  Buccinator  muscle;  3, 
portion  of  lo»ver  jaw,  part  of  which  is  cut  away ;  4,  pierygo- 
maxillary  ligament;  5,  the  hyoid  bone;  e|  the  thyroid 
cartilage ;  7,  the  bicoid  cartilage ;  8,  the  trachea  ;  9,  the 
oesophagus,  with  the  recurrent  laryngeal  nerve  lying  between 
it  and  the  trachea  ;  10,  the  sty  o-pharynneus  muscle;  11,12, 
13,  the  superior,  middle,  and  inferior  constrictor  muscles. 

a  middle  fibrous  coat   called  the  pharyngeal  apo- 
neurosis, thick  above  where  the  muscular  coat   is 
absent,  and  gradually  thinning    as    it    descends : 
46*  ' 


and  a  mucous  coat,  continuous  with  the  mucoua 
membrane  of  the  mouth  and  nostrils.  The  muscular 
coat  requires  special  notice.  It  is  composed  of  a 
superior,  middle,  and  inferior  constrictor  muscle  on 
either  side,  together  with  two  less  important  muscles, 
termed  the  stylo-pharyngeal  and  palato-pharyiigeal 
muscles.  When  the  food,  after  being  sufficiently 
masticated  and  mixed  with  saliva,  is  thrown,  by 
the  action  of  the  tongue,  into  the  P.,  the  latter  is 
drawn  upwards  and  dilated  in  different  directions  ; 
the  elevator  muscles  (the  stylo-pharyngeal  and 
palatopharyngeal)  then  relax,  and  the  P.  descends ; 
and  as  soon  as  the  morsel  is  fairly  within  the  sphere 
of  action  of  the  constrictor  muscles,  they  succes- 
sively contract  upon  it,  and  gradually  pass  it 
onwards  to  the  oesophagus.  Independently  of  its 
importance  in  the  act  of  swallowing,  the  P.  exerts 
an  influence  on  the  modulation  of  the  voice, 
especially  iu  the  production  of  the  higher  notes. 

The  P.  is  not  so  frequent  a  seat  of  disease  as 
many  other  parts  of  the  intestinal  tube.  In  cases 
of  Diphtheria  (q.  v.)  it  is  visually  the  chief  seat  of 
the  disease.  It  is  liable  to  ordinary  inflammation 
or  pharyngitis — an  affection  characterised  by  pain, 
especially  in  swallowing,  without  redness  in  the 
fauces  or  change  of  voice.  Little  in  the  way  of 
treatment,  except  low  diet  and  attention  to  the 
bowels,  is  required ;  and  the  inflammation  usually 
terminates  in  resolution.  Sometimes,  however,  it 
proceeds  to  suppuration,  and  abscesses — dangerous 
partly  from  inanition  consequent  on  inability  to 
take  food,  but  chiefly  from  suffocation  due  to  pres- 
sure on  the  larynx — are  formed.  These  abscesses 
are  more  dangerous  in  the  lower  than  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  P.,  and  are  more  common  in  young 
children  than  in  adults.  The  treatment  consists  in 
opening  the  abscess,  which  gives  immediate  relief ; 
but  the  operation  must  be  conducted  with  great 
care,  and  the  incisiou  made  as  nearly  as  possible  to 
the  mesial  line,  in  consequence  of  the  large  adjacent 
blood-vessels. 

PHASCO'GALE,  a  genus  of  marsupial  quadru- 
peds, of  which  one  species,  P.  penicillata,  about  the 
size  of  a  rat,  gray,  with  long  soft  hair,  and  a  long 
tufted  tail,  is  common  in  most  parts  of  Australia, 
lives  chiefly  in  the  hollows  of  decayed  trees,  and 
preys  on  small  animals  of  every  kind.  It  is  much 
disliked  by  the  colonists,  to  whom  it  is  known  as 
the  Tapoa  Tafa,  on  account  of  its  depredations  in 
poultry-yards  and  larders.  It  is  very  agile  and 
audacious. 

PHASE'OLUS.     See  Kidney-beak. 

PHA'SES  (Gr.  phasis,  appearance),  the  different 
luminous  appearances  presented  by  the  moon  and 
several  of  the  planets,  sometimes  the  whole,  a  part, 
or  none,  of  the  luminous  surface  being  seen  from 
the  earth.  The  various  phases  of  the  moon,  and 
the  reasons  of  them,  are  mentioned  under  the  article 
Moon.  Mercury  and  Venus,  being  inferior  planets, 
present  to  an  observer  on  the  earth  exactly  similar 
phases  to  those  of  the  moon ;  but  the  former  require, 
instead  of  a  month,  periods  of  116  and  584  days  respec- 
tively to  pass  through  a  complete  series  of  phases. 
The  superior  planets,  to  a  certain  extent,  exhibit 
phases,  but  the  luminous  surface,  as  seen  from  the 
earth,  only  varies  from  the  full  illumination  seen 
when  they  are  in  conjunction  with  the  earth  to  a 
slightly  gibbous  appearance  when  they  attain  their 
greatest  elongation  ;  and  their  distance  from  the 
sun  is  so  great  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  earth, 
as  to  render  the  variation  in  the  form  of  their 
luminous  surface  not  observable,  except  in  the  case 
of  Mars  and  occasionally  of  Jupiter.  Galileo  was  the 
first  to  observe  the  phases  of  Venus,  and  he  <"cn- 
sidered  them  as  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  proofs 


PHASIANID/E-PHEASANT. 


of  the  truth  of  the  Copernioan  system.  The  great 
brilliancy  of  Mercury,  and  ita  nearness  to  the  Bun, 
prevented  its  phases  from  being  so  easily  noticed, 
but  they  wen-  at  last  observed  by  Masius,  and 
ein-Ji'  by  many  other  astronomers.  The  term  phases 
is  frequently  applied  to  designate  the  successive 
stages  of  an  eclipse,  lunar  or  solar. 

PHASIA'NID^E,  a  family  of  gallinaceous  birds, 
including  pheasants,  argus,  Macartney  cock,  fowls, 
unpeyans,  tragopans,  &c. ;  its  limits,  however,  being 
e.\U  nded  by  some  ornithologists  to  include  peacocks 
and  turkeys  (Pawmidcs),  which  differ  from  it  by  no 
very  considerable  character.  The  hind-toe  is  placed 
higher  on  the  tarsus  than  the  front  toes,  so  that 
only  the  tip  touches  the  ground.  The  wings  are 
short. 

PHA'SIS,  a  river  in  Colchis,  now  called  the 
PilON.  It  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Caucasus,  flows 
in  a  generally  western  direction,  and  enters  the 
Euxine  near  the  ancient  city  of  Phasis. 

PHA'SMIDiE  (Gr.  phasrna,  a  spectre),  a  family 
of  orthopterous  insects,  allied  to  Mantidce,  but 
differing  in  having  the  fore-legs  similar  to  the  other 
legs,  and  used  like  them  for  locomotion,  not  for 
combat  and  prehension,  in  the  want  of  stemmatic 
eyes,  and  in  the  similarity  of  the  first  joint  of  the 
thorax  to  the  other  joints.  They  are  insects  of 
very  extraordinary  appearance,  inhabiting  tropical 
countries,  and  spending  their  lives  upon  trees  and 
shrubs,  the  tender  shoots  of  which  they  devour. 
Some  of  them  resemble  green  leaves  ;  some  resemble 
brown  and  withered  leaves  ;  whilst  others,  wingless, 
or  nearly  so,  and  with  much  elongated  bodies — one 
species  nine  inches  in  length — resemble  dried  twigs. 
To  these  peculiarities  they  owe  their  safety  from 
enemies,  eluding  observation,  for  their  motions  are 
sluggish.  Some  are  known  as  Leaf  Insects,  Spectre 
Insects,  Walking-sticks,  &c.  The  larvae  of  the  P. 
much  resemble  the  perfect  insect. 

PHEASANT  (Phasianus),  a  genus  of  gallinaceous 
birds  of  the  family  Phasianidce ;  having  a  rather 
short  strong  bill,  a  little  curved ;  the  cheeks  and 
skin  surrounding  the  eyes  destitute  of  feathers,  and 
warty  ;  the  wings  short ;  the  tail  long,  its  feathers 
so  placed  as  to  slope  down,  roof-like,  on  either  side, 
the  middle  feathers  longest ;  the  tarsus  of  the  male 
furnished  with  a  spur.  The  males  of  all  the  species 
are  birds  of  splendid  plumage ;  the  females  have 
shorter  tails  and  dull  or  sombre  colours.  There  are 
numerous  species,  natives  of  the  warm  and  temperate 
parts  of  Asia.  The  Common  P.  (P.  Colchlcus)  is 
said  to  have  been  brought  from  the  banks  of  the 
Phasis,  in  Colchis,  to  the  south  of  Europe,  at  a  very 
remote  period,  its  introduction  being  ascribed  in 
classic  legends  to  the  Argonauts.  From  the  Phasis  it 
derived  its  Greek  name  Pfiasianos,  the  origin  of  its 
name  in  English  and  other  modern  languages.  It 
was  soon  naturalised  in  Europe,  and  is  now  diffused 
over  almost  all  the  temperate  parts  of  it.  The  date 
of  its  introduction  into  Britain  is  not  known, 
but  was  certainly  before  the  end  of  the  13th  c. :  it 
has  long  been  plentiful  in  plantations  and  game- 
pi  eserves,  and  has  been  introduced  into  almost  every 
part  of  the  country  suitable  to  its  habits.  The 
abundance  of  pheasants  in  Britain,  however,  is  to 
be  ascribed  chiefly  to  careful  game-preservation, 
without  which  the  race  would  in  all  probability 
soon  be  extirpated.  No  kind  of  game  falls  so  easy 
a  prey  to  the  poacher. 

A  minute  description  of  the  Common  P.  is  unneces- 
sary. The  head  and  neck  of  the  male  are  steel-blue, 
reflecting  brown,  green,  and  purple  in  different 
lights ;  the  back  and  wings  exhibit  a  fine  mixture 
of  orange-red,  black,  brown,  and  light  yellow ;  the 
breast  and  belly  are  golden-red,  each  feather 
342 


margined  with  black,  and  reflecting  tints  of  gold 
ami  purple,  The  whole  length  of  a  male  I',  is  about 
three  feet,  of  which  the  tail  often  measures  two 
feet.  The  entire  length  of  the  female  is  about  two 
feet.  The  general  colour  of  the  female  is  pale 
yellowish-brown,  varied  with  darker  brown,  tlio 
sides  of  the  neck  tinged  with  red  and  green.  The 
ordinary  weight  of  a  P.  is  about  two  pounds  and  a 
half;  but  when  pheasants  are  abundantly  supplied 
with  food,  and  kept  undisturbed,  they  are  some- 
times four  pounds  or  four  pounds  aud  a  half  iu 
weight. 

The  nest  of  the  P.  is  on  the  ground,  and  is  a  rude 
heap  of  leaves  and  grasses,  in  which  eleven  or 
twelve  olive-brown  eggs  are  laid.  But  in  the  half- 
domesticated  state  in  which  it  exists  in  many 
English  preserves,  the  P.  does  not  pay  that  attention 
to  its  eggs  and  young  which  it  does  when  more  wild, 
and  not  unfrequently  continues  to  lay  eggs  for  a 
considerable  time,  like  the  domestic  fowl ;  the  eggs 
being  removed  by  the  gamekeeper,  and  hatched  by 
hens,  along  with  eggs  from  nests  found  among  clover 
and  hay  in  the  season  of  mowing.  Very  young 
pheasants  must  be  carefully  supplied  with  ant^ 
eggs,  maggots,  &c,  and  the  whole  difficulty  of  rear- 
ing them  is  in  their  earliest  stage.  Pheasants  feed 
very  indiscriminately  on  berries,  seeds,  roots,  young 
shoots  of  plants,  worms,  insects,  &c.  Beans,  pease, 
corn,  and  buckwheat  are  not  unfrequently  sown  for 
them  in  open  places  in  woods ;  and  they  scrape  up 
bulbous  and  tuberous  roots  in  winter.  They  roost 
in  trees  at  no  great  height  from  the  ground,  and 
poachers  sometimes  capture  them  by  burning  sul- 
phur below  them.  During  the  moulting  season,  they 
do  not  ascend  trees  to  roost,  but  spend  the  night 
on  the  ground,  when  they  fall  a  ready  prey  to  foxen. 
They  are  fond  of  woods  with  a  thick  undergrowth, 
in  which,  when  disturbed,  they  naturally  seek 
shelter,  running  whilst  it  is  possible,  rather  than 
taking  flight.  The  male  P.  takes  flight  much  more 
readily  than  the  female,  which,  apparently  trusting 
to  her  brown  colour  to  escape  observation,  often 
remains  still  until  the  sportsman  is  almost  upon  her. 
The  males  and  females  do  not  associate  together 
except  during  the  breeding  season,  but  small 
numbers  of  one  sex  are  often  found  in  company. 
The  '  short  crow'  of  the  males  begins  to  be  heard  in 
March.  In  England  and  Scotland  pheasant-shooting 
legally  begins  on  the  1st  of  October,  and  ends  on 
the  3d  of  February.  The  pheasants  turned  out  from 
the  gamekeeper's  breeding-yard  into  a  preserve,  are 
in  general  supplied  with  abundance  of  food  during 
winter,  and  come  to  the  accustomed  call  as  readily 
as  any  kind  of  poidtry,  so  that  the  sportsmanship 
of  a  battue,  in  which  they  are  killed  by  scores  or 
hundreds,  is  of  the  lowest  kind.  It  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  mention  that  the  flesh  of  the  P.  is  in 
very  high  esteem  for  the  table. 

The  female  P.,  in  old  age,  or  when  from  any 
cause  incapable  of  the  functions  of  reproduction, 
sometimes  assumes  the  plumage  of  the  male.  The 
P.  exhibits  a  remarkable  readiness  to  hybridise  with 
other  gallinaceous  birds.  A  hybrid  between  it  and 
the  common  fowl  is  not  unfrequent,  and  is  called  a 
Pero.  Hybrids  between  the  P.  and  Black  Grouse 
have  also  occurred ;  and  hybrids  are  supposed  to 
have  been  produced  between  the  P.  and  Guinea- 
fowl,  and  the  P.  and  turkey.  None  of  these 
hybrids,  however,  have  ever  been  known  to  be 
fertile,  except  with  one  of  the  original  species.  On 
the  contrary,  the  offspring  of  the  Common  P.  and 
the  Eing-necked  P.  (P.  torquatus)  is  perfectly 
fertile,  a  circumstance  which  is  urged  in  argument 
by  those  who  regard  them  as  mere  varieties  of  one 
species.  The  Bing-necked  P.  is  now  almost  aa 
plentiful  in  Britain  as  the  Common  P. :  it  is  a  native 


PHEASANT-SHELL— PHENYL. 


oi  the  forests  of  India  and  China,  and  is  said  not  to 
breed  with  the  Common  P.  in  a  truly  wild  state,  but 
in  Britain  they  readily  intermix.  It  is  distinguished 
by  a  white  ring  almost  surrounding  the  neck,  and 
is  of  smaller  size  than  the  Common  P.,  somewhat 
different  in  markings,  and  has  a  shorter  tail. — The 
Bohemian  P.  is  another  variety  of  a  silvery-gray 
colour. — White  pheasants  are  of  not  very  unfrequent 
occurrence.— Of  other  species  of  P.  may  be  men- 
tioned Diard's  P.  (P.  versicolor),  a  native  of  Java, 
in  which  the  prevailing  colour  is  green ;  and 
Reeves's  P.  (P.  Rp.eoesii),  a  native  of  the  north  of 
China,  in  which  white  is  the  prevailing  colour,  and 
the  tail  is  of  extraordinary  length,  so  that  a  bird  not 
larger  than  the  Common  P.  measures  eight  feet  in 
entire  length.  Of  somewhat  different  type,  and 
more  nearly  approaching  to  the  common  fowl,  are  the 
Golden  P.  (P.  pictus,  or  Thanmalia  picta)  and  the 
Silver  P.  {P.  or  GaUophaaia  mjcthemerus),  both 
natives  of  China,  and  both  hardy  birds,  the  intro- 
duction of  which  into  British  preserves  has  been 
attempted  with  good  prospect  of  success.  Both 
have  long  been  kept  in  a  state  of  domestication  by 
the  Chinese.  The  Golden  P.  is  one  of  the  most 
splendid  of  the  tribe.  It  has  a  tine  crest,  and  a  ruff 
of  orange  and  black,  capable  of  being  erected  at 
pleasure.  The  tail  is  very  long.  The  crest  and  ruff 
are  held  in  great  estimation  by  anglers  for  making 
artificial  flies. — Lady  Amherst's  P.  (P.  or  Thau- 
malia  Amherstice)  is  a  native  of  China,  resembling 
the  Golden  P.,  and  with  an  extremely  long  tail. — 
The  Silver  P.  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  power- 
ful of  the  tribe,  and  very  combative,  driving  the 
Common  P.  from  preserves  into  which  it  is  intro- 
duced. The  prevailing  colour  of  the  upper  parts 
and  tail  of  the  male  is  white,  finely  pencilled  with 
black,  the  breast  and  belly  purplish-black. — The 
name  P.  is  sometimes  extended  to  gallinaceous  birds 
of  allied  genera. 

PHEASANT-SHELL  [Phasianella),  a  genus  of 
gasteropodous  molluscs  of  the  family  TurLhiidce,  of 
which  the  shells  are  much  valued  for  their  beauty, 
and  when  they  were  rare  in  collections,  were  some- 
times sold  for  extraordinary  prices.  They  are  now 
comparatively  cheap  and  plentiful,  being  found  in 
great  numbers  on  some  parts  of  the  Australian 
coast. 

PHEI'DIAS  (Lat.  Phidias),  son  of  Charmides, 
the  greatest  sculptor  of  ancient  Greece,  born 
at  Athens  probably  between  500—490  B.C.  His 
(first  instructor  in  art  was  Hegias  of  Athens ;  he 
afterwards  studied  under  a  more  famous  master, 
Ageladas  of  Argos.  He  appears  to  have  tirst 
acquired  distinction  in  his  profession  soon  after  the 
battle  of  Salamis,  and  indeed  his  great  works  were 
all  executed  during  a  period  most  favourable  for  the 
development  and  encouragement  of  genius,  when 
Greece  was  triumphant  over  external  enemies,  and 
her  people  enjoyed  a  more  perfect  liberty  than 
almost  at  any  other  period  of  their  history.  With 
the  character  of  the  age  correspond  the  works  of  its 
poets,  particularly  of  the  tragedians  ^Eschylus, 
Sophocles,  and  Euripides,  and  of  its  sculptors, 
particularly  of  Pheidias.  Under  Cimon's  administra- 
tion the  Athenians  began  the  work  of  restoring 
their  city,  which  the  Persians  had  destroyed,  in 
more  than  its  former  magnificence,  and  to  fill  it 
with  noble  works  of  art.  P.  was  accordingly 
employed  in  making  the  colossal  brazen  statue  of 
Minerva,  Athena  Promachos,  which  was  placed 
upon  the  citadel,  and  was  executed  probably  about 
460  B.C.  To  the  government  of  Cimon  succeeded 
that  of  Pericles,  still  more  brilliant,  and  signalised 
by  an  extraordinary  development  of  art.  Pericles 
not  only  gave  to  P.  a  commission  to  execute  all  the 
466 


more  splendid  statues  that  were  to  be  erected,  but 
made  him  general  superintendent  of  all  works  of 
art  going  ou  in  the  city.  Plutarch  tells  us  that 
P.  had  under  him  architects,  statuaries,  workers 
in  copper  and  bronze,  stone-cutters,  gold  and 
ivory  beaters,  &c.  To  P.,  as  director-general  of 
all  the  skilled  artists  and  artificers  of  Athens,  we 
owe,  among  other  glorious  edifices,  the  Propyltea 
and  the  Parthenon,  the  sculptured  ornaments  of 
which  were  executed  under  his  direct  superintend* 
ence,  while  the  statue  of  the  goddess  Athene, 
the  materials  for  which  were  ivory  and  gold,  was 
the  work  of  P.  himself  (circa  438  B.C.).  This  statue 
was  clothed  with  a  golden  robe,  which  alone  was 
worth  44  talents  of  gold.  The  statue  is  gone  for 
ever,  aud  the  Parthenon  is  now  only  a  magni- 
ficent wreck,  but  we  still  possess  some  splendid 
evidence  of  the  genius  of  P.,  in  the  sculptures 
of  the  metopes,  and  friezes  of  the  temple  of  Athene. 
See  Elgin  Marbles.  Next  year  P.  went  to  Elis, 
where  he  executed  a  colossal  statue  of  Zeus  for 
the  Olympeium  at  Olympia  (q.  v.),  also  of  ivory 
and  gold  (about  433  b.  a).  This  was  reckoned 
his  masterpiece.  On  his  return  to  Athens,  poli- 
tical passions  were  running  high.  There  was 
a  strong — at  least  a  violent — party  inimical  to 
Pericles,  but  as  they  did  not  dare  to  attack  the 
great  statesman,  they  assailed  him  through  his 
friends  P.,  Anaxagoras,  Aspasia,  &c.  P.  was 
accused  of  having  appropriated  to  himself  some 
portion  of  the  gold  destined  for  the  robe  of  Athene. 
This  accusation  he  repelled  by  taking  off  the  robe 
and  weighing  it.  He  was  then  accused  of  impiety, 
for  having  introduced  his  own  likeness  and  that  of 
Pericles  on  the  shield  of  the  goddess.  On  this 
most  frivolous  and  contemptible  pretext  he  was 
thrown  into  prison,  and  died  there,  but  whether  of 
sickness  or  poison  is  uncertain.  His  death  took 
place  about  432  B.C.  The  works  executed  by,  or 
ascribed  to  P.,  were  numerous,  but  we  have  men- 
tinned  the  most  celebrated.  Their  prevailing  char- 
acteristic appears  to  have  been  an  ideal  sublimity, 
aud  even  the  imperfect  relics  that  we  possess  are 
the  most  noble  specimens  of  sculpture  in  the  world. 

PHENO'MENON  (Gr.  appearance),  the  name 
given  in  philosophy  to  an  object  or  fact  as  it  is 
perceived  by  us,  as  distinguished  from  what  it  is 
in  itself.  In  the  philosophy  of  Kant,  that,  what- 
ever it  may  be,  which  is  behind  the  phenomenon, 
and  causes  it,  is  called  the  noumenon,  as  being 
merely  assumed  or  thought  of  in  the  mind.  See 
Metaphysics,  Perception. 

PHE'NYL  (C6Hs)  is  an  organic  radical,  which  has 
been  obtained  in  the  free  state  by  several  processes. 
Its  most  important  compounds  are:  (].)  Carbolic  or 
Phenic  acid  (CelleO),  known  also  as  Phenol,  Hydrate 
of  Phenyl,  and  Pheny lie- Alcohol.  See  Carbolic 
Acid.  (2.)  Hydride  of  Phenyl  (06^"),  known  also 
as  Benzole,  Benzine,  and  Phene.  See  Benzole.  (8.) 
Mono-phenylamine,  Phenylamine  (C6H7N),  better 
known  under  the  name  of  Aniline,  one  of  the  most 
important  of  the  artificially-formed  bases;  and  Trini- 
tro-phenic,  or  Picric  acid  (C6H3N3O7). 

Aniline  derives  its  name  from  «wi7,  an  obsolete 
name  for  indigo,  which  is  one  of  the  sources  from 
which  it  is  most  readily  procured.  It  exists  amongst 
the  products  of  the  distillation  of  coal,  and  probably 
other  organic  compounds,  but  is  always  obtained 
by  the  manufacturing  chemist  either  from  indigo  or 
from  nitro-benzole.  Dr  Hofmann,  to  whom  we  are 
mainly  indebted  for  our  knowledge  of  the  chemistry 
of  this  substance,  gives  the  following  directions  for 
obtaining  it  from  indigo:  'Powdered  indigo  boiled 
with  a  highly-concentrated  solution  of  hydrate  of 
notassa,  dissolve*   with   evolution   of  hydrogen   gas 


PFTI'.ON    rillCAUAX  MARBLES. 


to  a  brownish-red  liquid,  containing  a  peculiar  acid, 
called  the  anthranilic  acid.  It  this  matter  be  trans- 
ferred to  ;i  retort,  and  still  further  heated,  it  swells 
\i\>.  and  disengages  aniline,  whicb  condenses  in  the 
form  of  oily  drops  in  the  neck  of  tli<:  retort  and  in 
the  receiver.  Separated  from  the  ammoniacal  water 
by  which  it  is  accompanied,  and  re-distilled,  it  is 
obtained  nearly  colourless.  The  formation  of  aniline 
from  indigo  is  represented  l>y  the  following  equa- 
tion : 

Iti'ilcn.  Rrdrated  Potaua. 


+      4K.IIO      4-      11,0    = 


CgIItN       +    2Kj,COs    +     II4. 

By  this  process,  the  indigo  is  made  to  yield  about 
one-fifth  of  its  weight  of  pure  aniline.  Nitro-benzole 
is  converted  into  aniline  by  the  action  of  various 
reducing  agents,  such  as  hydro-sulphate  of  ammonia, 
or  acetate  of  protoxide  of  iron  ;  and  the  distillation 
of  one  part  of  nitro-benzole,  one  part  of  acetic  acid, 
and  one  and  a  half  parts  of  iron  tilings,  is  regarded 
by  Hbfinann  as  the  best  means  of  preparing  aniline, 
which  is  now  required  in  large  quantities  for  the 
dyers. 

'  When  pure,'  says  Dr  Hofmann,  '  aniline  forms  a 
thin,  oily,  colourless  liquid,  of  faint  vinous  odour, 
and  aromatic  burning  taste.  It  is  very  volatile,  but 
has  nevertheless  a  high  boiling-point,  359°-6.  In  the 
air,  it  gradually  becomes  yellow  or  brown,  and 
acquires  a  resiuous  consistency.  Its  density  is 
1*028.  It  is  destitute  of  alkaline  re-action  on  test- 
paper,  but  is  remarkable  for  the  number  and  beauty 
of  the  crystallisable  compounds  it  forms  with  acids. 
Two  extraordinary  re-actions  characterise  this  body, 
and  distinguish  it  from  all  others — viz.,  that  with 
chromic  acid,  and  that  with  solution  of  hypochlorite 
of  lime.  The  former  gives  with  aniline  a  deep- 
gicenish  or  bluish-black  precipitate  ;  and  the  latter, 
an  extremely  beautiful  violet-coloured  compound, 
the  fine  tint  of  which  is,  however,  very  soon 
destroyed.'  In  the  manufacture  of  aniline  on  a 
larse  scale,  several  bases  having  higher  boiling- 
points  than  aniline  are  formed.  To  one  of  these — a 
beautiful  crystalline  compound,  represented  by  the 
formula  Oi2H14N.2 — the  name  of  Paraniline  has  been 
given,  from  its  being  isomeric  with  aniline.  Aniline  is 
a  substance  of  the  greatest  importance  in  theoretical 
organic  chemistry,  from  the  large  number  of  deriva- 
tives and  substitution-products  which  it  yields,  and 
for  the  knowledge  of  which  we  are  almost  entirely 
indebted  to  Hofmann,  whose  investigations  originally 
appeared  in  a  series  of  papers  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  Philosophical  Society.  These  compounds  are, 
however,  for  the  most  part  of  too  complicated  a 
nature  to  be  noticed  in  these  pages.  But,  indepen- 
dently of  its  theoretical  importance,  this  substance 
has  recently  been  extensively  employed  in  the  arts,  a 
series  of  pigments  of  unequalled  beauty  having  been 
obtained  from  it  by  the  action  of  oxidising  agents. 
It  is  to  Mr  W.  Perkin  that  we  are  indebted  for  the 
idea  of  applying  practically  the  property  possessed  by 
aniline  of  forming  violet  and  blue  solutions  with 
chromic  acid  and  with  hypochloride  of  lime,  to 
which  we  have  already  referred  ;  and  he  succeeded  in 
fixing  these  colours,  and  adapting  them  to  the  use 
of  the  dyer.  See  Dye-stuffs;  also  Utilisation  of 
the  Waste  Products  of  Coal  Gas,  by  Dr  Letheby,  in 
Thr  Chemical  News,  1867. 

(4.)  Trinitro-phenic  Acid  (C6H3X3O7"),  in  which 
three  of  the  equivalents  of  the  hydrogen  of  phe- 
nic  acid  are  replaced  by  three  equivalents  of  the 
group.  NOj."  known  also  as  Carbazotic  Acid  (q.  v.), 
and    Picric    Acid.       In    addition    to    the    remarks 


contained  in  the  article  on  Cakhazotm'  A<  in,  it  may 
ced  that  wild.-  a  solution  of  this  acid  com« 
munioa!  tit-yellow  tint  to  animal  textures, 

km,  wo,, I,  and  .silk,  it  has  no  such  effect  ',11 
tissues  composed  <>i  vegetable  fibres,  such  as 
and  linen,  and  hence  il  may  be  employed  t«, 
tain  whether  the  materi  1  ,>;  any  tissue  hc!,m_:  to 
the  animal  or  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  A  solution 
of  a  salt  of  this  acid,  when  treated  with  indigo, 
yields  a  beautiful  green  colour,  which  is  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  artificial  Bowers,  and  foi 
various  other  purposes.  In  doses  of  from  1  to  10 
grains,  it  arts   011  rabbits  as  a  strong  poison,  OOCSV- 

eioning   convulsions    and    Bp ly   death.      It    has 

been  prescribed  in  small  doses,  with  mod,  rata 
success,  in  eases  of  intermittent  fever;  but  patients 
to  whom  it  is  given  should  be  previously  informed 
that  it  possesses  the  property  of  giving  to  the  eye  a 
yellow  and,  as  it  were,  a  jaundiced  appearance.  All 
the  salts  of  this  acid  are  of  a  beautiful  red  or  yellow 
tint,  and  most  of  them  form  brilliant  crystals 
When  heated,  or  in  some  cases  when  only  struck 
they  explode  with  considerable  violence. 

PHL'ON,  in  Heraldry,  the  barbed  head  of  a  dart. 
It  is  represented  as  engrailed  on  the  inner  side,  and 
its  position  is  with  the  point  downwards,  unless 
Otherwise  blazoned. 

PHER7E,  a  powerful  city  of  Thessaly,  neai 
Mount  Pelion  ;  according  to  legend,  the  ancient  royal 
seat  of  Admetus  and  Alcestis  ;  and  afterwards  of 
political  consequence  under  'tyrants'  of  its  own 
who  long  made  their  influence  felt  in  the  affairs  o) 
Greece,  and  repeatedly  attempted  to  make  them 
selves  masters  of  Thessaly.  One  of  these  tyrants 
named  Alexander,  is  particularly  celebrated  for  his 
cruelties.  It  was  one  of  his  practices  to  bury 
innocent  persons  alive,  and  another  to  sew  them  up 
in  the  skins  of  wild  beasts  and  set  his  hounds  upon 
them.  After  a  bloody  reign  of  thirteen  years,  he 
was  slain  by  his  wife  and  her  brother,  357  b.  c. 
Five  years  later,  P.,  with  the  rest  of  Thessaly, 
became  subject  to  Plnlip  of  Macedon. —  At  P.  there 
was  a  mineral  spring,  named  Hyperia,  famous  fur 
its  healing  virtues.  A  few  ruins  at  Velestino  still 
mark  the  site  of  the  city. 

PHERECY'DES,  an  ancient  Greek  writer,  born 
in  the  island  of  Syros,  one  of  the  Cyclades,  in  the 
Gth  c.  b.c.  He  is  said  by  Diogenes  Laertius  to 
have  been  a  rival  of  Thales,  and  to  have  learned  bis 
wisdom  from  the  Egyptians  and  Chaldeans.  He 
wrote  a  Cosmogony  in  a  kind  of  prose  much 
resembling  poetry,  under  the  title  Heptamyclios,  the 
meaning  of  which  is  doubtful.  In  a  manner  rather 
poetic  than  philosophic,  be  endeavoured  in  this 
work  to  shew  the  origin  of  all  things  from  three 
eternal  principles,  Time  or  Kronos ;  Earth,  as  the 
formless  and  passive  mass  ;  and  jEther  or  Zeus,  as 
the  formative  principle.  He  taught  the  doctrine  of 
the  existence  of  the  human  soul  after  death ;  but  it 
is  uncertain  if  he  held  the  doctrine  of  the  transmi- 
gration of  souls,  afterwards  promulgated  by  his 
disciple,  Pythagoras.  Of  his  work,  only  fragments 
are  extant,  which  have  been  collected  and  elucidated 
by  Sturtz  (Gera,  1798 ;  2d  ed.,  Leip.  1S24).  -Another 
P.,  who  lived  in  the  5th  c.  B.C.,  compiled  the  mythical 
histories  of  Athens  and  other  states,  but,  except  a 
few  fragments,  the  work  is  lost.  See  Sturtz, 
Pherecydis  Fraymenta  (Leip.  1S24). 

PHIGA'LIAN  MARBLES,  the  name  now  given 
to  the  sculptured  frieze  taken  from  the  cella  of  the 
temple  of  Apollo  at  Phigalia  in  Arcadia  in  1814,  and 
transferred  to  the  British  Museum.  It  represents 
the  contests  between  the  Centaurs  and  Lapithse. 
The  Phigalian  temple  of  Apollo  is,  next  to  the 
Theseium  at  Athens,  the  most  perfect  architectural 
'  467 


PHILADELPHIA— PHIL^. 


ruin  in  all  Greece*  but  owing  to  its  sequestered  po- 
sition at  the  head  of  a  lonely  and  rocky  glen  among 
the  Arcadian  hills,  it  long  remained  unknown  in  mod- 
ern times,  except  to  the  shepherds  of  the  district;  and 
to  th s  same  circumstance  it  probably  owes,  in  part,  its 
preservation.  Chandler  first  visited  and  described  it 
in  1765;  he  was  followed  by  Gell,  Dodwell,  and 
others;  and  in  1812  it  was  very  carefully  examined 
ry  a  body  of  artists  and  scholars,  the  results  of  whose 
investigations  are  given  in  Stackelberg's  Der  Apollo- 
tcmjtel  zu  Bass'd  in  Arkadien  (Home,  1826).  The  tem- 
ple is  built  of  a  hard  yellowish-brown  limestone,  stands 
noi  tb  and  south,  was  originally  about  125  feet  long  and 
48  broad,  and  had  15  columns  on  either  side,  and  6  on 
either  front,  in  all  42,  of  which  36  still  remain. 

PHILADELPHIA,  the  metropolis  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, and  the  second  city  in  population  in  America,  is 
situated  on  the  Delaware  and  Schuylkill  Rivers,  lat. 
39°  56'  59"  N.,  long.  75°  9'  54"  W.",  96  miles  from 
the  Atlantic,  87  m.  S.  W.  of  N.  York,  and  1 36  m.  N. 
E.  of  Washington.  The  compactly-built  portion  occu- 
pies a  space  about  5  m.  long  by  3|  m.  wide,  but  the 
incorporated  city  extends  over  120  sq.  miles.  It  is 
regularly  built  in  square  blocks,  with  wide  streets, 
extending  upwards  of  350  miles.  Seven  minor 
squares  or  parks  were  laid  out  at  an  early  day;  and 
Fairmount  Park,  of  2740  acres,  upon  the  Schuyl- 
kill, is  justly  celebrated  for  its  picturesque  beauty. 
The  number  of  houses,  on  April  1,  1871,  was  122,- 
751,  of  which  114,303  were  dwelling-houses,  451 
churches,  134  public  school-houses,  964  foundries  and 
factories,  73  mills,  63  halls  and  theatres,  and  1435 
workshops  of  various  kinds. 

The  streets  are  traversed  by  about  200  m.  of  rail- 
roads, which  carried,  in  1870,  upwards  of  60,000,000 
passengers,  and  travelled  daily  over  30,000  m.  P. 
is  supplied  with  water  from  the  Schuylkill  and  Del- 
aware, through  462  m.  of  iron  mains.  The  daily  sup- 
ply from  the  Fairmount  works  alone  is  37,249.385 
gallons.  A  paid  fire  department  was  organised 
January,  1871.  Among  the  many  imposing  public 
buildings  are  Girard  College,  which  cost  $2,000,000; 
the  Custom  House,  formerly  the  U.  States  Bank,  cost 
$500,000;  U.  States  Mint,  which  cost  $200,000; 
Merchants'  Exchange,  $300,000;  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce, U.  States  Naval  Asylum,  &c.  The  State 
House  is  the  most  interesting  building  in  America.  It 
contains  Independence  Hall,  where  was  signed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  in  July,  1776.  The 
Academy  of  Music,  the  Masonic  temple,  numerous 
costly  and  ornate  churches,  among  which  are  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Cathedral,  St  Mark's  Episcopal  Church, 
and  the  Arch  St.  Methodist  Church,  with  spire  of  white 
marble,  and  the  massive  granite,  sandstone,  and  marble 
warehouses,  banks,  railroad  and  insurance  offices, 
hotels,  and  extensive  market-houses  in  various  styles 
of  Tuscan,  Grecian,  and  Byzantine,  which  rise  on 
every  side  in  the  business  districts,  attest  the  wealth 
and  enterprise  of  her  capitalists.   " 

P.  possesses  some  of  the  most  valuable  libraries  in 
the  Union,  among  which  are  the  Philadelphia  Library, 
founded  through  the  influence  of  Dr  Franklin,  and 
recently  endowed  by  Dr  James  Push  with  $1,000,- 
000;  the  Mercantile  Library;  the  libraries  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society,  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences,  the  Franklin  Institute  for  the  pro- 
motion of  the  mechanic  arts.  The  medical  schools 
of  P.  have  long  been  held  in  high  esteem,  and  at- 
tract yearly  a  large  body  of  students.  There  are  in 
P.  14  public  libraries,  34  literary,  scientific,  and  art 
associations.  47  Bible,  tract,  and  missionary  publica- 
tions, 91  charitable  and  benevolent  associations,  38 
hospitals  (3  for  the  insane,  1  for  deaf-mutes,  and  1 
for  the  blind),  15  colleges  (one  entitled  a  university), 
5  medical  colleges,  19  daily,  3  tri- weekly,  12  semi- 
weeklv  newspapers,  44  weekly,  5  semi-monthlv,  32 
■69 


monthly,  3  quarterly,  and  ]  semi-annual  publications. 
There  are  also  33  banks  (30  of  which  are  national),  5  sav- 
ings banks,  181  insurance  (S5fire,  65  life,  &c),  36c\al,7 
coal  andiron,  17  iron  and  steel, 24  mining,  19 oil, 34  rail- 
road, 17  street  railroad,  3  zinc,  and  7  ferry  companies. 

The  public  schools  of  P.  numbered,  in  1870,  3S0 
(2  high  schools),  with  an  average  attendance  of  71,- 
029  pupils,  and  12  night  schools  for  adults,  artisans, 
&c,  have  an  attendance  of  2300  pupils.  The  amount 
expended  for  public  instruction,  in  1870,  was  $1,297,- 
744.  In  1870  there  were  451  edifices  devoted  to  re- 
ligious services,  90  of  which  were  Presbyterian,  88 
Episcopal,  72  Methodist,  44  Baptist,  38  P.  Catholic, 
25  Lutheran,  16  German  Reformed,  14  Friends,  and 
38  belonging  to  minor  sects. 

Among  the  benevolent  and  reformatory  institutions 
of  P.  are  the  Eastern  State  Penitentiary  (q.  v.),  the 
Houses  of  Refuse,  the  House  of  Correction,  now  erect- 
ing at  a  cost  of  $1 ,000,000,  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital 
(q.  v.),  the  Asylum  for  the  Insane,  Wills  Hospital  for 
the  Blind,  Asylums  for  Deaf-mutes,  for  Widows  and 
Orphans,  Foster  Home  for  Children,  Houses  of  Indus- 
try, and  for  employment  of  the  poor,  the  St  Joseph's 
Hospital,  the  Episcopal  Hospital,  the  Christ  Church, 
the  St  John's  Orphan,  Magdalen,  and  coloured  orphans' 
asylums,  and  the  Union  Benevolent  Association. 

In  1 870  the  foreign  imports  were  valued  at  $1 4,952, - 
371,  the  exports  at  $16,640,478.  The  manufacturing 
establishments  of  P.  numbered,  in  1860,  6298,  and  in 

1870,  almost  10,000.  The  capital  emploved  increased 
from  $73,318,885,  in  1860,  to  $220,000,000,  in  1870, 
and  the  value  of  her  products  from  $135,979,777,  in 
1860,  to  upwards  of  $300,000,000,  in  1870,  120,000 
persons  are  directly  employed  in  her  mai  ufactures, 
whose  annual  wages  exceed  $52,000,000  The  U 
States  Navy-yard,  on  the  Delaware,  at  League  Island, 
near  the  city,  was  selected  by  the  government  as  a 
harbour  for  the  iron  monitors  out  of  service. 

The  city  is  divided  into  31  wards,  and  is  governed 
by  a  mavor  and  councils.  The.  receipts,  in  1869,  were 
$16,243*916,  of  which  $6,324,120  were  from  taxes; 
expenditures,  $8,139,560.  Assessed  value  of  real  and 
personal  property,  1871,  $500,836,832;   debt,  May  1, 

1871,  $45,259,425. 

The  climate  of  P.  is  variable,  though  milder  than 
elsewhere  in  Pennsylvania.  The  mean  temp,  for  32 
years:  spring,  510,8;  summer,  73°-6:  autumn,  54°"1  ; 
winter,  32°*9,  and  for  the  year,  53  '1.  As  regards 
population,  P.  ranks  as  the  7th  city  of  the  civilized 
world,  and  in  1850  numbered  408,762 ;  1860,  565,529 ; 
1870,673,726;    1880.846,980. 

P.  was  founded  in  1682  by  William  Penn,  on  '  a  spot 
that  seemed  to  have  been  appointed  for  a  town,'  and  of 
which  he  wrote, '  Of  all  places  in  the  world,  I  remember 
not  one  better  seated.'  Its  early  setilers  were  mostly  of 
the  Society  of  Friends.  In  1 684  it  had  2500  inhabitants. 
In  1729  was  established  the  Peiinsylvania  Gazelle, 
afterw  ards  edited  by  Franklin.  The  first  colonial  con- 
gress met  here  in  1774.  It  was  the  seat  of  the  United 
States  bank,  the  capital  of  the  United  States  till  1800, 
and  the  most  populous  city  in  America,  until  surpassed 
by  New  York. 

PHI'LiE,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  island  lying  in 
the  midst  of  the  Nile,  south  of  Syene,  beyond  the 
frontier  of  Egypt,  in  24°  l'  28"  N.  fat.  It  is  a  small 
granite  rock,  about  1000  feet  long,  and  200  feet  broad, 
on  which  is  placed  a  suite  of  buildings,  not  of  the  most 
remote  antiquity,  but  distinguished  for  great  architec- 
tural beauty.  The  oldest  of  these,  consisting  of  a  hy- 
poethral  or  roofless  hall,  was  built  in  the  reign  of  Neo 
tanebus  I.,  377 — 357  B.C.  They  are  dedicated  to  the 
goddess  Isis,  or  the  Egyptian  Venus.  The  principal 
remains  consist  of  the  great  temple  of  Isis,  erected  by 
Ptolemy  II.  or  Philadelphns,  anil  cont  lined  byr  his 
successors,  especially  by  Ptolemy  HI.,  Energetes, 
247 — 222  B.C.,  with  propylons  constructed  by  Ptolemy 


i'liiu-iMox— riiiLir  ii. 


VII.,  or  Philometer,  and  Lathyrns.  The  charming 
little  temple,  the  Maetabal  el  Pnaraonn,  or  Pharaoh's 
Bed  of  the  Arabs,  was  made  in  the  reign  of  Trajan, 
loo  a.  n.  The  temples  are  particularly  important  as 
containing  the  principal  representations  of  the  story 
of  Osiris,  his  birth,  bringing  up,  death,  and  embalm- 
ment by  lsis.  Commenced  in  the  reign  of  Nectanebus 
I.,  and  continued  by  the  Ptolemies  and  Romans,  the 
worship  of  lsis  lingered  here  till  453  a.  d.,  or  sixty 
years  later  than  the  edict,  of  Theodosiw.  After  the 
■abjection  of  the  Blommyes  to  the  Nubian  Christians, 
the  temple  was  converted  into  n  church,  and  the 
printings  daubed  with  rand;  and,  in  577  a.  d.,  the 
bishop  Theodoras  changed  the  pronaos  of  the  temple 
ol'  lsis  into  the  church  of  St  Stephen;  and  a  Coptic 
church,  at  a  Inter  period,  was  built  out  of  the  ruins. 
The  whole  area  of  the  ancient  temple  was  about  435 
feet  long  by  135  broad,  in  the  centre  of  the  dromos. 
At  the  present  day  the  island  is  deserted.  It  is  a 
favourite  resort  of  travellers  ascending  to  Nubia,  and 
is  one  of  the  best  of  the  remaining  ruined  sites  of  an- 
cient Egypt 

Pliny,  N.  IT.,  v..  e.  29;  Servius,  JEfneid,  v.  154; 
Jones  and  Gourv,  Views  on  thelTite;  Wilkinson,  Mod- 
em Egypt,  ii.  295— 803;  Brngsch,  Seisebet ichte  aus 
JEgypten,  p.  256 ;  Lepsius,  Reise,  p.  282. 

PHILE'MON  and  BAU'CIS,  according  to  a 
classic  myth,  finely  poetised  by  Ovid  in  bis  Meta- 
morphose-i,  were  a  married  pair,  remarkable  for  their 
mutual  love.  Jupiter  and  Mercury,  wandering 
through  Phrygia  in  human  form,  were  refused  hos- 
pitality by  every  one,  till  this  aged  pair  took  them 
in,  washed  their  feet,  and  gave  them  such  humble 
fare  as  they  could  provide.  On  going  away,  the 
gods  took  them  with  them  to  a  neighbouring  moun- 
tain, on  looking  from  which  they  saw  their  village 
covered  with  a  flood,  but  their  own  cottage  changed 
into  a  splendid  temple.  Jupiter  permitted  them  to 
make  any  request  they  chose,  but  they  only  asked 
to  be  servants  of  his  temple,  and  that  they  might 
die  at  the  same  time.  When,  accordingly,  they  were 
seated  at  the  door  of  the  temple,  being  now  of  great 
age,  they  were  changed,  Philemon  into  an  oak,  and 
Baucis  into  a  linden.     They  felt  the  change  taking 

Edace,  and  as  long  as  the  power  remained  with  them, 
ooked  most  tenderly  upon  one  another, 

PHILEMON,  Epistle  of   Paul  to,  is  the 

shortest  of  the  four  extant  letters  which  the  apostle 
wrote  from  Horn©  during  his  captivity.  We  either 
directly  learn,  or  legitimately  infer  from  its  contents, 
that  Philemon,  who  probably  lived  at  Colossse,  was 
a  man  of  considerable  wealth,  the  head  of  a  numer- 
ous household,  and  liberal  to  the  poor.  He  had 
possessed  a  slave  called  Onesimus,  who  had  run 
away  from  him,  after — it  has  been  thought  (verse 
18) — robbing  or  defrauding  him.  Onesimus,  how- 
ever, coming  to  Rome,  had  been  brought  into  con- 
tact with  Paul,  and  converted  to  Christianity.  At 
first  the  apostle  thought  to  retain  him  as  his 
personal  attendant,  for  he  was  now,  as  he  tells  us 
(verse  9),  'Paid  the  aged  ;'  but  on  further  consider- 
ation, he  resolved  to  send  him  back  to  his  former 
master.  The  epistle  is  simply  a  brief  letter,  begging 
Philemon  to  pardon  Onesimus,  and  to  receive  him 
'  not  now  as  a  servant,  but  above  a  servant,  a 
brother  beloved.'  It  exhibits  an  exquisite  tender- 
ness and  delicacy  of  feeling,  with  all  that  tact  and 
subtlety  of  address,  by  which  Paul  was  wont  to 
find  his  way  into  the  innermost  heart  of  men.  The 
historical  evidence  of  its  authenticity  is  complete. 
Even  Baur  has  remarked  that  modern  criticism  in 
assailing  this  particular  book  runs  a  greater  risk  of 
exposing  itself  to  the  imputation  of  an  excessive 
distoust— a  morbid  sensibility  to  doubt  and  denial — 
than  in  questioning  the  claims  of  any  other  epistle 
ascribed  to  PauL 


PHILIDOB,  the  assumed  name  of  a  French 
family,  which  has  produced  many  distinguished 
musicians,  and  one  celebrated  composer.  The  real 
name  of  the  family  was  Danigan,  and  the  additional 

appellation  P.  was  assumed  by  Michel  Danigan,  the 
hautboistto    Louis   XIII.,  on   account  of   his  bavin.,' 

equalled  a  celebrated  player  on  the  same  instrument, 
named  EilidorL  The  name  was  transmitted  to  bis 
descendants,  the  most  famous  of  whom  was  his 
grandson,  Francois  Andkk  DAKIOAN,  who  was 
born  at  Oroux,  in  the  department  of  Eure  et  Loir, 
1726,  studied  music,  and  produced  a  great  uany 
comic  operas,  all  long  forgotten.  It  may  be  noticed 
that,  while  residing  in  London— whither  he  had  tied 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution — (1779),  he  s?r.  to 
music  the  'Carmen  Sajculare'  of  Horace,  a  work  which 
is  considered  by  many  as  a  masterpiece  of  musical 
art.  He  died  in  London,  31st  August  1795.  P.'s 
modern  reputation  rests  exclusively  on  his  skill  in 
the  game  of  chess,  the  principles  of  which  he  has 
laid  down  with  exceeding  clearness.  It  was  in  great 
measure  his  passion  for  this  game  which  prompted 
him  to  visit  Germany  and  Holland,  where  at  that 
time  the  most  distinguished  players  were  to  be 
found,  in  order  to  measure  his  strength  with  theirs. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  London  Chess 
Club.  Here  it  was  that  in  1777  he  published 
his  Analyse  du  Jeu  des  Echecs  (Analysis  of  the 
Game  of  Chess).  One  principle,  then  unique,  seems 
to  lie  at  the  root  of  all  P.'s  games — i.  e.,  to  maintain 
and  support  carefully  the  pieces  in  the  centre  of  the 
board — and  rather  than  deviate  from  this  principle, 
he  rejects  the  opportunity  of  making  an  effective 
and  advantageous  move.  He  practised  with  success 
the  playing  of  games  blindfold;  but  in  this  parti- 
cular he  has  been  far  surpassed  in  recent  times  by 
Harrwitz,  and  more  recently  by  Morphy. 

PHILIP  II.,  king  of  Macedonia,  and  father  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  was  born  at  Pella  in  3S2  B.  c. 
He  was  the  youngest  son  of  Amyntas  II.  and 
Eurydice.  At  Thebes,  whither  he  was  taken  as  a 
hostage  by  Pelopidas,  he  spent  part  of  his  early 
life,  employing  his  exile  in  studying  the  art  of  war, 
and  the  constitution  and  laws  of  the  Greek  states,  as 
well  as  the  literature  and  the  character  of  the  people 
—pursuits  which  were  of  the  greatest  service  to  him 
afterwards,  when  called  on  to  administer  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Macedonian  kingdom.  The  assassina- 
tion of  his  eldest  brother,  Alexander  II.,  by  Ptolemy 
Alorites,  after  a  short  reign  of  two  years  (.369 — 367 
B.  a),  and  the  death  of  his  second  brother,  Perdiccas 
III.,  in  battle  (360  B.C.),  placed  him  at  the  head  of 
affairs  in  Macedonia,  as  guardian  to  his  nephew 
Amyntas,  still  an  infant.  In  a  few  months,  P. 
made  himself  king,  the  rights  of  Amyntas  being  set 
aside.  Dangers  soon  beset  him  from  without  and 
from  within.  The  Illyrians  and  other  neighbouring 
tribes  assailed  his  kingdom  on  different  sides ;  while 
two  pretenders  to  the  throne,  urged  on  by  the 
Athenians  and  Thracians,  stirred  up  civil  commo- 
tion. But  foreign  and  domestic  enemies  soon 
disappeared  before  the  decision,  the  energy,  and  the 
wise  policy  of  the  young  king.  In  the  brief  space 
of  a  year  he  had  secured  the  safety  of  his  kingdom, 
and  had  gained  for  himself  a  dreaded  name.  At 
this  time  he  was  only  24  years  of  age.  H-jnce 
forward  his  policy  was  one  of  aggression,  and  his 
every  thought  was  directed  to  the  extension  of  his 
empire  and  the  spread  of  Macedonian  influence. 
The  Greek  towns  on  the  coast  of  Macedonia  were 
the  first  objects  of  attack.  After  possessing  himself 
of  Amphipolis  and  Pydna,  by  means  little  consistent 
with  the  faith  of  treaties,  he  handed  over  to  the 
Olynthians  the  city  of  Potidsea,  which  he  had  taken 
from  the  Athenians.  In  Thrace  he  captured  the 
small  town  Crenides,  which,  under  its  new  name, 

169 


PHILIP  III. -PHILIP  IL 


Fhilippi,  soon  acquired  great  wealth  and  fame, 
nnd  ultimately  became  celebrated  in  profane  as 
ivell  as  in  sacred  history.  The  surrounding  district 
was  rich  in  gold-mines,  which  proved  a  source  of 
great  revenue  to  P.  (about,  say,  £250.000  annually), 
and  supplied  him  plentifully  with  the  means  of 
paying  his  armies,  of  bribing  traitorous  Greeks,  and 
of  opening  the  gates  of  many  cities,  the  sieges  of 
which  might  otherwise  have  cost  the  blood  of 
thousands.  After  a  fewr  years  of  comparative  leisure, 
he  turned  his  ambitious  views  southward ;  and 
capturing  Methone  (at  the  siege  of  which  he  lost 
an  eye),  he  advanced  into  Thessaly,  and  ultimately 
to  the  Strait  of  Thermopylae,  which,  however, 
be  did  not  attempt  to  force,  as  it  was  strongly 
guarded  by  the  Athenians.  He  therefore  returned 
into  Macedonia,  and  directed  his  arms  against  the 
Tbracians,  waiting  for  a  more  fitting  occasion  to  carry 
out  his  darling  project.  Such  au  opportunity  was 
not  long  wanting.  After  capturing  all  the  towns  of 
Chalcidice — the  last  of  which  was  the  important  city 
of  Olynthus — he  made  peace  with  the  Thraciaus, 
and  next  year  with  the  Athenians,  who  had  been 
at  war  with  him  in  defence  of  their  allies  the 
Olynthiaus.  It  was  this  siege  of  Olynthus  by 
P.  which  called  forth  these  Olynthiac  orations 
of  Demosthenes,  which  are  still  admired  as  efforts 
of  oratorical  genius  hitherto  unequalled  in  any 
country.  P.  was  now  requested  by  the  Thebans 
to  interfere  in  the  war  ('the  Sacred  War')  which 
was  raging  between  them  and  the  Phocians.  He 
marched  into  Phocis,  destroyed  its  cities,  and  sent 
as  colonists  to  Thrace  many  of  the  inhabitants 
(346  B.  a).  The  place  which  the  Phocians  had 
occupied  in  the  Amphictyonic  Council  was  trans- 
ferred to  P.,  and  he  was  appointed,  jointly  with 
the  Thebans  and  Thessalians,  as  president  of  the 
Pythian  games.  His  next  step  was  to  secure  a 
footing  in  the  Peloponnese,  by  espousing  the  cause 
of  the  Argives,  Messenians,  and  others,  against  the 
Spartans.  In  339  b.  c.  the  Amphictyonic  Council 
declared  war  against  the  Locrians  of  Ainphissa  ;  and, 
iu  the  following  year,  appointed  P.  conmiander-in- 
chief  of  their  forces.  The  Athenians  were  alarmed 
at  his  approach  into  Greece  in  this  capacity,  and 
formed  a  league  with  the  Thebans  against  him  ;  but 
their  united  army  was  utterly  defeated  at  the  battle 
of  Chaaronea  (338  B.  a),  and  all  Greece  was  at  the 
feet  of  the  conqueror.  He  was  now  in  a  position  to 
enter  on  the  great  dream  of  his  later  years — viz., 
to  invade  the  Persian  empire,  and  revenge  the 
injuries  of  Greece.  Deputies  from  the  different 
states  of  Greece  assembled  in  congress  at  Corinth ; 
and  after  resolving  to  make  war  on  the  Persian 
king,  chose  P.  as  leader  of  their  armies.  Pre- 
parations were  in  progress  for  this  great  expedition 
when  he  was  suddenly  cut  off  by  the  hand  of  the 
assassin  Pausanias,  at  a  festival  celebrating  the 
marriage  of  his  daughter  with  Alexander  of  Epirus 
(336  B.  c).  A  private  grudge  at  P.,  for  neglect  to 
punish  an  insult  offered  to  Pausanias  by  Attains, 
was  said  to  be  the  motive  which  inspired  the 
murderer,  though  suspicion  is  not  wanting  that  the 
deed  was  done  at  the  instigation  of  Alexander  and 
his  mother  Olympias,  who  had  retired  from  the 
court  in  disgust  at  P.'s  marriage,  the  year  previous, 
with  Cleopatra,  daughter  of  Attalus,  one  of  his 
generals.  P.  was  a  man  given  to  self-indulgence 
and  sensuality ;  he  was  faithless  in  the  observance 
of  treaty  obligations,  aud  unscrupulous  as  to  the 
means  by  which  he  gained  his  ends  ;  but  he  had  to 
d<»al  with  factious  and  faithless  opponents,  which 
miy  help  to  explain,  if  it  does  not  justify  his  policy; 
while  his  clemency  as  a  victor  has  won  the  admir- 
ation even  of  the  virtuous  Cicero,  who  pronounces 
him  'always  great,'  Of  his  force  and  energy  of 
470 


character,  his  acuteness,  fertility  of  invention,  and 
eloquence,  it  is  impossible  to  speak  too  highly.  He 
was  at  the  same  time  a  lover  of  learning,  and  a 
liberal  patron  of  learned  men.  He  reigned  from 
359  to  336  B.C. 

PHILIP  III.,  of  Macedon.  On  the  death 
of  Alexander  the  Great  at  Babylon  in  323  B.  c, 
the  army  elected  as  king,  under  the  name  of 
Philip  111.,  Arrhidaeus,  son  of  Philip  and  Philinna 
of  Larissa,  one  of  his  many  wives.  He  was  a 
youth  of  weak  understanding,  and  was  totally  unfit 
for  the  duties  of  government.  His  wife  Eurydico 
(daughter  of  Amyntas,  son  of  Perdiccas  III.),  whom 
he  married  in  322  B.  c,  endeavoured,  on  their  return 
to  Macedonia,  to  oppose  the  measures  of  Poly- 
sperchon  and  Olympias  in  support  of  the  young 
Alexander,  posthumous  son  of  Alexander  the  Great 
and  Koxaua.  But  her  army  was  defeated;  she  herself 
was  taken  prisoner;  and,  along  with  her  husband, 
was  put  to  death  in  317  B.  c 

PHILIP  II.,  King  of  Spain,  the  only  son  of 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.  (q.  v.)  and  Isabella  of 
Portugal,  was  born  at  Valladolid,  21st  May  1527. 
He  was  brought  up  in  Spain,  and  carefully  educated 
under  the  superintendence  of  able  tutors,  by  whose 
instructions  lie  greatly  profited,  becoming  an  accom- 
plished linguist  and  mathematician,  and  a  con- 
noisseur in  architecture  and  the  fine  arts.  But  all 
attempts  to  indoctrinate  him  with  the  chivalric 
ideas  of  the  time  were  titterly  futile.  From  his 
very  childhood  he  was  distrustful  and  reserved  ;  he 
invariably  spoke  with  slowness  and  an  air  of  deep 
reflection  which  was  too  marked  to  be  wholly  real, 
and  exhibited  in  his  manners  a  sang-froid  which 
even  in  his  early  years  was  rarely  disturbed  by 
ebullitions  of  passion.  While  still  very  young  he 
was  intrusted,  under  the  direction  of  a  council,  with 
the  government  of  Spain,  and  in  1543  he  espoused 
Mary  of  Portugal,  who  died  three  years  after.  In 
1548  he  went  to  join  his  father  at  Brussels,  aud 
there  adopted  the  multitudinous  equipage  and 
minute  and  pompous  etiquette  of  the  late  Bur- 
gundian  court,  which  from  this  time  he  retained. 
While  at  Brussels,  P.  was  presented  to  his  future 
subjects,  and  was  at  the  same  time  fully  initiated 
into  his  father's  policy,  the  two  chief  items  of  which 
were  the  maintenance  and  extension  of  absolute 
rule  throughout  his  dominions,  and  the  support 
and  propagation  of  the  Catholic  religion.  In 
1554  he  married  Mary  Tudor,  Queen  of  England, 
and  to  gain  the  support  of  that  country  to  his 
political  projects,  and  at  the  same  time  restore 
it  to  the  Roman  Catholic  pale,  he  laid  aside  his 
ordinarily  cold  and  haughty  demeanour,  and  laboured 
to  ingratiate  himself  with  his  wife's  subjects, 
taking  the  utmost  care  to  avoid  exciting  the 
national  jealousy  of  foreign  influence.  But  his 
plans  were  discovered  and  frustrated,  and  this  dis- 
appointment, combined  with  the  annoyance  to  which 
he  was  subjected  by  the  jealousy  of  his  wife, 
prompted  him  to  leave  England  (which  he  did  for 
ever),  and  return  to  Brussels  (September  1555).  In 
the  following  month  he  became,  by  the  abdication 
of  his  father,  the  most  powerful  potentate  of  Europe, 
having  under  his  sway,  Spain,  the  Two  Sicilies,  the 
Milanese,  the  Low  Countries,  Franche  Comte. 
Mexico,  and  Peru ;  his  European  territories  being 
more  fertile,  and  their  inhabitants  more  wealthy 
and  prosperous,  than  any  others  on  the  continert, 
while  his  army  was  the  best  discipliued,  and  head  id 
by  the  greatest  generals  of  the  age.  The  treasury 
alone  was  deficient,  having  been  drained  by  'he 
enormous  expenditure  of  his  father's  wars.  P. 
was  eager  to  begin  the  crusade  in  favour  of 
Catholicism,    but    he    was    compelled    to    postp  >»« 


PHILIP  II.— PHILIP  V. 


it,   owin^    to    a    league   which    had   been   formed 
between  Prance, the  Pope, and  the  Sultan,  to  deprive 

him  of  his  Italian  dominions.  He  soon  i^ot  over 
his  religions  scruples  at  engaging  to  warfare  with 
tlic  pope,  and  intrusted  the  defence  of  the  Sicilies 
to  Alva  ((].  v.),  who  Bpeedily  drove  out  the  pope  and 
the  French,  and  conquered  the  papal  territories,  while 
P.  himself  vigorously  prosecuted  the  war  against 
France  in  the  north,  and  defeated  the  French  at 
St  Quentin  (q.  v.)  (August  10,  1657)  and  Gravelines 
(July  1 3,  1553),  These  reverses  forced  the  French 
(the  pope  having  already  made  a  separate  treaty) 
to  agree  to  terms  of  peace  at  Chateau-Cambrcsia 
(April  •_',  1559).  l'.'s  wife  was  now  dead,  and  after 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  obtain  the  hand  of  her 
or,  Queen  Elizabeth,  he  espoused  Isabella  of 
France,  and  returned  to  Spain,  where  from  this 
time  he  always  resided.  Before  leaving  the  Low 
Countries,  he  solemnly  promised  to  withdraw  almost 
the  whole  of  his  Spanish  troops  who  preyed  upon 
the  peaceful  Flemings,  but  he  firmly  refused  to 
annul  or  modify  the  rigorous  edicts  of  his  father 
against  heretics.  His  realm  being  now  at  peace, 
he  resolved,  as  a  necessary  preliminary  to  the  carry- 
ing out  of  his  great  proselytising  scheme,  to  replenish 
his  treasury,  a  thing  impossible  without  forced 
contributions,  which,  at  that  time,  could  only  be 
obtained  in  those  countries  over  which  he  held 
absolute  rule — viz.,  Spain  and  America.  He  there- 
fore set  about  establishing  absolute  government  in 
those  of  his  states  that  were  in  possession  of  some- 
thing like  free  institutions,  and  with  this  view 
sought  to  introduce  the  Inquisition  into  the  Low 
Countries  and  Italy.  But  the  introduction  of  this 
instrument  of  tyranny  was  successfully  resisted  in 
Naples  and  the  Milanese  ;  in  Sicily  its  powers  were 
so  shackled  as  to  render  it  quite  a  harmless  insti- 
tution; but  these  failures  only  stimulated  him  the 
more  to  establish  it  in  all  its  pride  and  power  in 
the  Low  Countries.  For  a  number  of  years  it  con- 
tinued in  vigorous  action  in  that  country ;  but  the 
natural  result  of  such  a  course  of  conduct  was  a 
formidable  rebellion  of  all  classes,  Catholic  and 
Protestant,  which  was  partially  successful — the 
northern  portion  (the  'seven  united  provinces') 
establishing  its  independence  in  1570.  In  this  con- 
flict the  resources  of  Spain  were  largely  expended, 
and  to  replenish  his  treasury  in  the  speediest 
manner  possible,  P.  exacted  enormous  contributions 
from  Spain,  abolishing  all  special  communal  or  pro- 
vincial privileges  and  rights  which  might  interfere 
with  his  actions,  and  suppressing  all  insurrection 
and  discontent  by  force  of  arms  or  the  Inquisition. 
During  the  first  half  of  his  reign  he  engaged  in 
a  desultory  warfare  with  the  Barbary  corsairs,  who 
were  supported  by  the  Turks — the  only  memorable 
incident  of  which  was  the  famous  naval  victory  of 
Lepauto  (q.  v.),  won  September  1G,  1571.  In  15SL) 
the  direct  male  line  of  Portugal  having  become 
extinct,  P.  laid  claim  to  the  throne,  and  after  the 
Dukj  of  Alva  had  occupied  the  kingdom  with  an 
army,  the  Spanish  monarch's  title  was  recognised 
by  the  Portuguese  estates.  His  enmity  to  England 
on  account  of  the  anti-Spanish  policy  of  Queen 
Elizabeth  incited  him  to  attempt  the  conquest  of 
that  country,  but  his  most  formidable  attempt 
failed  signally.  See  Armada.  After  the  accession 
of  Catharine  de  Medicis  to  power,  France  and  Spain 
diew  closer  the  bonds  of  amity  which  had  previously 
subsisted  between  the  two  countries  ;  but  the  refusal 
of  Catharine  to  adopt  P.'s  plans  for  the  wholesale 
daughter  of  heretics  produced  a  coolness  in  their 
relations.  However,  when  Henry,  king  of  Navarre, 
a  Hngnenot,  became  heir-presumptive  to  the  throne, 
P.  allied  himself  with  the  Guises  and  the  other  chiefs 
of  the  Catholic  party  who  were  in  rebellion,  and  his 


obstinate  persistence  in  these  intrigues  aftei  the  cause 
of  the  Guises  was  shewn  to  be  hopeless,  [prompted 
Henry  to  declare  war  against  him.  The  Spaniards 
had  the  worst  of  it,  and  I*.  was  .lad  to  conclude  the 
treaty  of  Vervins  (2d  May  1598).  He  died  in  the 
EflCUrial  at  Madrid,  on  13th  September  of  the  samo 
year.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  P.  Mas  gifted  with 
great  abilities,  but  he  was  also  a  visionary,  especially 
in  politics,  and  engaged  in  so  many  grand  enterprises 
at  once  as  to  overtask  his  resources  without  leading 
to  any  good  or  profitable  result.  No  Bingle  king- 
dom in  Europe  could  have  long  stood  against  him, 
but  he  was  always  at  war  with  at  least  two  ;it  a 
time;  and  even  the  splendid  opportunity  width  the 
extinction  of  the  direct  Capetian  line  in  1589  gave 
him  for  uniting  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal  in  one 
great  monarchy,  could  not  restrain  this  unfortunate 
peculiarity.  His  fanatical  enthusiasm  for 
licism,  in  which  he  was  surpassed  by  no  man  who 
ever  lived,  and  the   zeal  with   which   he   pel 

all  heretics  through  the  Inquisition,  combined  with 

the  odious  tyranny  of  his  secular  government  to 
degrade  Spain,  by  breaking  the  proud  and  chivalrous 
spirit  which  had  been  the  source  of  its  pre-eminence 
among  European  nations,  while  his  virulent  per- 
secutions of  the  industrious  Moriscoes,  and  Ida 
oppressive  exactions,  put  a  stop  to  the  commerce  of 
the  country.  By  his  fourth  wife,  Anne  of  Ac  stria, 
he  had  a  son,  Philip  III. 

PHILIP  V.,  king  of  Spain,  and  the  founder  of 
the  Bourbon  dynasty  in  that  country,  was  the  second 
son  of  the  Dauphin  Louis  (son  of  Louis  XIV.)  of 
France,  and  was  born  at  Versailles,  December  19, 
16S3.  The  last  king  of  Spain  of  the  Hapsburg 
dynasty,  Charles  II.,  had  successively  promised  the 
succession  to  the  throne  to  Charles,  archduke  of 
Austria,  the  great  grandson  of  Philip  III.  of  Spain, 
and  to  P.,  then  Duke  of  Anjou,  the  son  of  his  own 
eldest  sister;  but  becoming  cognizant  of  a  secret 
treaty  which  had  been  agreed  to  between  England, 
France,  and  Holland  for  the  partition  of  Spain,  he, 
to  prevent  the  dismemberment  of  his  kingdom,  left 
by  will  the  succession  to  P.  of  Anjou.  France 
immediately  seceded  from  the  partition  treaty,  and, 
on  the  death  of  Charles  II.  in  1701),  P.,  who  .was  the 
favourite  candidate  among  the  Spaniards,  with  the 
exception  of  those  in  the  eastern  provinces,  took 
possession  of  the  kingdom  (April  21,  1701);  and,  to 
gain  over  Savoy  to  his  side,  and  thus  create  a 
diversion  in  Italy  against  Austria,  he  married 
Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  Victor  Amadeus.  War 
almost  immediately  broke  out  between  the  rival 
claimants,  Charles  being  supported  by  the  'grand 
alliance,'  which  included  England,  Austria,  and 
Hollaud,  and  subsequently  (January  1702)  Prussia, 
Deumark,  aud  Hanover  (May  1703),  Portugal,  and 
(October  1703)  Savoy.  See  SUCCESSION,  War  of 
Spanish.  The  fortune  of  war  was  mostly  on  the 
side  of  the  allies ;  but  France  and  Spain  carried  on 
the  contest  heroically,  and,  though  at  great  sacri- 
fices, the  throne  was  secured  to  P.  by  the  peace 
of  Utrecht  (April  11,  1713).  In  the  following 
year  the  queen  died,  and  P.  espoused  Elizabeth 
Farnese  of  Parma,  who  immediately  induced  her 
husband  to  commit  the  reins  of  government  to 
Alberoui  (q.  v.)  ;  in  fact,  so  much  was  the  weak- 
minded  king  under  the  influence  of  his  talented 
young  wife,  that  he  granted  everything  she  asked. 
'  He  was,'  says  Sismondi,  '  remarkable  fi  >r  good 
nature,  he  hail  few  faidts  and  as  few  virtues,  his 
sentiments  were  just  and  honourable,  but  he  was 
wholly  deficient  in  energy ;  he  had  no  taste  for 
anything  beyond  devotional  exercises  aud  the 
chase ;  he  was  made  to  be  governed,  and  he  was 
so  all  his  life.'  Alberoni's  adventurous  foreign 
policy,  which   at  first  succeeded  in  restoring  the 

r        J  471 


PHILIPPE  II.— PHILIPPE  IV. 


Spanish  rule  in  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  brought  down 
upon  Spain  the  wrath  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance 
i  France,  England,  Holland,  and  Austria),  and  war 
was  only  averted  hy  his  being  dismissed  ;  but  his 
dismissal  was  really  produced  by  his  neglecting  to 
further  the  queen's  pet  scheme  of  providing  sove- 
reignties in  Italy  for  her  sons,  who  seemed  to  have 
little  chaiue  of  obtaining  the  throne  of  Spain.  The 
strong  bond  of  union  which  had  hitherto  subsisted 
between  Spain  and  France  was  broken,  in  1725,  by 
the  refusal  of  the  regent  of  the  latter  country 
to  fulfil  certain  matrimonial  agreements ;  but  four 
years  afterwards  the  two  countries  joined  with 
England  and  Holland  against  the  emperor,  and  in 
1731  P.  took  measures  to  recover  the  old  Spanish 
possessions  in  Italy.  The  war  which  followed  at 
last  satisfied  the  queen  by  giving  the  kingdom  of 
the  Two  Sicilies  to  her  son  Charles  (1736),  but  P., 
in  attempting  to  obtain  still  greater  advantages 
over  Austria,  wa3  led  into  a  war  of  which  he  was 
not  destined  to  see  the  result.  He  died  at  Madrid, 
July  9,  1746. 

PHILIPPE  II.,  better  known  as  Philippe 
Auguste,  king  of  France,  was  the  son  of  Louis 
VII.  and  Alix  of  Champagne,  and  was  born  in 
August  1165.  He  was  crowned,  in  1179,  during 
the  life  of  his  father,  succeeded  him  in  1180, 
and  proved  one  of  the  greatest  monarchs  of  the 
Capetian  dynasty.  His  marriage  with  Isabella  of 
Haiuault,  a  descendant  of  the  Carlo  vingians,  estab- 
lished more  completeby  the  right  of  his  family  to 
the  throne  of  France.  He  first  made  war  upon  the 
Count  of  Flanders,  to  obtain  the  districts  of  Verrnau- 
dois,  Valois,  Amienois,  and  Artois,  which  belonged 
to  his  wife,  and,  after  various  fortune,  obtained 
Amienois  and  part  of  Vermandois  at  once,  and  the 
rest  after  the  count's  deatli  in  1185.  By  the  advice 
of  St  Bernard  (q.  v.)  he  rigorously  punished  here- 
tics, despoiled  the  Jews,  absolving  their  debtors 
of  all  obligations,  excepting  one-fifth,  which  he 
transferred  to  himself ;  put  down  with  vigour  the 
numerous  bands  of  brigands  and  priest-haters  who 
devastated  the  country  and  burned  the  churches 
and  monasteries,  compelling  their  chief  leader,  the 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  to  submit  (11S6)  to  his  authority 
■ — acts  which  gave  him  great  popularity  among  his 
subjects.  He  sustained  the  sons  of  Henry  II.  of 
England  in  their  rebellions  against  their  father, 
and  conquered,  in  conjunction  with  Bichard  Cceur- 
de-Lion,  many  of  the  English  possessions  in  France. 
After  the  accession  (1282)  of  Bichard  to  the  throne, 
P.  and  he  set  out  together  on  the  third  crusade; 
but  quarrelled  while  wintering  in  Sicily,  and  this 
dissension  continuing,  P.,  after  a  sojourn  of  3A 
mouths  in  Syria,  set  out  (31st  July  1190)  on 
Lis  return  to  France,  after  taking  a  solemn  oath 
to  respect  the  integrity  of  Eiehard's  dominions  ; 
but  no  sooner  had  he  returned  than  he  entered 
into  an  arrangement  for  the  partition  of  Bichard's 
territories  in  France  with  his  unworthy  brother 
John.  Some  acquisitions  were  made,  but  Bichard's 
sudden  return  overset  the  calculations  of  the  conspir- 
ators, and  a  war  immediately  commenced  between 
the  two  monarchs,  in  which  P.  had  at  one  and  the 
same  time  to  defend  his  territories  from  the  English, 
and  the  Counts  of  Champagne,  Boulogne,  Bre- 
tagne,  and  Hainault,  who  attacked  them  on  all 
Bides.  In  order  to  obtain  money,  he  was  obliged 
to  rescind  his  edicts  against  the  Jews ;  but  the 
mediation  of  Pope  Innocent  put  an  end  (13th 
January  1 1 99)  to  a  war  which  was  productive  of  no 
other  result  than  the  exhaustion  of  the  strength 
of  the  combatants.  Bichard  of  England  died  within 
two  months  after;  but  war  almost  immediately 
recommenced  with  England,  regarding  the  respective 
claims  of  King  John  of  England  and  his  nephew 
472 


Arthur  of  Bretagne  to  the  French  heritage  of 
Bichard  Cceur-de-Lion,  which  consisted  chiefly  of 
Anjou,  Maine,  and  Touraine.  Arthur  had  applied  for 
aid  to  P.,  and  the  French  king  immediately  responded 
by  causing  the  young  duke  to  be  recognised  in  the 
above-mentioned  provinces  ;  but  a  quarrel  in  which 
he  became  involved  with  the  pope  on  account  of 
his  having  divorced  his  second  wife,  Ingelburga  of 
Denmark,  to  marry  Agnes  of  Meran,  a  Tyrolese 
princess,  compelled  him  to  leave  the  English  in 
possession  for  a  little  time  longer.  The  defeat, 
capture,  and  subsequent  murder  of  Arthur,  bow- 
ever,  again  brought  him  into  the  field.  The  English 
provinces  in  France  were  attacked  by  the  combined 
French  and  Bretons ;  Normandy  and  Boitou,  with 
the  three  disputed  provinces,  were  annexed  to 
France;  and  the  English  dynasty  in  Bretagne  dis- 
possessed by  a  French  one  (26th  October  1206). 
During  1211 — 1214,  P.  was  engaged  in  a  war  with 
King  John  of  England  and  the  Emperor  Otho  of 
Germany,  who  had  leagued  themselves  against 
him,  in  which  he  was  on  the  whole  successful. 
During  the  rest  of  his  reign,  P.  was  occupied  in 
consolidating  his  new  possessions,  and  took  no  part 
either  in  the  war  with  the  Albigeuses  or  that  in 
England,  though  his  son  Louis  (q.  v.)  went  to  the 
latter  with  an  army.  P.  succeeded  in  establishing 
the  unity  of  his  dominions,  and  in  emancipat- 
ing the  royal  authority  from  the  trammels  of  the 
papacy  and  clergy,  and  vindicated  his  sovereign 
authority  over  the  latter  as  his  subjects,  irrespective 
of  the  pope.  His  measures,  without  alienating  the 
great  feudal  lords,  tended  firmly  to  establish  his 
authority  over  them,  and  to  emancipate  the  larger 
towns  from  their  sway.  To  increase  the  unity  of 
the  kingdom,  and  strengthen  the  central  power,  he 
established  at  Paris  a  chamber  of  twelve  peers,  six 
lay  and  six  ecclesiastical,  who  almost  always  sup- 
ported his  plans,  even  against  the  court  of  Borne. 
Finally,  he  largely  improved  and  embellished  Baris, 
built  many  churches  and  other  institutions,  and 
encouraged  commercial  associations  ;  he  also  fortified 
many  of  the  chief  towns,  including  the  capital.  He 
died  at  Mantes,  July  14,  1223. 

PHILIPPE  IV.,  surnamed  Le  Bel  or  'Fair,' 
king  of  France,  the  son  of  Philippe  III.,  king  of 
France,  and  Isabella  of  Aragon,  was  born  at  Fon- 
tainebleau  in  126S,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1285. 
By  his  marriage  with  Queen  Joanna  of  Navarre,  he 
obtained  Navarre,  Champagne,  and  Brie.  For 
several  years  he  carried  on  a  struggle  with  the 
Count  of  Flanders  to  obtain  possession  of  that 
country,  and  also  seized  Guienne  from  the  English  ; 
but  was,  in  the  end,  obliged  to  restore  Guienne  and 
Flanders  beyond  the  Lys.  The  great  events  of 
P.'s  reign  were  his  war  with  the  papacy  and  the 
extermination  of  the  Knights  Templars ;  the 
former  had  it3  origin  in  the  attempt  of  the  king 
to  tax  the  clergy  as  well  as  the  laity  for  the 
heavy  expenses  of  his  numerous  wars.  Boniface 
forbade  the  clergy  to  submit  to  taxation,  while 
P.,  on  his  side,  ordered  that  neither  money  noi 
valuables  were  to  be  exported,  thus  cutting  ofT  a 
main  supply  of  papal  revenue ;  and  on  the  pope's 
legate  insolently  reprimanding  him,  he  threw  him 
into  prison.  P.  now  called  an  assembly  of  states, 
in  which  deputies  of  towns  appeared — though  not 
for  the  first  time— and  obtained  assurance  of  their 
support,  even  in  case  of  excommunication  and 
interdict.  Boniface,  in  turn,  assembled  a  council 
at  Borne  (1302),  which  supported  his  view,  and  the 
celebrated  bull,  Uham  Sanctam  (q.  v.)  was  issued. 
P.  caused  the  bull  to  be  publicly  burned,  and  with 
the  consent  of  the  states-general  confiscated  the 
property  of  those  prelates  who  had  sided  with 
the    pope.      Boniface    now    excommunicated    him, 


PHILIPPE  VI.— PHILIPPE  LE  BON. 


but  the  king,  nothing  daunted,  sent  to  Home  his 
guneral,  William  <lr  Nogaret,  who  seised  and  imj»ri- 
Buned  the  pope;  and  though  be  was  released  alter 
a  few  days  by  a  popular  rising,  be  soon  afterwards 
died.  In  1304,  P.  obtained  the  elevation  of  one  of 
bis  own  creatures  to  the  papal  chair  as  Clement  V., 
on  condition  of  his  residing  at  Avignon,  and  giving 
up  the  Knights  Templars  (q.  v.).  In  accordance 
with  tins  agreement,  the  Templars  were  seized 
(1306  L314),  and  burned  by  hundreds,  and  their 
wealth  appropriated  by  Philip.  The  grandmaster, 
Jacques  Molay,  was  burned,  18th  March  1314,  and 
when  dying  he  summoned  P.  to  compear  within  a 
year  and  a  day,  and  the  pope  within  forty  days, 
before  the  judgment-seat  of  God;  strange  to  say, 
both  the  pope  and  kin.;  died  within  the  time  men- 
tinned,  the  latter  at  Foatainebleau,  November  29, 
1314.  P.  during  his  whole  reign  steadily  strove  for 
the  suppression  of  feudalism  and  the  introduction 
of  the  Roman  law  ;  but  while  thus  increasing  the 
power  of  the  crown,  and  also  that  of  the  third 
estate,  he  converted  royalty,  which  was  formerly 
protecting,  kind,  and  popular  to  the  mass  of  the 
people,  into  a  hard,  avaricious,  and  pitiless  task- 
master. Under  him  the  taxes  were  greatly  in- 
creased, the  Jews  persecuted,  and  their  property 
confiscated  ;  and  when  these  means  were  insuffi- 
cient to  satisfy  P.'s  avarice,  he  caused  the  coinage 
to  be  greatly  debased  ;  yet  he  was  an  able  monarch, 
and  under  him  France  was  extended  almost  to  its 
present  limits  on  the  north  and  east. 

PHILIPPE  VI.,  of  Valois,  king  of  France,  was 
the  smi  of  Charles  of  Valois,  younger  brother  of 
Philippe  IV,  and  succeeded  to  the  regency  of  France 
on  the  death  of  Charles  IV.,  the  proclamation  of  a 
kiim  being  deferred  on  accouut  of  the  pregnancy  of 
Charles  lV.'s  widow;  but  on  her  giving  birth  to  a 
daughter,  P.  caused  himself  to  be  crowned  king  at 
Reims  (May  29,  1328),  and  assumed  royal  authority. 
His  right  to  the  throne  was  denied  by  Edward  I1L 
of  England,  the  grandson  of  Philippe  IV,  who 
declaimed  that  females,  though  excluded  by  the  Salic 
law,  could  transmit  their  rights  to  their  children, 
and  therefore  insisted  upon  the  superiority  of  his  own 
claims.  P.,  however,  was  not  only  already  crowned 
king,  but  he  had  the  support  of  the  people.  His 
reign  commenced  gloriously,  for  marching  into 
Flanders  to  support  the  count  against  his  rebellious 
subjects,  he  wiped  out  the  disgrace  of  Courtrai  by 
Vanquishing  the  Flemings  at  Cassel  (August  2.'5,  1328). 
He  was  obliged  to  give  up  Navarre  (q.  v.),  as  the  Salic 
law  of  succession  did  not  apply  to  it,  but  he  retained 
Champagne  and  Brie,  paying  for  them  a  consider- 
able annual  stipend.  P.  seems  to  have  had  no 
6ettled  plan  of  government,  and  no  systematic  po- 
litical action;  his  acts  were  regulated  by  the  whim 
of  the  hour,  and  were  mostly  calculated  to  gratify 
Ids  own  vanity  and  love  of  show.  From  1330 
to  1336,  constant  encroachments  had  been  made 
upon  the  English  possessions  in  France,  till  at  last 
Edward  III.'s  patience  was  exhausted ;  and,  on 
August  21,  1337,  he  formally  declared  war,  and 
a  commencement  of  this  terrible  hundred  years' 
contest  was  made  both  in  Guienne  and  Flanders  ; 
it  was  carried  on  languidly  for  several  years,  the 
onlv  prominent  incident  being  the  destruction  of  the 
French  fleet  off  Sluys  (June  2-4,  1310).  In  March 
1343,  P.  established  the '  gabelle,'  or  monopoly  of  salt, 
a  heavy  percentage  tax  ou  all  mercantile  transactions. 
The  constant  round  of  fete3  and  tournaments  at 
court  was  never  interrupted,  even  when  the  war 
had  well-nigh  exhausted  the  wealth  of  the  country, 
for  the  money  to  carry  them  on  was  immediately 
provided  by  some  new  tax  or  fresh  confiscation. 
In  1346,  Edward  III.  landed  in  Normandy,  ravaged 
the  whole  country  to  the   environs   of  Paris,  and 


totally  defeated  P.  at  Crecy  (q.  v.).  A  truce  wai 
then   concluded,  but  the   devoted   kingdom   had   no 

sooner  been  released  from  war,  than  destruction  in 

another  and  a  more  terrible  form,  that  of  the  '  Black 
Death'  (q.  v.),  threatened  it.  The  wild  extrava- 
gance of  the  court  was  nothing  lessened  by  this 
visitation  ;  but  the  financial  embarrassments  in 
which  P.  found  himself,  compelled  him  to 
to  the  passing  of  a  law  11338)  which  gave  to  the 
assembly  of  the  states  the  sole  power  of  imposing 
taxes.  He  received  Dauphine  in  gift  in  1349, 
purchased  Majorca  from  its  unfortunate  ki  | 

died  August  'J-',  1350,  neither  loved  nor  respected. 
He  was  a  despiscr  of  learning,  and  a  bigot 

PHILIPPE    LE    HARDI    [Philip   the    BoU)t 

the  founder  of  the  second  and  last  ducal  house 
of  Burgundy,  was  the  third  son  of  Jean,  king  of 
France,  and  his  wife  Bonne  of  Luxemburg,  and 
was  born  January  16,  1342.  He  was  present  at 
the  battle  of  Poitiers  (1350),  and  displayed  such 
heroic  courage,  venturing  his  own  life  to  save 
that  of  his  father,  as  gained  for  him  the  sobri- 
quet of  le  JIardi,  or  'the  Bold.'  He  shared 
hi3  father's  captivity  in  England,  and  on  return- 
ing to  France  in  1300,  received  in  reward  of  hia 
bravery  the  duchy  of  Touraine,  and  subsequently 
(1303)  also  that  of  Burgundy,  being  created  at  the 
same  time  the  first  peer  of  France.  On  the  accession 
of  his  brother,  Charles  V.,  to  the  throne  of  France, 
P.  had  to  resign  Touraine,  but,  as  a  compensation, 
obtained  in  marriage  Margaret,  the  heiress  of  Flan- 
ders. In  1372,  he  commanded  the  French  army 
opposed  to  the  English,  and  took  from  them  many 
of  their  possessions.  In  13S0,  he  exerted  himself  to 
suppress  the  sedition  of  the  Flemish  towns  against 
their  count,  and  succeeded  with  some  of  the  malcon- 
tents ;  but  the  citizens  of  some  of  the  populous 
places,  especially  Ghent,  were  possessed  with  such  a 
fever  of  independence,  that  after  many  fruitless 
attempts  to  induce  them  to  return  to  their  allegi- 
ance, P.  raised  an  army,  and  inflicted  upon  them  the 
bloody  defeat  of  Piosbeck  (November  27, 1382),  leav- 
ing 20,000  of  them  on  the  field.  Flanders,  the  county 
of  Burgundy,  Artois,  Rethel,  and  Nevers  fell  to  him 
by  the  death  of  the  count  in  1384,  and  the  influence 
of  his  powTer,  combined  with  prudence  and  good 
management  on  his  part,  soon  won  the  affection  and 
esteem  of  hia  new  subjects.  Energy  and  wisdom 
characterised  his  government ;  arts,  manufactures, 
and  commerce  were  much  and  judiciously  encour- 
aged, and  his  territory  (a  kingdom  in  extent)  was 
one  of  the  best  governed  in  Europe.  During  the 
minority  and  subsequent  imbecility  of  his  nephew 
Charles  VI.  of  France,  he  was  obliged  to  take  the 
helm  of  affairs,  and  preserve  the  state  from  insur- 
rection and  sedition  within,  and  the  attacks  of  the 
English  without.  He  wa3  on  his  way  to  repel  an 
attack  of  the  latter  on  Flanders  when  he  died  at 
the  chateau  of  Hall  in  Brabant,  a  little  to  the  south- 
west of  Brussels,  April  27,  1404 

PHILIPPE  LE  BON,  Le.,  'the  Good,'  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  the  son  of  Jean  'Sans-peur'  by 
Margaret  of  Bavaria,  and  grandson  of  Philippe  the 
Bold,  was  born  at  Dijon  (the  capital  of  the  duchy), 
June  13,  1390,  and  on  the  assassination  of  his 
father  on  the  bridge  of  Montereau  at  the  instigation 
of  the  dauphin  (afterwards  Charles  VII.),  succeeded 
to  the  duchy  of  Burgundy.  Bent  on  avenging 
the  murder  of  his  father,  he  entered  into  an  offen- 
sive and  defensive  alliance  with  Henry  V.  of 
England  at  Arras  in  1419,  at  the  same  time  recog- 
nising him  as  the  rightful  regent  of  France,  and 
heir  to  the  throne  after  Charles  VL's  death.  This 
agreement,  which  disregarded  the  Salic  law,  was 
sanctioned  by  the  king,  parliament,  university,  and 
'  473 


PHILIPPEVILLE-PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 


states-general  of  France  by  the  treaty  of  Troves, 
hut    the    dauphin    declined    to    resign    his    rights, 

and  took  to  arms;  lie  was,  however,  defeated  at 
Crevant  (1423)  and  Verneuil  (1424),  and  driven 
beyond  the  Loire.     Some  disputes  with  the  English 

frompted  P.  to  conclude  a  treaty  with  the  kin'.;  of 
ranee  in  1429.  However,  the  English,  by  ceding 
to  P.  the  province  of  Champagne,  and  paying  him 
a  large  sum  of  money,  restored  him  to  their  side.  At 
this  time,  by  becoming  heir  to  Brabant,  Holland, 
Zealand,  and  the  rest  of  the  Low  Countries,  he 
was  at  the  head  of  the  most  flourishing  and 
powerful  realm  in  Western  Europe ;  but  though 
much  more  powerful  than  his  superior,  the  king  of 
France,  he  preferred  to  continue  in  nominal  subjec- 
tion. Smarting  under  some  fresh  insults  of  the 
English  viceroy,  and  being  strongly  urged  by  the 
pope,  he  made  a  final  peace  (1435)  with  Charles, 
who  gladly  accepted  it  even  on  the  hard  conditions 
which  P.  prescribed.  The  English,  in  revenge, 
committed  great  havoc  among  the  merchant  navies 
of  Flanders,  which  irritated  P.  to  such  an  extent 
that  he  declared  war  against  them,  and  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  king  of  France,  gradually  expelled 
them  from  their  French  possessions.  The  imposition 
of  taxes,  which  were  necessarily  heavy,  excited  a 
rebellion,  headed,  as  usual,  by  the  citizens  of  Ghent, 
but  the  duke  inflicted  upon  them  a  terrible  defeat 
(July  145!),  though  he  wept  over  a  victory  bought 
witli  the  hlood  of  20,000  of  his  subjects.  The  latter 
part  of  his  reign  was  filled  with  trouble  caused  by 
the  quarrels  between  Charles  VII.  and  his  son,  the 
Dauphin  Louis  (afterwards  Louis  XL),  who  had  fled 
from  his  father's  court,  and  sought  shelter  from  P., 
although,  after  ascending  the  throne,  far  from 
shewing  gratitude,  he  tried,  in  the  most  dishonour- 
able manner,  to  injure  his  benefactor.  P.  died  at 
Bruges,  July  15,  1467,  deeply  lamented  by  his  sub- 
jects. Under  him,  Burgundy  was  the  most  wealthy, 
prosperous,  and  tranquil  state  in  Europe ;  its  ruler 
was  the  most  feared  and  admired  sovereign  of  his 
time,  and  his  court  far  surpassed  in  brilliancy 
those  of  his  contemporaries.  Knights  and  nobles 
from  all  parts  of  Europe  flocked  to  his  jousts  and 
tournaments. 

PHILIPPEVILLE,  a  thriving  town  and  seaport 
of  Algeria,  in  the  province  of  Constantine,  and  forty 
miles  north-north-east  of  the  city  of  that  name,  on 
the  Gulf  of  Stora,  between  Cape  Boujaroun  and 
Cape  de  Fer.  It  was  laid  out  in  1S3S  by  Marshal 
Valee,  on  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  liussicada,  aud 
is  one  of  the  prettiest  towns  in  Algeria,  and 
thoroughly  French  in  its  character.  It  is  an  impor- 
tant entrepot  of  the  commerce  of  the  east  of  Algeria, 
and  the  country  in  the  viciuity  is  picturesque  and 
fertile,  producing  grain,  tobacco,  cotton,  flax,  and 
fruits.  It  contains  numerous  public  offices,  a  large 
hospital  and  dispensary,  Catholic  and  Protestant 
churches,  public  library  and  museum,  theatre,  &c. 
In  the  vicinity  are  quarries  of  the  famous  Filfila 
marble.  A  harbour  has  recently  been  constructed, 
including  a  pier  and  dock,  which  afford  shelter  to 
small  merchant  ships  in  bad  weather.  There  are  here 
several  establishments  for  curing  fish,  and  trade  is 
carried  on  in  grain  and  in  fabrics  of  native  manu- 
facture. Philippeville  is  the  chief  station  of  the 
railway  for  the  province  of  Constantine.  Population 
(1872),  13,022. 

PHILI'PPI,  a  city  of  Macedonia.  It  was  named 
lifter  Philip  IL  of  Macedon,  who  conquered  it  from 
Thrace  (up  to  which  time  it  had  been  called  Crenides, 
or  the  '  Place  of  Fountains '),  and  enlarged  it 
because  of  the  gold-mines  in  its  neighbourhood. 
Philip  worked  the  mines  so  well,  that  he  got  from 
them  1000  talents  a  year.  It  is  famous  on  account 
474 


of  the  two  battles  fought  in  42  B.  C.  between  Antony 
and  Octavianus  on  the  one  side,  and  the  republicans 
under  Brutus  and  Cassius  on  the  other.  The  first 
engagement  was  undecided ;  in  the  second,  20  days 
after,  the  republic  finally  perished.  The  apostle 
Paul  founded  a  Clrristian  church  here  in  53  A.  D.,  to 
which  one  of  his  epistles  is  addressed.  The  ruins  of 
the  city  still  bear  the  name  of  Philippi,  or  Feliba. 

PHILI'PPIANS,  Epistle  to  the,  one  of  the 
latest  of  the  Pauline  epistles.  It  was  transmitted 
from  Home  probably  about  the  year  G3  a.  d.,  through 
Epaphroditus,  apparently  a  pastor  of  the  Philippian 
church,  who  had  been  sent  to  minister  to  the 
necessities  of  the  apostle.  The  Philippian  church 
was  looked  upon  with  peculiar  tenderness  and  affec- 
tion by  Paid.  It  was  the  first  fruits  of  his  evan- 
gelisation in  Europe  ;  its  members  were  singularly 
kind  towards  him  ;  again  and  again,  when  he  was 
labouring  in  other  cities,  such  as  Thessalonica  and 
Corinth,  they  sent  him  contributions  that  he  might 
not  be  burdensome  to  his  new  converts,  and  now 
they  had  sent  one  of  the  brethren  all  the  way  to 
Home  with  presents  for  him,  knowing  that  he  was  in 
bonds,  and  suspecting — what  was  in  fact  the  case — 
that  he  might  be  in  sore  straits  for  his  daily  bread. 
His  letter  to  them  is  deeply  affecting.  It  contains 
not  so  much  of  doctrinal  matter,  as  of  a  warm  out- 
pouring of  his  personal  feelings  towards  his  friends 
at  Philippi.  The  historical  evidence  in  favour 
of  the  authenticity  of  the  Epistle  is  so  strong, 
that  it  could  hardly  give  way  to  any  internal 
criticism ;  and  the  objections  of  this  kind,  urged 
by  Baur,  Schwegler,  and  others  of  the  Tubingen 
school,  who  regard  it  as  a  Gnostic  composition 
of  the  2d  c,  are  regarded  as  preposterous  even  by 
many  Biblical  scholars  who  do  not  profess  to  be 
orthodox. 

PHILI'PPICS,  originally  the  three  orations  of 
Demosthenes  against  Philip  of  Macedon.  The  name 
was  afterwards  applied  to  Cicero's  orations  against 
the  ambitious  and  dangerous  designs  of  Mark 
Antony.  It  is  now  commonly  employed  to  desig- 
nate any  severe  and  violent  invective,  whether  oral 
or  written. 

PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS,  lie  to  the  north 
of  Borneo  and  Celebes,  in  5°  30'— 19°  42'  N.  lat., 
and  117°  14' — 120°  4'  E.  long.  They  are  moie 
than  1200  in  number,  with  an  area  estimated  from 
113,500  to  150,000  square  miles.  Pop.  4,319,264, 
three-fourths  of  whom  are  subject  to  Spain,  the  re- 
mainder governed,  according  to  their  own  laws  and 
customs,  by  independent  native  princes. 

Luzon,  in  the  north,  has  an  area  of  51,300  square 
miles,  and  Mindanao,  or  Magindanao,  in  the  south, 
fully  25,000.  The  islands  lying  between  Luzon 
aud  Mindanao  are  called  the  Bissayas,  the  largest  of 
which  are — Samar,  area  13,020  square  miles ; 
Mindoro,  12,600;  Panay,  11,340;  Leyte,  10,OSO ; 
Negros,  6300;  Masbate,  4200;  and  Zebu,  2352. 
There  are  upwards  of  a  thousand  lesser  islands  of 
which  little  is  known.  To  the  south-west  of  the 
Bissayas  lies  the  long,  narrow  island  of  Paragoa  or 
Palawan,  formed  of  a  mountain -chain  with  low 
coast-lines,  cut  with  numerous  streams,  and  exceed- 
ingly fertile.  The  forests  abound  in  ebony,  log- 
wood, gum-trees,  and  bamboos.  Area,  8820  square 
miles.  To  the  north  of  Luzon  lie  the  Batanen, 
Bashee,  and  Babuyan  Islands,  the  two  first  groups 
having  about  8000  inhabitants,  the  last  unpeopled. 

The  Sooloo  Islands  form  a  long  chain  from  Min- 
danao to  Borneo,  having  the  same  mountainous  and 
volcanic  structure  as  the  P.  I.,  and  all  are  probably 
fragments  of  a  submerged  continent  Many  active 
volcanoes  are  scattered  through  the  islands; 
May  on,  in  Luzon,  and  Buhayan,  in  Mindanao,  of^en 


PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 


causing  great  devastation.  The  mountain-chains 
run  north  and  south,  and  never  attain  a  greater 
elevation  than  7000  feet.  The  islands  have  many 
rivers,  the  coasts  are  indented  with  deep  bays,  and 
there  are  many  lakes  in  the  interior.  Earthquakes 
are  frequent  and  destructive,  Manila,  the  capital 
having  been  nearly  destroyed  l>y  one  in  ISO.'i.  On 
February  3,  1S04,  another  terrific  earthquake  visited 
the  province  of  Zamboango,  in  Mindanao,  levelling 
all  the  houses  to  the  ground,  ami  causing  some  of 
the  smaller  islands  to  disappear.  The  soil  is 
extremely  fertile,  except  where  extensive  marshes 
occur.  In  Mindanao  are  numerous  lakes,  which 
expand  during  the  rainy  seasons  into  inland  seas. 
Kain  may  he  expected  from  May  to  December,  and 
from  June  to  November  the  laud  is  flooded.  Violent 
hurricanes  are  experienced  in  the  north  of  Luzon 
and  west  coast  of  Mindanao.  Especially  during  the 
changes  of  the  monsoons,  storms  of  wind,  rain, 
thunder  and  lightning  prevail  The  weather  is  very 
fine,  and  heat  moderate,  from  December  to  May, 
when  the  temperature  rapidly  rises  and  becomes 
oppressive,  except  for  a  short  time  after  a  fall  of 
ram.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  and  humid  atmos- 
phere produce  a  richness  of  vegetation  which  is 
nowhere  surpassed.  Blossoms  and  fruit  hang 
together  on  the  trees,  and  the  cultivated  fields  yield 
a  constant  succession  of  crops. 

Immense  forests  spread  over  the  P.  L,  clothing 
the  mountains  to  their  summits  ;  ebony,  iron-wood, 
cedar,  sapan-wood,  gum-trees,  &c,  being  laced 
together  and  garlanded  by  the  bush-rope  or  palasan, 
which  attains  a  length  of  several  hundred  feet.  The 
variety  of  fruit-trees  is  great,  including  the  orange, 
citron,  bread-fruit,  mango,  cocoa-nut,  guava,  tama- 
rind, rose-apple,  &c. ;  other  important  products  of 
the  vegetable  kingdom  being  the  banana,  plantain, 
pine-apple,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  tobacco,  indigo,  coffee, 
cocoa,  cinnamon,  vanilla,  cassia,  the  areca-nut, 
ginger,  pepper,  &c,  with  rice,  wheat,  maize,  and 
various  other  cereals. 

Gold  is  found  in  river-beds  and  detrital  deposits, 
being  used,  in  form  of  dust,  as  the  medium  of  ex- 
change in  Mindanao.  Iron  is  plentiful,  and  fine 
coal-beds,  from  one  to  four  feet  thick,  have  been 
found.  Copper  has  long  been  worked  in  Luzon. 
There  are  aiso  limestone,  a  fine  variegated  marble, 
sulphur  in  unlimited  quantity,  quicksilver,  ver- 
mdion,  and  saltpetre — the  sulphur  being  found 
both  native  and  in  combination  with  copper,  arsenic, 
and  iron. 

Except  the  wild  cat,  beasts  of  prey  are  unknown. 
There  are  oxen,  buffaloes,  sheep,  goats,  swine, 
harts,  squirrels,  and  a  great  variety  of  monkeys. 
The  jungles  swarm  with  lizards,  snakes,  and 
other  reptUia  ;  the  rivers  and  lakes  with  crocodiles. 
Huge  spiders,  tarantulas,  white  ants,  mosquitoes, 
and  locusts  are  plagues  which  form  a  set-off  to  the 
beautiful  fireflies,  the  brilliant  queen-beetle  (tilater 
noct'ducus),  the  melody  of  myriads  of  birds,  the 
turtle-doves,  pheasants,  birds  of  paradise,  and  many 
lovely  species  of  paroquets,  with  which  the  forests 
are  alive.  '  Hives  of  wild  bees  hang  from  the 
branches,  and  alongside  of  them  are  the  nests  of 
hummiug-birds  dangling  in  the  wind.' 

The  caverns  along  the  shores  are  frequented  by 
the  swallow,  whose  edible  nest  is  esteemed  by  the 
Chinese  a  rich  delicacy.  Some  of  them  are  also 
tenanted  by  multitudes  of  bats  of  immense  size. 
Buffaloes  are  used  for  tillage  and  draught ;  a  small 
h  jrse  for  riding.  Fowls  are  plentiful,  and  incredible 
numbers  of  ducks  are  artificially  hatched.  Fish  is 
i^  great  abundance  and  variety.  Mother-of-pearl, 
coral,  amber,  and  tortoise-shell  are  important 
articles  of  commerce. 

The  Tagals  and  Bisayers  are  the  most  numerous 


native  races.  They  dwell  in  the  cities  and  culti- 
vated lowlands;  2,500,000  being  converts  to  Itomau 
Catholicism,  and  a  considerable  number,  especially 
of  the  Bisayers,  Mohammedan.  The  mountain 
districts  are  inhabited  by  a  negro  race,  who,  in 
features,  stature,  and  savage  mode  of  living,  closely 
resemble  the  Alfoora  of  the  interior  of  Papua,  and 
are  probably  the  aborigines  driven  hack  hefore 
the  inroads  of  the  Malaya  A  few  of  the  negroes 
are  Christian,  but  they  are  chiefly  idolat 
without  any  manifest  form  of  religion,  and  roaming 
about  in  families,  without  lixed  dwelling.  The 
Mestizos  form  an  influential  part  of  the  population  ; 
by  their  activity  engrossing  the  greatest  share  of 
the  trade.  These  are  mostly  of  Chinese  fathers  and 
native  mothers.  Few  Spaniards  reside  in  the  P.  I., 
and  the  leading  mercantile  houses  are  English  and 
American.  The  Chinese  exercise  various  trades 
and  callings,  remaining  only  for  a  time,  ami  never 
bringing  their  wives  with  them.  The  principal 
languages  are  the  Tagalese  and  Bisayan.  Rice, 
sweet  potatoes,  fish,  flesh,  and  fruits  form  the  food 
of  the  Tagals  and  Bisayers,  who  usually  drink  only 
water,  though  sometimes  indulging  in  cocoa- wine. 
Tobacco  is  used  by  all.  They  are  gentle,  hospitable, 
fond  of  dancing  and  cock-fighting. 

With  the  exception  of  two  Spanish  brigades  of 
artillery  and  a  corps  of  engineers,  the  army  is  com- 
posed of  natives,  and  consists  of  seven  regiments  of 
infantry  and  one  of  cavalry.  There  is  also  a  body 
of  Spanish  militia  in  Manila,  whom  the  governor,  as 
commander  of  the  naval  and  land  forces,  may  call 
out  in  an  emergency.  The  navy  has  four  steam- 
ships, one  brig,  six  gun-boats,  and  a  great  number  of 
feluccas  for  coast  service. 

Education  is  far  behind,  and  similar  to  what  it 
was  in  Europe  during  the  middle  ages.  There  is  an 
archbishop  of  Manda  and  bishops  of  New  Segovia, 
Nueva  Caceres,  and  Zebu.  Religious  processions 
are  the  pride  of  the  people,  and  are  formed  with 
great  parade,  thousands  of  persons  carrying  wax- 
candles,  &c. 

The  natives  not  only  build  canoes,  but  slaps  of 
considerable  tonnage.  They  weave  various  textde 
fabrics  of  silk,  cotton,  abaca,  and  very  fine  shawls 
and  handkerchiefs  from  the  fibre  of  pine-apple 
leaves.  These  are  called  pinas,  and  often  sell  for 
one  or  two  ounces  of  gold  apiece.  The  pinilian  is 
the  finest  sort,  and  is  only  made  to  order — one  for 
the  queen  of  Spain  costing  oOO  dollars.  They  work 
in  horn,  make  sdver  and  gold  chains,  fine  hats  and 
cigar-cases  of  fibres,  and  beautiful  mats  in  different 
colours,  ornamented  with  gold  and  sdver. 

The  governor-general  is  appointed  by  the  sovereign 
of  Spain,  and  resides  at  Manila.  There  are  also  a 
lieutenant-governor,  governors  of  provinces,  and 
chiefs  of  pueblos  or  townships,  \vTho  are  elected 
yearly.  Acting  governors  reside  also  at  Zambo- 
anga  in  Mindanao,  and  Ilodo  in  Panay.  They  are 
appointed  for  six  years  by  the  governor-generaL 

The  revenue  amounts  to  about  £2,100,000,  and 
the  expenditure,  including  subsidies  to  Spain,  nearly 
the  same.  In  1870  the  budget  was — receipts,  £2,451,- 
918;  expenditure.  £2,475,009.  In  1858  the  personal 
tax  produced  £401,793,  and  the  government  mono- 
polies, of  which  tobacco  is  the  chief,  £1,499,990. 
To  Spain  was  remitted  £210,802.  The  gross  receipts 
of  the  tobacco  monopoly  were  £1,062,041,  of  which 
63  per  cent,  was  expended  in  paying  for  tobacco, 
manufacturing  it,  and  other  charges,  leaving  37  per 
cent,  of  clear  profit. 

The  principal  exports  are  sugar,  tobacco,  cigars, 
indigo,  Manila  hemp,  or  Abaca  (q.  v.) — of  whish 
25,000  tons  are  annually  exported — coffee,  rice,  dye- 
woods,  hides,  gold-dust,  and  bees'-wax  Cotton, 
woollen,  and  silk  goods,  agricultural  implements, 


PHILIPPINS— PHILISTINES. 


watches,  jewellery,  &c,  are  imported.  British  and 
American  merchants  enjoy  the  largest  share  of  the 
business,  the  imports  to  Great  Britain  being  upwards 
of  £1,500,000  sterling  yearly,  and  the  exports  thither 
nearly  of  the  same  value.  There  are  seven  British 
nouses  established  at  Manila,  and  one  at  Iloilo  in 
the  populous  and  productive  island  of  Panay,  which 
is  the  centre  of  an  increasing  trade.  The  total 
exports  and  imports  of  the  P.  I.  have  a  value  of 
about  £6,000,000  yearly. 

The  Sooloo  Islands  have  a  population  of  150,000  : 
•re  governed  by  a  sultan,  whose  capital  is  Sung,  u 
66°  T  N.  lat.,  and  120°  55'  51"  E.  long.,  who  also 
rules  over  the  greatest  part  of  Paragoa,  the  northern 
corner  only  being  subject  to  Spain. 

Luzon  has  a  population  of  2,500,000,  one-fifth  part 
being  independent ;  the  Bissayas  islands,  2,000,000,  of 
whom  three-fourths  are  under  Spanish  rule.  The 
population  of  Panay  amounts  to  750,000,  and  that 
of  Zebu  to  150,000.  Of  the  numbers  in  Mindanao 
nothing  is  known ;  the  districts  of  Zamboanga, 
Misamis,  and  Caragan,  with  100,000  inhabitants, 
being  all  that  is  subject  to  Spain.  The  greater 
part  of  the  island  is  under  the  sultan  of  Mindanao, 
resident  at  Selanga,  in  7°  9'  N.  lat.  and  124°  38'  E. 
long.,  who,  with  his  feudatory  chiefs,  can  bring 
together  an  army  of  100,000  men.  He  is  on  friendly 
terms  with  the  Spaniards.  Besides  Manila,  there 
are  very  many  large  and  important  cities,  especially 
in  Luzon,  Panay,  and  Zebu.  The  great  centres  of 
trade  are  Manila  in  Luzon,  and  Iloilo  in  Panay. 

The  P.  I.  were  discovered  in  1521  by  Magellan, 
who,  after  visiting  Mindanao,  sailed  to  Zebu,  where, 
taking  part  with  the  king  in  a  war,  he  was  wounded, 
and  died  at  Mactan,  26th  April  1521.  Some  years 
later  the  Spanish  court  sent  an  expedition  under 
Villabos,  who  named  the  islands  in  honour  of  the 
Prince  of  Asturias,  afterwards  Philip  II.  For  some 
time  the  chief  Spanish  settlement  was  on  Zebu ; 
but  in  15S1  Manila  was  built,  and  has  since  con- 
tinued to  be  the  seat  of  government. 

PHI'LIPPINS,  a  Russian  sect,  so  called  from 
the  founder,  Philip  Pustoswiiit,  under  whose  leader- 
ship they  emigrated  from  Eussia  in  the  end  of  the 
17th  c,  are  a  branch  of  the  Raskolniks  (q.  v.). 
They  call  themselves  Starowerski,  or  '  Old  Faith 
Men,'  because  they  cling  with  the  utmost  tenacity 
to  the  old  service-books,  the  old  version  of  the 
Bible,  and  the  old  hymn  and  prayer-books  of  the 
Russo-Greek  Church,  in  the  exact  form  in  which 
these  books  stood  before  the  revision  which  they 
underwent  at  the  hands  of  the  patriarch  Nekon 
in  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  There  are  two 
classes  of  the  Raskolniks — one  which  recognises  popes 
(or  priests) ;  the  other,  which  admits  no  priest  or 
other  clerical  functionary.  The  P.  are  of  the  latter 
class ;  and  they  not  only  themselves  refuse  all 
priestly  ministrations,  but  they  regard  all  such 
ministrations — baptism,  marriage,  sacraments — as 
invalid ;  and  they  rebaptise  all  who  join  their  sect 
from  other  Prussian  communities.  All  their  own 
ministerial  offices  are  discharged  by  the  Starik,  or 
parish  elder,  who  for  the  time  takes  the  title  of  pope, 
and  is  required  to  observe  celibacy.  Among  the 
P.  the  spirit  of  fanaticism  at  times  has  run  to  the 
wildest  excesses.  They  refuse  oaths,  and  decline  to 
enter  military  service ;  and  having,  on  account  of  this, 
and  many  other  incompatibilities  of  the  system 
with  the  Russian  practice,  encountered  much  perse- 
cution, they  resolved  to  emigrate.  Accordingly,  in 
1700,  under  the  leadership  of  Philip  Pustoswiait,  they 
settled  partly  in  Polish  Lithuania,  partly  afterwards 
in  East  Prussia,  where  they  still  have  several  small 
settlements  with  churches  of  their  own  rite.  They 
are  reported  to  be  a  peaceable  and  orderly  race. 
Their   principal  pursuit  is   agriculture;   and  their 


thrifty  and  industrious  habits  have  secured  for 
them  the  goodwill  of  the  proprietors,  as  well  as  of 
the  government. 

PHILIPS,  Ambrose,  was  born  in  Shropshire  in 
1675.  He  studied  at  St  John's  College;  Cambridge, 
and  took  his  degree  of  M.A.  in  1700.  In  1709 
his  Pastorals  appeared,  along  with  those  of  Pope,  in 
Tonson's  Miscellany ;  and  the  same  year,  having 
gone  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Copenhagen,  he 
addressed  from  thence  a  *  Poetical  Letter '  to  the 
Earl  of  Dorset,  which  was  published,  with  a  warm 
eulogiura  from  Steele,  in  the  Taller.  In  1712,  he 
brought  on  the  stage  The  Distressed  Mother,  a 
tragedy  adapted  from  Racine's  Andromaque,  which 
had  great  success.  He  subsequently  wrote  two 
other  tragedies,  but  they  proved  failures.  Some 
translations  from  Sappho,  which  appeared  in  the 
Spectator,  added  greatly  to  P.'s  reputation,  but 
Addison  is  believed  to  have  assisted  in  these  classic 
fragments.  Some  exaggerated  praise  of  P.  having 
appeared  in  the  Guardian,  Pope  ridiculed  his 
Pastorals  in  a  piece  of  exquisite  irony,  which  led 
to  a  bitter  feud  between  the  poets.  P.  even 
threatened  personal  chastisement,  and  hung  up  a 
rod  in  Button's  Coffee-house,  but  no  encounter  took 
place.  One  of  the  names  fastened  upon  P.  was  that 
of  '  Namby  Pamby,'  arising  from  a  peculiar  style  of 
verse  adopted  by  him  in  complimentary  effusions, 
consisting  of  short  hues  and  a  sort  of  infantine 
simplicity  of  diction,  yet  not  destitute  of  grace  or 
melody.  The  accession  of  the  House  of  Hanover 
proved  favourable  to  the  poet ;  he  was  appointed 
paymaster,  and  afterwards  a  commissioner  of  the 
lottery  ;  and  going  to  Ireland  as  secretary  to  Arch- 
bishop Boulter,  he  became  secretary  to  the  Lord 
Chancellor,  M.P.  for  Armagh,  and  registrar  of  the 
Prerogative  Court.  He  died  in  1749.  P.  is  some- 
what conspicuous  in  literary  history  from  thu 
friendship  of  Addison  and  the  enmity  of  Pope ; 
but  his  poetry,  wanting  energy  and  passion,  has 
fallen  out  of  view. 

PHI'LIPSTOWN,  a  market  and  post  town 
(formerly  the  assize  town)  of  King's  County,  pro- 
vince of  Leinster,  Ireland,  47  miles  south -west 
from  Dublin.  Its  charter  dates  from  1567  ;  and  in 
the  reign  of  James  II.  it  obtained  the  privilege  of 
sending  two  members  to  parliament.  This  privilege 
was  withdrawn  at  the  Union.  It  is  at  present, 
and  has  long  been  a  place  of  hardly  any  trade  and 
entirely  without  manufacture,  and  the  town  has 
fallen  still  more  into  decay  since  the  withdrawal  of 
the  assizes  (1838)  to  the  neighbouring  and  more 
nourishing  town  of  Tullamore.  Pop.  in  1871,  820, 
principally  Catholics. 

PHILISTINES  (LXX.,  AUophuloi,  Strangers),  » 
word  either  derived  from  a  root  phalasa  (^Eth.), 
to  emigrate,  wander  about,  or  identified  with  Pelasgi 
(q.  v.),  or  compared  by  others  with  Shefela  (Heb.), 
lowlanders ;  designates  a  certain  population  mentioned 
in  the  Bibie  as  being  in  frequent  contact  with  the 
Jews,  and  who  lived  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, to  the  south-west  of  Judaea,  from  Ekron 
towards  the  Egyptian  frontier,  bordering  principally 
on  the  tribes  of  Dan,  Simeon,  and  Judah.  Our 
information  about  the  origin  of  the  P.  is  extremely 
obscure  and  contradictory.  The  genealogical  table 
in  Genesis  (x.  14)  counts  them  among  the  Egyptian 
colonies  (the  '  Casluhim,  out  of  whom  came 
Philistim ' )  ;  according  to  Amos  ix.  7,  Jeremiah 
xlvii.  4,  and  Deuteronomy  ii.  23,  they  came  from 
Caphtor.  But  supposing  that  the  Casluhim  were 
some  separate  tribes,  and  yet  Caphtorian  colo- 
nists, the  question  still  remains,  whether  Caphtor 
can  be  identified  with  Cappadocia  in  Asia  Minor, 
as   the   early   versions  (LXX.,   Targ.,  Pesh.t  Vuly.') 


PHILISTINES— PHILLIP. 


have  it  ;  or  whether  it  be  Pelusium,  Cyprus,  or 
the  Fsle  of  Crete.  The  latter  opinion  seems 
not  the  least  probable  among  them.  At  what 
time  they  Bret  immigrated,  and  drove  out  the 
panaanitiah  inhabitants,  the  Awim,  is  difficult  to 
conjecture.  They  would  appear  bo  have  been  in  the 
country  as  early  as  the  time  of  Abraham  ;  and  in  the 
history  of  Isaac,  Abimelech,  king  of  Gerar,  is  dis- 
tinctly called  king  of  the  Philistine!  Yet,  even  sup- 
posing that  in  Genesis  the  country  is  designated  l>y 
the  name  which  it  bore  at  a  later  period,  there  can 
yet  be  no  doubt  of  the  people  being  firmly  established 
at  the  time  of  Moses  ( Exodus  xv.  14,  &c).  Thus  the 
date  of  their  immigration  would  have  to  be  placed 
at  about  1800  b.c.  At  the  Exodus,  Moses,  evidently 
fearing  an  encounter  with  the  warlike  colony  for  his 
undisciplined  hand,  did  not  choose  the  shorter  way 
to  Canaan  through  their  territory,  but  preferred  the 
well-known  circiutuous  route.  At  a  later  period, 
however,  Joshua,  having  triumphed  over  31  Canaan- 
ite  princes,  also  conceived  the  plan  of  making  him- 
self master  of  the  possessions  of  the  P.  ;  but  his 
intended  disposal  of  their  country  for  the  benefit  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah  was  never  carried  out.  At  this 
time,  they  were  subject  to  rive  princes  (Seranim  = 
axles,  pivots),  who  ruled  over  the  provinces  of 
Gaza,  Ashdod,  Askalon,  Gath,  and  Ekron.  Not 
before  the  period  of  the  Judges  did  they  come  into 
open  collision  with  the  Israelites  ;  and  the  strength 
and  importance  in  which  they  suddenly  appear  then, 
contrast  so  strangely  with  their  insignificance  at  the 
time  of  the  patriarchs,  that  many  theories — a  doable 
immigration  principally — have  been  propounded  to 
explain  the  circumstance.  We  find  them  daring 
powerful  nations  like  the  Sidonians,  whom,  about 
12U9  b.  c,  they  forced  to  transfer  their  capital  to  a 
more  secure  position  on  the  island  of  Tyre  ;  or  the 
Egyptians,  with  whom  they  engaged  in  naval  war- 
.fare  at  the  same  time,  under  Rameses  III.  With  the 
Israelites  their  war  assumed  the  air  of  guerrilla 
raids,  sometimes  into  the  very  heart  of  the  country. 
Under  Shamgar  (about  1370  B.  c),  they  were  re- 
pulsed, with  a  loss  of  600  men  ;  however,  about 
200  years  later,  the  Israelites  were  tributary  to 
them,  and  continued  to  groan  under  their  yoke, 
with  occasional  pauses  only,  until  Samson  first  com- 
menced to  humiliate  them.  But  they  were  still 
so  powerful  at  the  time  of  Eli,  that  they  carried 
away  the  ark  itself.  Under  Samuel,  their  rule  was 
terminated  by  the  battle  of  Mizpah.  Saul  was  con- 
stantly engaged  in  warding  off  their  new  encroach- 
ments, and  at  Gilboa,  he  and  his  sons  fell  in  a 
disastrous  battle  against  them.  At  this  time,  they 
seem  to  have  returned  to  their  primitive  form  of  a 
monarchy,  limited,  however,  by  a  powerful  aristoc- 
racy, the  king's  formal  title  again  being  'Abime- 
lech '  =  ' Father-king,'  as  we  find  it  in  Genesis.  David 
succeeded  in  routing  them  repeatedly ;  and  under 
Solomon  their  whole  country  seems  to  have  been 
incorporated  in  the  Jewish  empire.  The  internal 
troubles  of  Juikea  emboldened  the  P.  once  more  to 
open  resistance.  Under  Joram,  in  union  with  the 
Arabians,  they  invaded  Judrea,  and  not  only  carried 
away  the  royal  property,  but  also  the  serail  and  the 
royal  children.  Uzziah,  however,  recovered  the  lost 
ground ;  he  overthrew  them,  and  dismantled  some  of 
their  most  powerful  fortresses — Gath,  Yabne,  and 
Ashdod,  and  erected  forts  in  different  parts  of  their 
country.  Under  Ahaz,  they  rose  again,  and  attacked 
the  border-cities  of  the  'plain'  on  the  south  of  Judah ; 
and  a  few  years  later,  renewed  their  attacks,  in 
league  with  the  Syrians  and  Assyrians.  Hezekiah, 
in  the  first  years  of  his  reign,  subjected  their  whole 
country  again,  by  the  aid  of  the  Egyptians,  whom 
we  find  in  the  possession  of  five  cities.  The 
Assyrians,  however,  took   Ashdod,  under  Tartau, 


which  was  retaken  again  by  Ps.tmmetich,  after  29 
years'  siege.  About thu time,  Philistssawas  traversed 
by  a  Scythian  horde  on  their  way  to  Egypt,  who 
pillaged  the  temple  of  Venus  at  Askalon.  In  the 
terrible  struggles  for  supremacy  which  raged  between 
the  ChalcUeans  and  Egyptians,  Philistaea  was  the 
constant  battle-ground  oi  both  her  fortresses  being 
taken  and  retaken  by  each  of  them  in  tarn;  so  that 
the  country  soon  sank  into  ruin  and  insignificance. 
Yet  a  shadow  of  independence  BeeUM  to  have  been 
left  to  it,  to  jmlge  from  the  threats  which  Zechariah 
(ix.  5),  after  the  exile,  utters  against  Gaza  and 
Askalon,  and  their  pride.  In  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees,  the  P.  were  Syrian  subjects,  and  had  to 
sillier  occasionally  from  the  Jews,  although  inter- 
marriages between  the  two  nations  were  01  no  rare 
occurrence.  Alexander  Balas  transferred  part  of  the 
country  to  Jadffia;  another  part  was  taken  l,y 
Alexander  Jamueus  ;  Pompey  incorporated  some  of 
the  cities  with  Roman  Syria  ;  Augustus  transferred 
another  portion  to  Herod;  and  finally,  Salome,  his 
sister,  received  a  small  principality  of  it,  consisting 
of  Jamnia,  Ashdod,  and  Askalon.  But  by  this  time 
the  name  of  the  country  had  long  been  lost  in  that 
of  Palestine,  which  designated  all  the  territory 
between  the  Lebanon  and  Egypt. 

Of  their  state  of  culture,  institutions,  &c,  we 
know  very  little  indeed.  They  appear  as  a 
civilised,  agricultural,  commercial,  and  warlike 
nation.  They  traded  largely,  and  their  wares  seem 
to  have  been  much  sought  after.  Their  worship  was 
much  akin  to  that  of  the  Phoenicians — a  nature- 
religion,  of  which  Dagon,  Ashtaroth,  Baalzebub, 
and  Derceto  were  the  chief  deities.  Priests  and 
soothsayers  abounded ;  their  oracles  were  consulted 
even  by  people  from  afar.  They  carried  their 
charms  about  their  persons,  and  their  deities  had  to 
accompany  them  to  the  wars.  They  do  not  seem 
to  have  practised  circumcision.  As  to  their  language, 
so  little  is  known  about  it,  that  conjectures  seem 
more  than  usually  vain.  Those  who  take  them  to 
have  been  Semites,  conclude  that  their  language,  too, 
was  Semitic ;  others,  who  would  identify  them  with 
the  Pelasgians,  differ  also  respecting  their  language. 
Thus  much  is  certain,  that  their  proper  names,  as 
they  are  recorded  in  the  Bible,  are  mostly  Semitic, 
and  that  there  always  remained  a  difference  of 
dialect  between  the  Hebrew  and  the  Philistsean 
idiom. 

The  name  of  Philistines  is  given  by  German 
students  to  all  non-students  in  general,  and  the 
citizens  of  the  special  university-place  in  particular. 

PHILLIP,  John,  R.A.,  was  born,  22d  May  1817, 
at  Aberdeen.  At  a  very  early  age  he  gave  indi- 
cation of  the  talent  which  afterwards  so  distinguished 
him;  and  before  he  had  attained  his  fifteenth  year, 
had  painted  various  pictures  shewing  his  feeling  for 
colour.  He  thus  procured  an  introduction  to  the 
late  Lord  Panmure,  by  whom  he  was  enabled  to  go 
to  London  to  pursue  his  studies.  He  began  by 
copying  from  the  Elgin  marbles  at  the  British 
Museum,  and  after  a  few  months  was  admitted  a» 
a  student  at  the  Royal  Academy. 

All  his  early  subjects  were  of  Scotch  character, 
such  as  a  '  Scotch  Fair,'  '  Baptism  in  Scotland,'  a 
'  Scotch  Washing,'  '  The  Offering,'  &c.  In  the  year 
1851  he  went  to  Spain  in  search  of  health,  which  he 
found,  and  with  it  a  change  in  the  character  of  his 
subjects.  On  his  return  home  he  established  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  painters  of  the  habits  and  cus- 
toms of  the  Spanish  people.  In  1853  he  exhibited 
at  the  Royal  Academy  '  Life  among  the  Gipsies  at 
Seville.'  His  pictures  for  1854—1855,  'A  Letter 
Writer  of  Seville,'  and  'El  Paseo,'  were  both 
purchased  by  Her  Majesty  the  Queen.  In  1857 
he  attained  the   rank   of   Associate   of  the  Royal 

477 


rUILO  JUD^SUS. 


Academy,  and  the  following  year  exhibited  a  most 
powerful  picture  of  '.Spanish  Contrabandistas,' 
which  was  purchased  by  the  late  Prince  Consort,  of 
whom  he  also  painted  a  portrait  the  same  year  for 
the  town-hall  of  his  native  city.  In  1839,  he  received 
the  full  honour  of  Royal  Academician.  His  work 
for  exhibition  in  1801)  was  certainly  the  most  diffi- 
cult he  had  yet  tried,  and  his  success  was  propor- 
tionally great.  '  The  Marriage  of  the  Princess 
Royal'  was  pronounced  by  both  his  fellow-artists 
and  the  public  as  a  decided  success.  His  next 
portrait  subject  (exhibited  186."i)  was,  if  possible, 
a  still  more  difficult  task,  being  the  '  House  of  Com- 
mons,' 1860,  containing  upwards  of  thirty  portraits 
of  the  leading  members  of  both  sides  of  the 
House ;  in  it  he  was  equally  successful.  However 
much  he  excelled  in  portraiture,  his  heart  was  more 
in  his  Spanish  subjects,  of  which  he  had  in  progress 
more  works  (the  fruits  of  his  last  two  visits  to  Spain) 
than  he  perhaps  lived  to  complete,  having  died  in 
1867. 

The  characteristics  of  Mr  P.'s  style  are  rich 
powerful  colour,  broad  light  and  shade,  strong 
bold  outline,  and  great  variety  and  truthfulness 
of  texture;  no  contemporary  artist  had  more 
power  over  his  brush,  or  produced  a  greater 
effect  on  the  colorists  of  the  present  British 
school. 

PHI'LO  JUDiE'US,  the  Philosopher  (there  being 
another  Jewish  Greek  writer  of  this  name),  was 
born  at  Alexandria,  about  the  time  of  the 
birth  of  Christ.  Belonging  to  one  of  the  most 
wealthy  and  aristocratic  families — his  brother  was 
the  Alabarch  Alexander  —  he  received  the  most 
liberal  education ;  and,  impelled  by  a  rare  zeal  for 
learning,  he,  at  a  very  early  age,  had  passed  the 
ordinary  course  of  Greek  studies  which  were  deemed 
necessary  for  one  of  his  station.  Although  every 
one  of  the  different  free  sciences  and  arts  included 
in  the  Encyclika,  he  says,  attracted  him  like  so  many 
beautiful  slaves,  he  yet  aimed  higher,  to  embrace 
the  mistress  of  them  all — Philosophy.  Metaphysical 
investigation  was  the  only  thing  which,  according 
to  his  own  confession,  could  give  him  anything  like 
satisfaction  or  pleasure.  The  extraordinary  bril- 
liancy of  his  style,  which,  by  his  contemporaries, 
was  likened  to  that  of  Plato — his  rare  power  of 
thought  and  imagination,  and  an  erudition  which 
displayed  the  most  astonishing  familiarity  with 
all  the  works  of  the  classical  Greek  poets  and 
philosophers,  while  at  the  same  time  it  made  him 
an  adept  in  the  fields  of  history,  geography,  mathe- 
matics, astronomy,  physiology,  natural  history, 
music,  &c. — could  not  but  be  of  vast  influence 
both  upon  his  co-religionists  and  those  beyond  the 
pale  of  his  ancestral  creed.  He  had  completely 
mastered  the  literature  of  his  nation ;  but,  strange 
to  say,  he  chieHy  knew  it,  as  far  as  it  was  Hebrew, 
from  translations.  Thus,  the  Bible  was  only  familiar 
to  him  through  the  Septuagint  version,  with 
all  its  shortcomings.  When  about  40  years  of 
age,  he  went  to  Borne  as  the  advocate  of  his 
Alexandrian  brethren,  who  had  refused  to  worship 
Caligula  in  obedience  to  the  imperial  edict.  He 
has  left  an  account  of  this  embassy,  into  the  result 
of  which  we  need  not  enter  here.  Of  his  life  we 
know  little  except  what  is  recorded  above,  and  that 
he  once  went  to  Jerusalem.  His  second  mission 
to  Rome,  to  the  Emperor  Claudius,  on  which  occa- 
sion he  is  said  to  have  made  the  acquaintance 
of  the  Apostle  Peter,  as  reported  by  Eusebius,  is 
doubtful. 

The  religious  and  philosophical  system  of  P., 
however,  which  is  really  the  thing  of  most  conse- 
quence, is  most  minutely  known,  and  is  deserving 
of  the  profoundest  study,  on  account  of  the  vast 
478 


influence  which  it  has  exercised  both  on  the 
Jewish  and  Christian  world.  To  understand  his 
system  aright,  it  will  be  necessary  to  remember 
the  strange  mental  atmosphere  of  his  days,  which 
we  have  endeavoured  briefly  to  sketch  in  our 
introduction  to  Gnostics  (q.  v.).  The  Alexandrines 
had  endeavoured  to  make  Judaism  palatable  to 
the  refined  Greeks,  by  proving  it  to  be  identical 
with  the  grandest  conceptions  of  their  philosophers 
and  poets,  and  had  quite  allegorised  away  its 
distinctive  characteristics.  P.  was  the  first  man 
who,  although  himself  to  a  great  extent  imbued 
with  allegorising  tendencies,  made  a  bold  and 
successful  stand  against  a  like  evaporisation  of  the 
revealed  religion  of  his  fathers  :  which,  indeed,  in 
many  cases  had  led  people  to  throw  off  its  ycke 
also  outwardly.  A  most  zealous  champion  of 
Judaism,  his  bitterness  in  rebuking  those  co- 
religionists who  tried  to  defend  their  secret  or 
overt  apostasy  by  scoffing  at  the  Law  itself,  who 
were  'impatient  of  their  religious  institutions,  ever 
on  the  look-out  for  matter  of  censure  and  complaint 
against  the  laws  of  religion,  who,  in  excuse  of  their 
ungodliness,  thoughtlessly  argue  all  manner  of 
objections' — knows  no  bounds.  He  cannot  under- 
stand how  Jews, '  destined  by  divine  authority  to  be 
the  priests  and  prophets  for  all  mankind,'  could  be 
found  so  utterly  blind  to  the  fact,  that  that  which 
is  the  position  only  of  a  few  disciples  of  a  truly 
genuine  philosophy — viz.,  the  knowledge  of  the 
Highest,  had  by  law  and  custom  become  the  inherit- 
ance of  every  individual  of  their  own  people  ;  whose 
real  calling,  in  fact,  it  was  to  invoke  the  blessing  of 
God  on  mankind,  and  who,  when  they  offered  up 
sacrifices  'for  the  people,'  offered  them  up  in  reality 
for  all  men. 

To  P.,  the  divinity  of  the  Jewish  Law  is  the  basis 
and  test  of  all  true  philosophy.  Although,  like  his 
contemporaries,  he  holds  that  the  greater  part  of ' 
the  Pentateuch,  both  in  its  historical  and  legal 
portions,  may  be  explained  allegorically,  nay,  goes 
so  far  even  as  to  call  only  the  Ten  Commandments, 
the  fundamental  rules  of  the  Jewish  theocracy, 
direct  and  immediate  revelations,  while  the  other 
parts  of  the  Book  are  owing  to  Moses :  he  yet  holds 
the  latter  to  be  the  interpreter  specially  selected  by 
God,  to  whose  dicta  in  so  far  also  divine  veneration 
and  strict  obedience  are  due ;  and  again,  although 
many  explanations  of  a  metaphysical  nature  could 
be  given  to  single  passages,  yet  their  literal  meaning 
must  not  be  tampered  with.  This  literal  meaning, 
according  to  him,  is  the  essential  part,  the  other 
explanations  are  mere  speculation — exactly  as  the 
Midrash  and  some  Church  Fathers  hold.  Only  that 
allegorical  method  differed  in  so  far  from  that  of  his 
contemporaries,  that  to  him  these  interpretations — 
for  which  he  did  not  disdain  sometimes  even  to 
use  the  numbers  symbolically,  or  to  derive  Hebrew 
words  from  Greek  roots,  and  the  like — were  not  a 
mere  play  of  fancy,  in  which  he  could  exercise  his 
powers  of  imagination,  but,  to  a  certain  extent, 
a  reality,  an  inner  necessity.  He  clung  to  philo- 
sophy, as  combined  with  the  Law.  If  the  former 
could  be  shewn,  somehow  or  other,  to  be  hinted 
at  in  the  latter,  then  only  he  could  be  that  which 
all  his  soul  yearned  to  be — viz.,  the  disciple  of  both : 
a  Greek,  with  all  the  refinement  of  Greek  culture ; 
and  a  Jew — a  faithful,  pious,  religious  Jew.  Nay, 
he  even  urged  the  necessity  of  allegory  from  the 
twofold  reason  of  the  anthropomorphisms  current 
in  Scripture  and  from  certain  apparent  super- 
fluities, repetitions,  and  the  like,  which,  in  a  record 
that  emanated  from  the  Deity,  must  needs  have  a 
special  meaning  of  their  own,  which  required  inves- 
tigation and  a  peculiar  interpretation.  See  Midrash, 
Haggada.      Yet    this    fanciful   method   never    foi 


PniLO  JUD/EU3. 


one  moment  Interfered  with  his  real  object  of  point* 
ing  ont  how  Judaism  most  plainly  and  unmistakably 
was  based  upon  the  highest  ethical  principles. 

His  writings  develop  his  ideas  and  Bis  Bystem 
in  the  two  directions  indicated.  In  that  division 
of  his  writings  principally,  which  treats  of  the 
Creation  (Kosmopoia),  be  allows  allegory  to  take  tlie 
reins  out  of  his  hands;  in  that  on  the  Laws  [Nomoi), 
on  the  other  hand,  he  remains  remarkably  a  iber 
and  clear,  extolling  the  Mosaic  legislation  through- 
out, at  the  expense  of  every  other  known  to  him. 
In  a  very  few  instances  only  he  is  induced  to  find 
fault,  or  to  alter  slightly,  by  way  of  allegory,  the 
existing  ordinances. 

ilis  idea  of  (iod  is  a  pre-eminently  religions, 
not  a  philosophical  one.  He  alone  is  the  real 
Good,  the  Perfect ;  the  world  baa  only  an  appar- 
ent existence,  and  is  the  source  of  all  evil.  God 
is  only  to  be  imagined  as  the  primeval  light, 
which  cannot  be  seen  by  itself,  but  which  may 
be  known  from  its  rays,  that  till  the  whole 
world.  Being  infinite  and  uncreated,  He  is  not  to 
be  compared  with  any  created  thing.  He  has 
therefore  no  name,  and  reveals  Himself  oidy  in 
designations  expressive  of  this  '  inexpressibility.' 
He  is  also  named  the  Place  (the  talnnulical  Makom), 
because  He  comprises  all  space,  and  there  is  nothing 
anywhere  besides  Him.  He  is  better  than  Virtue 
and  Knowledge,  better  than  the  Beautiful  and  the 
Good  (Kalokagatheia),  simpler  than  the  One,  more 
blissful  than  bliss.  Thus,  He  has,  properly  speaking, 
no  quality,  or  only  negative  ones.  He  is  the  existing 
Unity  or  Existence  itself  (On,  or  On),  comprised  in 
the  unpronounceable  Tetragrammaton.  As  Creator, 
God  manifests  Himself  to  man,  and  He  is  then 
called  'The  Beginning,  the  Name,  the  Word,  the 
Primeval  Angel.  In  this  phase  of  active  revelation 
of  God,  which  is  as  natural  to  Him  as  burning  is 
to  the  heat,  and  cold  to  the  snow,  we  notice  two 
distinct  sides,  the  Power  and  the  Grace,  to  which 
correspond  the  two  names  of  Elohim  and  Adonai, 
used  in  the  Bible.  The  Power  also  gives  the  laws, 
and  punishes  the  offender;  whde  the  Grace  is  the 
beneficent,  forgiving,  merciful  quality.  Yet,  since 
there  is  not  to  be  assumed  an  immediate  influence 
of  God  upon  the  world,  their  respective  natures 
being  so  different,  that  a  point  of  contact  caunot 
be  found,  an  intermediate  class  of  beings  had  to  be 
created  to  stand  between  both,  through  whom  He 
could  act  in  and  upon  creation — viz.,  the  spiritual 
world  of  ideas,  which  are  not  only  'Ideals,'  or  types, 
in  the  Platonic  sense,  but  real,  active  powers, 
surrounding  God  like  a  number  of  attendant  Beings. 
They  are  His  messengers,  who  work  His  will,  aud 
by  the  Greeks  are  called  good  demons  ;  by  Moses, 
angels.  There  are  very  many  different  degrees  of 
perfection  among  them.  Some  are  immediate 
*  serving  angels ; '  others  are  the  souls  of  the  pious, 
of  the  prophets,  and  the  people  of  Israel,  who  rise 
higher  up  to  the  Deity ;  others,  again,  are  the  heads 
and  chief  representatives  of  the  different  nations, 
such  as  Israel  does  not  need,  since  they  conceive 
and  acknowledge  the  Everlasting  Head  of  all  beings, 
Himself.  The  Logos  comprises  all  these  intermedi- 
ate spiritual  powers  in  His  own  essence.  See  article 
Logos  for  P.'s  views  on  this  part  of  his  system. 
Man  is  a  microcosm,  a  little  world  in  himself,  a 
creation  of  Logos,  through  whom  he  participates 
in  the  Deity,  or,  as  Scripture  has  it,  '  he  is  created 
m  the  image  of  God.'  He  stands  between  the 
higher  and  lower  beings— in  the  middle  of  creation. 
The  ethical  principles  of  Stoicism,  P.  identified 
with  the  Mosaic  ethics,  in  which  the  ideal  is 
most  exalted  moral  perfectibility  or  sanctity,  and 
man's  duties  consist  in  veneration  of  God,  and 
love  and  righteousness  towards   fellow  men.      P. 


hoi  Is  firmly  the  belief  in  immortality.  Man  is 
immortal  by  his  heavenly  nature;  but  as  there 
are     degree!    in    his    divine    nature,    so    there    are 

in  his  immortality,  which  only  then  di 
tins  name  when  it  has  been  acquired  by  an  eminence 
of  virtue.  'I  lure  is  a  vast  difference  between  the 
mere  living  niter  death,  which  is  common  t<»  all 
mankind,  ami  the  future  existence  <>t  the  perfect 
ones.  Put ure  recompense  and  punishment  are  not 
taken    by  him   in   the  ordinal  the   word 

Virtue  and  sin  both  have  all  their  rewards  within 
themselves;  but  the  soul,  which  is  'pre-existing,' 
having  finished  its  course  in  the  sublunar  world, 
carries  this  consciousness  with  it  in  a  more  intense 
and  exalted  manner.  Paradise  is  Oneness  with 
God;  there  is  no  hell  with  bodily  punishments 
for  souls  without  a  body,  and  no  Devil  in  the 
I'hilonic  system. — Philo's  Messianic  notions  are 
vague  in  the  extreme,  and  he  partly  even  inter- 
Diets  certain  scriptural  passages  alluding  to  some 
future  Redeemer  as  referring  to  the  soul.  Yet 
he  indicates  his  belief  in  a  distant  time  when 
some  hero  will  arise  out  of  the  midst  of  the  nation, 
who  will  gather  all  the  dispersed  together;  and 
these,  purified  by  long  punishments,  will  henceforth 
form  a  happy,  sinless,  most  prosperous  community 
to  which  all  the  other  nations  wdl  be  eager  to 
belong. 

We  have  only  been  able  to  indicate,  in  the 
slightest  of  outlines,  the  principal  features  of  P.'s 
theology  and  philosophy,  without  endeavouring  to 
follow  any  one  of  the  manifold  systematic  schemes 
into  which  his  scattered  half-obscure  dicta  have 
been  pressed.  The  influence  P.  has  exercised  upon 
Christianity  and  Judaism  (in  the  later  writings  of 
which  his  name  occurs  as  '  Yedidyah  the  Alex- 
andrine') is  enormous,  and  the  various  articles 
in  the  course  of  this  work  (GNOSTICISM,  Jews, 
Logos,  &c.)  dwell  more  or  less  upon  this  point. 
What  he  has  done  for  the  development  of  Philo- 
sophy, is  discussed  under  that  head,  and  in  the 
articles  Plato,  Iseo-Platoxism,  &c.  Of  the  many 
works  left  under  his  name,  several  have  been 
declared  spurious,  but  in  some  cases,  without  much 
show  of  reason.  His  writings  are  generally  brought 
under  three  chief  divisions,  the  first  of  which  com- 
prises those  of  a  more  general  and  metaphysical 
nature,  such  as,  De  Murul.l  Incorruptibditate,  Quod 
Omnia  Prolrus  Liber,  De  Vita  Contemplattva.  The 
second  contains  those  written  in  defence  of  his 
compatriots,  Adversus  Flaccum,  Legatio  ad  Caiurn, 
De  Nobilitate.  The  third  and  most  important  is 
devoted  to  the  interpretation  and  explanation  of 
Scripture  in  the  philosophical  manner  indicated,  De 
Mundi  Opificio,  Legis  AUegariarum  Libri  III.; 
containing  also  a  number  of  special  treatises,  De 
Circumcisione,  De  Monorchia,  De  Preemii*  Sacer- 
dotum,  De  Posleritate  Caini,  De  Cherubim,  &c. ;  rive 
books  On  the  History  of  Abraham,  De  Josepho,  Vita 
Mosis,  De  Caritate,  De  Pamitentia,  &c. ;  to  which 
also  belong  De  Parentibus  Coleadis,  De  Virtuie 
eiusque  Partibus,  first  published  by  A.  Mai  ;  and 
certain  very  doubtful  fragments,  first  discovered  in 
an  Armenian  translation,  such  as  De  Providentia, 
and  De  Animalibm,  &c.  Many  of  his  works,  how- 
ever, seem  irredeemably  lost.  The  editio  prmcept 
by  Turnebus,  dates  Paris,  1552  ;  reprinted  Geneva, 
1613 ;  Paris,  1640  ;  &c.  Mangey  published  a  more 
critical  edition  (Lond.  1742,  2  vols,  fob),  and  Richter 
a  slkditly  improved  one  (Leip.  1828—1830,  8  vols). 
An  edition  of  Pfeiffer  (17S5,  &c.)  remained  incom- 
plete. Another  edition  was  published  by  Tauchnitz 
(1851,  &c).  As  yet,  there  are  several  codd.  in  the 
Escurial,  in  Rome,  in  St  Petersburg,  which  have 
never  been  collated,  and  which  promise,  to  judge 
from  the  few  readings  known,  to  furnish  an  immense 


PHILOLOGY. 


help  for  that  really  critical  edition,  which  as  yet  is 
a  desideratum. — Of  the  scholars  who  have  written 
on  P.,  we  mention  principally  Dahl,  Bryant,  Gfriirer, 
Creuzer,  Grosmann,  Wollf,  Hitter,  Beer,  &c.  The 
English  translation  of  P.  in  4  vols.,  forms  part  of 
Bohu's  Ecclesiastical  Library. 

PHILO'LOGY.  This  w-ord,  as  a  technical  name 
for  a  branch  of  knowledge,  has  gone  through  various 
phases  of  meaning.  Originally  signifying  the  love 
of  talk  or  discourse,  and  then,  in  a  more  restricted 
sense,  the  love  of  philosophical  conversation  such  as 
is  exhibited  in  the  dialogues  of  Plato,  it  came,  in  the 
later  period  of  Greek  literature,  to  mean  the  study 
and  knowledge  of  books,  and  of  the  history  and 
other  science  contained  in  them.  In  this  sense  it 
passed  over  to  the  liomans,  under  whom  the  name 
of  philologists  was  applied  to  men  distinguished 
for  universal  learning,  more  especially  to  the 
grammatici,  whose  chief  occupation  of  editing  and 
illustrating  the  classic  poets,  naturally  led  them  to 
this  multifarious  knowledge ;  and  when  Martianus 
Capella  (q.  v.)  in  the  5th  c.  composed  his  Encyclo- 
paedia (q.  v.)  or  curriculum  of  education,  embracing  the 
'  seven  liberal  arts '  (Grammar,  Dialectic,  Rhetoric, 
Music,  Arithmetic,  Geometry,  and  Astronomy),  he 
designates  the  collective  whole  by  the  name  of  phi- 
lology. What  is  known  as  the  Revival  of  Literature 
after  the  dark  ages,  is  nothing  else  than  the  revival 
of  the  ancient  philology.  But  when  men,  instead 
of  looking  only  at  what  had  been  written,  began  to 
examine  the  world  for  themselves,  and  enlarge  the 
bounds  of  science,  it  became  impossible  for  one  man 
to  cultivate  the  whole  round  of  knowledge,  and  the 
term  philology  was  by  degrees  restricted  to  a  know- 
ledge of  the  languages,  history,  laws,  &c.  of  the 
ancient  world  (by  which  the  Greek  and  Bouian  world 
was  chiefly  thought  of),  or,  more  narrowly  still,  to 
the  study  merely  of  the  languages — of  grammar, 
criticism,  and  interpretation.  A  more  complete 
conception  of  philology,  as  an  independent  branch 
of  knowledge,  was  that  of  F.  A.  Wolf,  who  assigned 
as  its  field  all  that  belongs  to  the  life  of  the  ancient 
peoples ,  and  the  conception  is  still  further  extended 
by  Bbckh,  who  makes  it  almost  synonymous  with 
history — its  problem  being  the  reproduction  of  the 
past ;  in  this  sense,  the  word  is  applicable  to  all 
peoples  at  all  periods  of  their  history,  so  that  we 
are  beginning  to  have  an  Indian  philology,  a  German 
philology,  a  Slavic  philology,  no  less  than  a  classic 
philology.  The  fullest  and  most  systematic  exposi- 
tion of  what  philology  in  this  sense  ought  to 
embrace,  has  been  given  by  G.  Haase  in  Ersch  and 
Griiber's  Ency.,  3d  sect.,  vol.  xxiii. 

Of  philology,  even  in  its  widest  sense,  the  study 
of  language  was  always,  and  necessarily,  a  funda- 
mental part ;  and,  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  word,  it 
has  been  the  chief  part  —  often  nearly  the  whole. 
For  a  Ions;  time  after  the  revival  of  learning,  the 
classic  writers  were  studied  chiefly  for  their  language 
and  style,  and  those  of  them  that  did  not  come  up 
to  an  imaginary  standard  of  purity  Avere  despised' 
and  neglected,  however  valuable  they  might  be  for 
their  matter.  But  although  great  and  even  undue 
attention  was  thus  given  to  language,  it  was  only 
as  an  instrument,  as  means  to  an  end.  The  philo- 
logist studied  a  language  in  order  to  be  able  to 
understand  it  and  use  it — to  get  at  the  thoughts 
conveyed  in  it,  or  to  convey  his  own  thoughts 
with  force  and  elegance  to  others.  This  is  the 
object  of  the  grammars,  dictionaries,  annotated 
editions,  and  criticisms,  which  constitute  the  chief 
part  of  philological  literature.  But  within  recent 
years,  philology  has  entered  upon  a  new  phase,  or 
rather  a  new  study  has  sprung  up  alongside  of  the  old. 
As  the  naturalist  investigates  a  class  of  objects  not 
with  a  view  to  turn  them  to  use,  but  to  understand 
480 


their  nature,  and  classify  them ;  so  the  new  school  of 
philologists  examine  and  compare  the  structures  of 
the  various  languages,  and  arrange  them  in  classea 
and  families,  with  the  ultimate  view  of  arriving  at 
some  tliei  iry  of  language  in  general— its  mode  of  origin 
and  growth.  The  comparison  of  the  structure  of 
two  or  more  languages  is  called  Comparative  Gram- 
mar, and  the  whole  of  this  new  branch  of  study  is 
sometimes  designated  as  Comparative  Philology ; 
but  it  seems  better  to  leave  the  old  field  in  jwsses- 
sion  of  the  old  name,  and  in  contradistinction  to 
philology  as  the  practical  knowledge  of  languages, 
to  speak  of  the  study  of  language  as  a  pheno- 
menon per  se,  as  the  Science  of  Language.  The 
German  term  Sprachenkunde,  and  the  French 
Linguistique,  have  more  especial  reference  to  the 
naturalist,  or  classificatory  aspect  of  the  study. 

So  long  as  the  view  prevailed  that  language  was  a 
human  invention,  anything  like  a  science  of  it  was 
impossible.  According  to  that  view,  which  was 
early  started,  aud  was  especially  elaborated  and 
discussed  by  Locke,  Adam  Smith,  and  Dugald 
Stewart,  it  was  only  after  men  found  that  their 
rapidly  increasing  ideas  could  be  no  longer  con- 
veyed by  gestures  of  the  body  and  changes  of  the 
countenance,  that  they  set  about  inventing  a  set  of 
artificial  vocal  signs,  the  meaning  of  which  was 
fixed  by  mutual  agreement.  On  this  theory,  there 
might  be  a  history  of  the  subsequent  course  of  the 
different  languages,  but  inquiries  into  the  nature  and 
laws  of  language  after  the  manner  of  the  physical 
sciences  would  be  absurd.  In  opposition  to  the 
philosophers  who  attributed  the  origin  of  language 
to  human  invention,  some  theologians  claimed  a 
divine  origin  for  it,  representing  the  Deity  as  having 
created  the  names  of  things,  and  directly  taught 
them  to  Adam.  Both  these  theories  may  now  be  con- 
sidered as  given  up  by  all  who  are  entitled  to  speak 
on  the  subject.  Everything,  in  fact,  tends  to  shew 
that  language  is  a  spontaneous  product  of  human 
nature — a  necessary  result  of  man's  physical  and 
mental  constitution  (including  his  social  instincts), 
as  natural  to  him  as  to  walk,  eat,  or  sleep,  and  as 
independent  of  his  will  as  his  stature  or  the  colour 
of  his  hair. 

Language  was  an  object  of  speculation  among  the 
Greek  philosophers ;  but  as  was  the  case  with  their 
inquiries  into  the  outward  world  generally,  they 
began  at  the  wrong  end ;  they  speculated  on  the 
origin  of  things  before  they  had  examined  the  things 
themselves.  They  knew  no  language  but  their  own, 
and  all  others  were  indiscriminately  classed  as  '  bar- 
barous '  or  foreign ;  they  had  no  test  of  affinity 
among  tongues  except  mutual  intelligibility.  The 
theories  of  the  modern  phdosophers  of  the  ISth  c. 
were  nearly  as  baseless  ;  they  were  mere  &  priori 
speculations,  akin  to  Burnet's  (q.  v.)  '  theory  of  the 
earth,'  which  was  constructed  before  the  strata  of 
the  earth's  crust  had  been  explored.  The  gieat 
obstruction  to  the  true  course  of  inquiry  was  the 
assumption,  first  made  by  the  Church  Fathers,  and 
for  a  long  time  unquestioned,  that  Hebrew  was  the 
primitive  language  of  man,  and  that  therefore  all 
languages  must  be  derived  from  Hebrew.  A  pro- 
digious amount  of  learning  and  labour  was  wasted 
during  the  17th  and  18th  centuries,  in  trying  to 
trace  this  imaginary  connection.  Leibnitz  was  the 
first  to  set  aside  this  notion,  and  to  establish  the 
principle  that  the  study  of  languages  must  be  con- 
ducted in  the  same  way  as  that  of  the  exact 
sciences,  by  first  collecting  as  many  facts  as  pos- 
sible, and  then  proceeding  by  inductive  reasoning 
It  was  owing  to  his  appeal  *  and  exertions  that  mis- 
sionaries, travellers,  and  others,  now  began  making 
those  collections  of  vocabularies  and  specimens  of 
languages  and  dialects  which  form  the  Herbarium, 


riTILOLOGY. 


ub  it  were,  of  human  speech.  A  valuable  I  latalogue 
of  Languages  in  six  volumes  was  published  in  Span- 
ish in  1800,  by  Herras,  a  Jesuit  miaeionaiy.  It 
contains  sjieciniens  and  notices  of  more  than  300 
langrnagw,  and  many  of  the  tint;  affinities  are 
happily  traced.  A  similar  work  was  Adelung's 
MUkridatet  (4  vols.  Berlin,  lsuG  -1817),  baaed  on  the 
catalogue  of  Hervas,  and  also  on  the  collections  which 
the  Russian  government  had  caused  to  be  made. 
In  none  of  these  efforts,  however,  although  much 
truth  was  struck  out,  were  there  anything  like 
fixed  principles  of  scientific  classification.  The  light 
that  brought  order  into  the  ehaos  rose  with  the 
study  of  Sanscrit  (q.  v.),  first  made  accessible  to 
European  scholars  by  Sir  William  Jones,  Cole- 
brooke,  and  other  members  of  the  Asiatic  Society, 
founded  in  Calcutta  in  17S4.  The  similarity  of 
Sanscrit    to   (J reek    and   Latin,   especially   in   the 

grammatical  forms,  struck  every  one  with  surprise, 
ir  William  Jones  declared  that  'no  philologer  could 
examine  the  Sanscrit,  Greek,  and  Latin  without 
believing  them  to  have  sprung  from  the  same 
source,  which  perhaps  no  longer  exists.  There  is 
a  similar  reason,  though  not  quite  so  forcible,  for 
supposing  that  both  the  Gothic  and  the  Celtic  bad 
the  same  origin  with  the  Sanscrit.  The  old  Persian 
may  be  added  to  the  same  family.'  Rather  than 
admit  this  relation,  which  it  was*  seen  would  involve 
also  ethnological  affinities,  some,  as  Dugald  Stewart, 
denied  that  Sanscrit  had  ever  been  the  language  of 
a  people,  and  held  that  it  was  an  invention  of  the 
Brahinans,  who  bad  constructed  it  on  the  model  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin.  Fr.  Schlegel's  work,  On.  tlie 
Language  and  Wisdom  of  tlw  Indians  (1808), 
although  defective  and  erroneous  in  point  of  scho- 
larship, has  the  merit  of  boldly  embracing  the 
languages  of  India,  Persia,  and  Eurojie  in  one 
family  group,  by  the  comprehensive  name  of  Indo- 
Germanic.  It  was  this  work  that  called  the  atten- 
tion of  German  scholars  to  a  field  of  labour  which 
they  have  since  made  specially  their  own. 

The  successive  publications  of  Bopp  (q.  v.),  begin- 
ning in  1S16,  and  culminating  in  his  great  work  on 
the  grammar  of  the  Aryan  languages,  Vergleichende 
Grammatik  (BerL  1833 — 1S52 ;  a  2d  ed.  recast  and 
enlarged,  3  vols.,  Berl.  1S57  ;  an  English  translation 
of  1st  ed.  was  published  in  3  vols.,  1845 — 1850. 
and,  revised,  in  1S54),  created  the  new  science 
of  Comparative  Grammar,  and  laid  a  sure  and  broad 
foundation  for  the  science  of  language  generally. 
Concurrent  with  the  labours  of  Bopp,  were 
those  of  Pott  in  his  Etymological  Researches 
(Etymologisclie  Forschungen,  2  vols.,  1833 — 1836; 
2d  ed.  1S59)  and  other  works.  Not  less  import- 
ant, though  confined  to  one  stock  of  the  Aryan 
family,  the  Teutonic,  was  the  great  German  Gram- 
mar {Deutsche  Grammatik,  4  vols.  1S18 — 1837)  of 
J.  Grimm  (q.  v.).  William  von  Humboldt  (q.  v.) 
did  much  to  establish  a  philosophy  of  language  — 
the  relations  and  interactions  of  mind  and  speech  ; 
a  department  of  the  subject  which  has  been  further 
cultivated  in  recent  years  by  Steinthal.  The 
method  of  investigation,  thus  invented  and  perfected 
in  the  field  of  the  Aryan  tongues,  has  been  applied 
fro  other  languages,  and  considerable  progress  has 
been  made  in  grouping  the  principal  varieties  of 
human  speech  into  families,  which  again  fall  into 
subdivisions  or  branches,  according  to  the  different 
degrees  of  nearness  in  the  relationship.  In  estab- 
lishing these  relationships,  although  a  comparison  of 
the  vocabularies — the  numerals,  pronouns,  and  more 
essential  nouns  and  verbs — may  establish  a  general 
affinity,  and  render  a  common  origin  probable  ;  yet 
the  surer  test  lies  in  the  grammatical  forms.  For 
when  those  elements  of  a  language  which  express 
the  relations  of  things — case,  number,  tense — have 
343 


once  become  mere  terminations,  and  lost  then* 
original  form  and  independent  meaning,  they  can 
only   lie  transmittal    by    tradition;    and    when   th« 

same  grammatical  forms  are  found  p 
common  by  two  or  more  tongues,  they  musi 
inheritance  from  a  common  ancestor.      It  follows 
from  this  that  the  'genealogical'  classification,  as 

it  is  called,  cannot  be  carried  out  with  greal 
or  rigour  except  in  the  case  of  languages  in  which 
grammatical  forms  had  become  in  Bome  degree  fixed 
before  their  divergence — in  other  words,  of  the 
inflectional  languages.  Accordingly,  the  only  two 
well-defined  genealogical  families  are  the  Aryan 
and  the  Semitic,  which  embrace  the  whole  of  the 
languages  of  the  inflectional  type. 

Besides  the  division  of  languages  into  families 
bearing  traces  of  a  common  origin,  there  is  a  division 
into  three  orders,  as  they  may  be  called,  depending 
upon  a  radical  difference  of  structure.  Speech,  as 
the  expression  of  thought,  contains  two  elements  : 
ideas  or  conceptions,  which  constitute  the  substance 
or  material  part ;  and  the  relations  of  these  ideas  to 
one  another,  which  constitute  the  formal  part ;  and 
the  nature  of  a  language  depends  upon  the  parti- 
cular way  in  which  the  vocal  expression  of  these  two 
elements  is  combined.  At  the  foundation  of  all 
words  lie  Roots  (q.  v.),  or  simple  sounds  expressive  of 
meaning.  Now,  some  languages,  as  the  Chinese 
(q.  v.),  use  these  roots  in  their  naked  form  as  words, 
the  same  syllable,  according  to  its  position,  serving 
as  noun,  adjective,  verb,  &c. — e.  g.,  ta  means  great, 
greatness,  to  be  or  to  make  great,  greatly  or  very. 
The  relational  part  of  the  thought,  for  the  most 
part,  gets  no  vocal  expression,  it  is  only  indicated 
by  position,  as  when  min,  people,  and  li,  power,  are 
simply  put  together  (min  li)  to  signify  the  people's 
power.  Relations  not  readily  indicated  by  position 
are  expressed  in  a  round-about  way  by  using 
additional  significant  words:  thus,  tschung  (mass  or 
multitude)  jin  (man)  =  men ;  niu  (woman)  tse  (child) 
=  daughter ;  y  min  li  (employ  people  power)  =  with 
the  people's  power.  Even  in  such  cases,  each  root 
preserves  its  independence,  and  is  felt  to  express  its 
own  radical  meaning.  Languages  like  the  Chinese, 
whose  development  has  been  arrested  at  this  rudi 
mentary  stage,  are  called  MonosyllabU  or  Isolating. 
The  next  stage  of  development  ia  that  of  the 
Agglutinate  languages,  which  are  by  lar  the  most 
numerous,  including  the  Turanian  and  American 
families.  In  these,  the  relational  part  of  thought 
obtains  prominent  vocal  expression  by  separate  roots 
joined  or  glued  on  to  the  significant  roots  as  termi- 
nations. These  terminations  were  originally  them- 
selves significant  roots,  and  many  of  them  are  still 
used  as  separate  significant  words,  although  the 
greater  part  have  sunk  down  to  mere  signs  of  cases 
and  other  relations.  The  compound  expression  thus 
formed  never,  however,  attains  perfect  unity ;  the 
significant  root  always  remains  rigid,  unobscured  in 
its  sense  and  unchanged  in  form,  and  the  termina- 
tion is  felt  as  something  distinct  from  the  body  of 
the  word- 
Thus,  the  Finnish  declension  exhibits  a  structurn 
of  the  most  mechanical  and  transparent  kind— e.  g., 
haiku,  bear;  karhu-n,oi  the  bear;  karhut-ta,  without 
bear;  karhu-sta,  out  of  the  bear;  and  so  on  through 
fifteen  cases.  The  insertion  of  the  plural  suffix,  i, 
gives  karhu-i-n,  of  the  bears  ;  karhu-i-ta,  without 
bears ;  karhu-i-sta,  out.  of  the  bears ;  &c.  But  this 
composite  mechanical  structure  reaches  its  climax- 
remaining  all  the  while  perfectly  transparent — in 
the  Turkish  verb.  Thus,  the  root  sev  has  the  inde- 
finite  meaning  of  loving,  and  the  inf.  is  sev-mek, 
to  love;  which  then,  by.  the  insertion  of  certair 
suffixes,  can  take  on  as  many  as  forty  forms  or 
voices— e.  g.,  sev-rne-mek,  not  to  love ;  eev-e-me-mek 


PHILOLOGY. 


not  to  be  able  to  love ;  sev-dir-mek,  to  cause  to  love ; 
sev-dir-ish-mek,  to  cause  one  another  to  love ;  sev-il- 
mek,  to  be  loved ;  sev-il-c-me-me'x,  not  to  be  able  to  be 
loved,  &c.  Each  of  these  forms,  then,  runs  through 
a  large  round  of  tenses  and  moods,  with  their  persons 
and  numbers. 

The  languages  of  the  American  Indians  are  all  of 
this  agglutinating  type,  although  they  have  also 
got  the  name  Incorporative,  or  Intercalative, 
because  they  run  a  whole  phrase  or  sentence  into 
one  word — e.g.,  hoponi,  to  wash;  hopocuni,  to  wash 
hands  ;  hopoaduni,  to  wash  feet ;  ninacaqua,  I  (ni) 
eat  (qua)  flesh  (naca).  The  Basque  language  partakes 
of  this  character. 

It  is  only  in  the  third  or  Inflectional  stage  that 
perfect  unity  of  the  two  elements  is  attained.  In 
the  Aryau  and  Semitic  tongues,  which  alone  have 
reached  this  highest  state  of  development,  the 
significant  root  and  the  termination  have  become 
blended  into  one  both  in  effect  and  form,  and 
phonetic  changes  have  for  the  most  part  obliterated 
the  traces  of  composition.  Yet  no  doubt  is  felt  by 
philologists  that  the  most  highly  organised  of  the 
inflecting  or  amalgamating  languages  began  with  the 
radical  stage,  and  passed  through  the  agglutinate. 
The  analytic  powers  of  comparative  grammar  have 
succeeded  in  tracing  back  the  formal  elements  of 
the  Aryan  tongues  to  original  independent  words, 
agglutinated  to  other  words  to  modify  them.  See 
Inflection.  Against  this  theory  it  has  been  urged, 
that  there  is  no  historical  instance  of  a  language  so 
changing  its  type,  and  passing  from  one  stage  to 
another.  But  a  sufficient  account  of  this  pheno- 
menon may  be  found  in  the  different  mental 
habits  and  political  positions  of  the  peoples  (see 
Max  Miiller,  Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Language, 
First  Series,  page  316).  Besides,  the  languages 
of  the  lower  types  do  shew  a  tendency,  under 
favourable  circumstances,  to  produce  grammatical 
forms  of  the  higher  kind.  Even  in  Chinese,  in 
some  of  its  modern  dialects,  something  like  cases 
is  to  be  seen  ;  and  Finnish  and  Turkish,  in  con- 
tact with  the  inflected  languages  of  Europe,  are 
making  approaches  to  the  inflectional  type. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  inflectional  languages  had, 
before  the  earliest  times  of  which  we  have  any 
written  monuments,  entered  on  the  reverse  phase — 
the  analytic.  By  the  process  of  phonetic  change 
and  decay,  the  grammatical  forms  have  been 
gradually  becoming  obliterated  and  losing  their 
power,  and  their  place  has  been  supplied  by  separate 
words,  in  the  shape  of  prepositions  and  auxiliary 
verbs.    See  Inflection. 

Connected  with  these  radical  differences  of  type, 
is  one  of  the  higher  and  more  speculative  problems 
of  the  science — the  question  as  to  the  common 
origin  of  all  languages.  The  inherent  and  appar- 
ently ineffaceable  difference  of  structure  in  the  three 
orders  above  described,  as  well  as  the  absence  of 
all  sure  marks  of  genealogical  affinity  even  between 
the  two  families  of  the  inflectional  type,  the  Aryan 
and  the  Semitic,  are  considered  by  some  as  insuper- 
able objections  to  the  theory  of  a  common  origin. 
But  although  it  may  be  fruitless  to  look  for  exten- 
sive identifications  of  the  roots  and  grammatical 
forms  of  the  Aryan  tongues,  even  in  the  oldest 
forms  to  which  we  can  trace  them,  with  those 
of  the  Semitic,  still  more  with  Chinese  or  Turkish 
elements ;  it  seems  rash  and  unscientific  to  affirm 
that,  going  back  to  the  radical  stage,  the  develop- 
ment of  all  could  not  have  begun  from  a  common 
stock  of  monosyllabic  roots.  The  wonderful  trans- 
formations exhibited  by  language  in  the  course  of 
its  known  history,  seem  sufficient  ground  for  main- 
taining the  possibility  of  a  common  origin.  On  the 
ether  hand,  the  nature  of  the  case  forbids  all  hope 
482 


of  ever  being  able  to  prove  it ;  for  the  coincidences 
that  occur  (e.  g.,  Chinese  fu,  Tibetan  pha,  Lat. 
and  Gr.  pa-ter,  Eng.  /a-ther ;  Chin.  '  mu,  Egyp. 
mu,  Lat.  and  Gr.  »ia-ter,  Eng.  mo-ther),  even  though 
they  were  much  more  numerous  than  they  are, 
might  well  arise  from  the  mind  and  vocal  organs 
of  man  being  everywhere  essentially  the  same. 

Languages,  like  living  organisms,  are  in  a  state 
of  continual  flux  or  change,  and  an  essential  part 
of  the  science  consists  in  investigating  the  laws 
according  to  which  these  changes  take  place.  It  is 
because  there  are  such  laws  that  a  science  of 
language  is  possible.  In  tracing  words  to  their 
origin,  and  identifying  them  with  words  in  other 
languages,  we  are  no  longer  guided  by  mere 
similarity  of  sound ;  on  the  contrary,  identity  of 
sound  is  often  a  proof  that  a  proposed  etymology  is 
wrong.  It  has  been  established,  for  instance,  by 
induction  (see  Grimm's  Law),  that  c  in  Latin  is 
regularly  represented  by  h  in  Gothic  and  English  ; 
while  for  Gothic  or  English  c,  the  corresponding 
letter  in  Latin  is  g.  Accordingly,  we  readily 
recognise  Latin  corn-u  and  English  horn  as  cognate 
words  ;  while  a  suggestion  to  connect  the  English 
com  with  cornu,  is  immtdiately  rejected.  If  com 
has  a  representative  in  Latin,  it  must  begin  with  g, 
which  points  out  granum  as  the  word.  Grain  is 
not  the  English  representative  of  granum;  it  is 
granum,  borrowed  from  the  Latiu  through  the 
French.  The  expert  etymologist  can  often  identify 
with  certainty  two  words,  although  not  a  letter 
remains  the  same.  In  simple  cases,  this  is  done  by 
every  one.  Who,  for  instance,  doubts  that  Aber- 
deenshire fa,  filk,  are  merely  dialectic  varieties  of 
Eng.  who,  which.  Yet  the  same  persons  who  readily 
admit  such  cases,  are  sceptical  when  it  is  proposed, 
for  instance,  to  identify  Fr.  larme,  with  Eng.  tear. 
The  grounds  of  identification,  however,  are  similar 
in  both  instances ;  the  only  difference  being,  that 
with  regard  to  larme  and  tear,  they  require  to  be 
traced  historically.  No  one  will  dispute  that 
larme  is  a  corruption  of  Lat.  lacrima;  in  fact,  it  can 
be  followed  through  the  successive  stages  of  change. 
Now  we  know  that  the  Romans  had  a  peculiarity 
of  letting  d  in  some  positions  degenerate  into  I. 
Nor  is  this  unaccountable,  when  we  consider  that 
the  contact  of  organs  which  produces  d,  differs  from 
that  which  produces  I,  chiefly  in  being  more  ener- 
getic ;  a  slovenly  d  slides  into  I.  Thus  the  Greek 
name,  Odysseus,  became,  in  the  mouth  of  the 
Romans,  Ulysses  ;  they  said  odor  (a  smell),  but 
oleo  (I  smell);  and,  instead  of  impedimentum,  dedi- 
care,  we  sometimes  find  impelimentum,  delicare. 
These  and  other  instances  would  warrant  us  to 
conclude  that  lacri-ma  was  a  corruption  of  dacri-ma 
(corresponding  to  Gr.  dafcru),  even  if  we  had  not 
the  express  statement  of  Festus  that  dacrima  was 
the  older  form.  After  this  there  is  no  difficulty  in 
recognising  dacri,  or  dakru,  as  identical  with  Gotbio 
tagr,  Eng.  tear. 

In  order  to  give  a  rational  account  of  the 
phonetic  changes  now  exemplified,  the  nature  of 
articulate  sounds,  and  of  the  organs  that  produce 
them,  must  be  carefully  investigated.  The  most 
valuable  contributions,  in  English,  to  this  important 
preliminary  branch  of  the  study  (called  Phonetics),  are 
those  of  Mr  Alex.  J.  Ellis.  See  Phonetic  Writing. 
An  admirable  resume"  of  the  subject,  with  diagrams 
of  the  organs  of  voice  in  the  position  of  pronouncing 
the  different  articidations,  is  given  in  the  second 
series  of  Max  Midler's  Lectures  on  the  Science  of 
Language  (1864),  where  the  best  recent  works  on 
phonetics  are  noted. 

The  transformations  that  words  exhibit,  as  they 
are  traced  down  the  stream  of  history,  are  of  the 
nature  of  phonetic  decay,  and  are  due  to  a  natural 


PHILol<m;y. 


tendency  to  economise  muscular  energy  by  pro- 
nouncing two  syllables  in  one.  The  dropping  of 
inflections,  the  shortening  of  words  l>y  internal 
elision  and  otherwise  (Fr.  p&re,  from  Lat.  pater ; 
Eng.  f'tir,  from  A.  S.  fieger ;  stranger,  from  old  Fr. 
tttrangier,  Lat.  extraneus),  are  all  owing  to  the 
action  of  this  force,  and  the  uniformities  observable 
among  such  changes,  can  he  explained  on  physio- 
logical principles.  Dialectic  diversification  is  not 
so  easily  accounted  for ;  it  is  diflicult  to  say  why 
eister  nations — as  in  the  case  of  the  Aryan  family, 
or  of  the  nations  speaking  Romania  tongues — 
should  have  given  such  different  forms  to  the  same 
stock  of  primitive  roots  ;  why,  e.  g.,  Gr.  pente  (^EoL 
I,  pepo,  should  be  in  Lat.  qumoue,  cotpio.  Max 
Midler  thinks  it  necessary  to  go  back  to  a  time 
when  many  of  the  articulations  were  not  yet 
sharply  defined  ;  and  he  appeals,  in  illustration,  to 
the  confusion  children  make  between  such  sounds 
as  tut  and  cat;  and,  what  is  still  more  in  point, 
to  the  analogy  presented  by  languages  like  the 
Polynesian.  In  the  language  of  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  the  two  consonants,  k  and  t,  run  into  one 
another,  '  and  it  seems  impossible  for  a  foreigner 
to  say  whether  what  he  hears  is  a  guttural  or  a 
dental.  The  same  word  is  written  by  Protestant 
missionaries  with  k,  by  French  with  t.  It  takes 
months  of  patient  labour  to  teach  a  Hawaian  youth 
the  difference  between  /-•  and  t,  g  and  d,  I  and  r.  .  .  . 
If  colonies  started  to-inorrow  from  the  Hawaian 
Islands,  the  same  which  took  place  thousands  of 
years  ago,  when  the  Hindus,  the  Greeks,  and 
Romans  left  their  common  home  (see  Aryan), 
would  take  place  again.  One  colony  would 
elaborate  the  indistinct,  half-guttural,  half-dental 
contact  into  a  pure  guttural ;  another,  into  a  pure 
dental ;  a  third,  into  a  labial.'  Much  light  is 
thrown  on  this  question  by  those  phonetic  pecu- 
liarities— those  deficiencies  and  predilections  of 
articulation  which  characterise  whole  tribes  and 
nations,  as  they  often  do  individuals.  They  may 
have  originated,  perhaps,  in  the  idiosyncrasies  of 
individual  ancestors  (a  lisping  patriarch  might  pro- 
duce a  tribe  of  lispers,  without  their  inheriting  the 
physical  defect  which  caused  the  lisp  in  him),  or  in 
a  common  habit  of  the  organs  of  speech  produced 
by  external  circumstances ;  but  once  established, 
they  are  very  persistent  and  influential.  The 
Mohawks,  and  several  other  American  tribes,  have 
no  p,  b,  m,  /,  v,  or  w ;  they  never  articulate  with 
their  lips.  In  Chinese,  there  is  no  d;  r  is  also 
wanting;  and  as  the  habit  of  the  language  recpiires 
a  vowel  after  every  consonant,  the  nearest  approach 
they  can  make  to  the  sound  of  Christ  is  Ki-li-se-tu. 
An  analogous  habit  of  articulation  transforms  the 
English  word  gold  in  the  mouth  of  a  Kafir  into 
i-go-li-de.  On  this  principle  can  be  explained  the 
Fr.  esperer,  from  Lat.  sperare  ;  establir  or  etablir, 
from  stabilire  ;  ecole  (escole),  from  schola,  &c.  In 
the  Celtic  tongue,  an  initial  s  with  a  consonant 
after  it  was  an  unwonted  combination ;  when  it 
would  have  occurred,  a  vowel  was  always  prefixed  ; 
and,  on  adopting  the  Latin  language,  the  Celtic 
peoples  carried  their  old  habit  of  pronunciation 
with  them.  The  effects  upon  a  language  of  thus 
coming  in  contact  with  another,  are  important 
elements  in  its  history.  See  English  Language 
and  Literature. 

The  positive  part  of  the  science  of  language 
having  pushed  inquiry  back  untd  it  arrives  at 
monosyllabic  roots  that  admit  of  no  further 
analysis,  there  stops,  as  at  the  legitimate  boundary  of 
its  province.  It  assumes  the  existence  of  a  certain 
store  of  crude  or  primary  matter,  and  merely  con- 
cerns itself  with  how  out  of  this  matter  the  structure 


as  we  know  it,  has  ben,  built  or  has  grown  up.  But 
a  question  yet  remains,  which,  although  it  can 
never  receive  but  a  conjectural  answer,  has  a  won- 
derful fascination  for  the  speculative  mind,  and 
was,  in  fact,  the  question  with  which  all  inquiries 
into  Ian  mj  the  question,  namely:  How  .lid 

language  take  a  beginning  at  all?   how  can 
primitive    material    of    langu  significant 

roots,  into  existence?  The  answer  may  be  thus 
conceived  :  To  speak  is  a  necessity  of  mail's  rational 
and  emotional  nature  ;  he  speaks  because  he  thinks 
and  feels.  When  the  mind  receives  an  impres- 
sion or  intuition,  by  an  instinctive  impul  f 
the  nature  of  reflex  action,  some  outward  expres- 
sion— a  gesture  or  vocal  sound — breaks  forth,  which 
by  association  becomes  a  sign  or  symbol,  to  the 
individual  and  to  his  associates,  of  the  impression  or 
idea  that  gave  it  birth.  Associated  at  first  witli 
individual  impressions  and  objects,  these  sounds,  by 
the  process  of  abstraction,  which  is  pre-eminently  a 
human  faculty,  would  gradually  come  to  represent 
more  generalised  impressions— would  become  words, 
as  distinguished  from  mere  animal  sounds.  The 
necessity  of  words  to  think  in  is  much  insisted  on 
by  speculators  on  this  subject,  as  being  the  motive- 
power  in  the  generation  of  language  ;  and  no  doubt 
it  is  true  that,  without  language,  thought  could 
advance  but  little,  if  at  all,  beyond  what  is  mani- 
fested by  the  brutes.  But  when  they  argue  as  if 
this  necessity  of  having  his  ideas  objectively 
depicted,  in  order  to  exercise  his  own  reason,  would 
impel  an  individual  man  to  construct  a  language  for 
his  own  use,  they  make  the  unwarranted  assump- 
tion that,  under  any  circumstances,  even  though  lie 
grew  up  from  infancy  in  solitude,  the  thinking 
powers  of  a  human  being  must  necessardy  develop 
themselves.  The  necessarily  few  facts  that  bear  on 
the  case  look  the  other  way.  Kaspar  Hauser  (q.  v.), 
instead  of  elaborating  a  system  of  symbols  of 
thought  for  himself,  had  forgotten  what  he  had  once 
possessed  ;  his  faculties  of  thought  and  of  speech 
seem  to  have  been  simultaneously  arrested.  Obser- 
vation seems  to  favour  the  opinion,  that  man  in 
solitude— if  he  could  exist  in  solitude — woidd  be  as 
mute  as  the  lower  animals.  The  social  nature  of 
man  helped  to  give  birth  to  the  germs  of  speech,  no 
less  than  his  rational  nature  ;  an  instinctive  desire 
to  give  a  sensible  sign  of  his  impressions  to  his 
fellows,  was  perhaps  the  primary  impulse  ;  the  aid 
thus  given  to  his  own  thinking  powers,  a  second- 
ary result.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it  seems  reasonablo 
to  assume,  as  it  has  been  well  put  by  Steinthal,  that 
4  at  the  origin  of  humanity,  the  soul  and  the  body 
were  in  such  mutual  dependence,  that  all  the 
emotions  of  the  soul  had  their  echo  in  the  body, 
principally  in  the  organs  of  respiration  and  the 
voice.  This  sympathy  of  soul  and  body,  still  found 
iu  the  infant  and  the  savage,  was  intimate  tnd 
fruitful  in  the  primitive  man;  each  intuition  wefce  in 
him  an  accent  or  a  sound.' — F'arrar,  Origin  oj  Lang. 
Were  these  sounds,  then,  guided  by  chance  or 
caprice  ?  or  if  not,  what  determined  particular 
articulations  to  be  associated  with  particular  objects 
or  ideas?  Any  mystic  innate  correspondence 
between  sounds  and  things,  is  out  of  the  question ; 
but  what  more  reasonable  than  to  suppose  that  the 
natural  sounds  emitted  by  so  many  things,  animate 
and  inanimate,  should  suggest  the  character  of  the 
articidations  which  the  ideas  of  the  things  called 
forth — not  so  as  to  produce  exact  imitations,  which 
it  is  not  of  the  nature  of  articulate  sounds  to  be, 
but  such  resemblances  as  would  suffice  for  associa- 
tion. See  Onomatopceia.  In  the  case  of  ideas 
unconnected  with  any  natural  sound,  names  would 
readily  be  suggested  in  many  cases  by  analogies, 
real  or  fancied,  with  things  that  were  attended  by 


PHILOLOGY. 


Bounds.  We  can  see,  again,  a  physiological  fitness 
in  the  articulation  sta,  to  stand ;  with  the  idea  of 
stability,  still  more  with  the  attitude,  the  organs 
involuntarily  assume  the  position  with  which  this 
syllable  13  emitted.  Similar  instances  might  be 
multiplied.  We  are  not  to  suppose  that  the  same 
thing  would  suggest  the  same  sound  to  all,  or  even 
to  the  same  individual  at  all  times.  The  language- 
making  faculty  in  the  flush  of  its  spring  would 
throw  out  a  multitude  of  names  for  the  same  thing 
(synonyms),  as  well  as  apply  the  same  name  to 
many  different  things  (homonyms) ;  but  by  a 
pi<>cess  of  natural  elimination,  those  only  would 
eurvive  that  were  felt  best  to  answer  the  purposes 
of  speech.  The  abstracting  faculty  would  also 
soon  dissociate  them  from  the  concrete  individual 
objects  that  first  suggested  them,  and  convert  them 
into  symbols  of  the  prominent  attributes  of  whole 
classes.  It  is  these  generalised  names,  syllables 
significant  of  such  general  simple  notious  as  seeing, 
moving,  running,  shining,  striking,  cutting,  or  being 
sharp,  that,  by  a  kind  of  inverse  process,  became 
the  roots  of  language  as  it  now  exists.  A  syllable 
expressive  of  a  single  prominent  attribute  forms 
the  foundation  of  the  names  of  a  whole  class  of 
objects,  the  specific  differences  being  marked  by 
other  significant  syllables  joined  on  to  it.  See  Roots. 
In  some  such  way,  by  the  unconscious  working  of 
man's  intellectual  nature,  we  may  conceive  language 
to  have  grown  out  of  the  exclamatory  or  inter- 
actional stage  into  the  rational  structure  that  we 
now  admire.  This  theory  of  the  origin  of  roots, 
together  with  the  constant  operation  of  phonetic 
change,  accounts  for  the  absence  of  all  traces  of 
onomatopoeia  in  the  great  bulk  of  the  words  of  a 
language,  and  seems  to  meet  the  objections  of  Max 
MUller  and  other  philologists  to  the  onomatopoeic 
theory. 

With  regard  to  these  primary  or  radical  words 
it  is  only  necessary  to  observe  here  that  they  are  all 
significant  of  sensible  or  physical  ideas,  and  expres- 
sions for  immaterial  conceptions  are  derived  from 
them  by  metaphor.  Howr,  from  a  comparatively 
few  roots  of  this  kind,  the  vocabulary  of  the  richest 
language  may  grow,  is  further  illustrated  in  the 
article  Root. 

Another  speculative  question  regards  the  length 
of  time  that  language  must  have  taken  to  advance 
from  the  rudimentary  stage  to  the  state  in  which  it 
is  found  in  the  earliest  records.  Bunsen  assigns 
20,000  years  as  the  lowest  limit ;  but  it  is  evident 
that  the  same  uncertainty  must  always  rest  on  this 
question  as  on  the  corresponding  one  in  geology. 

Separate  points  of  philology  will  be  found  treated 
under  a  variety  of  heads.  See — besides  the  articles 
already  referred  to— Alphabet  ;  the  several  letters, 
A,  B,  &c. ;  Genitive  ;  Noun  ;  Adverb  ;  Pronoun  ; 
Dialect;  Persian  Language  and  Literature; 
Semitic  Languages  ;  &c. 

The  literature  of  the  new  science  of  language  is 
already  rich ;  but  much  of  it  is  scattered  through 
the  transactions  of  societies  and  periodicals.  Of 
separate  works  of  a  comprehensive  kind,  in  addition 
to  those  already  named,  we  may  mention,  in  German, 
Schleicher,  Die  Sprachen  Euro-pan  (Bonn,  1S50), 
and  Vergleichende  Grammatik  der  Indo-Ger.  Sprachen 
(2  vols.  Weimar,  1S61)  ;  J.  Grimm,  Ueber  den 
Ursprung  der  Sprache  (Ber.  1852) ;  Diez,  Etymol. 
Worterbuch  der  Romanischen  Sprachen  (2d  ed.  Bonn, 
1SG1),  and  Vergleichende  Grammatik  der  lioman- 
ischen Sprachen  (3  vols.  Bonn,  183G — 1842) ;  trans- 
lations of  both  works  into  English  have  been 
published  by  Williams  and  Norgate  (1864).  Heyse, 
System  der  Sprachwissenschaft  (Ber.  1856) ;  Steinthal, 
Die  Classification  der  Sprachen  (Ber.  1856) ;  and 
Der  Ursprung  der  Sprache  (Ber.  1851).  In  French, 
481 


Renan,  Histoire  Generate  et  Systeme  compare  des 
Langues  Semitiques  (3d  ed.  Paris.  1SoV!i  ;  and  Be 
VOrigine  <7u  Langage  (3d  ed.  Paris,  1863;  Pictet, 
Lea  Origines  Indo- Eur  op  Serines  (Paris,  1859). 

English  scholars  were  late  in  entering  this  field  of 
research.  Home  Tooke's  (q.  v.)  Diversions  of  Purh-y, 
though  a  work  of  genius,  and  though  it  has  been 
the  means  of  first  awakening  in  many  an  interest 
in  the  nature  of  language,  was  written  without 
sufficient  acquaintance  with  the  kindred  tongues, 
and  before  the  true  key  to  the  inquiry  had  been 
obtained,  and  therefore  few  of  the  results  can  now 
be  accepted.  Among  the  first  important  con- 
tributions were  Prichard's  Eastern  Origin  of  the 
Celtic  Nations  (Oxf.  1831),  and  the  contributions  of 
the  Rev.  Richard  Garnett  to  the  Quarterly  Review 
in  1S35 — 1S48.  Mr  Garnett's  essays  in  the  Quarterly, 
and  his  subsequent  papers  printed  in  the  proceedings 
of  the  London  Philological  Society  (in  the  formation 
of  which,  in  1842,  he  took  an  active  part),  have 
been  reprinted  under  the  title  of  Philological  Essays 
(Williams  and  Norgate,  1859),  and  are  models  of 
linguistic  research.  The  philological  articles  of  the 
Penny  Cyclopaedia  also  contributed  to  popularise  the 
study  in  England.  Of  substantive  works,  the  most 
importaut,  though  bearing  more  directly  on  the 
Greek  and  Latin  tongues,  are  The  New  Cratylm 
(1830,  3d  ed.  1859),  and  the  Varronianus  (1S44) 
of  J.  W.  Donaldson  (q.  v.).  Winning's  Manual  oj 
Comparative  Philology  (183S)  had  previously  given 
a  popular  sketch  of  the  affinities  of  the  Aryan  lan- 
guages. Latham's  English  Language  (1841 — several 
new  editions)  treats  its  subject  from  the  historico- 
comparative  point  of  view,  and  therefore  comes  in 
some  degree  within  our  scope.  A  valuable  work  of 
the  same  kind  is  Marsh's  Lectures  on  the  English 
Language  (New  York,  1860).  Latham's  Elements 
of  Comparative  Philology  (1862)  gives  an  elaborate 
classification  of  the  languages  of  the  world,  with 
numerous  specimens  ;  only  a  small  part  of  the  work 
(56  pages  out  of  752)  is  given  to  the  general  prin- 
ciples of  the  science.  Farrar,  On  the  Origin  oj 
Language  (1S60),  chiefly  deals  with  the  speculative 
part  of  the  subject ;  he  brings  within  small  com- 
pass the  views  of  the  leading  investigators  on  the 
more  interesting  points.  But  above  all,  the  writ- 
ings of  Max  Midler  [Comparative  Mythology,  in 
the  Oxford  Essays,  1856 ;  Lectures  on  the  Science  oj 
Language,  1861,  1864;  Chips  from  a  German  Work- 
shop, and  Stratification  of  Language)  have  contributed 
to  make  the  study  of  this  science  take  root  in  Britain. 

On  the  principles  of  classification  above  sketched, 
the  chief  languages  of  the  earth  may  be  thus 
arranged : 

I.  Monosyllabic  or  Isolating. — 1.  Chineser  the 
typical  language  of  this  order.  2.  Tibetan,  which 
shews  some  beginnings  of  grammatical  forms.  3. 
The  languages  of  the  Eastern  Peninsula— Si? mese, 
Anamese,  Burman.  Japanese  and  the  language  of 
Corea  are  doubtful. 

II.  Agglutinate. — 1.  The  most  important  di^sion 
of  this  order  is  the  Turaniau  family,  comprising  '  all 
languages  spoken  in  Asia  and  Europe  (including 
Oceania),  and  not  included  under  the  Aryan  and 
Semitic  families,  with  the  exception  of  Chinese  and 
its  cognate  dialects.'  For  the  subdivisions  of  this 
family,  see  Turanian  Languages.  2.  African 
Languages. — Some  of  the  languages  of  Africa  are 
allied  to  the  Semitic  family,  and  were  introduced 
by  immigration,  such  as  the  dialect  of  Tigr6  in 
Abj..«inia  (see  Ethiopia),  and  the  Arabic  dialects 
spoken  by  the  Mohammedan  population  of  the 
coasts,  and  which  have  even  penetrated  deep  into 
the  interior.  How  far  the  Berber  dialects  are  of 
Semitic  character,  is  a  disputed  question ;  nnd  the 
same  is  the  case  with  the  language  of  the  Gallas  in 


PHILOLOGY. 


Abyssinia.  Little  has  as  yet  been  done  in  inves- 
tigating ami  classifying  the  native  Agglutinate 
languages  of  Africa,  which  have  been  designated  by 
the  common  name  of  Hamitie.  The  ancient  Egyptian, 
from  which  the  modem  Coptic  is  derived,  would 
Beeno  never  to  have  got  beyond  the  isolating  stage 
(see  HtBBOQLVPHlcs).  Some  of  the  languages 
adjoining  Egypt  are  thought  to  be  allied  to  the 
(.'optic.  The  negro  languages,  properly  so  called,  of 
the  Sudan,  and  of  the  west  coast  from  the  Senegal 
to  the  Niger,  are  exceedingly  numerous  and  widely 
diverse.  The  languages  to  the  smith  of  the  equator 
are  markedly  different  from  those  to  the  north. 
They  fall,  according  to  some,  into  two  great  families, 
the  Congo  family  on  the  west,  and  the  Kafir  family 
on  the  east.  The  Hottentot  language  is  distinct 
from  both.  A  valuable  contributiou  has  recently 
been  made  to  the  study  of  part  of  the  field  by 


Week's  Comparative  Grammar  of  <hr  South  African 
Languages    (1862).      :(.     T)  ye»    of    the 

American  Indiana,  —  The  native  languages  of  the 
New  World  are  numbered  by  man;  hundreds,  all 
differing  totally  in  their  vocabulary,  but  still  agree- 
ing in  the  peculiar  grammatical  structure  which  has 
given  the  name  i.f  [ncorporative  (see  above).  Their 
urea  is  fast  contracting,  and  they  seem  destined  to 
disappear. 

III.  Inflectional.  —  This  onlcr  consists  of  two 
families,  so  distinct  in  their  grammatical  framework 
that  it  is  impossible  to  imagine  a  language  of  the 
one  family  derived  from  one  of  the  other.  It  is  the 
peoples  speaking  these  languages  that  have  beea 
the  leaders  of  civilisation  within  the  historic  period. 
The  subdivisions  of  these  families  will  be  best 
understood  from  the  accompanying  tables,  taken 
from  Max  Midler's  Lectures,  First  Series. 


No.  I. —Genealogical  Table  of  the  Aryan  Family  of  Languages. 


Living  Langvagbs. 


Dialects  of  India,    .        .        .      1 

a  the  Gipsies, 

</  Persia,       .        .        • 

a  Afghanistan,        • 

»  Kurdistan,        .       • 

>  Bokhara,     •       .       • 

»  Armenia,  . 

•  Ossethi,         .        •        . 
»  Wales,       .        .        • 

»  Brittany,      . 

»  + 

'  Scotland,       .        • 

•  Ireland,     .        . 

■  Man,  •        • 

•  Portugal,  .        . 
Spain,  . 

»         Pr.vence,  . 

«         Fiance, 

Italy, 
'         Waflachia,    .        • 

•  the  Giisous,      .        . 

•  Albania,        .        .        . 

•  Greece,      •       ■ 

«        Lithuania,  • 

»         Kurland  and  Livonia,) 
(Lettish),  .        .     ) 

•  Bulgaria,     . 

»         Kus>da  (Great,  Little,) 
White  Russian),     f 

•  IUyri.i       (Slovenian,^ 

Croatian,  Servian),) 

•  Poland, 

»         Bohemian  (Slovakian), 
Lusatia,         .        . 

i         Germany,  .       • 

+       .        .        .       . 

•  Ensland,   .        .        • 

■  Holland, 

•  Friesland,         . 

i         North     of   Germany) 

(Platt-Deutsch),    j" 

»         Denmark,  .        . 

t         Sweden,  . 

•  Norway,    • 

•  Iceland, 


Dead  Langcaoes. 


Branches. 


Prakrit    and    Pali  — Modern    Sanscrit,  —  Vedic 
Sanscrit   , 

Parsi— Pehlevi— Cuneiform  Inscriptions— Zend 


Old  Armenian 


Cornish 


Langne  d'oc 
Langue  d'oil 


J  Cymric 
(  Gadhelic 


Lingua  vulgaris 


Oscan 
Latin 
Unibrian 


Koitri 


Doric— JEo  lie 
Attic— Ionic- 
Old  Prussian 


Ecclesiastical  Slavonio 


Old  Bohemian 
Polabian 

Middle  Hi^h-German,  Old  High-German 

Gothic 
Anglo-Saxon 
Old  Dutch 
Old  Friesian 
Old  Saxon 

Old  Horse 


•  Lettio 


South-East 
Slavonic 


Classes. 
Indie 

•  Iranic 

I 

J-  Celtic 

Italio 

J  Illyric 
I  Hellenic 

Windic 


|  West-SlaTonic 

[■  High-German 

1 
}•  Low-German 


Scandinavian    J 


-  Teutonic    > 


B» 


No.  n.— Genealogical  Table  of  the  Semitic  Family  of  Languages. 


Lrvnra  Languages. 

Directs  of  Arabic,  . 

•         Amharic,   . 


the  Jews, 
+       • 

+       . 

Neo-Syriac, 


Dead  Languages. 


EtMopic 

Himyaritic  Inscriptions 

Biblical  Hebrew 

Samaritan  Pentateuch  (3d  c.  a.  n.) 

Carthaginian,  Phoenician  Inscriptions 

Chaldeo  (Masora,  Talmud,  Targnm,  Biblical  Chaldee) 

Syriac  (Peshito,  2i  c.  A.  D.) 

Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of  Babylon  and  Nineveh. 


Classes. 


Arabic 

or 
Southern 


Middle 

Aramaic 

or 
Northern       j 


48J 


PHILOMELA— PHILOSOPHY. 


PHILOME'LA,  the  name  of  a  personage  in  Greek 
legend,  who  was  changed  according  to  one  account 
into  a  swallow,  to  another  into  a  nightingale.  Modern 
poets  are  (or  rather  were,  for  it  was  chiefly  an  18th 
c.  fashion)  fond  of  calling  the  nightingale  by  its 
classic  name. 

PIIILOPCE'MEN,  the  most  illustrious  patriot 
and  general  who  figures  in  the  later  history  of 
Greece,  belonged  to  one  of  the  best  families  of  Arca- 
dia, and  was  born  at  Megalopolis  about  252  B.C. 
At  an  early  age  he  lost  his  father,  and  was  brought 
up  by  a  wealthy  citizen,  named  Oleander,  who  took 
care  that  he  should  receive  an  excellent  education. 
His  earliest  experiences  of  war  were  confined  to  the 
border  raids  of  the  Arcadians  into  Laconia ;  but 
in  222  B.C.,  he  was  one  of  the  defenders  of  Megalo- 
polis against  Cleomenes,  king  of  Sparta.  Next  year, 
when  the  Macedonian  king  Antigonus  marched  to 
the  assistance  of  the  Achseans,  P.  joined  him  at  the 
head  of  1000  horse,  and  contributed  materially  to 
the  terrible  defeat  which  the  Spartan  king  received 
at  Sellasia.  As  tranquillity  was  now  for  a  short 
time  restored  to  Greece,  P.  went  abroad  to  perfect 
himself  in  the  art  of  war,  and  served  in  Crete  with 
such  distinction,  that  on  his  return  to  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus, in  210,  he  was  appointed  general  of  the 
Achsean  horse,  and  at  once  proceeded  to  discipline  his 
men  in  a  vigorous  and  masterly  style.  In  the  expe- 
dition against  Elis  (209)  he  slew  the  Elean  leader, 
Demophantus,  with  his  own  hand.  In  208  he  was 
raised  to  the  highest  military  dignity  then  possible 
in  Greece,  being  elected  strategics  or  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Achaean  League,  and  in  this  capacity 
signalised  himself  by  the  great  improvements  which 
he  effected  in  the  drill,  discipline,  and  armour  of 
the  Achaean  soldiery.  It  seemed  as  if  the  ancient 
heroism  of  the  land  were  reviving.  The  battle  of 
Mantineia,  which  took  place  in  the  course  of  the 
same  year,  and  in  which  the  Spartans  were  again 
utterly  routed — their  general  and  king,  Machanidas, 
falling  by  the  sword  of  P.  himself — raised  him  to  the 
pinnacle  of  fame,  and  at  the  Nemean  festival  which 
followed  he  was  proclaimed  liberator  of  Greece. 
His  exalted  honours  did  not  in  the  slightest  degree 
disturb  the  integrity  of  his  character.  So  great  was 
his  influence  over  his  quarrelsome  countrymen,  that 
the  Macedonian  monarch,  Philip,  began  to  fear  that 
Greece  would  regain  its  independence,  and  tried  to 
have  him  secretly  assassinated ;  but  the  infamous 
treachery  was  discovered  in  time,  and  its  only  effect 
was  to  endear  P.  still  more  to  the  Achaeans.  Another 
of  his  determined  enemies  was  Nabis,  successor  of 
Machanidas  in  the  'tyranny'  of  Sparta,  but  in  201 
he  inflicted  on  the  latter  a  severe  defeat  at  Skotetas 
on  the  borders  of  Laconia.  During  the  next  few 
years  he  was  absent  in  Crete,  partly,  it  would  seem, 
for  political  reasons,  but  returned  to  the  Peloponnesus 
in  194  to  find  matters  in  a  serious  condition.  A  new 
and  dreaded  power — the  Romans— had  appeared, 
and  overthrown  both  Philip  and  Nabis,  and  P.  fore- 
boded future  mischief  to  all  Greece  from  these 
ambitious  warriors.  On  the  departure  of  the  consul 
Flamininus,  Nabis  recommenced  hostilities  against 
the  Achseans ;  P.  was  once  more  appointed  strategus 
(192);  and  in  a  pitched  battle  nearly  annihilated 
the  troops  of  Nabis,  who  himself  was  shortly  after- 
wards killed  by  the  ^Etolians.  He  now  exerted 
all  his  power  to  heal  the  divisions  among  the 
Achseans,  and  to  prevent  them  from  affording 
the  Romans  a  pretext  for  taking  away  their  inde- 
pendence. In  188,  he  took  a  fierce  revenge  on 
Sparta  for  having  put  a  number  of  his  friends  to 
death,  and  was  in  consequence  strongly  censured 
by  the  Roman  senate,  and  by  Q.  Caecilius  Metellus, 
who  was  sent  out  as  a  commissioner  to  Greece  in 
1S5.  Two  years  later  P.  (now  an  old  man  of  70J 
186 


was  elected  strategus  for  the  eighth  time.  When 
lying  ill  of  a  fever  at  Argos,  news  was  brought  to 
him  that  the  Messenians  had  broken  their  connec- 
tion with  the  league ;  P.  instantly  rose  from  his  sick 
bed,  hastened  at  the  head  of  some  cavalry  to  quell 
the  revolt,  but  was  overpowered  by  numbers,  and 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Deinocrates,  the  leader  of  the 
Messenians,  who  two  nights  after  sent  him  a  cup  of 
poison,  which  P.  drank  off  and  died.  The  remains 
of  the  hero  were  brought  in  solemn  procession  to 
his  native  city — the  historian  Polybius  carrying  the 
urn — and  statues  were  erected  to  his  memory  by 
his  grateful  and  repentant  countrymen. 

PHILO'SOPHY.  This  word  meant  originally 
the  '  love  of  knowledge,'  and  indicated,  therefore, 
a  special  taste,  appetite,  or  desire,  of  which  the 
subject-matter  was  knowledge.  At  first,  man's  pur- 
suit of  knowledge  was  subservient  to  the  immediate 
uses  of  life  ;  but,  in  the  course  of  time,  an  interest 
was  taken  in  knowing  the  order  of  the  world,  inde- 
pendent of  its  application  to  the  common  utilities. 
We  lind  that  this  stage  had  been  reached  in  Greece 
especially,  about  five  or  six  centuries  before  Christ ; 
at  which  time  the  name  '  philosophy '  took  its  rise, 
being  attributed  to  Pythagoras. 

The  word  has  had  a  variety  of  acceptations, 
although  all  pervaded  by  the  one  idea  of  employing 
the  human  understanding  in  the  search  for  increas- 
ing knowledge  and  certainty.  It  always  implies 
this  effort  in  a  distinguished  degree,  such  as  only  a 
few  persons  in  any  age  have  ever  been  able  to 
sustain.  The  pursuit  of  knowledge  had  to  become 
an  end  in  itself,  for  the  mere  improvement  of 
practice  would  not  at  first  have  been  a  sufficient 
motive  for  men  to  undergo  the  labours  of  scientific 
inquiry.  Indeed,  this  improvement  was  not  at  all 
apparent  as  a  consequence  of  the  earliest  efforts  of 
speculation.  As  one  celebrated  example,  the  inves- 
tigation of  the  properties  of  .  the  sections  of  the 
cone— the  ellipse,  parabola,  and  hyperbola — was 
without  any  practical  use  for  nearly  two  thousand 
years. 

As  may  be  readily  supposed,  the  precise  aim  of 
philosophy,  the  statement  of  what  constitutes  its 
end,  has  varied  with  the  advancement  of  its  study. 
In  modern  times,  the  pursuit  of  truth  has  taken  a 
well-defined  form,  expressed  by  the  name  Science 
(q.  v.).  But,  in  the  ancient  world,  this  operation 
was  a  mixture  of  speculation,  practice,  and  senti- 
ment— of  legitimate  inquiry  with  aspirations  after 
the  unattainable ;  and  hence  the  word  '  philosophy,' 
in  its  modern  employment,  often  refers  to  the 
subjects  that  have  not  as  yet  adopted  the  strict 
scientific  form.  On  this  view,  science  is  the  goal 
and  the  grave  of  philosophy.  (See  Lewes's  Biogra- 
phical History  of  Philosojyhy.)  It  is  chiefly  with 
reference  to  morals,  metaphysics,  and  the  human 
mind  generally,  that  the  term  is  still  retained. 

The  characters  that  distinguish  the  highest  form 
of  truth  are  Generality  and  Certainty  or  precision  ; 
and  in  proportion  as  a  subject  has  advanced  in  these 
respects,  it  might  be  said  to  have  become  philo- 
sophical, but  we  now  prefer  to  use  the  word  scientific 
The  theoretical  foundations  of  a  practical  subject, 
as  grammar,  are  sometimes  pretentiously  called  the 
philosophy  of  it.  So  any  department  of  nature  or 
humanity,  where  explanations  by  general  laws  are 
furnished,  is  styled  'philosophical;'  thus  we  have  the 
philosophy  of  zpolo^y  or  of  history,  and  a  'philosophi- 
cal' naturalist  or  historian. 

Again,  after  definite  branches  of  knowledge  have 
taken  a  scientific  shape,  and  have  been  reckoned  a3 
distinct  'sciences'  (mathematics,  &c.)  tbe  general 
principles  and  views  that  are  supposed  to  run 
through  the  whole,  are  sometimes  called  '  philos- 
ophy.'    This  was  one  of  the  meanings  of   the  word 


PIIILOSOFHY. 


in  Plato.  The  groat  work  of  Auguste  Comte  bases 
its  title  {Cours  de  Philosophie  Positive)  1411m  thin 
consideration. 

Professor  Ferrier  remarks  that  philosophy  is  not 
truth,  but  'reasoned  truth;'  that  is,  it  must  be 
truth  presented  under  the  forms  and  processes  that 
evolve  and  establish  the  highest  or  scientific  know- 
ledge. This  is  merely  another  mode  of  stating  that 
phit  Bophy  implies  a  special  procedure  for  attaining 
truth,  the  ordinary  unregulated  operations  of  the 
understanding  being  insufficient. 

Among  the  oldest  problems  of  philosophy,  we  are 
to  reckon  the  attempt  to  generalise  the  universe, 
or  to  resolve  all  nature  into  some  great  unity,  or 
common  substance  or  principle.  Thales  considered 
Water  the  primordial  and  fundamental  principle. 
Anazimander  adopted  as  the  foundation  of  the 
universe  something  called  by  him  the  Infinite  or 
Indeterminate,  out  of  which  the  various  definite 
substances,  air,  lire,  water,  &c,  were  generated,  and 
to  which  they  were  again  resolved.  Anaximenes 
assumed  Air  as  the  primordial  substance,  which,  by 
rarefaction,  produced  lire  and  ether,  and  by  conden- 
sation, water,  earth,  and  stone.  These  three  philo- 
sophers all  belonged  to  the  Ionic  colony  of  Miletus. 
Pythagoras  was  an  emigrant  from  Ionia  to  Italy  ; 
he  gave  Number  a3  the  essence  and  foundation  of 
all  existing  things :  the  different  numbers  being 
representative  of  different  natural  properties  and 
powers  ;  thus,  Jive  stood  for  colour,  six  for  life,  &c. 
Aenophanes  of  Kolophon  attacked  the  popular  poly- 
theism, and  propounded  one  great  indivisible  agency 
comprehending  and  identified  with  the  universe, 
which  he  would  not  designate  as  finite  or  infinite, 
in  motion  or  at  rest.  Parmenides  of  Elea  distin- 
guished between  self-existent  being,  Ens,  or  the 
absolute,  characterised  by  extension  and  duration, 
and  phenomenal  nature,  the  region  of  inferior  cer- 
tainty, or  mere  opinion.  This  was  the  first  sketch 
of  what  has  since  been  called  Ontology,  or  the 
science  of  the  noumenon,  or  absolute  being.  Hera- 
kleitus  of  Ephesus  maintained  an  absolute  of  a 
totally  different  character — a  principle  of  incessant 
Change,  the  negation  of  all  substance  and  stability, 
a  power  of  perpetual  destruction  and  renovation. 
Empedocles  took  his  stand  upon  the  Four  Elements, 
out  of  which  all  things  were  constituted  by  the 
action  of  the  opposing  principles  of  love,  and  enmity 
or  discord — a  poetical  representation  of  attraction 
and  repulsion.  Anaxagoras  also  treated  the  world 
as  made  up  of  elements,  but  indefinite  in  number. 
By  the  attraction  of  each  for  its  own  kind,  the 
primitive  chaos  was  separated,  but  excepting  '  mind,' 
no  element  ever  was  perfectly  pure,  the  character 
of  each  substance  being  determined  by  the  predomin- 
ance of  the  proper  element.  These  elements  were 
called  the  '  homoeomeries.'  Diogenes  of  Apollonia, 
the  last  of  the  series  called  Ionic  philosophers, 
ad  opted  in  a  modified  form  the  tenet  of  Anaximenes, 
that  Air  was  the  primordial  element.  The  celebrated 
Atomic  theory  originated  with  Leukippus,  but  is 
commonly  identified  with  his  pupil  Democritus  of 
Abdera.  The  elements  of  Anaxagoras  were  acted 
on  by  mind,  but  with  Democritus  their  activity  was 
Inherent  in  themselves  from  the  beginning. 

The  grand  problem  of  External  Perception  (see 
Perception)  was  agitated  at  an  early  period,  and 
has  been  always  reckoned  a  leading  question  of 
phdosophy.  The  first  attempt  at  a  solution  was  an 
application  by  Democritus  of  his  atomic  hypothesis. 
He  supposed  that  all  things  were  constantly  throw- 
ing off  images  of  themselves,  which  enter  the  soul 
through  the  pores  of  the  organs  of  sense.  He  was 
aware  that  this  left  us  in  a  state  of  uncertainty,  as 
to  whether  the  images  corresponded  to  the  otherwise 
unknown  originals. 


The  iiuuiv  difficulties  and  uncertainties  incident 
to  the  scanh  for  knowledge,  could  ool  but  be  fell  by 
inquirers  generally.  There  was  one  sect  in  par- 
ticular, more  especially  impressed  by  thin  circum- 
stance, and  hence  called  Sceptics,  or  Doubters.  They 
were  represented  in  antiquity  by  l'vnho.  They 
dwelt  on  the  absence  of  any  sure  criterion  of  truth, 
ami  pointed  out  that  what  was  considered  most 
certain  was  not  free  from  objections,  or  counter- 
arguments. 

Philosophical  speculation  began  to  take  definite 
shape  in  the  age  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  the 
the  beginnings  of  many  of  the  sciences.  More 
especially  at  this  time  do  we  find  the  d 
enunciation  of  the  Philosophy  of  Human  Life, 
otherwise  called  Moral  and  Ethical  Philosophy. 
The  epiestions  concerning  the  end  of  life,  the  pursuit 
of  happiness,  and  men's  duties  in  various  relation- 
ships, had  been  answered  by  a  sort  of  rule-of-thumb 
experience,  rather  than  by  deep  reflection  or  far- 
seeing  combinations.  The  distinctions  of  virtue  and 
vice  were  determined  by  political  society,  and  con- 
nected more  or  less  with  religion.  There  were  testa 
and  maxims  of  conduct,  for  the  most  part  merely 
prudential.  The  first  approach  to  a  moralising  strain 
is  found  in  the  poems  of  Hesiod.  He  combines  a 
gloomy  view  of  life  with  much  practical  wisdom, 
enjoining  justice,  energy,  temperance,  and  simplicity 
of  living.  The '  Seven  Wise  Men,'  who  belonged  to  the 
6th  c  E.C.,  followed  in  the  same  course,  and  uttered 
a  variety  of  sayings  or  short  maxims,  of  which  the 
most  ordinary  subjects  were  'the  uncertainty  of 
human  things,  the  brevity  of  life,  the  unhappiness 
of  the  poor,  the  blessing  of  friendship,  the  sanctity 
of  au  oath,  the  force  of  necessity,'  &c,  together  with 
the  simple  rules  of  prudence.  The  most  celebrated 
saying  of  this  age  was  the  Delphian  inscription  (of 
uncertain  authorship),  '  Know  thyself.'  The  teach- 
ing of  the  Sophists  made  another  stage  in  the  history 
of  moral  philosophy.  They  opened  up  discussions 
on  virtue,  on  justice,  on  the  laws,  and  on  happiness  ; 
and  framed  hortatory  addresses  with  a  view  to 
moral  culture.  Socrates  then  came  forward,  and 
instituted  a  severe  logical  analysis  of  the  meaning 
of  ethical  terms,  asking  'What  is  piety?  What  is 
impiety?  What  is  the  noble  ?  What  the  base?  What 
is  just?  What  is  temperance?  What  is  madness? 
What  is  a  state  ?  What  constitutes  the  character  of  a 
citizen  ?  What  is  rule  over  man  ?  What  makes  one 
able  to  rule  ? '  The  rigid  search  after  strict  defini- 
tions of  these  terms  may  be  said  to  cot.i.titute  a 
philosophical  method  in  ethics,  and  hence  Socrates 
is  called  the  first  moral  philosopher.  He  gave  the 
impulse  to  Plato,  his  successor,  who  in  his  turn 
acted  upon  Aristotle,  and  also  to  the  opposing  sects 
of  the  Cynics  and  the  Cyrenaics— the  one  affecting 
a  hard  and  ascetic  life,  and  a  proud  superiority  of 
the  individual  will  to  all  oitward  conventions  and 
customs ;  the  other  avowing  pleasure  as  the  chief 
good,  sitting  loose  to  the  irksome  duties  of  the 
citizen,  and  in  despair  of  attaining  happiness,  sliding 
into  apathy.  The  Stoics  and  the  Epicureans  afforded 
a  similar  contrast,  although  differently  expressed. 
The  Stoic  ideal  was  a  being  in  whom  the  natural 
impulses  and  desires  should  be  absolutely  subjected 
to  highly  abstract  views  of  the  universe :  the  Epi- 
curean ideal  was  a  being  moving  harmoniously 
according  to  natural  impulses — in  short,  following 
nature  up  to  the  limits  of  prudence. 

The  last  phase  of  ancient  philosophy  i'J  repre- 
sented by  Neo-Platonism  (q.  v.),  or  the  Alexandrian 
school.  In  the  middle  ages,  speculative  philosophy 
took  the  form  called  Scholasticism  (rr  v.).  At  the 
revival  of  learning,  Descartes  and  Bacon  led  in 
opposite  directions,  the  one  representing  what  is 
called  &  priori  philosophising;  the  oilier,  Induction 


PHILOSTRATUS— PHLEBITIS. 


(q.  v.).  Jb'rom  this  time,  '  philosophy '  comes  to 
mean  more  exclusively  the  inquiries  connected  with 
the  mind,  as  exemplified  in  the  writings  of  Hobbes, 
Locke,  Leibnitz,  Berkeley,  Hume,  Beid,  Kant,  &c. 
The  qualified  phrase,  Natural  Philosophy  (in  the 
English  sense),  was  applied  to  a  special  department 
of  the  outer  world,  as  Moral  Philosophy  was  used 
in  connection  with  mind  and  the  discussion  of  moral 
duties.  The  chief  points  in  the  history  of  modern 
philosophy  will  be  found  under  the  heads  of  Ger- 
man Philosophy,  Eclecticism,  Common  Sense, 
Perception,  Metaphysics,  Ethics  ;  and  in  the 
notices  of  Berkeley,  Locke,  Hume,  Reid,  Kant, 
Hegel,  Fichte,  Cousin,  Hamilton,  &c. 

PHILO'STRATUS,  the  Elder,  of  Lemnos,  a 
famous  Greek  sophist  and  rhetorician,  was  born 
probably  about  170 — 180  A.D.,  studied  under 
Proclus  at  Athens,  and  finally  established  himself 
at  Rome,  where  he  became  a  member  of  the 
brilliant  and  learned  circle  that  gathered  round 
the  'philosophic'  Julia  Domna,  wife  of  Severus. 
He  was  alive,  according  to  Suidas,  in  the  time  of  the 
Emperor  Philip  (244—249).  He  is  the  author  of  a 
number  of  works  still  extant,  and  not  without  value 
on  account  of  their  matter,  although  the  style  and 
arrangement  are  faulty.  Among  them  are  a  life 
of  Apollonius  (q.  v.)  of  Tyana,  a  description  of  a 
collection  of  paintings  at  Naples  under  the  title  of 
Imagines,  biographies  of  a  number  of  sophists, 
Heroica,  Letters,  &c.  There  are  complete  editions 
of  his  works  by  Morel  (Paris,  1608) ;  Olearius  (Leip. 
1709);  and  Kayser  (Zur.  1S44,  etseq.),  of  which  the 
last  is  by  tar  the  most  correct  and  critical. — Philos- 
tratus  the  Younger,  called  Philostratus  the  Lem- 
uian,  also  a  teacher  of  elocution,  was  an  intimate 
friend,  perhaps  a  relative  of  the  former,  but  nothing 
is  known  with  certainty  regarding  him. 

PHI'LTER,  PHILTRE  (Gr.  pldltron^  love- 
charm,  love-potion).  A  superstitious  belief  in  the 
efficacy  of  certain  artificial  means  of  inspiring  and 
securing  love,  seems  to  have  been  generally  prevalent 
from  very  early  times ;  and  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  (among  the  latter  in  the  later  days  of  the 
republic,  and  under  the  emperors),  love-charms,  and 
especially  love-potions,  were  in  continual  use.  It  is 
not  certainly  known  of  what  these  love-potions  were 
composed — nor  can  we  rely  entirely  on  the  details 
given  us  on  this  subject  by  classic  writers,  and  their 
commentators  in  later  time — but  there  is  no  doubt 
that  certain  poisonous  or  deleterious  herbs  and  drugs 
were  among  their  chief  ingredients,  to  which  other 
substances,  animal  as  well  as  vegetable,  are  said  to 
have  been  added,  coupled  with  the  employment  of 
magic  rites.  Thessaly  had  the  credit  of  producing 
the  most  potent  herbs,  and  her  people  were  noto- 
rious as  the  most  skilful  practisers  of  magic  arts, 
whence  the  well-known  '  Thessala  philtra '  of 
Juvenal  (vL  610).  These  potions  were  violent  and 
dangerous  in  operation,  and.  their  use  resulted  often 
in  the  weakening  of  the  mental  powers,  madness, 
and  death,  instead  of  the  purpose  for  which  they 
were  intended.  Lucretius  is  said  to  have  been 
driven  mad  by  a  love-potion,  and  to  have  died  by 
his  own  hand  in  consequence— though  the  story 
does  not  perhaps  rest  on  sufficient  authority ;  and 
the  madness  of  the  Emperor  Caligula  was  attributed 
by  some  persons  to  love-potions  given  him  by  his 
wife  Caesonia — by  which  also  she  is  said  to  have 
preserved  his  attachment  till  the  end  of  his  life.  In 
the  corrupt  aud  licentious  days  of  the  Roman  empire, 
the  manufacture  of  love-charms  of  all  kinds  seems 
to  have  been  carried  on  as  a  regular  trade  ;  the 
purchasers,  if  not  the  makers  of  them,  being  chiefly 
Women.  The  use  of  philters  seems  to  have  been 
not  unknown  during  the  middle  ages;  and  in  the 
488 


East,  the  nurse  of  superstition  of  all  kinds,  belief  in 
the  power  of  love-potions  lingers  probably  down  to 
the  present  day. 

PHLEBE'NTERISM  is  a  term  invented  by  De 
Quatrefages  to  designate  an  anatomical  arrange- 
ment, existing,  as  he  supposed,  in  certain  of  the 
nudibranchiate  molluscs,  and  characterised  by  rami- 
fied prolongations  of  the  digestive  tube,  in  virtue  of 
which  the  digestive  apparatus,  to  a  certain  extent, 
supplies  the  place  of  a  complete  circulatory  appar- 
atus, and  aids  in  the  process  of  respiration.  Th 
researches  of  Alder  and  Hancock,  and  other  zoolo 
gists,  seem,  however,  to  shew  that  in  these  animals  th 
circulation  is  as  complete  as  in  the  gasteropodou 
molluscs  generally,  and  that  these  ramified  proloDga 
tions  are  of  the  nature  of  a  rudimentary  liver.  For 
further  information  on  this  subject,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  De  Quatrefages's  Rambles  of  a  Naturalist, 
vol.  i.  pp.  348—353. 

PHLEBI'TIS,  or  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE 
VEINS  (Gr.  phlebs,  a  vein),  although  seldom  an 
original  or  idiopathic  disease,  is  a  frequent  sequence 
of  wounds,  in  which  case  it  is  termed  traumatic 
phlebitis  (from  the  Greek  trauma,  a  wound),  and  is 
not  uncommon  after  delivery.  The  disease  is  indi- 
cated by  great  tenderness  and  pain  along  the  course 
of  the  affected  vessel,  which  feels  like  a  hard  knotted 
cord,  and  rolls  under  the  fingers.  The  hardness  is, 
however,  sometimes  obscured  by  the  swelling  of  the 
limb  beyond  and  about  the  seat  of  the  disorder,  partly 
in  consequence  of  the  effusion  of  serum  caused  by 
the  obstruction  to  the  return  of  the  venous  blood 
(which  thus  gives  rise  to  a  local  dropsy),  and  partly 
in  consequence  of  the  propagation  of  the  inflamma- 
tion to  the  surrounding  tissues.  The  inner  surface 
of  the  inflamed  vessel  is  supposed  to  throw  out 
fibrinous  fluid,  which  coagulates  in  layers,  and 
finally  closes  the  tube.  If  the  vessel  is  small, 
the  consequences  of  its  obstruction  may  be  of 
little  importance,  but  when  a  large  vein  is  affected, 
the  consequences  are  always  dangerous,  and  may  be 
fatal. 

There  are  two  modes  of  recovery  :  solution  of  the 
coagulated  fibrine  may  take  place,  and  the  vessel 
may  again  become  pervious ;  or,  as  is  more  com- 
monly the  case,  the  obstruction  may  continue,  but  a 
collateral  venous  circulation  may  be  established,  and 
the  circulation  thus  carried  on  through  a  circuitous 
route.  With  the  return  of  the  circulation — in 
whichever  of  these  two  ways  it  is  accomplished— 
the  swelling  subsides,  and  the  patient  gradually 
recovers.  If,  however,  the  disease  advances,  sup- 
puration takes  place  within  the  coagulum,  and 
one  of  two  things  happens  ;  either  abscesses  are 
formed  along  the  vein,  or  the  pus  gets  into  the 
current  of  blood  and  contaminates  the  circulation, 
giving  rise  to  the  perilous  disease  known  asPycemia 
(q.  v).  Either  condition  is  dangerous ;  the  latter 
pre-eminently  so. 

Phlebitis  generally  originates  in  some  local  injury 
of  a  vein,  and  the  inflammation,  when  once  estab- 
lished, is  readily  propagated  along  the  course  of  the 
vessel.  Sometimes  very  slight  injuries  give  rise  to 
it.  It  occasionally  occurs  after  venesection,  especi- 
ally with  a  dull  lancet,  or  one  soiled  by  contact  with 
diseased  matter.  Women  are  peculiarly  liable  to 
this  disease  after  delivery,  as  the  veins  of  the  womb 
are  apt  to  become  inflamed,  and  to  communicate  the 
inflammation  to  the  venous  trunks  connected  with 
them.     Sec  Phlegmasia. 

There  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
the  treatment  to  be  pursued  ;  some  high  authorities 
(Dr  Wood,  for  example)  recommending  'the  very  free 
use  of  leeches  along  the  affected  vein,'  and  that  they 
'  should  be  repeated  over  and  over  again  if  the 


PHLEBOLITES— PHOCAS. 


symptoms  of  inflammation  should  persevere,'  the 
subsequent  application  of  cold  lotions,  and  the 
internal  use  of  mercury  'pushed  to  a  moderate 
Balivation  ;'  while  others  question  the  utility  of 
Bach  treatment,  and  recommend  'rest,  warm  fomen- 
tations and  poultices,  early  incision  of  abscesses, 
evacuation  of  bile  and  faeces  by  one  or  two  doses  of 
calomel,  opium  to  relieve  pain  and  insure  quiet  of 
mind  and  body,  and  wine,  especially  if  there  has 
been  great  loss  of  blood.' — Druitt's  Sun  icon's  Vade 
Mi  cum,  Sth  ed.,  p.  326.  1  he  latter  is  in  most 
cases  the  preferable  mode  of  treatment.  During 
convalescence,  the  patient  must  be  satisfied  if  tlie 
swelling  goes  down  slowly.  Time  is  required  for 
the  enlargement  of  the  veins  by  which  the  collateral 
circulation  is  to  be  carried  on  ;  and  active  counter- 
irritation,  such  as  the  application  of  ointments  of 
iodine  or  mercury,  if  employed  incautiously,  fre- 
quently does  harm  by  increasing  the  inflammation. 
With  care,  however,  they  are  useful  appliances ; 
and  if,  after  giving  them  a  fair  trial,  much  swelling 
should  remain,  the  practitioner  must  have  recourse 
to  carefully  regulated  bandaging,  and  the  use  of 
diuretics. 

PHLE'BOLITES  (Gr.  phlebs,  a  vein,  and  Mhos, 
a  stone)  are  calcareous  concretions  formed  by  the 
degeneration  of  coagulations  in  veins,  or  occasionally 
originating  in  the  coats  of  the  vessel.  They  are 
seldom  detected  till  after  death,  although  cases  are 
on  record  in  which,  occurring  in  subcutaneous 
veins,  they  have  given  rise  to  external  tumours  of 
considerable  size. 

PHLEBOTOMY.    See  Bleeding. 

PHLE'GETHON,  i.  e.,  the  Flaming,  a  river  of 
the  infernal  regions,  whose  waves  rolled  torrents  of 
fire.  Nothing  would  grow  on  its  scorched  and 
desolate  shores.  After  a  course  contrary  to  the 
Cocytus  (q.  v.),  it  discharged  itself,  like  the  latter 
Btreain,  into  the  Lake  of  Acheron. 

PHLEGMA'SIA  A'LBA  DO'LENS,  or  MILK- 
LEG,  is  a  disease  which  is  most  common  in  women 
after  parturition,  especially  if  they  have  lost  much 
blood,  but  sometimes  occurs  in  unmarried  women, 
and  occasionally  in  males.  It  usually  commences 
about  a  week  or  ten  days  after  delivery  with  a  feel- 
ing of  pain  in  the  loins  or  lower  part  of  the  abdomen, 
whence  it  extends  to  the  groin  and  down  the  thigh 
and  leg.  The  pain  soon  becomes  very  severe,  and 
principally  follows  the  course  of  the  internal  cuta- 
neous and  crural  nerve  of  the  thigh  and  of  the 
posterior  tibial  in  the  leg.  The  limb  soon  begins 
to  swell,  and  in  the  course  of  a  couple  of  days,  is 
sometimes  twice  its  ordinary  size,  and  as  the  swell- 
ing develops  itself,  the  acuteness  of  the  pain  con- 
siderably diminishes.  The  limb  is  partly  flexed,  and 
lies  motionless  ;  any  movement  aggravates  the  pain. 
The  swelling  extends  uniformly  over  the  limb,  which 
is  pale  and  shining,  aud  hot  and  firm  to  the  touch, 
seldom  pitting  on  pressure.  The  femoral  vein  may 
usually  be  felt  like  a  hard  cord,  and  this  symptom, 
taken  with  the  swelling,  clearly  indicates  that  this 
affection  is  essentially  crural  phlebitis.  The  uni- 
formity of  the  cord  is  interrupted  by  nodules,  arising 
either  from  inflamed  cellular  tissue,  or  from  clots 
within  the  vein.  Both  legs  are  seldom  attacked  at 
the  same  time,  and  the  left  thigh  is  the  most 
common  seat  of  the  disease. 

This  aifection  usually  terminates  favourably,  the 
acute  symptoms  disappearing  in  about  ten  days  or 
a  fortnight.  The  swelling,  however,  often  continues 
for  a  long  time,  and  sometimes  lasts  for  life.  Very 
different  opinions  have  been  held  regarding  the 
nature  of  this  disease.  At  one  time,  it  was  con- 
sidered as  the  result  of  metastatic  secretion  of 
milk  (or,  \n  other  words,  as  due  to  the  milk  leaving 


tlie  l>reast,  ami   settling   in    the   thigh,  and   In 

term  milh-leg.  There  is  now  no  donbt  that  tlie 
disease   is  inflammation   originating  in  the  veins  of 

the  womb,  and  extending  to  those  of  the  lower 
extremity.  The  treatment  is  the  same  M  tor  Phle- 
bitis (q.  v.)  generally.  Warm  poppy  f  (mentations,  <>r 
bran  poultices  sprinkled  with  laudanum,  may  b« 
applied  externally  at  the  beginning  of  the  attack, 
after  which  flannel  saturated  with  a  liniment,  com- 
posed of  one  part  of  laudanum  to  two  parts  of  soap 
liniment,  may  be  applied  round  the  limb  in  the  form 
of  a  bandage,  applied  not  so  tightly  as  to  occasion 
pain.  If  necessary,  the  bowels  must  be  gently 
opened  with  castor  oil,  and  opium  given  to  allav 
pain  and  induce  sleep. 

PHLE'UM.    See  Timothy  Grass. 

PHLOGISTON  (Gr.  combustible)  was  the  term 
employed  by  Stahl,  professor  at  Halle,  in  his 
Zijmotechnia  JFundamentalis,  1697,  to  designate  a 
hypothetical  element  which,  by  combining  with  a 
body,  rendered  it  combustible,  and  which  occasioned 
combustion  by  its  disengagement,  there  being  left, 
after  its  evolution,  either  an  acid  or  an  earth.  In 
the  above-named  work,  he  maintains  that  the  pro- 
cesses of  obtaining  sulphur  from  sulphuric  acid, 
and  of  procuring  the  metals  from  their  earths  or 
calces,  are  analogous,  and  consist  alike  in  the  addi- 
tion of  his  phlogiston.  Thus,  sulphur,  according 
to  the  phlogistic  theory — which  held  undivided 
sway  in  chemistry  untd  the  time  of  Lavoisier,  who 
substituted  for  it  the  theory  of  oxygenation  (1775 
— 1781),  and  was  maintained  by  a  few  chemists, 
especially  Priestley,  till  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century — was  composed  of  sulphuric  acid  and  phlo- 
giston ;  lead,  of  the  calx  of  lead  and  phlogiston ; 
&c.  In  consequence  of  the  general  adoption  of  the 
phlogistic  theory,  when  Priestley,  in  1774,  dis- 
covered oxygen,  and  when  Scheele,  a  little  later, 
discovered  chlorine,  the  names  these  chemists  gave 
to  their  discoveries  were  dtpldoyisticated  air  and 
dephlogisticated  marine  acid.  According  to  modern 
views,  mainly  based  on  Lavoisier's  experiments,  the 
addition  of  oxygen  takes  place  in  the  formation  of 
acids  and  of  earths,  instead  of  the  subtraction  of 
phlogiston.  The  question  whether  the  process  was, 
in  fact,  one  of  addition  or  subtraction,  was  finally 
decided  by  the  balance,  an  instrument  to  which 
chemistry  owes  most  of  its  marvellous  progress 
during  the  last  three-quarters  of  a  century. 

PHLOX,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Polemonlacem,  distinguished  by  a  prismatic  calyx, 
salver-shaped  corolla,  and  unequal  filaments.  The 
species  are  pretty  numerous,  mostly  perennial 
plants  with  simple  leaves,  and  mostly  natives  of 
North  America.  A  number  of  species  are  common 
in  our  flower-gardens.  This  has  of  late  become  a 
favourite  genus  with  florists,  and  many  very  fine 
varieties  have  been  produced. 

PHO'BEROS,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Flacourtiacem  or  Bixacece,  of  which  one  species^ 
P.  Mundt'u,  the  Klipdoorn  of  the  Dutch  colonists  oi 
South  Africa,  although  only  20—30  feet  high, 
attains  a  diameter  of  three  feet  or  more,  and  is  very 
useful  for  the  purposes  of  wagon -makers  and  house- 
carpenters,  the  wood  being  hard  and  fine-grained  j 
another  South  African  species,  P.  Eckloaii,  the 
Roodpeer  of  the  colonists,  has  a  hai  d,  heavy,  and 
fine-grained  wood,  used  by  cabinet-makers,  mill- 
wrights, &c. 

PHOCE'NA.    See  Porpoise. 

PHO'CAS,  emperor  of  Constantinople  (602—610), 
was  a  Cappadocian  by  birth,  anil  was  for  some  time 
crroom  to  Priscus,  one  of  the  celebrated  generals  of 
tlie  Emperor  Mauricius  (q.  v.).     His  brutal  courage 


PHOCID^-PHCENICIA. 


gained  him  a  great  reputation  among  the  soldiers, 
and  though  only  a  centurion  at  the  time  of  the 
revolt  against  Mauritius,  he  was  elevated  to  the 
throne  by  the  soldiers.  To  secure  himself,  he  caused 
Mauricius  to  be  murdered,  along  with  his  five  sons 
and  his  principal  adherents ;  and  then,  by  a  treaty 
disgraceful  to  the  empire,  got  rid  of  the  Avars. 
But  his  troubles  were  just  commencing,  for  Khusru 
II.  (q.  v.),  Shah  of  Persia,  hearing  of  the  death  of 
his  friend  and  benefactor,  Mauricius,  an  event  which 
freed  him  from  the  obligation  of  amity  with  the 
Eastern  Empire,  took  up  arms  to  revenge  his  friend's 
murder,  and  to  recover  for  Persia  all  the  territories 
previously  under  her  sway.  The  war  was  fiercely 
carried  on  for  24  years,  during  the  first  18  of  which 
the  Persian  army  were  uniformly  successful,  and 
the  Byzantines  were  almost  completely  driven  out 
of  Asia.  See  Khusru  II.  and  Heraclius.  P. 
remained  in  the  capital,  to  overawe  his  turbulent 
subjects,  conscious  of  his  xmfitness  to  command 
the  army;  and  abandoned  himself  to  his  animal 
appetites,  tyrannising  over  the  people  without  the 
least  regard  to  justice,  and  putting  to  death  whom- 
soever he  thought  dangerous,  among  others,  Narses, 
the  celebrated  general  in  the  former  Persian  war. 
Constantina,  the  widow  of  Mauricius,  excited  against 
the  tyrant  two  formidable  insurrections,  the  latter 
in  607,  but  both  were  speedily  quelled ;  and  the  ex- 
empress,  with  her  daughters,  was  beheaded  on  the 
same  spot  where  her  husband  and  sons  had  been 
slain.  Her  principal  adherents,  some  of  whom 
were  among  the  highest  officers  of  state,  suffered 
death  under  the  most  horrible  tortures.  These 
cruelties,  and  the  successes  of  the  Persians,  had 
well-nigh  ruined  P.'s  power  and  influence.  But  he 
gave  the  coup  ale  grace  to  it  himself  by  insulting  his 
favourite  and  son-in-law,  Crispus,  who  had  remon- 
strated with  him  on  his  conduct.  Crispus  revenged 
himself  by  forming  a  conspiracy  against  him,  along 
with  Heraclius,  exarch  of  Africa — the  result  of 
which  was  the  overthrow  of  the  tyrant,  who  was 
taken  prisoner  (October  3,  610).  After  being  insulted 
and  tortured,  he  was  beheaded,  and  his  body  dragged 
through  the  streets  by  the  mob. 

PHO'CID^E.     See  Seal. 

PHO'CION  (G7-  Phokidn),  an  Athenian  general,  of 
noble  and  unselfish  character,  was  born  about  the 
end  of  the  5th  c.  B.C.  Clinton,  in  his  Fasti  Hellenici, 
gives  the  date  402  B.C.  He  was  of  humble  origin,  but 
appears  to  have  enjoyed  a  superior  education,  and  to 
have  studied  under  Plato,  Xenocrates,  and  perhaps 
Diogenes  also,  from  the  last  of  whom  he  may  have 
acquired  his  habit  of  indulging  in  caustic  sarcasm. 
P.  first  attracted  notice  in  the  great  sea-fight  at 
Naxos  (376),  where  he  commanded  a  division  of  the 
Athenian  fleet,  and  materially  helped  to  secure  the 
victory  for  his  countrymen.  Strange  to  say,  how- 
ever, we  scarcely  hear  of  him  again  for  more  than 
20  years;  but  in  351,  along  with  Evagoras,  he  under- 
took the  conquest  of  Cyprus  for  the  Persian 
monarch,  Artaxerxes  III.  (Ochus),  and  was  com- 
pletely successful.  About  the  same  time,  but  the 
exact  date  is  uncertain,  he  led  an  Athenian  expedi- 
tion into  the  island  of  Eubcea,  where  Philip  of 
Macedon  was  intriguing,  and  inflicted  a  severe  defeat 
on  that  powerful  sovereign  at  Tamynae.  In  341,  he 
was  again  successful  in  crushing  the  Macedonian 
party  in  Euboea,  and  in  restoring  the  ascendency  of 
Athens.  Two  years  before  this,  he  had  achieved  a 
similar  result  at  Megara  ;  and  in  340,  when  sent  to 
the  aid  of  the  Byzautines  against  Philip,  he  acted 
with  so  much  prudence  and  tact,  and  inspired  the 
citizens  with  so  much  zeal  and  courage,  that  Philip 
was  forced  to  abandon  the  siege,  and  even  to 
evacuate  the  Chersonesus;  while  P.  captured  several 
490 


of  his  ships  and  coast-garrisons,  besides  making 
havoc  of  a  good  deal  of  the  Macedonian  territory. 
Nevertheless,  with  just  appreciation  of  the  real 
weakness  of  Greece  Proper,  and  of  the  strength  of 
Macedon,  he  advocated,  even  in  the  midst  of  his 
triumphs,  pacific  views,  and  the  establishment  of 
better  relations  with  the  enemy.  His  advice  was 
not  taken ;  but  the  fatal  battle  of  Chrcronea,  only 
two  years  afterwards,  in  which  the  independence 
of  the  Greek  republics  was  lost  for  ever,  proved 
its  soundness.  The  murder  of  Philip,  in  336,  occa- 
sioned the  greatest  exultation,  and  Demosthenes 
even  proposed  a  public  sacrifice  of  thanksgiving,  and 
the  establishment  of  religious  honours  to  the  memory 
of  the  assassin,  but  P.  resisted,  and  prevented  so 
monstrous  a  proposal.  Henceforth,  his  career  is 
chiefly  political.  We  see  him  struggling  at  Athensi 
to  repress  what  appeared  to  him  the  reckless  desire 
for  war  on  the  part  of  the  fanatical  patriots,  on 
account  of  which  he  was  regarded  as  a  traitor,  but 
his  personal  honour  is  above  suspicion.  After  tho 
death  of  Alexander  in  323,  the  aged  P.  endeavoured, 
but  in  vain,  to  hinder  the  Athenians  from  going  to 
war  with  Antipater.  The  battle  of  Cranon,  next  year, 
which  prostrated  his  countrymen,  again  evinced  tho 
wisdom  of  his  counsels;  but,  though  very  unhand- 
somely treated  by  the  Athenians,  ho  used  all  his 
influence  with  the  conqueror  (who,  like  Alexander, 
had  a  profound  respect  for  him)  to  mitigate  their 
hardships.  After  the  death  of  Antipater,  P.  was 
involved  in  the  intrigues  of  Cassander,  the  rival  of 
Polysperchon,  and  was  forced  to  flee  to  Phocis, 
where  Polysperchon  delivered  him  up  to  the 
Athenians.  He  was  condemned,  by  '  a  mixed  mob 
of  disfranchised  citizens,  foreigners,  and  slaves,' 
to  drink  hemlock.  His  body,  flung  unburied  over 
the  borders  of  the  state,  was  carried  by  some  of 
his  friends  to  Eleusis,  and  burned  there.  The 
Athenians  soon  began  to  raise  monuments  to  his 
memory.  His  life  has  been  written  by  Plutarch 
and  Cornelius  Nepo3. 

PHO'CIS  (Gr.  Phokis),  a  province  of  Greece  Proper 
or  Hellas,  bounded  on  the  W.  by  the  Ozolian  Lokri, 
on  the  N.  by  Doris,  on  the  E.  by  the  Opuntian  Lokri, 
and  on  the  S.  by  the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  It  was  about 
792  square  miles  in  extent.  The  greater  part  of  the 
country  is  occupied  by  the  famous  mountain-range 
of  Parnassus  (q.  v.).  The  principal  river  is  the 
Cephissus.  According  to  tradition,  the  most  ancient 
inhabitants  were  the  Leleges,  Pelasgians,  and 
Thracians,  from  the  gradual  mixture  of  whom  the 
Phocians  were  believed  to  have  arisen.  These  were 
finally  united  into  a  free  federal  state,  which  derives 
its  chief  historical  importance  from  possessing  the 
famous  oracle  of  Delphi  (q.  v. ).  During  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war,  the  Phocians  were  close  allies  of  the 
Athenians.  In  the  time  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  they 
were  involved  in  a  ten  years'  war,  on  account  of 
their  opposition  to  a  decree  of  the  Amphictyonic 
Council,  concerning  the  use  of  a  piece  of  land  belong- 
ing to  the  temple  of  Delphi.  This  war,  commonly 
known  as  the  Sacred  or  Phociau  War,  ended 
disastrously  for  the  Phocians,  the  whole  of  whose 
cities  (22  in  number)  were  destroyed,  with  one 
exception,  and  the  inhabitants  parcelled  out  among 
the  hamlets. 

PHCE'BUS  (i.  e.,  the  Bright  or  Radiant),  a  title, 
and  subsequently  a  name,  of  Apollo.  It  had  refer- 
ence both  to  the  youthful  beauty  of  the  god,  and  to 
the  radiance  of  the  sun,  when,  latterly,  Apollo  became 
identified  with  Helios,  the  sun-god. 

PHCENTCIA  (Gr.  Phoinike,  derived  either  from 
Phoinos,  purple,  or  Phoi?iix,  palm-tree — both  desig- 
nations descriptive  of  the  chief  produce  of  the 
country ;     the     Hebrew     term     Kenaan,    Lowland, 


PHOENICIA* 


referring  to  its  physical  condition)  is  the  name  given 
by  the  Greeks  ami  Romans  to  a  certain  territory 
situated  about  34°—  .'»(»"  N.  lat.,  bounded  by  the 
Mediterranean  on  the  W.,  by  Syria  to  the  N.  and 
E.,  and  Jadeaa  to  the  S.  Except  where  the  Medi- 
terranean wet  a  natural  boundary,  the  frontiers 
differed  widely  at  different  periods,  north,  south,  and 
east,  according  to  the  gradual  rise  and  decline  of 
the  country.  Its  length  may  he  said  to  have  been 
about  1200  miles,  while  its  breadth  never  exceeded  20 
miles,  making  a  total  of  about  2000  square  miles. 
We  may  here  mention  some  of  the  products  of  the 
soil,  the  exportation  of  which,  to  a  certain  extent, 
laid  the  foundation  of  her  greatness.  Pine,  fir, 
cypress,  cedars,  terebinths,  palm  and  tig-trees, 
sycamores,  olive-trees,  and  acacias,  crown  the 
heights  ;  while  wheat,  rye,  and  barley  are  found  in 
the  lower  regions,  together  not  only  with  ordinary 
fruit,  but  also  with  apricots,  peaches,  pomegranates, 
almonds,  citrons,  sugar-cane,  grape3,  bananas — all 
growing  luxuriantly,  and  forming  a  forest  of  finely- 
tinted  foliage.  The  land  further  yields  silk  and 
cotton,  indigo  and  tobacco ;  and  the  modern 
inhabitants  of  Shur,  like  their  forefathers  of  old, 
drive  a  profitable  traffic  with  the  produce  of  Mount 
Lebanon,  its  timber,  wood,  and  charcoal.  Flocks  of 
sheep  and  goats,  and  innumerable  swarms  of  bees, 
supply  meat,  milk,  and  honey.  The  sea  furnished 
shoals  of  fish,  and  molluscs  for  the  purple  of  Tyre. 
There  are  no  precious  metals  found  auywhere  in 
P. ;  but  it  is  rich  in  iron,  and  the  stone-quarries  of 
Lebanon  were  already  worked  in  Solomon's  time. 

The  question  of  the  origin  of  the  Phoenicians  is 
one  which  has  hitherto  not  been  solved  satisfac- 
torily. Their  own  account,  as  preserved  by  Herod- 
otus, speaks  of  their  having  immigrated  from  the 
'  Sea  called  Erythra ; '  a  report  further  confirmed  by 
another  passage  in  his  History,  and  by  Justin. 
Strabo  speaks  of  two  islands  in  the  Persian  Gulf, 
called  Tyros  or  Tylos  and  Aradus,  in  which  temples 
were  found  similar  to  those  of  the  Phoenicians  ;  aud 
the  inhabitants  of  these  cities  stated  that  the 
Phcenicians  had  left  them  in  order  to  found  new 
colonies.  The  Erythrean  Sea,  in  its  widest  sense, 
extends  from  the  eastern  shores  of  Egypt  to  the 
western  shores  of  India;  and  since  Genesis  calls 
Canaan,  the  founder  of  the  race,  a  descendant  of 
Hani,  not  of  Shem,  some  investigators  have  come  to 
the  conclusion,  that  the  Persian  or  Arabian  Gulf  is 
the  original  home  of  the  Phoenicians.  Against  this 
notion,  however,  weighty  arguments  have  been 
brought  forward,  both  from  the  genuine  traditions 
of  the  people  itself,  as  preserved,  not  in  a  cor- 
rupted Greek  shape,  but  in  their  myths,  in  the 
biblical  accounts,  in  their  language,  which  even 
in  its  very  oldest  remnants  ((Janaan  =  Lowland ; 
Sidon  =  Fishing-place;  Giblites  =  Mountain-people) 
is  purely  Semitic.  It  would  be  vague  to  speculate 
on  the  time  at  which  the  first  Phoenician  settlers 
entered  the  country :  as  vague  as  to  conjecture — the 
Erythrean  Sea  being  put  out  of  the  question  — whence 
they  came.  So  much  seems  certain,  that  they  did 
not  enter  it  from  one  region,  but  from  several  sides, 
and  at  various  periods ;  and  that  only  very  gradually, 
in  the  course  of  long  pre-historic  centuries,  they 
grew  into  one  nationality,  embracing  the  tribes 
that  inhabited  the  sea-coast,  or  Phoenicia  Proper, 
from  Sidon  to  Gaza,  aud  the  cities  north  of  Sidonia. 
The  latter  term  included  the  many  separate  states 
originally  formed  by  the  various  gentes,  who  again, 
originallv,  had  their  own  political  existence,  laws, 
and  even  worship.  Gradually,  however,  the 
larger  communities  extended  their  rules  over  the 
Bmal\er  ones,  or  rather  combined  with  them  for 
the  formation  of  a  more  imposing  and  important 
state,  into  which  the  different  states  were  merged, 


without,  however,  giving  op  i h<-ir  own  indiridud 
existence  or  cnlttu  entirely.  The  most  important  of 
pecial  tribes  or  states  were  the  inhabitants  ot 
Sidonia — a  term,  howi  rer,  expressive  l»>th  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  city  and  of  the  whole  country — 
the  Tynans,  whose  settlement,  according  to  their 
own  traditions,  was  prior  to  any  other  Phoenician 
settlement  (about  2750  B.O.):  and  Aradus,  founded, 
according  to  the  native  traditions,  by  A rvadi,  'the 
brother  of  Sidon.'  From  these  three  tribi  a  of  the 
Sidonians  collectively— are  to  be  distinguished  the 
Giblites  with  their  two  sovereignties  of  Byblus  and 
Berytus,  who  differed  in  many  respects  from  the 
former,  and  who,  it  may  be  presumed,  formed  at 
first  the  ruling  state  of  P.,  until  they  were  brought 
under  Sidonian  dependency.  Several  smaller  tribes 
or  states  are  mentioned  in  Scripture— Arke,  Sin, 
Hamath,  &c. — but  little  is  known  about  them. 

Of  the  government  and  internal  constitution  of 
these  states  or  cities,  we  know  next  to  nothing. 
There  were  hereditary  monarchs  riding  over  Sidon, 
Tyrus,  Byblus,  Berytus,  and  Aradus,  for  whose  con- 
firmation, however,  the  assent  of  the  people  was 
necessary  in  all  cases.  By  the  side  of  the  king 
stood  a  powerful  assembly,  composed  of  represen- 
tatives of  the  old  aristocratic  families  of  the  land, 
whose  numbers  differed  at  various  periods.  When 
Tripolis  was  founded  by  Tyrus,  Sidon,  and  Aradus, 
as  a  place  of  joint  meeting  for  their  hegemony, 
every  one  of  these  cities  sent  100  senators  to  watch 
her  special  interests  at  the  common  meeting;  and 
the  senate  of  Sidon  seems,  in  the  4th  c.  B.  C,  at  least, 
to  have  consisted  of  500 — 600  elders,  some  of  whom 
were  probably  selected  more  for  their  wealth  than  for 
their  noble  lineage.  The  kin^  sometimes  combined 
in  his  person  the  office  of  high-priest.  The  turbu- 
lent seething  mass  of  the  people,  consisting  of  the 
poorer  families  of  Phoenician  descent,  the  immi- 
grants of  neighbouring  tribes,  the  strangers,  and  the 
whole  incongruous  mass  of  workmen,  tradespeojde, 
sailors,  that  must  have  abounded  in  a  commercial 
and  maritime  nation  like  the  Phoenicians,  and  out 
of  whose  midst  must  have  arisen  at  times  influential 
men  enough — was  governed,  as  far  as  we  can 
learn,  as  'constitutionally'  as  possible.  The  unruly 
spirits  were  got  rid  of  in  Boman  fashion  somehow 
in  the  colonies,  or  were  made  silent  by  important 
places  being  intrusted  to  their  care,  under  strict 
supervision  from  home.  Only  once  or  twice  do  we 
hear  of  violent  popular  outbreaks,  in  consequence 
of  one  of  which  it  was  mockingly  said  that  l\  had 
lost  all  her  aristocracy,  and  what  existed  of  Phoeni- 
cians was  cf  the  lowest  birth,  the  offspring  of 
slaves.  As  the  wealth  of  all  the  world  accumulated 
more  and  more  in  the  Phoenician  ports,  luxury,  and 
too  great  a  desire  to  rest  and  enjoy  their  wealth  in 
peace,  induced  the  dauntless  old  pirates  to  intrust 
the  guard  of  their  cities  to  the  mariners  and  mer- 
cenary soldiers,  to  Libyans  and  Lydians — '  they  of 
Persia  and  of  Lud  and  of  Phut,'  as  Ezekiel  has  it ; 
although  the  wild  resistance  which  this  small 
territory  offered  in  her  single  towns  to  the  enormous 
armies  of  Assyria,  Babylonia,  and  Greece,  shews 
that  the  old  spirit  had  not  died  out. 

The  sources  for  the  early  Phoenician  history 
are  of  the  scantiest  description.  Of  the  annals 
and  state  documents  which  rilled  the  archives  cf 
every  large  city,  nothing  has  survived  except  a  very 
doubtful  record,  which  Sanchuniatho  (q.  v.)  is  said 
to  have  compded,  about  1250  B.C.,  in  Phoenician  from 
official  documents,  and  which  was  translated  into 
Greek  by  Philo  of  Byblus,  and  a  fragment  of  which 
is  preserved  by  Eusebius.  The  Bible,  principally 
Ezekiel,  Menander  of  Ephesus,  and  Lius,  a  Phoe- 
nician, who  wrote  the  history  of  Tyre  from  Tyrian 
annals,  fragments  of  which  are  extant  in  Jusephus 


PHOENICIA. 


and  Svncellus,  Herodotus,  Diodorus,  Justinus,  aud 
others,  together  with  a  very  few  notes  scattered 
throughout  the  Church  Fathers,  contain  the  sum 
of  all  our  information.  Four  gre-vt  periods,  how- 
ever, are  clearly  distinguishable  in  the  history 
of  ancient  Phoenicia.  The  first  would  comprise 
the  earliest  beginnings  and  the  gradual  development 
of  the  single  states  and  tribes,  from  their  immigra- 
tion to  the  historical  time  when  Sidon  began  to  take 
the  lead,  or  about  1500  b.  c.  The  second  period 
dates  from  the  conquest  of  Palestine  by  the  Hebrews. 
Sidon  had  then  become  already  the  'first-born  of 
Kanaan,'  as  Genesis  has  it,  or  '  Sidon  Kabbah,'  the 
Great  Sidon.  The  flourishing  state  of  it3  commerce 
and  manufactures  appears  likewise  from  several 
passages  in  Homer.  The  silver  vase  proposed  by 
Achilles  as  a  prize  in  the  funeral  games  in  honour 
of  Patroclus,  was  a  work  of  the  '  skilful  Sidonians  ; ' 
the  garment  Hecuba  offers  as  a  propitiatory  gift 
to  Miuerva  was  the  work  of  Sidonian  women.  The 
gold-edged  silver  bowl  given  to  Telemachus  by 
Menelaos,  Hephaistos  had.  received  from  the  king 
of  the  Sidonians.  Ulysses  is  left  on  the  island  of 
Ithaca  by  the  Phoenicians,  who  sail  away  to  '  well- 
peopled  Sidonia.'  The  gradual  ascendency  of  the 
rival  city  of  Tyre  marks  the  beginning  of  the 
third  period,  in  which  P.  reaches  the  height  of  its 
power,  in  which  her  ships  covered  all  the  seas,  her 
commerce  embraced  the  whole  earth,  and  her  innu- 
merable colonies  flourished  far  and  near.  The  first 
historically-recorded  item  of  Tyre's  activity  is  her 
foundation  of  Gades,  a  few  years  before  that  of  Utica, 
in  1 100  B.  c.  The  reason  of  the  sudden  greatness 
of  Tyre  is  to  be  found  in  the  defeat  of  the  Sidonians 
by  the  king  of  '  Askalon ' — a  term  probably  meant 
to  represent  the  whole  pentapolis  of  Philistia — 
about  the  year  1209;  in  consequence  of  which, 
the  principal  families  of  Sidon  'emigrated  in  their 
ships  to  Tyre,  which  [viz.,  the  Island-city]  they 
founded.'  In  the  11th  c.,  in  the  time  of  Samuel,  '  the 
princes  of  the  Tyrians '  are  already  spoken  of  instead 
of  the  Sidonians,  as  the  representatives  of  Phoenicia. 
During  the  reigus  of  David  and  Solomon — under 
Hiram  (980 — 917) — the  friendliest  relations  existed 
between  the  two  nations :  both  iu  the  full  bloom 
of  their  power.  Each  country  needed  what  the 
other  could  supply.  Hence  their  close  alliance, 
which  led  even  to  common  commercial  enterprises 
in  ships  built  by  Solomon,  the  supercargoes  of 
which  belonged  to  him,  while  the  mariners  and 
pilots  were  Hiram's. 

By  this  time,  Phoenician  colonisation  had  reached 
its  utmost  extent.  In  the  space  of  three  centuries 
(1300—1000),  the  Phoenicians  had  covered  all  the 
islands  and  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  with  their 
forts,  their  factories,  and  their  cities  ;  aud  their  ships, 
which  ploughed  the  main  in  all  directions,  every- 
where found  their  own  ports.  They  had  colonised 
Cyprus,  thus  commanding  the  waters  of  the  Levant 
and  the  coasts  of  Syria  and  Cilicia.  Kithion, 
Amathus  (Hamath),  Karpasia,  Paphos,  with  its 
magnificent  temple  of  Ashera,  Keryneia,  and 
Lapothos,  were  some  of  their  principal  settle- 
ments in  those  regions.  Northward,  on  the  coast 
of  Cilicia,  they  founded  the  cities  of  Myriandros, 
Tarsos,  and  Soloi.  Migrating  to  the  west,  they 
took  possession  of  Rhodes,  Crete  (cf.  the  Myth  of 
Zeus  and  Europe),  Melos,  Thera,  Oliaros  (near 
Paros),  and  Cythera,  on  the  coast  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus. To  the  east  of  the  yEgean,  wre  find  them  at 
Erythrae,  and  further,  as  masters  of  the  islands  of 
Samothrace,  Lemnos,  and  Thasos  with  its  wealth 
of  gild  mines.  The  ./Egean  Sea,  with  all  its 
islands,  being  in  their  hands,  they  sailed  thence 
further  west,  to  Sicdy,  where  they  settled  at 
Motye,  on  the  extreme  west  point ;  founded  Puis 
492 


Melkarth,  in  the  south  (Heraclea  Minoa) ;  in  the 
north,  Machanath  (Panormos,  Palermo),  and  further, 
Melite  (Malta)  and  Gaulos.  They  owned  Caralui 
(Cagliari)  in  Sardinia,  Minorca,  Iviza  (Ebusos), 
Elba  ;  on  the  opposite,  or  African  coast,  Hippo, 
Utica,  Hadrumetum,  Leptis,  and  some  minor  island 
states.  From  Sardinia  and  Minorca,  the  indefa- 
tigable mariners  went  still  further  west — through 
the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  to  Tarshish  (the  California 
of  those  days)  or  Spain,  where  they  founded  Gadeir 
or  Cadiz,  and  in  the  south,  Karteja,  Malaka,  and 
Abdarach.  From  here,  having  colonised  well-nigh 
the  whole  of  the  Spanish  coast,  they  went  north- 
wards to  the  tin  islands  (Scilly  Isles),  and  to 
Britain  herself.  And  while  they  thus  explored  the 
regions  of  the  Atlantic,  their  alliance  with  the 
Hebrews  had  permitted  them  to  find  the  way  to 
the  Indies  by  the  Bed  Sea. 

The  impulse  given  to  industry  and  the  arts  by 
this  almost  unparalleled  extension  of  their  com- 
mercial sphere,  was  enormous.  Originally,  exporters 
or  traders  only  for  the  wares  of  Egypt  and  Assyria, 
they  soon  began  to  manufacture  these  wares 
themselves,  and  drew  the  whole  world  into 
their  circle  of  commerce.  As  to  the  early  aud 
most  extensive  commercial  intercourse  betwreen  P. 
and  Greece  and  her  colonies,  nothing  can  be  more 
striking  than  the  circumstance  of  nearly  all  the 
Greek  names  for  the  principal  objects  of  oriental 
commerce  being  Phoenician,  or  rather  Semitic — 
identical  almost  with  the  terms  found  in  the  Old 
Testament.  Thus,  of  spices— myrrh,  cassia,  cinna- 
mon, galbanum,  narde,  aloe,  crocus,  nitron,  balsam, 
&c. ;  of  jewels  and  precious  stones,  sapphire, 
jasper,  smaragdos ;  of  fine  materials,  and  garments, 
byssus,  karpasos,  sindon,  &c. ;  musical  instru- 
ments— nabla,  tympanon,  sambyke,  &c.  ;  oriental 
plants,  vessels,  and  even  writing  implements. 
The  wealth  of  silver,  iron,  tin,  and  lead  was 
chiefly  got  from  Tartessus.  The  descriptions  of  the 
abundance  of  precious  metals  there  verge  on  the 
fabulous.  Thus,  the  Phoenicians  are  supposed  to 
have  made  even  their  anchors  of  silver,  when 
they  first  discovered  the  country,  not  knowing  how 
to  stow  away  all  the  silver  in  their  vessel.  What 
must  have  been  the  state  of  these  mines  is  clear 
from  the  fact,  that,  even  in  the  Boman  time,  40,000 
men  were  constantly  employed  as  miners,  and  the 
state  received  a  clear  revenue  of  20,500  drachms 
daily.  The  'Fortunate  Islands,'  which,  according 
to  Diodorus,  they  discovered  after  many  days'  sailing 
along  the  coast  of  Africa,  beyond  the  Strait  of  Her- 
cules, and  which,  to  judge  from  the  name  Purpurariae 
given  to  some  islands  off  the  coast  of  Mauritania, 
wrould  seem  to  have  been  the  Canaries,  yielded 
them  the  shell-fish  purpura,  so  useful  for  their 
dyeing  manufactories.  Besides  their  wholesale 
commerce  carried  on  by  fleets  and  caravans,  they 
also  appear  to  have  gone  about  the  interior  of  Syria 
and  Palestine,  retailing  their  home  or  foreign 
produce. 

Although  the  Phoenicians  were  erroneously  be- 
lieved, by  the  western  tribes,  to  manufacture  all 
the  wares  in  which  they  dealt  themselves,  yet  no 
inconsiderable  number  of  them  was  really  their 
own  work.  None  of  their  manufactures,  however, 
stood  in  so  high  repute  throughout  antiquity  as  the 
purple  dye  prepared  from  the  muricida?,  a  shell-fish 
of  its  coast ;  and  none  excelled  more  in  it  than 
the  Tyrians.  Purple  was  an  almost  indispensable 
luxury  of  antiquity,  particularly  in  Asia.  In  temples 
and  palaces  for  gods  and  men,  purple  garments, 
hangings,  curtains,  aud  veils  were  needed ;  and 
Alexander  the  Great  found  in  Susa  alone  a  stor* 
of  purple  worth  5000  talents.  Sidon's  principal  pro- 
duction was  glass — invented  there,  it  was  said,  by 


PHOENICIA. 


accident;  but  probably  the  invention  was  derived 
from  Egypt,  where  it  was  in  use  long  before  ;  the 
Phoenician  glass,  however,  was  always  supposed  to 
be  the  best  The  Sidonians  knew  the  use  of  most  of 
our  own  contrivances— the  blowpipe,  the  lathe,  and 
the  graver.  Hardly  less  great  was  the  fame  of  Phoe- 
nician metallurgy.  Their  mining  operations  in  the 
Lebanon  and  Cyprus,  where  they  dug  for  copper j 
in  Thasos,  where,  according  to  Herodotus,  they 
overturned  a  whole  mountain  in  searching  for  gold  ; 
but  more  particularly  in  Iberia,  where  at  lirst  silver 
was  so  abundant,  that  hardly  any  labour  was  re- 
quired to  obtain  it — were  stupendous ;  and  the 
minute  description  of  the  mining-process  contained 
in  Job  (chap,  xxviii.  1  —  11)  has  probably  been  derived 
from  a  sight  of  Phoenician  mining-works.  That 
they  well  understood  how  to  work  the  metals  thus 
sained,  has  been  observed  already.  The  art  of 
founding  brass  must,  indeed,  have  reached  a  high 
perfection  to  enable  Hiram  Abif  to  execute  such 
works  for  Solomon's  Temple  as  they  are  described 
in  the  Bible.  No  less  were  they  familiar  with  the 
art  of  imitating  precious  stones,  and  colouring  glass 
by  means  of  metallic  oxides.  To  Sidon  is  further 
attributed  the  pre-eminence  in  the  glyptic  and  plas- 
tic arts  ;  and  the  artists  sent  by  Hiram  to  Solomon 
were  skilful  workers  in  gold  and  silver,  in  brass,  in 
iron,  in  purple  and  in  blue,  in  stone  and  in  timber, 
in  fine  linen,  and  the  engraving  of  precious  stones. 
Their  architecture  seems  to  have  been  of  a  Cyclo- 
pean nature.  Their  vessels,  originally  simple  rafts, 
gradually  developed — with  the  aid  of  the  Lebanon, 
which  afforded  inexhaustible  supplies  of  timber, 
and  Cyprus,  which  possessed  all  the  materials 
necessary  for  fitting  up  a  ship,  from  the  keel  to 
the  sails — into  a  first-rate  fleet,  consisting  of  round 
ships,  or  gauli,  for  short  or  coasting  voyages  ;  war- 
galleys,  or  triremes ;  and  fifty-oared  craft,  long 
in  build,  and  adapted  for  rapid  sailing  or  rowing. 
The  internal  arrangement  of  these  vessels  was 
perfect,  and  excited  the  wonder  and  admiration  of 
the  Greeks,  by  their  being  so  splendidly  adapted  at 
once  for  navigation,  freight,  and  defence.  Their 
extraordinary  three  years'  voyage  of  discovery, 
undertaken  in  the  service  of  Necho,  round  Africa, 
going  out  of  the  Led  Sea,  and  returning  by  the 
way  of  the  Strait's  mouth,  is  as  well  known  as 
their  voyages  in  the  service  of  Solomon. 

The  golden  age  of  P.,  during  which  her  colonies, 
her  manufactures,  and  her  commerce  were  in  this 
most  brilliant  phase,  seems  to  have  waned  simul- 
taneously almost  with  that  of  Judaea.  As  Solomon 
in  the  latter,  so  does  Hiram  in  the  former,  mark 
the  end  of  that  peace  and  happiness  which  had 
made  their  countries  rich  and  glorious,  as  no 
other  country  of  their  day.  According  to  a 
fragment  preserved  in  Menander,  Hiram  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  son  Baleastartus,  who  died  after  a 
short  reign  of  seven  years,  in  940  B.  c,  and  a  long 
Series  of  political  calamities  and  civil  wars  ensued. 
The  last  of  Hiram's  sons,  Pheletus,  fell,  in  898, 
by  the  hands  of  Ithobaal,  the  priest  of  Astarte,  into 
whose  family  now  passed  the  kingdom  of  Tyre.  He 
is  the  Ettbaal  mentioned  in  Scripture  as  the  father 
of  Jezebel,  and  father-in-law  of  Ahab ;  and  a 
peculiar  coincidence  is  the  simultaneous  mention 
of  the  three  years'  drought  in  Juchea  (to  which  an 
end  was  put  by  Elijah's  prayer)  and  in  P.,  where 
relief  was  obtained  by  Ithobaal,  who  seems  to  have 
stood  in  the  odour  of  sanctity.  It  was  during 
this  unhappy  period  that  the  celebrated  Elissa, 
better  known  as  Queen  Dido  (q.  v.),  fled,  together 
with  some  of  the  most  aristocratic  families  of 
Sidon,  to  Libya,  where  they  founded  a  new  city 
(Kartachadata  =  Carthage),  near  the  spot  of  an 
ancient  Sidonian  settlement,  about  813  B.C.     The 


fourth  and  last  period  of  Phoenician  history  may  be 
dated  from  the  middle  of  the  8th  c,  v.  hen  Shai- 
maneser,  the  king  of  Assyria,  invaded  P.,  and 
besieged  Tyre  for  five  years,  but  without  result; 
and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the 
concluded  at  the  end  of  this  period  was  very 
favourable  to  Tyre.  But  soon  afterwards,  P.  was 
drawn  into  the  struggle  for  the  supremacy  then 
raging  between  ChaTdaea  and  Egypt,  and  was 
conquered  by  the  former  power."  A  r 
calamity  befel  P.  at  the  hand  of  Pharaoh- Apries, 
who  anticipated  Nebuchadnezzar's  intended  attack 
on  Egypt  by  destroying  the  Phoenician  fleet, 
conquering  the  country,  and  pillaging  it.  Theze 
calamities  produced  a  series  of  internal  troubles,  in 
consequence  of  which  the  constitution  was  con- 
stantly changed ;  and  we  hear  now  of  a  series  of 
kings,  and  nowof  provisional  suffetea — all  their  respec- 
tive reigns,  however,  being  of  very  brief  duration. 
From  that  time  forward,  and  even  before  the  special 
histories  of  Sidon  and  Tyre,  which  alternately  pos- 
sessed themselves  of  the  hegemony  of  Phoenicia, 
constitute  also  the  history  of  the  country  itself,  and 
to  these  two  cities  we  refer  for  what  momentous 
events  took  place  in  the  latter  days  of  the  once 
mighty  empire.  The  battle  on  the  Issue  terminated 
even  the  shadow  of  P.'s  independent  existence,  and 
it  shared  the  fate  of  Alexander's  vast  empire.  In 
65  B.C.  it  became,  under  Roman  dominion,  part  of 
Syria,  and  has  since  shared  her  fate  for  good  or 
evil.     See  Syria,  Sidon,  Tyre,  Carthage. 

Relirjion. — With  regard  to  the  Religion  of  tho 
Phoenicians,  its  real  character  has  as  yet  been 
imperfectly  expiscated.  Deprived  of  all  original 
and  direct  information  on  the  subject,  we  have  to 
cull  what  scanty  notices  we  may  from  the  works 
of  Greek  and  Latin  writers,  or  to  gather  knowledge 
from  some  vague  allusions  contained  in  the  Bible. 
Not  a  scrap  of  native  literature  has  been  allowed  to 
survive ;  and  the  supposed  extracts  from  a  Greek 
version  by  Philo  of  Sanchuniatho's  Phoenician 
works,  which  we  find  in  Eusebius— hitherto  our 
chief  source  of  information— must  be  used  with 
more  than  an  ordinary  degree  of  caution.  See  San- 
chtjniatho.  We  shall  therefore,  without  entering 
into  futile  speculations,  confine  ourselves  to  a  few 
general  and  well  ascertained  facts  ;  premising,  how- 
ever, that  Phoenician  theology  is  far  from  being  a 
hopeless  province,  whatever  it  may  appear  now. 
Excavations  are  on  foot  in  all  directions,  both 
in  the  mother-country  and  in  the  colonies,  and 
new  discoveries  are  being  brought  to  light 
constantly. 

The  religion  of  the  Phoenicians  was,  like  all  ancient 
Semitic  religions — except  that  of  the  Hebrews 
— a  kind  of  pantheistic  worship  of  nature.  While 
Monotheism,  with  the  descendants  of  Abraham, 
assumed  a  supreme  power  within  nature,  which, 
according  to  its  own  free  will,  creates  and  destroys, 
the  rest  of  the  East  assumed  a  Dualism :  two  elements, 
a  male  and  a  female  ;  or  two  highest  deities,  one  of 
whom  begets,  and  has  the  power  to  destroy,  and 
the  other  conceives  and  bears.  These  two  supreme 
beings  were  sometimes  merged  in  one  deity,  with 
male  and  female  attributes,  which  spread  out  into 
immense  ramifications :  representatives  now  of  the 
general  powers  of  nature,  now  of  the  particular 
phenomena  in  nature,  or  the  life  of  men.  They 
had  deities  who  ruled  over  the  stars,  the  elements, 
the  seasons;  over  special  localities,  or  over  cer- 
tain phases  of  life.  No  nation  of  antiquity  per- 
haps possessed  a  more  endless  pantheon  than  the 
Phoenicians :  a  circumstance  easily  explained  by 
their  peculiar  position  and  relations.  Consisting 
origiually  of  a  variety  of  tribes,  each  of  whom  had 
had  their  own  special  deities— although  the  supreme 
r  493 


PHOENICIA. 


yumen,  or  the  principle  of  their  chief  Deity,  was 

Srobably  the  same  with  all — those  Phoenicians  who 
welt  in  the  north  differed  in  some  respects,  such 
as  the  names  and  attributes  of  certain  gods, 
from  those  of  the  south.  Besides  this,  it  must 
not  be  forgotten  that  the  period  of  Phoenician 
history  ranges  over  2000  years,  and  their  political 
career,  as  well  as  their  commerce,  brought  them  in 
close  and  constant  contact  with  nearly  all  the  civil- 
ised nations  of  the  then  known  world  ;  and  being 
both  superstitious  (as  sailors  and  traders  are  prone 
to  be),  and  possessed  of  an  adaptability  to  which 
partly  they  owed  their  success  in  other  respects, 
they  easily,  if  not  greedily,  received  into  their 
wide  pantheon  those  who,  albeit  the  special  national 
gods  of  others,  or  because  of  this  very  reason, 
could  either  harm  or  benefit  them.  It  may  be  also 
that  a  certain  easy  nonchalance  about  these  things, 
such  as  the  wealthy  and  aristocratic  classes  dis- 
played in  ancient  Home  and  elsewhere,  and  the 
interest  of  the  priests,  who  received  very  consider- 
able tithes  of  every  sacrifice  (oddly  enough,  our 
information  on  that  point  leaves  nothing  to  be 
desired),  went  hand  in  hand  to  favour  tlie  gradual 
introduction  of  as  many  gods  and  goddesses  as 
pleased  the  herd.  Their  proper  divisions,  however, 
their  real  names  and  derivations,  and  the  history 
and  time  of  their  nationalisation,  are  things  which 
will  for  ever  continue  to  puzzle  investigators. 

Setting  aside  such  more  or  less  vague  and  unde- 
fined names  of  deities  as  were  common  to  the 
whole  Semitic  stock,  and  as  they  are  found  in  the 
Hebrew  records — like  El  (Mighty  One),  or  (in  plural) 
Elim ;  OUonim  [Elyon]  (the  Most  High);  Adon 
(Lord) ;  Melech  [Moloch]  (King) ;  &c. — we  find  in 
the  first  rank  of  gods  (of  Tyre  and  Sidon)  Baal 
(q.  v.)  and  Astarte  (q.  v.)  Baal  again  occurs  in  two 
different  characters,  as  it  were — as  Baalsamin  (Lord 
of  Heavens),  the  highest  god  ruling  over  the  Uni- 
verse, the  Zeus  Olympios,  and  Jupiter  Optimus 
Maximus ;  and  as  Baal  Melkarth,  the  special  national 
numen.  Baalsamin  is  originally  identical  with  the 
Babylonian  Bel  or  Baal.  The  third  supreme  Tyrian 
goddess  was  Astarte,  worshipped  as  the  very  coun- 
terpart of  the  Sidonian  Astarte.  While  the  latter 
was  considered  a  pure  virgin,  whose  emblem  was 
the  moon,  the  former  (the  biblical  Ashera)  was 
propitiated  (as  Venus,  goddess  and  planet)  by  pro- 
stitution. The  Tyrian  Astarte  was  principally 
known  under  the  name  of  Tanis  (q.  v.),  the  Assyro- 
Persian  Tanais,  and  was  married  to  Baalsamin,  and 
also  to  Adonis,  and  bore  altogether  the  character 
of  a  goddess  who  delighted  in  chastity. 

The  principal  deities  of  Northern  P. — the  non- 
Sidonian  tribes — consisted  of  a  different  trias — El, 
Baaltis,  and  Adonis.  The  first  was  the  supposed 
founder  of  the  two  oldest  Phoenician  cities  of 
Byblus  and  Berytus,  and  corresponded  to  (being 
originally,  perhaps,  identical  with)  both  Baalsamin, 
as  the  highest  deity,  and  Melkarth,  as  the  special 
god  of  Tyre.  Baaltis,  Beltis  (My  Lady — Aphrodite), 
worshipped  at  Byblus,  Berytus,  Aphaka,  Arke 
(Architis),  &c,  wa3  joined  to  Adonis  (q.  v.),  whose 
cultus  had  been  imported  from  Assyria,  and  is 
therefore  unknown  in  the  more  ancient  Phoenician 
colonies,  in  Africa  and  Spain.  Byblus  called 
him  Adonis  Ganas,  or  Ganan  (perhaps  Gaavan,  the 
Exalted) ;  near  Byblus,  we  find  him  worshipped  as 
Elyon  (the  Highest) ;  as  Esumn  in  Berytus,  and  per- 
haps also  under  the  name  of  Memnon,  at  Apamea, 
where  an  annual  mourning- festival  was  celebrated  in 
his  honour ;  further,  near  the  river  Bandas  at  Paltos ; 
and  at  the  river  Belus.  As  Serach  (the  Brilliant) 
in  Phoenician,  and  Kharush  (the  Sun)  in  Persian, 
he  appears  to  have  had  some  relation  to  the  star- 
and-planet  worship  which  became,  under  Assyrian 
494 


influence,  a  prominent  feature  of  the  Phoenician 
religion. 

Besides  these  more  or  less  localised  gods  and 
goddesses  (Dii  Majores),  a  certain  number  of  deities 
— states  and  country  deities — were  worshipped  in 
common  by  all  Phoenician  states.  They  were  called 
the  Children  of  Sadik  (the  Just),  or  the  Children, 
or  the  Pataeki  (Descendants  of  Phtha),  or  the  eight 
Kabiri  (Strong  Ones).  They  are  the  maritime  gods, 
and  their  images  were  placed  on  the  prows  of 
Phoenician  ships.  As  protectors  of  navigation,  they 
are  identified  with  the  Dioscuri;  and  a«ain,  as 
representatives  of  heat,  breath,  and  life,  they 
received  the  names  of  Lares  and  Penates.  Their 
individual  names  are  not  generally  mentioned  ; 
they  seem  (cf.  Esmun  =  eighth)  to  have  been  merely 
counted.  Their  mode  of  worship  was  most  myste- 
rious— as  indeed  some  of  the  earliest  mysteries  were 
closely  connected  with  it. 

Besides  these,  they  also  worshipped  certain  phen- 
omena, personified  attributes,  and  qualities.  Their 
planetary  divinities  were  the  Sun  and  his  four 
horses — to  whose  worship  belongs,  among  others,  to  a 
certain  extent  the  annual  festival  of  the  Resurrec- 
tion of  the  (Tyrian)  Herakles,  under  the  emblem  of 
a  column  in  the  form  of  a  rising  flame  (Chaman) ; 
the  Moon  with  her  chariot  drawn  by  white  bulls ; 
the  planet  Mars  (Aziz  or  Nergal) ;  Jupiter  (Kichab 
Baal);  Venus  (Astoret  Naamah  =  lovely  Astarte), 
with  her  voluptuous  cultus ;  and  Saturnus  (Moloch, 
Kronos),  the  evil  principle.  The  elements  were 
revered  either  in  conjunction  with  certain  duties  or 
on  their  own  account.  The  water,  to  which  sacri 
fices  were  offered  both  in  the  shape  of  human 
beings  and  animals  or  fruits,  was  hallowed  in  all  its 
shapes  —  as  the  sea,  as  rivers,  fountains,  lakes  — 
by  which  people  took  their  most  solemn  oaths ; 
the  fire,  in  connection  with  the  oldest  deity  of 
P.  ;  the  light  (Moloch)  ;  the  air  and  the  winds ; 
the  earth  and  all  its  plants,  its  forests,  and 
glens,  and  trees,  and  more  especially  its  mountains, 
as  the  '  symbols  of  the  High  Ones,'  or  as  '  Faces 
of  God,'  such  as  Mount  Carmel,  Lebanon,  Anti- 
libanus,  and  others.  Of  animal-worship  we  have 
only  small  traces. 

Abstract  notions  and  ideas  were  not  forgotten. 
The  Year  and  the  Months,  Day  and  Night,  Aurora 
(Lilith),  Age  and  Youth,  Art  and  Love,  had  their 
altars.  Nor  were  certain  professions  and  trades 
without  their  visible  patrons.  Thus,  there  are  gods 
of  agriculture  and  horticulture,  like  Dagon,  the  god 
of  grain  ;  a  Dionysos,  whose  Phoenician  name  is  lost, 
as  the  god  of  wine-growers;  a  god  who  is  the 
numen  of  fruit-growing,  of  pisciculture,  of  mines,  &c. 
Chthonian  gods  are  not  wanting.  The  god  of  Death 
— the  king  of  the  lower  regions— is  Muth  =  Death 
(Pluto),  who  is  represented  as  a  small  child.  His 
reign  was  shared  by  a  goddess  whose  name  is 
vaguely  known  as  Eloti  (My  Goddess),  and  who 
is  occasionally  identified  with  Astarte,  Dido,  Anna, 
Persephone,  Europa,  and  a  great  many  other  deities. 

We  have  already  touched  upon  the  mode  of 
worship  of  the  Phoenicians,  and  the  places  chiefly 
selected  for  their  rites.  Mountains,  heights,  rivers, 
lakes,  fountains,  meadows,  glens,  were,  as  we  said, 
the  favourite  habitations  of  the  gods.  But  the 
Phoenicians  were  also  amongst  the  first  who  erected 
temples.  These  were  generally  divided  in  two 
parts,  containing  the  sacred  arks  (the  mystic  cists 
of  the  Greeks) ;  and  the  chariots  upon  which  the 
sacred  objects  were  at  times  carried  about.  Not 
being  intended  to  be  prayer-houses,  but  as  dwelling- 
places  for  special  gods,  they  were  rather  small,  and 
did  not  even  contain  the  altar  upon  which  the 
sacrifices  were  offered.  This  generally  stood  at 
the    entrance    of    the    temple,    and    around   it    the 


PHOENICIA. 


friests  and  hierodouloi  danced  in  their  service. 
ure  wells  and  an  everlasting  fire  were  the 
indispensable  conditions  of  a  sanctuary.  The  sacri- 
fices themselves,  as  far  as  they  consisted  of  animals, 
offer  great  analogies  to  those  of  the  Jews  ;  bat 
the  P.  also  offered  up  human  sacrifices — chiefly 
first-born  male  children,  as  that  which  the  sup- 
pliant held  dearest— chiefly  to  Baalsamin,  Baal 
Hamon,  and  A  8  tart  e.  Such  human  sacrifices,  or 
burnt-offerings  took  place  annually  at  the  great 
festivals  of  expiation,  and  further  on  extraordinary 
occasions,  at  the  beginning  of  important  enterprises, 
such  as  a  campaign,  and  in  great  casualties:  in 
order  to  expiate  by  one  sacrifice  the  sin  of  all.  The 
same  fanaticism  which  fancied  the  gods  best  pleased 
by  the  offering  \ip  of  what  was  most  precious,  led 
the  Phoenician  women,  like  the  Babylonian,  to 
sacrifice  their  honour  in  honour  of  Astarte,  on 
certain  occasions,  so  that  certain  sanctuaries  became 
hot-beds  of  prostitution.  Circumcision — another 
kind  of  sacrifice — was  not  common  among  all  the 
Phoenician  tribes,  it  beiug  a  rite  principally  sacred 
to  El,  the  god  of  Berytus  and  Byblus. 

Of  festivals  and  pilgrimages  in  general,  we  have 
spoken  under  Festivals,  Greek  Religion,  &c; 
and  what  has  been  observed  there  respecting  their 
character  in  Polytheism  (their  being  to  a  great 
extent  connected  with  the  births,  deaths,  resurrec- 
tions, and  other  personal  phases  of  special  deities), 
holds  good  here.  No  doubt,  these  festivals,  like 
those  of  the  Hebrews,  and  all  other  ancient  nations, 
had,  beside  their  religious,  also  their  political  and 
commercial  significance;  and  P.  was  more  parti- 
cularly, by  the  eminent  position  she  held  in  the 
world  s  trade,  a  place  towards  which  flocked,  on 
solemn  occasions,  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  Asia 
and  Africa.  'Festival  Embassies,'  as  they  were 
called,  were  despatched  thither  from  Syria,  Arabia, 
Babylonia,  Cappadocia,  Cilicia,  Egypt,  Armenia ; 
nay,  from  India,  Ethiopia,  Persia,  and  Scythia ;  and 
not  until  the  5th  c.  A.  D.  did  these  pilgrimages  to 
P.  cease  entirely.  One  festival,  is  entirely  peculiar 
to  Tyre,  and  strangely  enough,  it  is  still  celebrated 
by  the  present  inhabitants  of  Sur — viz.,  the  '  Wed- 
ding of  the  Land-water  with  the  Sea-water.'  On 
these  occasions,  the  people  walk  in  procession  to 
the  well  near  the  town-gate,  and  pour  some  pails 
of  sea- water  into  it,  in  order  to  render  it  clear  and 
sweet  again  for  a  long  time. 

It  would  be  vain  to  try,  with  our  scanty  and 
adulterated  sources,  to  gain  a  deeper  insight  into 
the  ideas  attached  to  the  names,  attributes,  and 
modes  of  worship  of  the  deities  mentioned,  or 
to  speculate  upon  their  moral  influence  upon  the 
people  of  Phoenicia.  That  these  were  pre-eminently 
practical ;  that  arts  and  manufactures  flourished 
among  them,  more  than  among  any  other  ancient 
nation;  that  they  knew  how  to  turn  science  into 
money ;  that  they  were,  in  fact,  shrewd  men  of  busi- 
ness— all  this  we  know,  but  little  more.  Atheists 
or  Pantheists,  whichever  they  must  be  called  in 
the  modern  sense  of  these  words,  it  is  extremely 
doubtful  whether  they,  any  more  than  the  bulk  of 
the  Hebrews  before  the  Exile,  believed,  as  a  body,  in 
immortality.  What  was  their  influence  upon  Greece, 
Rome,  the  whole  ancient  and  modern  world,  in  the 
province  of  religious  thought,  we  shall  never  have  any 
means  fully  to  ascertain.  Comparative  Mythology 
has  a  vast  field  to  explore  in  this  direction. 

Phoenician  Language,  and  Literature. — With  the 
exception  of  Greek  and  Latin,  no  language  was 
so  widely  known  and  spoken  throughout  antiquity 
as  the  Phoenician  ;  and  monuments  of  it  have  been 
found,  and  continue  to  be  found,  almost  all  over 
the  ancient  world.  We  can  only  vaguely  speculate 
on  its  early  history  and  its  various  phases,  so  long 


as  our  materials  yield  so  little  information  on  that 
point.  It,  decline  seema  to  date  from  the  8th  c. 
b.c,  when  Aramaiami  crept  in  in  overwhelming 
numbers.  Finally,  the  close  contact  with,  and  the 
everywhere  preponderating  influence  of  the  Greek*, 
superseded— chiefly  after  Alexander's  time— the 
ancient  language  almost  completely  ;  and  even  coins 
with  Phoenician  legends  occur  not  later  than  the 
2d  c.  B.c— An  important  Phoenician  literature  seems 
to  have  been  extant  as  late  as  the  1st  c.  a.d.,  but 
it  has  disappeared  from  the  face  of  the  earth.  Aftei 
the  second  half  of  the  3d  c,  the  language  had 
vanished  entirely  in  the  country  itself,  and  Jerome, 
who  lived  in  Palestine,  mentions  the  Punic,  but 
never  the  Phoenician.  In  the  west,  it  survived  to  a 
much  later  period.  In  Mauritania  and  Numidia,  it 
remained,  in  a  corrupted  form,  the  reigning  tongue 
as  late  as  the  4th  c.  a.d.  ;  and  Augustine  draws  nis 
explanations  of  Scripture  from  the  Punic  current  in 
the  5th  century.  There  was  a  translation  of  the 
whole  Bible  into  Punic  made  for  the  use  of  the  Punio 
Churches ;  and  in  and  near  Tripolis  and  Bizanium, 
it  was  the  language  of  the  common  people  up  to  a 
late  period.  From  the  6th  c,  however,  it  rapidly 
died  out,  chiefly  in  consequence  of  the  Vandals, 
Goths,  Moors,  and  other  foreign  tribes  overrunning 
the  country,  and  ingrafting  their  own  idioms  upon  it. 

As  a  branch  of  the  so-called  Semitic  family  of  the 
Hebrews,  Syrians,  Arabs,  &c,  the  Phoenicians  natur- 
ally are  closely  related  to  these  also  with  respect  to 
language.  The  affinity  of  the  '  speech  of  Canaan,'  as 
the  Hebrew  is  called  sometimes,  with  the  Phoenician 
was  indeed  remarked  at  an  early  period.  Augus- 
tine, Jerome,  and  Priscian  pointed  out  already — 
and  sometimes  in  order  to  back  some  very  peculiar 
notions — how  closely  these  two  languages  and  their 
dialects  were  allied.  Yet  it  must  be  obvious  at 
first  sight,  that  however  near  the  two  idioms  may 
originally  have  stood  to  each  other,  the  peculiar 
relations  and  fortunes  of  the  two  races  who  spoke 
them  must  have  produced  substantial  changes  in  their 
structures  in  the  course  of  time.  While  the  ancient 
scriptural  monuments  of  the  Hebrews — outwardly 
and  inwardly — exhibit  a  rare  unity  of  idiom  and 
form,  the  ancient  hallowed  utterance  becoming 
a  type  and  model  for  the  later  generations :  the 
Phoenicians,  on  the  other  hand,  not  confined  within 
the  narrow  limits  of  their  home-country,  but  mixing 
freely  with  all  the  nations  of  the  earth,  spreading 
their  own  colonies  far  and  near  among  them,  opened 
a  wide  field  for  the  '  development'  of  their  language, 
or  rather  for  its  corruption,  by  its  entering  into 
alliance  with  Libyan  in  Africa,  Sardinia,  and 
Spain,  and  with  Aramaic  in  Northern  Phoenicia, 
Cilicia,  and  perhaps  even  in  Cyprus.  Thus  it  came 
to  pass  that  the  two  languages  which  originally  may 
have  been  identical  in  old  Canaan  became  more 
and  more  widely  divergent.  To  enter  into  a  mora 
detailed  disquisition  on  this  or  other  cognate  points, 
we  deem  more  hazardous  now  than  we  should  have 
thought  it  ten  or  even  five  years  ago ;  for  the 
more  ample  our  discoveries  in  Phoenician  literature 
have  become  of  late,  the  more  it  becomes  evident 
that  we  are  only  at  the  commencement,  as  it  were, 
of  Phoenician  philology. 

What  we  said  of  the  structure  of  the  Hebrew 
Language  (q.  v.),  also  holds  good  for  Phoenician  to  a 
certain  extent ;  and  we  shall  therefore  simply  point 
out  the  most  palpable  differences  between  them.  In 
the  first  instance,  we  observe  the  very  strange  cir- 
cumstance, that  what  is  considered  an  archaism  or 
an  isolated  dictum  in  Hebrew,  appears  as  a  com- 
mon expression  in  Phoenician.  Certain  grammatical 
terminations,  obsolete  in  Hebrew,  are  in  use  in  Phoe- 
nician— so  that  it  would  appear  as  if  the  Phoenician 
had  retained  more  of  the  ancient  Canaanite  speech 

495 


PHOENICIA. 


than  the  Hebrew,  which  gradually  transformed  and 
refi  ned  it  by  grammatical  niceties.  Another  feature 
is  the  preponderance  of  the  Chaldee,  or  rather 
Aramaic  words  and  forms — although  here  again  we 
are  on  very  dubious  ground.  It  might  further  be 
questioned  whether  our  Phoenician  Inscriptions — all 
belonging  to  a  very  late  period — are  not  rather  a 
faithful  reflection  of  the  Hebrew  of  their  period, 
which,  since  the  8th  c.  B.C.,  had  more  and  more 
changed  into  Aramaic.  So  much  is  certain,  that  the 
original  language  of  Canaan  was  perfectly  free  from 
Chaldaisms,  and  that  these  are  but  a  late  corruption 
— such  a3  we  also  find  in  the  later  books  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Yet  there  are  other  features  quite 
pecidiar  to  thi  Phoenician,  which — although  not  of 
sufficient  importance  to  warrant  our  separating 
the  dialect  entirely  from  the  Hebrew — are  of  a 
nature  not  to  be  explained  by  any  Semitic  analogy ; 
Buch  as  certain  differences  in  the  pronunciation  of 
vowels,  in  the  treatment  of  consonants,  the  forma- 
tion of  pronouns,  some  verbal  forms,  and  certain 
words  entirely  foreign  to  the  Semitic.  Again,  a 
distinction  is  to  be  made  between  the  Phoenician 
of  P.  and  that  corrupted  form  of  it  spoken  in 
the  western  colonies,  called  Punic,  and  further, 
that  idiom  peculiar  to  the  inhabitants  of  Leptis, 
called  Libyo-Phcenician— a  mixture  of  Phoenician 
and  Libyan,  with  a  vast  preponderance,  however, 
of  the  former  element. 

The  difference  in  the  pronunciation  may  be  briefly 
characterised  as  a  tendency  towards  an  obscuring 
or  lowering,  as  it  were,  of  the  vowels  :  thus,  the 
Hebrew  a  is  changed  into  o,  the  e  into  »  or  y,  i  into 
y,  sometimes  into  u,  and  o  into  m.  Peculiar  is 
also  the  use  of  the  Hebrew  Ayin  as  a  vowel  [mater 
lectionis),  with  the  pronunciation  of  o  or  u.  On 
some  occasions,  however,  it  is  entirely  omitted. 
The  gutturals  are  changed  at  times,  as  in  the  cor- 
rupted orthography  of  Samaritan  and  Sabian,  so 
that  L  and  R  are  sometimes  assimilated  with  the 
next  consonant  in  the  middle  of  the  word,  or 
entirely  omitted,  &c.  As  to  grammar,  our  know- 
ledge is  extremely  limited.  A  few  undoubted  facts 
are  the  termination  of  the  nominative  form  in  at 
instead  of  the  Hebrew  ah,  the  greater  variety  of 
genitive  forms  in  Phoenician,  the  difference  in  the 
formation  of  the  pronoun,  and  the  identity  of  the 
article  with  that  in  Hebrew  [ha).  For  the  Phoeni- 
cian alphabet,  the  model  of  all  European  alphabets, 
see  Alphabet. 

The  Literature  of  P.,  in  its  original  form,  has,  as  we 
Baid,  perished  entirely.  What  traces  and  fragments 
we  have  of  it,  have  survived  in  Greek  translations. 
But  from  even  these  small  remnants,  we  can  easily 
imagine  the  extreme  antiquity,  and  the  high  import- 
ance and  vast  extent  of  these  productions,  which, 
at  first,  seem  to  have  been  chiefly  of  a  theological 
or  theogonical  nature.  Their  authors  are  the  gods 
themselves,  and  the  writings  are  only  accessible  to 
the  priests,  and  to  those  initiated  in  the  mysteries. 
From  the  allegorical  explanations  of  these  exalted 
personages  sprang  a  new  branch  of  sacred  literature, 
of  which  those  fragments  of  Cosmogony  mentioned 
above  are  derived.  To  the  literary  age  of  Taaut, 
Kadmus,  Ophion,  Esmun,  &c,  succeeded  Thabion, 
Isiris,  Sanchuniatho,  and  Mochus,  who  founded 
the  schools  of  Priests  and  Prophets.  These  culti- 
vated the  sciences,  chiefly  the  occult  ones,  magic, 
and  the  like.  Nearest  to  the  Sacred  Literature 
stands  Didactic  Poetry,  somewhat  related  to  the 
Orphic,  whose  chief  representatives  are  Sido,  Jopas, 
&c.  The  erotic  poetry  is  characterised  as  of  a 
very  sensuous  nature,  both  in  P.  and  the  colonies. 
Of  historians  are  mentioned  Mochus,  Hypsikrates 
(Sanchuniatho?),  Theodotus,  Philostratus,  Menander, 
and  others ;  but  these  are  mere  Greek  versions  of 
496 


their  Phoenician  names,  and  absolutely  nothing  has 
been  preserved  of  their  writings.  Punic  literature 
is  also  frequently  mentioned  by  Greek  and  Boiuaa 
writers.  Geography,  history,  agriculture,  were  the 
fields  chiefly  cultivated  by  the  colonists  of  Carthage 
and  the  West  generally. 

The  monuments  that  have  come  down  to  us,  and 
which  not  only  have  enabled  us  to  judge  for  our- 
selves of  the  religion,  the  language,  and  the  manners 
of  the  Phoenicians,  are  of  twofold  kind — they  are 
either  legends  on  coins  and  lapidary  inscriptions,  or 
Phoenician  proper  nouns  and  texts  imbedded  in  the 
works  of  ancient  classical  or  sacred  writers.  The 
principal  and  ever-growing  source  for  our  infor- 
mation, however,  are  the  monumental  inscriptions, 
of  whose  existence,  till  the  middle  of  the  18th  c, 
nothing  was  known.  The  most  numerous  Phoeni- 
cian remnants  have  been  discovered  in  the  colonies. 
Eichard  Pococke  first  found,  on  the  site  of  ancient 
Citium  (Larnaka  of  to-day),  31  (not  33,  as  generally 
stated)  Phoenician  inscriptions,  which  he  deposited 
at  Oxford  (published  by  Swinton,  1750).  Malta, 
Sardinia,  Carthage,  Algiers,  Tripolis,  Athens,  Mar- 
seille, have  each  yielded  a  considerable  number,  so 
that  altogether  we  are  now  in  the  possession  of 
about  120  monuments,  either  votive  tablets,  or  tomb 
inscriptions.  The  latest  and  most  remarkable  are 
those  now  in  the  British  Museum,  discovered  at 
Carthage  a  few  years  ago  by  N.  Davis,  consisting  of 
votive  tablets,  a  (doubtful)  tombstone,  and  a  sacri- 
ficial tariff,  which  completes  another  stone  found 
some  years  ago  at  Marseille  of  the  same  nature ; 
both  setting  forth  the  amount  of  taxes,  or  rather  the 
proportionate  share  the  priest  was  entitled  to  receive 
for  each  sacrifice.  Another  exceedingly  valuable 
(trilingual)  inscription,  referring  to  the  gift  of  an 
altar  vowed  to  Eshmun-Asklepios,  has  been  dis- 
covered a  year  or  two  ago  in  Sardinia.  See  below. 
One  of  the  most  important  historical  monuments 
is  the  sarcophagus  of  Ashmanasar  II.,  king  of 
Sidon  (son  of  Tennes?),  found  at  Tyre  in  1855, 
the  age  of  which  has  variously  been  conjectured 
between  the  11th  c.  B.C.  (Ewald) — a  most  incon- 
gruous guess  indeed — the  7th  (Hitzig),  the  6th  (Duo 
de  Luynes),  and  the  4th  (Levy),  of  which  we 
shall  add  the  commencement,  literally  translated  : 
'In  the  month  of  Bui,  in  the  fourteenth  year  that  I 
reigned,  King  Ashmanasar,  king  of  the  Sidonians, 
son  of  Kiug  Tebnith,  king  of  the  Sidonians— spake 
King  Ashmanasar,  king  of  the  Sidonians,  saying  : 
Carried  away  before  my  time,  in  the'  flood  of  days — 
in  dumbness  ceases  the  son  of  gods.  Dead  do  I  lie 
in  this  tomb,  in  the  grave,  on  the  place  which  I 
have  built.  I  myself  ordain  that  all  the  nobles  and 
all  the  people  shall  not  open  this  place  of  rest ;  they 
shall  not  seek  for  treasures  and  not  carry  away  the 
sarcophagus  of  my  resting-place,  and  not  disturb  me 
by  mounting  the  couch  of  my  slumbers.  If  people 
should  speak  to  thee  [and  persuade  thee  to  the 
contrary],  do  not  listen  to  them.  For  all  the  nobles 
and  all  the  people  who  shall  open  this  sarcophagus 
of  the  place  of  rest,  or  carry  away  the  sarcophagus 
of  my  couch,  or  disturb  me  upon  this  resting-place, 
may  they  find  no  rest  with  the  departed;  may 
they  not  be  buried  in  a  tomb,  and  may  no  son  and 
successor  live  after  them  in  their  place ; '  &c. 

The  votive  tablets  bear  the  same  character 
throughout,  differing  only  with  respect  to  the  name 
of  the  man  or  woman  who  placed  it  in  a  certain 
sanctuary  in  accordance  with  his  or  her  vow.  Their 
material  is  mostly  limestone  or  fine  sandstone, 
rarely  marble,  and  they  vary  from  5  to  15  inches 
in  height,  from  4  to  7  in  width,  and  from  1£  to 
4  in  thickness.  Beginning  in  most  cases  with 
the  dedication  to  the  god  or  goddess,  or  both, 
thus;   '[Sacred]    To   the   god  ....  [this    tablet] 


PHOENICIA. 


which  vowed  N.  son  (daughter)  of  N.  When 
he  (she)  heard  my  voice  and  blessed,'  or  'hear 
my  voice  ami  bless;'  «.vc.  The  sepulchral  tablets 
generally  run  somewhat  in  this  manner:  'Stone 
erected  to  ....  ,  who  lived  ....  years.' — Much 
yet  remains  to  lie  done.  Even  the  palseographical 
side  has,  notwithstanding  all  the  ready  material, 
not  been  Bettled  satisfactorily  yet.  One  point, 
however,  is  indisputable  even  now.  There  are  at  least 
two  kinds  of  Phoenician  writing  to  be  distinguished 
most  clearly.  The  older,  purer,  more  orthographical, 
and  more  neatly  executed,  is  found  in  the  inscrip- 
tions of  P.  herself,  of  Malta,  Athens,  Citiuni,  and 
Carthage;  the  younger,  corrupted  not  only  with 
respect  to  the  gram  mar  and  language,  but  also  with 
respect  to  tin;  form  of  the  letters,  which  are  less 
carefully  executed,  and  even  exhibit  some  strange, 
probably  degenerate  characters,  is  found  chiefly  on 
the  monuments  of  Cyprus,  Cilicia,  Sardinia,  Africa, 
Spain,  Numidia,  and  the  adjacent  parts. 

Besides  these  monumental  sources  for  the  lan- 
guage, there  are  a  few  remnants  of  it  embedded,  as 
we  said,  in  ancient  non-Phcenician  writings.  The 
Old  Testament  alone,  however,  has  preserved  its 
words — proper  nouns  chiefly — unmutilated.  Later 
eastern  writers  even,  not  to  mention  the  Greeks  and 
Eomans,  have  corrupted  the  spelling,  to  such 
a  degree,  that  it  is  often  most  puzzling  to  trace 
the  original  Semitic  words.  Phoenician  names 
occur  in  Suidas,  Dioscorides,  Apuleius,  in  martyr- 
ologlea,  calendariums,  Acts  of  Councils,  in  Church 


Fig.  1. 

L  e.  Lerabbath  Letanith  Pen-Baal 
Uleaddan  Lebaal  Ch[ainmon  A] 

[Sh]  Nadar  Chanbaal  [Ben  Abd] 
Ashmun    ....    [Shema] 
[Ko]l[a  Barcha  .... 

'  To  the  Lady  Tanith,  the  Face  of  Baal,  and  to  the  Lord 
Baal  Chammon  [is  dedicated  this  scil]  which  has  vowed 

Hanbaal  [the  son  of  Abd]  Ashmun    ....  [When 
l.e  (or  she)  hears  his  voice,  may  he  (or  she)  bless.'] 

Fathers  (Augustine,  Priscianus,  Servus),  &c.  The 
only  really  important  remnant,  however,  is  found 
preserved — albeit  fearfully  mutdated  and  Latinised 
— in  Plautus's  Poenulus,  act  v.  s.  1  of  which 
contains,  in  16  lines,  the  Phoenician  translation  of 
the  Latin  text,  with  more  than  100  Phoenician 
words.  Several  other  phrases  and  words  are 
embodied  in  act  v.  ss.  2  and  3  of  the  same  play. 
Yet,  although  there  is  very  little  doubt  among 
scholars  about  the  greater  portion  of  these  texts, 
the  corruption  and  mutilation  which  they  had  to 
914 


nndergo,  first  at  the  hands  of  Plautus,  who  probably 
only  wrote  them  by  the  ear,  then  at  the  hands  of 
generations  <<i  ignorant  scribes,  have  made  mors 
than  one  word  or  passage  an  insoluble  puzzle. 

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J"*3     2     °      fa     2 

The   first   of  the  two   specimens    of   Phoenician 
[Punic]  writing  subjoined  is  taken  from  one  of  tboBe 


PHCENICOPTERUS -PHONETIC  WRITING. 


Carthaginian  votive  tablets  with  which  the  British 
Museum  (now  the  wealthiest  hi  Phoenician  monu- 
ments) has  lately  been  enriched,  as  mentioned  before. 

The  emblems  on  it  are  symbolical,  and  refer  to 
the  deities  invoked.  The  lower  part  is  mutilated, 
but  easily  supplied.  The  date  is  uncertain,  perhaps 
the  2d  or  3d  c.  b.  c. 

The  second  is  a  trilingual  inscription  from  a  base 
of  an  altar,  recently  found  at  Pauli  Gerrei,  in  Sardinia, 
and  has  been  first  fully  explained  by  Deutsch.  (See 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature,  1864.) 

Its  contents  are  briefly  this :  A  certain  Cleon, 
Phoenician  by  religion,  Greek  by  name,  Roman  by 
nationality,  a  salt-farmer,  vows  an  altar — material 
and  weight  of  which  are  only  given  in  Phoenician; 
viz.,  copper, a  hundred  pounds  in  weight — to  Eshmun- 
^Esculapius  '  the  Healer '  (the  Phoenician  Mearrach, 
clumsily  transcribed  Merre  in  Latin,  and  Mirre  in 
Greek),  in  consideration  for  a  cure  to  be  performed. 
The  date,  given  in  Phoenician,  viz.,  the  year  of 
two,  apparently  annual,  entirely  unknown  judges, 
gives  no  clue  to  the  time.  Palajographical  reasons, 
however,  would  place  it  in  about  the  1st  c.  B.C. 

Among  those  who  have  more  or  less  success- 
fully occupied  themselves  with  Phoenician  anti- 
quities, language,  and  literature,  and  who  have 
also,  in  some  instances,  deciphered  inscriptions,  we 
mention  Scaliger,  Bochart,  Pococke,  Barthelemy, 
Swinton,  Bayer,  Dutens.Hamaker,  Gesenius,  Movers, 
M  unck,  Judas,  Barges,  De  Saulcy,  Ewald,  Levy,  Vaux, 
Renan,  De  Luynes,  De  Vogue,  Deutsch,  and  others ; 
to  whose  writings,  contained  either  in  special  works 
or  scattered  in  Transactions  of  learned  societies,  we 
refer  for  further  information  on  the  subject  of  our 
article.  The  principal  work  in  German  is  Movers's 
Phanizier,  unfortunately  left  unfinished  at  the 
author's  death.  A  useful  English  compilation  is 
Kenrick's  Phoenicia  (Lond.  1855). 

PHOENICO'PTERUS.    See  Flamingo. 

PHOE'NIX,  the  name  of  a  mythical  Egyptian  bird, 
eupposed  by  some  to  be  a  kind  of  plover,  like  the 
kibitz,  often  depicted  with  human  arms,  and  called 
in  hieroglyphs  rekh.  Others  consider  it  to  be  the 
bennu,  or  nycticorax,  a  bird  sacred  to  Osiris,  and 
represented  watching  in  the  tamarisk  over  his 
coffin.  The  first  of  these  representations  has  some- 
times a  star  upon  the  head,  supposed  to  indicate 
the  astronomical  period  of  its  appearance.  It  visited 
Egypt  after  the  death  of  its  father,  and  entered  the 
shrine  particularly  dedicated  to  it  at  Heliopolis,  and 
there  buried  its  parent,  putting  the  body  into  an 
egg  or  case  made  of  myrrh,  and  then  closing  up 
the  egg.  Another  account  is,  that  the  P.,  when 
about  to  die,  made  a  nest  for  itself  in  Arabia,  from 
which  a  new  P.  sprung  of  itself.  This  bird  pro- 
ceeded to  Heliopolis,  and  there  burned  and  buried 
its  father.  But  the  more  popularly-known  version 
is,  that  the  P.  burned  itself,  and  a  new  and  young 
P.  sprung  from  the  ashes.  A  less  received  version 
is,  that  a  worm  crawled  out  of  the  body  of  the  dead 
P.,  and  became  the  f  uture  one.  The  P.  was,  according 
to  the  most  authentic  accounts,  supposed  to  visit 
Egypt  every  500  years ;  the  precise  period,  however, 
was  not  known  at  Heliopolis,  and  was  a  subject  of 
contention  till  its  appearance.  The  connection  of 
the  Phoenix  period  with  that  of  the  Sothiac  cycle, 
appears  to  be  generally  received  by  chronologists,  as 
well  as  the  statement  of  Herrepollo,  that  it  designated 
the  soul  and  the  inundation  of  the  Nile.  A  great 
difference  of  opinion  has  prevailed  about  the  Phcenix 
period :  according  to  ^Elian,  it  was  a  cycle  of  500  years ; 
Tacitus  seems  to  make  it  one  of  250  years  ;  Lepsius, 
a  cycle  of  1500  years.  The  P.  was  fabled  to  have 
four  times  appeared  in  Egypt :  1,  under  Sesostris  ; 
2,  under  Amasis,  569 — 525  B.  c. ;  3,  under  Ptolemy 
493 


Philadelphia,  284—246  B.  c.  ;  and  lastly,  34  or  36 
A.  T>.,  just  prior  to  the  death  of  Tiberius.  The  P. 
also  appears  upon  the  coins  of  Oonstantine,  334  A.D., 
viz.,  300  years  after  the  death  of  Christ,  who  was 
considered  the  P.  by  the  monastic  writers.  It  is 
supposed  by  the  rabbins  to  be  mentioned  in  Job  and 
the  Psalms. — Job  xxxix.  18 ;  Psalms  ciii.  5  ;  Herod- 
otus, ii.  73  ;  Achilles  Tatius,  hi.  25 ;  Tacitus,  An. 
vi.  28 ;  Tselzes,  Chil.  v.  397  ;  Lepsius,  Einle.it,  p. 
183;  Archaologia,  vol.  xxx.  p.  256. 

PH03NIX.    See  Date  Palm  and  Palms. 

PHO'LAS,  a  genus  of  lamellibranchiate  molluscs, 
of  the  family  Pholadidce.  This  family,  to  which  the 
Ship-worm  {Teredo  navalis)  also  belongs,  has  the 
shell  gaping  at  both  ends,  thin,  white,  very  hard, 
sometimes  with  accessory  valves  ;  the  two  principal 
valves  beset  with  calcareous  inequalities,  connected 
by  fine  transverse  parallel  ridges,  forming  a  kind  of 
rasp,  used  by  the  animal  for  boring  a  hole  in  rock, 
wood.,  or  other  substance,  in  which  it  lives.  The 
animal  itself  is  either  club-shaped  (as  in  Pholas)  or 


A  piece  of  rock  bored  by  Pholades. 

worm-shaped  (as  in  Teredo),  with  large  long  siphons, 
often  united  almost  to  the  end,  and  a  short  foot. 
Several  species  are  natives  of  the  American  coasts. 
Pholas  Thornpsonii  is  very  destructive  to  wharf  tim- 
ber; Diplothyra  Smithii  is  found  in  New  York  har 
bour.  How  the  pholades  excavate  the  holes  in  which 
they  five,  sometimes  in  clay,  but  often  in  chalk,  and 
even  in  much  harder  rocks,  has  been  the  subject  of 
much  dispute.  It  is  said  that  they  possess  an  acid 
secretion  which  acts  as  a  solvent.  The  shell  is  studded 
with  projections,  in  regular  rows,  giving  it  the  charac- 
ter of  a  rasp  or  file;  and  the  P.,  fixing  itself  firmly 
by  its  foot,  which  acts  as  a  sucker,  and  working  itself 
from  side  to  side,  makes  use  of  the  rasping  power  of 
its  shell  to  enlarge  its  hole  as  it  has  need,  so  that  the 
hole  is  always  very  exactly  accommodated  to  the  size 
of  the  occupant.  There  are  numerous  fossil  species 
of  P.  in  the  Tertiary  strata. 

PHONE'TIC  WRITING  is  the  representation 
of  speech  by  means  of  symbols  for  the  elementary 
sounds  of  language.  All  alphabetic  writing  'is 
essentially  phonetic.  The  invention  o*  letters  was 
the  invention  of  phonetic  writing,  as  distinguished 
from  the  older  pictorial,  or  ideographic,  writing. 
From  a  variety  of  causes,  however,  no  language  has 
ever  been  perfectly  represented  by  its  spelling,  and 
with  the  lapse  of  time   the   divergence  has   gone 


PHONETIC  WRITING. 


on  increasing,  since  the  spoken  words  are  con- 
stantly undergoing  change,  while  the  spelling  bends 
to  remain  fixed.  In  English,  more  especially,  this 
divergence  has  been  allowed  to  proceed  to  such  an 
extreme  that  it  is  admitted  <>n  all  hands  to  he  a 
serious  evil,  and  in  recent  times  various  schemes 
have  been  projected  to  remedy  it.  It  is  to  these 
schemes  of  radically  reformed  spelling  that  the  name 
of  Phonetic  Writing  is  now  more  especially  applied  ; 
and  what  follows,  represents  the  views  and  argu- 
ments of  the  promoters  of  the  movement,  and 
sketches  its  history. 

The  earliest  attempts  at  alphabetic  writing  were 
as  strictly  phonetic  as  the  limited  scheme  of  symbols 
allowed,  or  as  the  limited  aim  of  writers  required. 
The  alphabets  were  confined  almost  exclusively 
to  consonants  ;  and  the  analysis  of  speech  on  which 
they  were  based  was  of  course  confined  to  the 
languages  for  which  the  alphabets  were  designed. 
When  any  old  alphabet,  therefore,  came  to  be 
adopted  for  a  new  language  or  dialect,  it  would  be 
found  deficient  in  the  means  of  writing  any  sounds 
which  were  not  used  in  the  language  for  which  the 
alphabet  was  originally  intended.  Unless,  then, 
new  symbols  were  added  for  the  new  sounds,  these 
latter  must  have  been  represented  by  conventional 
combinations  of  letters ;  and  at  this  point  the 
writing  woidd  cease  to  be  perfectly  phonetic. 

The  Sanscrit  language  furnishes  the  most  con- 
vincing proof  of  the  original  phonetic  character 
of  alphabetic  writing ;  for  not  only  were  words 
written  exactly  as  they  were  sounded,  but  every 
change  which  a  word  underwent  in  utterance  was 
consistently  indicated  by  a  change  in  the  writing. 
Notwithstanding  this  fact,  there  is  no  language 
in  which  the  etymological  and  grammatical  relations 
of  words  are  more  clearly  exhibited  or  easily  traced 
than  in  Sanscrit.  Our  own  language  illustrates  the 
same  principle.  No  difficulty  is  experienced  in 
discovering  the  relation  between  loaf  and  loaves, 
wife  and  wives,  notwithstanding  the  change  of  f 
into  v  in  the  plural ;  nor  would  any  difficulty  be 
created  though  the  s  also  were  changed,  as  it  is  in 
sound,  and  the  words  written  as  they  are  pronounced 
— lovz,  wivz. 

The  Engfish  language  embraces  in  its  dialects 
almost  all  the  elementary  sounds  of  all  languages  ; 
and  the  Latin  alphabet,  which  was  adopted  for  its 
writing,  was  so  insufficient  in  the  number  of  its 
characters,  that  many  new  letters  would  have  been 
required  to  adapt  it  for  the  representation  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  other  words.  But  in  place  of  being 
extended,  the  alphabet  was  reverentially  accepted 
with  all  its  imperfections ;  its  deficiencies  were 
supplemented  by  the  use  of  servile  or  silent  letters, 
and  by  various  orthographical  expedients  ;  and  thus 
our  writing  came  to  be  irregular,  difficult,  and 
fluctuating.  The  great  inconvenience,  however,  of 
representing  by  the  same  character  the  sounds  of 
U  and  V,  led  to  the  introduction  of  the  former  as  a 
new  letter  for  the  vowel  sound,  and  to  the  limita- 
tion of  the  latter  character  to  the  consonant  sound ; 
and  the  further  ambiguity  arising  from  the  want 
of  an  appropriate  sign  for  the  sound  of  W,  led  to 
the  invention  of  that  symbol,  which,  being  formed 
by  joining  together  two  of  the  old  V  characters, 
was  thence  called  '  double  V ' — pronounced,  accord- 
ing to  the  old  sound  of  V,  '  double  U.'  The  phonetic 
principle  was  fully  recognised  in  these  changes, 
and  they  furnish  precedent  for  further  changes, 
when  a  necessity  for  them  shall  be  sufficiently  felt 
and  acknowledged. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  phonetic  writing 
would  greatly  facilitate  the  acquisition  of  the  power 
of  reading,  and  consequently  of  the  education  of 
children  and  illiterate  adults;  as  well  as  tend  to 


[notion  of  dialects  t<>  one  common  standard, 
and  farther  the  diffusion  of  our  language  in  foreign 
countries,  To  learn  to  read  from  perfectly  phonetic 
characters,  would  he  merely  to  learn  the  alphabet. 

and  to  spell  would  be  merely  to  analyse  pronuncia- 
tion. A  child  at  school  might  be  made  a  fluent 
reader  in  a  few  weeks.  All  uncertainty  of  pro- 
nunciation would  vanish  at  the  sight  of  a  word,  and 
dictionaries  of  pronunciation  would  be  superfluous. 

Of  all  the  I  in  im  i  i  which  employ  the  Latin 
alphabet,  the  English  is  the  worst  represented  ;  in 
some  measure  because  of  the  rich  variety  of  ita 
phonic  elements,  but  chiefly  because,  of  all  the 
nations  which  have  adopted  Latin  letters,  the 
English  have  done  least  to  make  their  writing 
phonetic.  Every  attempt  to  correct  the  anomalies 
of  our  orthography  has  roused  a  host  of  prejudices, 
against  which  the  efforts  of  private  individuals 
have  been  powerless.  The  difference  between 
phoneticians  and  their  opponents  seems  to  be  a 
fundamental  difference  as  to  what  really  constitutes 
a  word.  The  former,  maintaining  the  sound  to  be 
the  true  word,  would  discard  all  associations  depend- 
ent on  letters,  in  order  to  represent  the  exact  sound 
in  the  simplest  manner ;  the  latter,  clinging  to  the 
literal  associations  of  orthography,  argue  as  if  the 
verbal  cluster  of  letters  in  reality  constituted  the 
word.  The  dispute  is  thus,  in  effect,  between 
letters  and  sounds  :  which  are  the  signs — which 
the  thing  signified? 

In  phonetic  writing,  the  eye  woidd  no  doubt 
confound  such  words  as  know  and  no,  see  and  sea, 
sighs  and  size,  when  written  separately,  as  in  a 
vocabulary  ;  but  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  such 
words  would  present  more  ambiguity  in  contextual 
usage  than  they  now  do  in  utterance,  subject  to  the 
same  confusion  to  the  ear.  At  present,  we  have,  in 
fact,  two  languages — one  purely  phonic,  addressed 
to  the  ear;  and  the  other,  in  some  degree  etymo- 
logical or  historical,  addressed  to  the  eye.  In  this 
respect,  we  are  in  a  similar  position  to  the  Chinese, 
with  their  classical  ideographic  language  of  litera- 
ture, and  their  multitudinous  vernacular  dialects. 
In  order  to  establish  the  assertion,  that  the  phonic 
word  (the  sound)  written  phonetically  in  a  sentence 
would  be  less  intelligible  to  the  eye  than  the 
written  word  in  its  present  form,  it  is  incumbent 
on  the  opponents  of  phoneticism  to  shew  that  the 
simple  phonic  word  is  now  less  intelligible  when 
pronounced  in  a  sentence,  than  its  written  symbol 
is  wThen  read  in  a  sentence. 

The  principal  objection  urged  against  phonetic 
writing  is,  that  it  woidd  obscure  the  etymological 
history  now  discoverable  in  the  orthography  of  a 
word.  The  best  answer  to  this  objection  is  that 
the  traces  of  etymology,  preserved  in  the  present 
spelling,  are  so  imperfect  and  inconsistent  as  to  bo 
of  little  value  compared  with  the  embarrassments 
they  occasion  in  other  respects. 

The  first  requisite  for  the  construction  of  a  phon- 
etic alphabet  is  an  exact  knowledge  of  elementary 
sounds,  that  every  element  may  be  provided  with 
its  approjiriate  symbol,  and  that  no  more  symbol* 
may  be  introduced  than  there  are  distinct  elementary 
sounds.  The  latter  consideration  would  be  of  im- 
portance only  in  connection  with  a  general  alphabet 
available  for  all  languages.  An  alphabet  for  any 
individual  language  might  contain  symbols  for  com- 
pound sounds,  with  no  other  disadvantage  than  that 
of  adding  to  the  number  of  symbols.  It  would  not, 
for  instance,  be  of  any  consequence,  so  far  as  phonetic 
writing  is  concerned,  whether  the  word  sacks  were 
represented  by  the  letters  saks,  sacs,  or  sax,  so  that 
the  symbols  used  were  invariably  appropriated  to 
the  same  sounds.  Orthoepists  and  phoneticians  are 
not  agreed  as  to  what  elements  compose  many  of 

199 


PHONETIC  WRITING. 


our  compound  sounds,  such  as  those  heard  in  the 
•words  chair,  queen,  tune,  I,  out,  &c.  Any  attempt, 
therefore,  at  representing  compounds  analytically 
■would  he  premature,  until  the  analysis  of  the  com- 
pounds had  been  settled.  This  analysis  would  be 
absolutely  necessary  for  a  general  alj-habet,  but  not 
bo  for  an  alphabet  for  any  single  language.  Phon- 
etic writing,  then,  should  be  separately  considered, 
as  a  means  of  representing  the  elementary  sounds  of 
all  languages,  and  as  a  method  of  symbolising  the 
pronunciation  of  any  one  language  only.  We  shall 
now  shew  the  nature  of  the  attempts  that  have 
been  made  for  the  phonetic  writing  of  English. 

Dr  Franklin,  in  1768,  proposed  a  phonetic  alpha- 
bet for  English,  in  which  new  symbols  were  intro- 
duced for  the  vowels  heard  in  the  words  on  and  up, 
and  the  four  consonants  heard  in  the  words  she,  they, 
and  thing.  Many  other  schemes  have  been  from 
time  to  time  proposed ;  but  the  only  alphabets 
which  have  been  practically  applied  on  a  large  scale 
are  those  of  Dr  Comstock  in  America,  and  Messrs 
Ellis  and  Pitman  in  England.  The  object  of  ex- 
perimenters in  this  department  has  generally  been 
to  make  use  of  existing  letters  as  far  as  possible, 
and  only  to  supplement  deficiencies  by  new  forms. 
The  common  alphabet  has  been  made  to  furnish 
almost  a  sufficient  number  of  characters  by  the 
inversion  of  some  of  its  letters — thus,  a,  a",  v,  o,  o, 
S,  q,  &c,  as  in  the  '  Anti-absurd'  alphabet  of  Major 
Beniowski ;  but  the  best  scheme  of  phonotypes  that 
has  yet  been  introduced  was  the  joint  production 
of  Mr  Isaac  Pitman,  the  inventor  of  the  first  system 
of  phonetic  shorthand  writing,  and  Mr  A.  J.  Ellis, 
B.A.  of  Cambridge,  a  most  accomplished  mathema- 
tician and  linguist.  This  alphabet  was  completed 
in  1S47  ;  and  the  experiment  of  its  introduction 
was  carried  out  with  great  diligence  and  persever- 
ance by  its  promoters,  until  an  army  of  philanthropic 
assistants  became  enlisted  in  all  parts  of  Great 
Britain  and  America.  Primers  and  school-books 
were  issued,  and  tested  on  juvenile  and  adult 
classes;  many  works  of  standard  literature,  and 
even  the  entire  Bible,  were  translated  into  the  new 
spelling  ;  magazines  were  published,  and  ultimately 
a  newspaper,  printed  in  the  phonetic  character,  was 
started  by  the  enterprising  orthographic  reformers. 
In  this  scheme  of  phonotypes,  diphthongal  and 
articulate  compounds  were  not  analysed,  and  the 
letters  of  the  ordinary  alphabet  were  retained 
in  their  most  common  signification,  seventeen  new 
characters  being  introduced  for  unrepresented  or 
ambiguously  written  sounds.  The  forms  of  these 
were,  in  most  cases,  happily  suggestive  of  the 
displaced  orthography,  and  the  general  aspect  of 
the  writing  bore  such  a  resemblance  to  common 
typography,  that  any  good  reader  of  the  latter  could 
decipher  the  new  printing  with  ease,  after  a  very 
brief  study  of  the  alphabet.  The  ordinary  vowel 
letters  (A,  E,  I,  0,  U)  were  pronounced  as  in  the 
words  am,  ell,  ill,  on,  up  ;  the  consonants  C  and  G 
were  sounded  as  in  came  and  game;  the  letters  K,  Q, 
X  were  rejected  as  superfluous,  and  all  the  other 
letters  of  the  common  alphabet  were  retained,  with 
their  established  sounds.  Comparing  this  scheme 
of  letters  with  the  tabulated  elementary  sounds  of 
English,  we  find  that  it  represents  all  the  vowels, 
except  the  nice  varieties  heard  in  the  words  air,  ore, 
err,  ask;  and  that  all  the  consonants  are  accurately 
represented  except  wh.  The  latter  element  is  written 
by  letters  sounding  hoo,  so  that  the  words  where  and 
whoe'er  are  made  identical  to  the  eye  ;  and  the 
sentence, '  I  saw  the  man  whet  the  knife,'  is  written, 
'  I  saw  the  man  who  ate  the  knife.' 

Notwithstanding  these  imperfections,  this  alpha- 
bet was  found  to  work  well  among  those  who  were 
disposed  for  a  reform.  The  phonetic  method  was 
500 


proved  to  be  remarkably  simple  and  easy  in  com* 
parison  with  the  ordinary  system ;  the  time  occupied 
in  making  fluent  readers  was  greatly  reduced  ;  and 
readers  of  phonetic  printing  experienced  but  little 
difficulty  in  the  transition  to  reading  from  common 
orthography. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  the  system  were 
chiefly  :  rapidity  of  learning  to  read,  certainty  of 
pronunciation,  and  increased  facility  in  common 
reading,  after  the  power  of  phonetic  reading  had 
been  acquired.  The  chief  disadvantages  alleged 
against  the  system  were :  accustoming  the  eye  to  a 
false  orthography,  and  teaching  what  had  to  be  in 
great  part  unlearned  after  it  was  acquired.  Whether 
the  objectors  were  right  or  wrong,  they  were  over- 
poweringly  numerous,  and  the  system  failed  to  do 
more  than  prove  that  phonetic  spelling  greatly 
simplifies  the  acquisition  of  the  power  of  reading. 

The  original  phonotypic  alphabet,  described  above, 
has  been  for  some  years  discarded  in  the  printing 
issued  from  the  'Phonetic  Institution'  (Bath),  and 
a  more  analytic  alphabet  has  been  adopted,  in 
which  eleven,  instead  of  seventeen,  new  forms  are 
introduced.  The  latest  edition  of  this  alphabet 
gives  the  ordinary  vowel  letters  A,  E,  1,  0  for  the 
sounds  in  the  words  am,  ell,  ill,  on,  and  the  letter  U 
for  the  sound  in  pull ;  K  is  restored,  and  C  rejected; 
J  is  used  as  in  French ;  and  the  elementary  sound 
of  wh  is  still  unacknowledged.  The  eleven  new 
characters  represent  the  consonants  in  the  words 
site,  oath,  they,  and  (s)ing;  and  the  vowels  in  the 
words  ale,  eel,  alms,  old,  all,  pool,  up. 

The  following  are  the  forms  of  the  new  letters  as 
printed  and  written,  with  a  passage  exhibiting  their 
appearance  in  composition. 

This  Phonetic  Alphabet  consists  of  34  letters, 
viz.,  the  23  useful  letters  of  the  common  alphabet 
(c,  q,  and  x  being  rejected),  and  the  11  new  ones 
below.  J  is  used  for  the  French  j  (zh),  or  g  in  '  edge,' 
or  8  in  '  vision ; '  hence  dj  represents  J  in  John,  and 
dg  in  edge.  Tq  (t  sh)  represents  ch  in  chess,  and 
tch  in  catch.  Y  and  w  are  consonants ;  ivh  being 
replaced  by  hw.  The  vowels  a,  e,  i,  o,  u  have 
invariably  the  short  sounds  heard  in  pat,  pet,  pit, 
pot,  put.  All  the  other  old  letters  have  their  usual 
signification.  The  italic  letters  in  the  words  in  the 
third  line  denote  the  sounds  of  the  letters. 


fi  b    S  e    *  i 

alms,  age,  air,  eat 


VOWELS. 

-  O  o,  CT  o-,  TIT  ui  —  "5"  is 

all,        ope,        food    — —  son.bwt. 


Bmz,  £dj,  er,    it     ol,       ep, 


fuid 


-ssn,bxt 


CI, 
at 

ay, 

fii, 


DIPHTHONGS. 
Ol,  ( 
oe      o 


by, 
bei, 


hoy, 
boi, 


now. 
nou. 


CONSONANTS. 

G  q,    ED,    3.  A, 

Wg. 

£/  %fi7jB 

J^ 

she,        thin,        then, 

sing. 

c,i,        bin,        den, 

sin. 

The  double  letter  w,  as  in  unit,  unite,  duty,  valine,  u 
written  thus  :  "  yuinit,  yuneit,  dhuti,  valiu."  When  ai,  ai, 
make  a  dissyllabic  diphthong,  the  second  letter  is  marked 
with  a  direresis ;  thus,  solfuiy,  scjiy. 

"'Tiz  de  meind  dat  meks  de  bodi  ritq; 

and  az  de  s-sn  breks  brui  de  darkest  kioudz, 

Ecr  onor  'pireb  in  de  minest  habit. 

5  Hwot !  c.  iz  de  dje  mar  prec/fs  dan  de  lart, 

bikoz  hiz  federz  ar  merr  biuitiful; 

or  S  iz  de  ader  beter  dan  de  ol, 

bikoz  hiz  pented  skin  kontents  de  ei. 

CT  nc,  gud  Ket ;  neider  art  dua  de  \vsn 

for  dis  pun*  fsrnitiur  and  nun  are." 


PHONETIC  WETTING. 


The  reduction  in  the  number  of  letters  from  that 
Li  the  Kllis  and  Pitman  alphabet  is  obtained 
chiefly  at  the  expense  of  the  phonetic  principle,  in 

the  attempt  to  analyse  diphthongs  in  writing,  before 
their  correct  phonic  analysis  has  been  ascertained 
and  settled.  Tims,  the  compound  sound  in  the  word 
use,  before  represented  by  a  Bingle  character,  is  now 
analysed  into  the  elementary  vowels  heard  in  the 
words  ill  and  pool;  the  diphthong  in  the  word  owl 
is  analysed  into  the  elementary  sounds  in  on  and 
pull ;  and  the  diphthong  in  the  word  isle  is  analysed 
into  the  elements  heard  in  ell  and  ill 

The  original  phonotypio  alphabet  was  of  proved 
value  as  an  initiatory  alphabet,  from  which  the 
transition  to  reading  from  ordinary  orthography 
was  easy,  and  on  this  ground  it  had  many  advo- 
cates ;  the  recent  modifications,  which  are  doubtful 
improvements,  have  been  introduced  apparently 
with  the  view  rather  of  superseding  established 
orthography,  and  on  this  ground,  it  is  to  be  feared, 
the  'reformed'  phonetic  alphabet  will  meet  with 
comparatively  few  supporters. 

But  the  full  advantages  of  the  phonetic  principle 
are  not  secured  to  the  learner  while  phonetic 
writing  is  used  only  as  introductory  to  common 
reading.  Phonetic  spelling  would  require  to  be 
authoritatively  established,  so  as  to  be  irreproach- 
able in  ordinary  use,  otherwise  the  learner  has  still 
to  master  the  more  difficult  orthography  after  the 
phonetic  mode  has  been  learned.  At  present, 
spelling  is  the  test  of  a  good  vernacular  education, 
and  the  applicability  of  this  test  phonetic  writing 
tends  to  destroy. 

But  may  not  the  advantages  of  phoneticism,  so 
far  as  simplifying  the  acquisition  of  reading  is  con- 
cerned, be  obtained  by  the  phonetic  teaching  of 
ordinary  letters,  and  without  any  alphabetic  change  ? 
Such  a  result  is  undoubtedly  practicable,  as  by  Mr 
Bell's  method  (in  his  nursery-book  of  Letters  and 
Sounds)  of  shewing  the  orthography  of  a  word  and 
its  sound  together,  and  teaching  the  latter  only 
while  the  learner's  eye  is  accustomed  to  the  former 
also.  Thus,  the  words  loaf,  debt,  wife,  wreath, 
straight,  &c,  are  printed  lcf,  debt,  wife,  wreath, 
Btra'?ht,  &c.  The  associations  of  orthography  are 
chiefly  fixed  by  the  eye,  and  this  plan  for  learners 
preserves  the  pictorial  aspect  of  words,  and  shews 
at  once  the  phonetic  spelling  and  the  established 
orthography. 

But  the  question  recurs  :  "Why  should  established 
orthography  be  unphonetic  ?  Or,  at  least,  why 
should  not  some  national  measures  be  adopted  to 
correct  the  anomalies  of  our  spelling?  A  similar 
work  was  undertaken  by  the  Spanish  Academy  in 
the  middle  of  last  century,  and  carried  out  so 
efficiently  that,  at  the  present  day,  the  pronun- 
ciation of  any  word  in  Sjianish  is  immediately 
determined  with  certainty  by  every  reader  who 
merely  knows  the  phonetic  value  of  the  alphabetic 
characters.  The  writing  of  the  Italian,  Dutch,  and 
many  other  languages  has  also  been  successfully 
phoneticised.  A  similar  result  would  be  attained 
in  English,  if  the  work  of  orthographic  revision  were 
submitted  to  a  competent  tribunal,  and  if  such 
changes  as  might  be  found  necessary  were  duly 
sanctioned  by  authority.  New  letters  shoidd  be 
added  to  the  alphabet  for  the  six  unrepresented 
simple  consonant  sounds,  Sh,  Zh,  Th,  Dh,  Wh,  Ng  ; 
or,  at  all  events,  the  writing  of  these  elements 
Bhould  be  made  distinctive ;  and,  with  a  few  rules 
for  distinguishing  the  vowel  sounds,  little  alteration 
of  spelling  would  be  needed  to  approximate  the 
writing  of  English  to  phonetic  accuracy. 

A  general  phonetic  alphabet,  avadable  for  the 
writing  of  all  the  sounds  of  human  speech,  is  still  a 
scientific  desideratum,     Such  an  alphabet  would  be 


of  great  practical  value  to  travellers,  colonists, 
missionaries,  and  philologists.  Much  attention  has 
been  paid  to  this  subject  of  late  years.  In  1854,  a 
conference  of  philologists  was  held  in  London,  at 
which  two  rival  alphabets  were  produced,  one  by 
Professor  Lepsius  of  Berlin,  and  another  by  Pro- 
fessor Max  Midler  of  Oxford.  The  former  has  been 
adopted  by  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  but  so 
many  local  diversities  in  the  value  of  the  characters 
have  been  found  necessary  in  different  countries, 
that  this  '  Universal  Alphabet'  has  been  practically 
split  up  into  several  alphabets.  The  writing  is, 
besides,  overladen  with  diacritical  points.  In  the 
alphabet  of  Professor  Max  Miiller,  the  latter  diffi- 
culty is  obviated  by  a  free  use  of  compound  letters. 
The  Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Language  by  this 
author  may  be  consulted  with  great  advantage,  both 
as  to  the  physiology  of  speech  and  the  history  of 
words.  In  the  second  series  of  these  Lectures, 
diagrams  of  the  organic  formation  of  mauy  of  the 
elements  of  speech  are  given,  as  well  as  a  compara- 
tive table  of  four  alphabets  that  have  been  used 
in  the  transcription  of  Sanskrit,  and  numerous 
references  to  the  works  of  continental  and  other 
writers  who  have  treated  of  the  science  of  phonetics 

The  most  elaborate  scheme  of  a  universal  alpha- 
bet hitherto  published  is  that  of  Mr  A.  J.  Ellis.  In 
this  alphabet  94  sounds  are  discriminated  by 
means  of  an  ingenious  system  of  compound  letters, 
but  the  complexity  of  the  writing  forbids  the 
possibility  of  its  '  universal '  adoption. 

The  chief  difficulty  in  the  construction  of  a 
universal  alphabet  has  arisen  from  the  want  of 
a  complete  classification  of  elementary  sounds ; 
another  difficulty  has  been  created  by  an  adherence 
to  the  inadequate  letters  of  the  Roman  alphabet. 
The  resolutions  of  the  alphabetic  conference  were 
decidedly  in  favour  of  Roman  letters  as  the  basis  of 
the  proposed  'standard'  alphabet.  But  the  wisdom 
of  this  decision  may  be  questioned.  No  existing 
alphabet  exhibits  the  natural  relations  of  the  sounds 
it  represents;  and,  consequently,  although  an  alpha- 
bet physiologically  complete  were  framed,  it  could 
not  incorporate  Roman,  Greek,  or  any  other  letters 
at  present  in  use,  without  sacrificing  the  most 
essential  qualities  of  a  universal  alphabet — simplicity 
and  congruity.  Symbols  must  be  devised  which 
would  indicate  to  the  eye  all  the  organic  relations 
discoverable  by  the  ear  between  the  various  ele- 
ments, and  which  would  be  free  from  the  associations 
that  would  attach  to  adopted  letters  familiar  to  the 
eye  with  other  meanings. 

A  general  or  panethnic  alphabet  must,  of  course, 
embody  an  exhaustive  classification  of  sounds,  and 
its  characters  should  be  designed  to  be  pictoriallu 
suggestive  of  the  organic  actions  which  produce 
the  sounds,  so  as  to  be  universally  intelligible. 
In  this  way,  a  person  who  had  never  heard  the 
language  or  the  sound  might  pronounce  it  from  the 
physiological  writing,  if  he  were  only  acquainted 
with  the  modes  of  action  of  the  organs  of  speech, 
and  the  representative  principle  of  the  alphabet. 
By  means  of  such  a  scheme  of  symbols,  all  the 
sounds  of  every  language,  including  even  the  laugh, 
the  sigh,  the  murmur,  the  groan,  the  snore,  the 
lisp,  the  burr,  and  the  imitative  sounds  practised  by 
ventriloquists,  as  well  as  the  modidative  distinctions 
of  the  Chinese,  the  Hottentot  Clicks,  and  the  j>ecu- 
liar  inspiratory  sounds  indulged  in  by  savages, 
might  be  represented  phonetically  with  the  utmost, 
directive  precision,  and  by  a  wonderfully  small 
number  of  radical  characters.  If  ever  the  Utopian 
dream  of  a  universal  language  is  to  be  realised,  its 
alphabet  must  be  phonetic,  and  its  elementary 
symbols  not  selected  from  old  alphabets,  but  new, 
designed  from  the  mouth,  pictorial  or  analogical. 

601 


PHONOMANIA— PHOSPHATES. 


and  forming  a  'visible  speech.'  See  Visible 
Speech.  Phonetic  writing  on  such  a  basis  would 
aot  encounter  the  prejudices  that  have  hitherto 
defeated  the  efforts  of  orthographic  reformers ; 
and  it  would  be  of  considerable  immediate  service 
to  linguists,  besides  being  a  beginning  and  a  promise 
of  the  widest  utility.  For  phonetic  shorthand 
writing,  see  Shorthand. 

PHONOMA'NIA.    See  Homicidal  Mania. 

PHO'SGENE  GAS,  known  also  as  Oxychloride 
of  Carbon  or  Chlorocarbonic  Acid,  Chloro- 
carbonic  Oxide,  and  Chloride  of  Carbonyl,  is 
represented  by  the  formula  COCI2.  It  is  a  colourless, 
nuffocating  gas,  which  is  formed  by  exposing  equal 
measures  of  carbonic  oxide  and  chlorine  to  the  direct 
action  of  the  sun,  when  they  combine  and  become 
condensed  into  half  their  volume.  It  does  not  possess 
any  acid  characters,  but  water  decomposes  it  into  car- 
bonic and  hydrochloric  acids,  as  is  shown  by  the  equa- 
tion COCI2  +  H20  =  C02  +  2HC1.  This  gas  is  of 
great  interest  in  relation  to  the  artificial  production  of 
Urea  (q.  v.)  from  inorganic  matter. 

PHO'SPHATES  (in  Physiology).  The  following 
phosphates*  play  an  active  part  in  the  chemistry  of 
the  animal  body. 

Phosphate  of  Sodium,  which  may  occur  under  any 
one  of  the  three  forms  NaH2P04,  or  Na2HPOt, 
or  Na3P04.  All  these  salts  are  soluble  in 
water;  and  the  first  two  have  an  acid  reaction,  while 
the  third  is  alkaline.  By  exposure  of  the  second 
of  these  salts  (Na2HPO.t)  to  a  red  heat,  it  is 
converted  into  what  is  termed  pyrophosphate  of 
sodium  (2Na*P207),  in  which  the  phosphoric  acid 
is  obviously  no  longer  tribasic,  but  bibasic;  and 
by  similarly  treating  the  first  of  these  salts 
(NaH2POi),  we  convert  it  into  the  so-called 
vxetaphosphate  of  sodium  (NaPOs),  in  which  the 
phosphoric  acid  is  monobasic.  It  is  in  consequence 
of  these  changes  under  the  action  of  heat,  that  the 
terms  pyrophosphoric  and  metaphosphoric  have  been 
used  as  synonyms  for  bibasic  and  monobasic  phos- 
phoric acids.  Phosphate  of  sodium,  in  one  or  other 
of  the  above  forms,  occurs  as  a  constituent  of  all 
the  animal  fluids  and  soft  tissues  of  the  body,  but 
is  especially  abundant  in  the  urine  and  the  bile. 
There  are  reasons  for  believing  that  it  is  the 
second  and  third  of  these  salts  which  occur  as  con- 
stituents of  the  animal  body,  although  the  first  may 
possibly  sometimes  be  found.  Pyrophosphate  and 
metaphosphate  of  sodium  are  often  found  in  the  ashes 
of  animal  fluids  or  tissues  after  the  process  of 
incineration,  but  they  merely  result  from  the  action 
of  heat  on  the  two  other  salts.  The  following 
remarks  on  the  derivation,  elimination,  and  physio- 
logical importance  of  the  phosphate  of  sodium,  are 
equally  applicable  to  the  corresponding  salts  of 
potash,  which  are  always  associated  with  them. 
The  phosphates  of  the  alkalies,  which  occur  in  the 
animal  body,  obviously  owe.  their  origin,  either 
directly  or  indirectly,  to  the  food ;  viz.,  directly,  by 
being  ingested  as  phosphates  of  the  alkalies ;  or 
indirectly  (within  the  system),  by  the  action  of 
phosphate  of  lime  on  salts  of  the  alkalies.  The 
elimination  of  these  salts  from  the  system  is  neces- 
sary, because  they  are  being  constantly  supplied  by 
the  food  ;  and  this  process  is  effected  mainly  by  the 
kidneys  and  the  intestinal  canal.  In  the  carniv- 
orous animals,  whose  blood  is  much  richer  in  phos- 
phates than  that  of  herbivora  (the  ash  of  the  blood 
of  the  dog,  for  example,  contains  from  12  to  14  per 
cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  while  that  of  the  ox  or 

*  The  means  of  distinguishing  between  the  salts  of 
tribasic,   bibasic,  and   monobasic  phosphoric  acid,  are 
given  in  the  article  PHOSPHORUS. 
602 


sheep  does  not  contain  more  than  from  4  to  6), 
these  salts  are  carried  off  by  the  urine ;  but  in  con- 
sequence of  the  formation  of  free  acids  as  products 
of  the  disintegration  of  the  tissues,  a  portion  of  the 
base  is  abstracted  from  the  originally  alkaline  phos- 
phates, and  a  corresponding  portion  of  phosphoric 
acid  is  liberated.  The  originally  alkaline  salt  is  thua 
rendered  neutral  or  even  acid;  and  the  occurrence 
of  the  acid  phosphate  of  sodium  (NasHPO*)  in 
the  mine  is  thus  explained.  In  the  herbivorous 
animals,  on  the  other  hand,  the  urine  contains  no 
phosphates,  the  whole  of  the  phosphoric  acid  taken 
in  their  food  being  eliminated  by  the  intestinal 
canal  in  the  form  of  the  insoluble  phosphates  of 
lime  and  magnesium.  Although  the  general  distri- 
bution of  the  phosphates  of  the  alkalies  in  the 
nutrient  fluids  (there  is  40  per  cent,  of  them  in  the 
ash  of  the  blood-cells  ;  28-4  per  cent,  of  phosphoric 
acid  and  23 '5  of  potash  in  the  ash  of  cow's  milk ; 
and  about  70  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid  in  the 
ash  of  the  yelk  of  egg)  is  in  itself  an  indication  of 
their  importance,  the  exact  nature  of  their  functions 
is  not  completely  understood.  Liebig  has  specially 
drawn  attention  to  the  peculiar  grouping  of  the 
acid  and  alkaline  fluids  of  the  animal  body.  The 
permanence  of  this  grouping  is  chiefly  maintained, 
especially  in  herbivorous  animals,  by  the  conversion, 
within  the  body,  of  alkaline  and  neutral  phosphates 
into  acid  phosphates  by  the  means  already  de- 
scribed. Moreover,  all  tissue-forming  substances 
(the  protein  bodies)  are  so  closely  connected  with 
phosphates,  that  they  remain  associated  during  the 
solution  and  subsequent  re-precipitation  of  these 
substances ;  and  the  ash  of  developed  tissues  (such 
as  muscle,  lung,  liver,  &c.)  always  affords  evidence 
that  acid  phosphates  existed  in  the  recent  tissue ; 
and,  further,  no  exudation  from  the  blood-vessels 
can  undergo  transformation  into  cells  and  fibres,  or, 
in  other  words,  become  organised ,  unless,  in  addition 
to  other  conditions,  phosphates  are  also  present. 
Another  very  convincing  proof  of  the  share  taken 
by  the  phosphates  in  the  formation  and  functions  of 
the  tissue,  is  the  fact,  that  although  herbivorous 
animals  take  up  a  very  small  quantity  of  phosphates 
in  their  food,  and  although  their  blood  is  very  poor 
in  these  salts,  their  tissues  contain  as  large  a  pro- 
portion of  phosphates  as  the  corresponding  parts  of 
carnivora.  Lastly,  the  fact,  that  one  equivalent  of 
the  alkaline  phosphate  of  sodium  (NasPO*)  pos- 
sesses the  property  of  absorbing  as  much  carbonic 
acid  as  two  equivalents  of  carbonate  of  soda,  leads 
us  to  the  belief,  that  the  power  of  attracting  car- 
bonic acid,  which  the  serum  of  the  blood  possesses, 
is  due  at  least  as  much  to  the  phosphate  as  to  the 
carbonate  of  soda,  and  that,  consequently,  phosphate 
of  soda  plays  an  important  part  in  the  respiratory 
process. 

Phosphate  of  Calcium  occurs  in  the  organism  in 
two  forms,  viz.,  as  the  neutral  or  tricalcic  ortho-phos- 
phate, 3Ca2O.P205,and  the  acid  phosphate,  2CaH4p«Og. 
The  neutral  phosphate  occurs  in  all  the  solids  and 
fluids  of  the  body,  but  is  most  abundant  in  the 
bones,  in  which  it  amounts  to  about  57  per  cent.; 
and  in  the  enamel  of  the  teeth,  in  which  it  ranges 
from  80  to  90  per  cent.  It  may  at  first  sight  appear 
inexplicable  how  a  salt  so  perfectly  insoluble  in 
water  as  neutral  phosphate  of  calcium  can  be  held  in 
solution  in  the  animal  fluids.  In  some  fluids,  as  the 
blood,  it  is  probably,  in  part  at  least,  combined  with 
albumen,  with  which  it  forms  a  soluble  compound; 
while  in  other  fluids,  as  the  urine,  it  is  held  in 
solution  by  a  free  acid  or  by  certain  salts  (as,  for 
example,  chloride  of  sodium),  whose  watery  solutions 
are  more  or  less  able  to  dissolve  it.  If  any  proof  is 
wanted  of  the  functions  of  this  salt  in  relation  to  the 
bones,  it  is  afforded  by  the  well-known  experiment 


PHOSPHATIC  D1ATHE8IS— PHOEPHORE8CENCB. 


nf  Chossat,  who  shewed  that,  when  too  anal]  a  quan- 
tity of  it  is  taken  with  the  food,  the  bones  lose  more 
or  less  of  their  hardness  and  firmness,  and  fractures 
do  nut  readily  unite.  Phosphate  of  calcium,  like 
the  phosphates  if  the  alkalies,  is  indispensable  to 
eel  1* formation ;  and  us  a  good  illustration  <>f  this 
tact,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  in  the  mantle  of 
the  molluscs  (where  new  cells  for  the  formation  of 
shell  abound)  this  suit  is  far  inure  abundant  than  in 
any  other  part  <>t"  the  body,  Although  by  far  the 
greater  quantity  of  the  phosphate  of  calcium  found  in 

the   body    has   < I. >i 1 1 >r lc-s    pre-existed   in    the    food,   yet 

it  is  unquestionable,  that  a  part  of  it  is  formed 
within  the  organism  by  the  action  of  carbonate  of 
lime  on  the  phosphoric  acid  that  is  produced  during 
'he  disintegration  of  the  phosphorus-containing  tis- 
sues, such  as  the  brain,  for  example.  In  man  and 
carnivorous  animals,  a  certain  portion  of  the  phos- 
phate of  (allium  is  eliminated  by  the  kidneys,  and 
the  rest  is  carried  off  in  the  excrements;  while  in 
herbivorous  animals  the  whole  is  carried  off  in  the 
excrements.  The  acid  phosphate  of  calcium  is  occa- 
sionally found  in  the  urine  of  man  and  carnivorous 
animals,  but  is  of  no  practical  importance.  For  a 
notice  of  the  amount  of  earthy  phosphates  daily 
eliminated  by  the  kidneys,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  article  I'rtm:. 

Basic  Phosphate  of  Magnesium,  3Mg2P20s,  is 
analogous,  both  in  its  chemical  and  physiological  re- 
lations, to  the  corresponding  salt  of  lime,  with  which 
it  is  always  associated.  The  abundance  of  this  salt 
in  the  seeds  of  the  cereals,  and  in  the  other  ordinary 
articles  of  vegetable  diet,  sufficiently  explains  its  pres- 
ence in  the  system.  A  far  less  amount  of  this  salt, 
than  of  the  corresponding  lime-salt,  seems  to  be  re- 
quired by  the  organism,  as  is  shewn  by  the  relative 
quantities  in  which  they  occur  in  bone  (57  of  the 
former  to  T3  of  the  latter),  and  as  is  further  indicated 
by  the  fact,  that,  relatively',  far  more  of  this  than  of 
the  lime-salt  escapes  intestinal  absorption,  and  appears 
in  the  excrements. 

The  only  phosphates  remaining  to  be  noticed  are 
the  phosphate  of  ammonium  and  magnesium,  or, 
as  it  is  sometimes  termed,  the  triple  phosphate, 
(Xil4'2Mg2H2P208.3ll20,  which  occurs  in  beautiful 
prismatic  crystals  in  alkaline  urine,  and,  indeed,  in  any 
specimen  of  urine  that  is  beginning  to  putrefy,  and  the 
phosphate  of  sodium  and  ammonium,  which  is  occa- 
sionally found  as  a  crystalline  sediment  in  putrid  urine. 

PHOSPHA'TIC  DIA'THESIS,  in  Medicine,  desig- 
nates the  condition  in  which  there  is  a  tendency  in  the 
urine  to  deposit  white  gravel.  As  the  deposit  of  lithates 
(see  Lithic  Acid  Diathesis)  depends  upon  an  ex- 
cessive acidity  of  the  urine,  so  that  of  the  phosphates 
is  determined  by  the  opposite  condition — namely,  by- 
deficient  acidity,  or  by  positive  alkalescence.  Alka- 
lescence of  the  urine  may  occur  from  two  distinct 
causes — viz.  (1)  from  the  presence  of  the  carbonate  of 
a  fixed  alkali  (potash,  or  soda),  or  of  alkaline  phos- 
phate of  soda  (see  Phosphates,  in  Physiology) ;  or 
(2)  from  the  presence  of  the  carbonate  of  the  volatile 
alkali,  ammonia,  which  is  due  to  the  decomposition  of 
urea.  This  decomposition  is  due  to  the  fermenting 
action  of  the  mucus  of  the  bladder  on  the  urea,  and  is 
«xplained  by  the  equation — 

Urea.  Water.  Carb.  Anhyd.         Ammonia. 

COH4N2'    +     H2O     =     Col     +     2NH3. 

The  white  gravel  which  is  deposited  in  the  second 
of  these  conditions  —  viz.,  when  the  urine  con- 
tains carbonate  of  ammonia — is  composed  of  minute 
shining  prismatic  crystals  of  the  triple  phosphate 
of  ammonium  and  magnesium,  whose  formula  is  given 
in  the  article  Phosphates.  This  salt  is  formed 
m    follows :     Healthy    urine     contains     phosphate 


oesinm  in  a  state  of  solution,     If,  however, 

the    urine    become    alkaline   from    the    decomposition 

<>'    the    urea,    a    portion    of    the    ammonia    c Lines 

with  the  phosphate  of   magnesium,  and   forms   the 

triple   salt  which    i,   insoluble  in  the  urine,  which   has 

now  become  alkaline.     With  this  triple  phosphate. 

there  is  almost  always  an  admixture  of  phospl 
calcium  (3Ca2O.lV  I.-,  1  in    the    form   ot    an   amorphous 

precipitate.  The  tendency  to  deposit  the  mixed 
phosphates  (triple  phosphate  and  amorphous  phos- 
phate of  calcium  1  is  especially  observed  in  a 
Ot  injury  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  in  dil 
the  bladder,  particularly  in  chronic  inflammation  of 
its  mucous  coat.  Upon  allowing  urine  of  this  kind, 
which  is  usually  pale  in  colour,  to  stand  for  some 
time,  an  iridescent  film  or  pellicle  generally  forms 
upon  its  surface,  which,  when  examined  under  the 
microscope,  is  found  to  consist  mainly  of  the  salts  we 
have  described.  Such  urine  speedily  become-  putrid, 
and  evolves  a  strong  ammoniacal  odour. 

The  above  is  by  far  the  most  common  form  of  the 
phosphatic  deposits,  but,  as  has  been  already  stated, 
the  urine  may  become  alkaline  from  the  presence  of 
the  carbonate  of  potassium  or  sodium ;  and  then, 
no  ammonium  being  present,  in  place  of  the  triple 
salt,  there  is  a  deposition  of  amorphous  phosphate 
of  calcium,  or,  in  rare  cases,  of  a  crystalline  stellar 
phosphate,  whose  composition,  according  to  Dr 
Bence  Jones,  is  represented  by  2CaO,HO,P03  (Jourru. 
of  C'/iem.  Soc.  vol.  15).  In  these  cases,  the  urine  is 
alkaline,  pale,  copious,  slightly  turbid,  of  low  specific 
gravity,  and  of  a  peculiar  odour.  This  urine  makes 
reddened  litmus  paper  permanently  blue ;  while 
ammoniacal  urine  causes  only  a  temporary  change  in 
the  colour  of  the  same  test-paper.  As  the  urine 
cools,  and  sometimes  even  in  the  bladder,  the  white 
sand  is  deposited,  occasionally  giving  the  last  por- 
tion of  the  excreted  urine  a  milky  appearance. 
During  perfect  health,  the  urine  often  becomes  tern, 
porarily  alkaline  during  the  act  of  digestion  (when 
the  gastric  juice  is  especially  acid) ;  but  as  a  general 
rule,  the  tendency  to  alkalescence  from  a  fixed 
alkali,  and  therefore  to  phosphatic  deposits,  is  asso* 
ciated  with  general  debdity.  These  deposits  occur 
for  the  most  part  in  sallow,  languid,  unhealthy, 
looking  persons,  whose  vital  energies  have  been 
depressed  by  mental  anxiety,  by  insufficient  food, 
or  by  sexual  excesses. 

In  both  forms  of  alkaline  urine,  and  therefore  of 
phosphatic  deposits,  a  generous  diet  and  tonics,  such 
as  bark,  wine,  and  the  mineral  acids  (given  before 
meals),  are  of  great  service ;  and  opium  is  usually 
of  great  value,  if  judiciously  administered.  Small 
doses  of  benzoic  acid,  twice  or  thrice  a  day,  with 
the  view  of  restoring  the  acidity  to  the  urine,  and 
the  occasional  washing-out  of  the  bladder  with  tepid 
injections,  have  been  also  found  serviceable  in  the 
ammoniacal  form  of  the  disease. 

PHOSPHORE'SCENCE.  Strictly  speaking,  the 
term  is  applied  to  the  phenomenon,  exhibited  by 
certain  bodies,  of  remaining  luminous  in  the  dark 
for  some  time  after  being  exposed  to  a  strong  light. 
In  this  sense,  it  is  strictly  analogous  to,  perhaps  we 
should  say,  identical  with,  the  heating  of  bodies  by 
exposure  to  light  or  radiant  heat.  They  absorb, 
part  of  the  energy  of  the  vibrations  which  fall  on 
them ;  it  becomes  motion  of  their  particles  ;  and  is 
again  radiated  from  them  as  light  or  heat.  Certain 
preparations,  such  as  Canton's  Phosphorus  (<j.  v.), 
indurated  limestone,  &c.,  possess  this  true  phos- 
phorescence in  a  very  high  degree.  With  the  great 
majority  of  phosphorescent  bodies,  however,  the 
duration  of  the  phenomenon  is  very  short,  rarely 
more  than  a  small  fraction  of  a  second.  Becquerel, 
who  has  recently  studied  this  phenomenon  with 
great  care,  has  invented  a  very  ingenious  instrument 


PHOSPHORESCENCE— PHOSPHORUS. 


for  the  purpose,  called  a  phosphoroscope.  The 
body  to  be  tried  is  placed  in  a  small  drum,  which 
has  an  opening  at  each  end.  In  this  drum  there 
revolve  two  discs,  mounted  on  the  same  axle,  and 
pierced  symmetrically  with  the  same  number  of 
holes.  They  are  so  adjusted,  that  when  a  hole  in 
one  disc  is  opposite  to  the  hole  in  the  corresponding 
end  of  the  drum,  the  second  disc  closes  tbe  hole  at 
its  end  of  the  drum,  and  vice  versa.  Light  is 
admitted  by  one  of  the  holes  in  the  drum,  so  as  to 
fall  on  the  object,  and  it  is  examined  through  the 
other  hole.  It  is  obvious  that  when  the  discs  .are 
made  to  revolve,  the  object  is  alternately  exposed 
to  light,  and  presented  to  the  eye.  By  a  train  of 
multiplying  wheels,  these  alternations  may  be  made 
to  succeed  each  other  as  rapidly  as  the  observer 
pleases,  and  thus  the  object  is  presented  in  the 
dark  to  his  eye  as  soon  after  its  exposure  to  light  as 
may  be  desired.  Almost  all  bodies  are  found  to  be 
phosphorescent ;  for  instance,  some  kinds  of  pink 
rubies,  when  exposed  to  sunshine  in  this  apparatus, 
appear  to  glow  like  live  coals  in  the  dark.  The 
phenomenon  is,  in  fact,  precisely  that  which  was 
observed  by  Brewster  and  Herschel  in  quinine  and 
certaiu  crystals  of  fluor-spar,  and  thence  called 
Fluorescence.  Stokes  was  the  first  to  give  the  true 
explanation  of  these  facts,  and  he  shewed  it  to 
depend  upon  the  change  of  refrangibility  (i.  e.,  colour) 
which  light  suffers  on  being  absorbed  and  then 
radiated  by  the  fluorescent  substance.  The  green 
colouring-matter  of  leaves,  a  decoction  of  the  bark 
of  the  horse-chestnut,  and  the  common  canary  glass 
(coloured  with  oxide  of  uranium),  are  bodies  which 
exhibit  this  phenomenon  very  well.  Perhaps  the 
most  striking  method  of  studying  the  phenomenon 
is  to  receive  in  a  darkened  room  the  solar  Spectrum 
(q.  v.)  on  a  sheet  of  white  paper  ;  and  to  pass  over 
the  coloured  spaces  a  brush  dipped  in  a  solution  of 
■sulphate  of  quinine  with  sulphuric  acid.  No  change 
is  produced  on  the  less  refrangible  rays,  but  in  the 
blue  and  indigo  spaces,  a  strange  change  of  colour  is 
at  once  apparent  where  the  liquid  has  been  spread. 
This  appears  more  strongly  in  the  violet,  and 
vividly  in  the  spaces  beyond  the  violet,  where  rays 
fall  which  excite  no  luminous  sensation  in  the  eye. 
By  this  experiment,  the  visible  length  of  the 
spectrum  may  easily  be  doubled.  By  using  the 
electric  light,  which  is  peculiarly  rich  in  these 
highly  refrangible  rays,  a  prism  of  quartz,  which 
allows  them  to  pass  very  freely,  and  various  fluores- 
cent substances,  Stokes  has  obtained  spectra  six  or 
eight  times  as  long  as  those  otherwise  visible.  The 
characteristic  of  all  these  rays  is,  that  they  are  less 
refrangible  than  those  from  which  they  are  produced. 
The  entire  phenomenon  is  identical  in  principle 
with  Leslie's  photometer,  in  which  light  was 
measured  when  changed  into  heat  by  absorption,  in 
the  coloured  glass  of  which  one  of  the  bulbs  of  his 
differential  thermometer  was  formed. 

Ordiuary  phosphorus  (from  which  the  pheno- 
menon took  its  name)  becomes  luminous  in  the 
dark  by  slight  friction ;  whence  the  common  trick 
of  drawing  self-luminous  figures  on  doors  and  walls 
with  a  stick  of  phosphorus,  or  an  ordinary  lucifer- 
match.  A  similar  appearance  is  presented  by 
putrescent  animal  matter,  such  as  decaying  fish, 
&c. ;  but  these  are  effects  of  slow  combustion,  or 
chemical  combination,  and  are  not  properly  classed 
among  the  phenomena  of  phosphorescence.  See 
Luminosity  of  Organic  Beings. 

PHO'SPHORUS  (symb.  P,  equiv.  31%  sp.  gr. 
1*826)  is  one  of  the  metalloids,  or  non-metallic 
elements,  although,  iu  its  combining  relation,  it  is 
more  closely  connected  with  the  metals  arsenic  and 
antimony  than  with  any  of  the  members  of  the 
sulphur-group,  in  which  it  is  commonly  placed. 


This  substance  affords  an  excellent  example  of 
allotropy ;  that  is  to  say,  it  may  be  made  to 
occur  under  different  forms  presenting  different 
properties.     See  Allotropy. 

Ordinary  phosphorus  and  the  red  variety  are  the 
only  important  forms.  We  shall  speak  of  them  as 
phosphorus  and  red  phosphorus  respectively. 

Phosphorus  at  ordinary  temperatures  is  an  almost 
colourless  or  faintly  yellow  solid  substance,  having 
the  glistening  appearance  and  the  consistence  of 
wax,  and  evolving  a  disagreeable  alliaceous  odour, 
which,  however,  is  probably  due  to  the  action  of 
the  oxygen  of  the  air  upon  it.  It  fuses  at  111*5** 
into  a  colourless  fluid ;  and  if  the  air  be  excluded,  it 
boils  at  555°,  and  is  converted  into  a  colourless 
vapour  of  sp.  gr.  1*826.  If,  however,  it  be  heated  to 
about  140°  in  the  air,  it  catches  fire,  burns  with  a 
brilliant  white  flame,  and  is  converted  into  phos- 
phoric acid ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  so  inflammable  that 
it  will  catch  fire  at  ordinary  temperatures  by  mere 
friction.  As  the  burns  which  it  occasions  are  often 
severe  and  dangerous,  great  caution  is  required  in 
handling  it ;  and  in  consequence  of  the  readiness 
with  which  it  catches  fire,  and  of  its  tendency  to 
oxidise  when  exposed  to  the  air  at  a  temperature 
higher  than  32°,  it  is  always  kept  in  water,  in  which 
it  is  insoluble.  It  is  slightly  soluble  in  ether,  but 
dissolves  freely  in  benzol,  in  the  fixed  and  essential 
oils,  and  in  bisulphide  of  carbon ;  and  by  allowing  its 
solution  in  one  of  these  fluids  to  fall  upon  filtering 
paper,  the  finety  divided  phosphorus  absorbs  oxygen 
so  rapidly  as  spontaneously  to  catch  fire  as  soon  as 
the  solvent  has  evaporated.  One  of  the  most 
characteristic  properties  of  phosphorus  is  that  it 
shines  in  the  dark,  probably  from  the  slow  combus- 
tion which  it  undergoes  ;  and  hence  its  name  from 
the  Greek  words  pkos,  light,  and  phdros,  bearing. 
Its  power  of  forming  ozone  is  noticed  in  the 
article  on  that  substance.  Taken  internally,  phos- 
phorus is  a  very  powerful  irritant  poison;  and  it  is 
the  active  ingredient  of  some  of  the  preparations 
employed  for  the  destruction  of  vermin.  Its  fumes 
give  rise  to  a  peculiar  form  of  necrosis  of  the  jaw, 
which  is  very  common  amongst  the  makers  of  lucifer- 
matches,  and  is  not  followed,  as  in  ordinary  necrosis, 
by  a  formation  of  new  bone. 

Red  phosphorus  differs  from  the  ordinary  variety 
in  several  important  points.  It  occurs  as  a  deep 
red  amorphous  powder,  which  is  perfectly  devoid  of 
odour,  may  be  heated  to  nearly  500°  without  fusing, 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  2*10,  does  not  shine  in  the 
dark,  nor  take  fire  when  rubbed,  undergoes  no 
change  on  exposure  to  the  air  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures, and  is  in  all  respects  far  less  inflammable. 
Moreover,  it  is  insoluble  in  bisulphide  of  carbon 
and  the  other  fluids  in  which  ordinary  phosphorus 
dissolves,  and  is  not  poisonous.  On  this  account, 
Schriitter  (to  whom  we  are  mainly  indebted  for  our 
knowledge  of  this  modification  of  phosphorus)  has 
attempted,  although  with  imperfect  success,  to 
apply  it  to  the  formation  of  lucifer-matches.  When 
red  phosphorus  is  heated  in  an  atmosphere  of 
carbonic  acid  to  a  temperature  of  500°,  it  is  con- 
verted, without  loss  of  weight,  into  ordinary 
phosphorus. 

Phosphorus  is  never  met  with  in  nature  in  an  un- 
combined  state,  but  it  occurs  in  small  proportion  as 
phosphate  of  calcium  in  the  primitive  and  volcanic 
rocks  (as  was  first  shewn  by  Fownes  in  1S44),  by  the 
gradual  decay  of  which  it  passes  into  the  soil;  it 
is  also  found  abundantly  in  the  minerals  known  as 
apatite  and  phosphorite,  and  in  the  brown  rounded 
pebbles  which  abound  in  the  Norfolk  Crag,  and 
which,  under  the  name  of  coprolites,  are  much 
employed,  when  crushed,  for  manure.  From  the  soil, 
it    is    extracted    by    plants,    which    accumulate    it 


phosphokus. 


(especially  in  the  seeds  of  the  cereals)  in  quantity  suf- 
ficient for  the  wants  of  the  animals  which  they  supply 
with  Food  In  the  animal  system,  phosphate  of  lime 
forms  57  per  cent,  of  the  bones:  phosphates  of  the 
alkalies,  especially  of  soda,  occur  freely  m  flic  animal 
fluids;  and  in  fibrin,  albumen,  and  aerrous  matter, 
phosphorus  is  universally  present,  although  wo  do 
not  dearly  know  in  what,  form  of  combination  it 

occurs. 

Phosphorus  was  originally  discovered  in  IfifiO  by 
Brandt,  a  Hamburg  chemist,  who  obtained  it  from 

urine.  Calm  and  Sehecle  were,  however,  the  first  to 
discover  its  presence  in  bone,  and  to  employ  that  ma- 
terial for  its  preparation.  The  following  are  the  lead- 
ing steps  of  the  method  now  usually  employed  in 
obtaining  it  on  the  large  scale.  Bones  are.  burned  to 
whiteness,  and  powdered;  and  this  bone-ash  is  then 
mixed  with  sulphuric  acid  in  such  quantity  as  partially 
to  decompose  the  phosphate,  of  calcium  occurring  in 
the  ash  (.TCa-^  >.!'.'(  >:,)  into  insoluble  sulphate  of  cal- 
cium, and  a  soluble  superphosphate  of  calcium,  whose 
composition  is  represented  by  the  formula  CaallUPaOs. 
The  solution  of  the  superphosphate  is  evaporated  to  a 
syrup,  mixed  with  charcoal,  and  submitted  to  distilla- 
tion in  an  earthen  retort  exposed  to  a  red  heat.  Phos- 
phorus rises  in  vapour,  and  is  conveyed,  by  means  of 
a  bent  tube,  into  water,  in  which  it  condenses  in  yel- 
low drops.  Two  distinct  processes  take  place  within 
the  retort.  The  first  consists  in  the  decomposition  of 
the  superphosphate  of  calcium  into  bone  earth  and 
hydrated  phosphoric  acid ;  while  the  second  consists  in 
the  deoxidation,  by  means  of  the  carbon,  of  the  liber- 
ated phosphoric  acid  into  phosphorus — a  process  ac- 
companied by  the  evolution  of  hj'drogen  and  carbonic 
oxide  gases.  After  it  has  been  pressed  in  a  fused  state 
through  wash-leather,  and  further  purified,  it  flows 
through  a  glass  tube  immersed  in  cool  water,  and  is 
drawn  out  as  a  solid  cylinder,  which  may  be  cut  into 
sticks  of  any  required  length. 

Phosphorus  forms  with  oxygen  three  anhydrous  ox- 
ides— viz.,  suboxide,  P^O ;  trioxide,  phosphorous  oxide, 
or  anhydride,  P2O3;  pentoxide,  phosphoric  oxide,  or 
anhydride,  P2O5 ;  and  an  acid  to  which  there  is  no  cor- 
responding anhydride,  the  hyposulphurous.  PH3O2.  Of 
these  compounds,  phosphoric  anhydride  is  by  far  the 
most  important.  The  anhydrides  unite  with  water  and 
form  phosphorous  acid  (P2O3.3H2O,  or  PH3O3)  and 
phosphoric  acid  (P2O5.3II2O,  or  PII3O4),  respectively. 

Phosphoric  acid  in  its  anhydrous  state,  or  phos- 
phoric anhydride,  is  represented  by  the  formula  P2O5, 
and  is  obtained  by  burning  phosphorus  in  a  jar  of  per- 
fectly dry  atmospheric  air  or  oxygen,  when  it  is  de- 
posited in  snow-white  flakes  at  the  bottom  and  on  the 
sides  of  the  jar,  from  whence  it  must  be  removed  by 
means  of  a  platinum  spatula  as  quickly  as  possible,  in 
consequence  of  its  attracting  moisture  from  the  atmo- 
Bphere,  and  placed  in  a  perfectly  dry  flask.  When 
dropped  into  water,  it  combines  with  it,  and  dissolves, 
evolving  a  considerable  amount  of  heat,  and  emitting 
a  hissing  sound,  as  when  red-hot  iron  and  water  come 
together.  In  consequence  of  its  strong  affinity  for 
water,  this  anhydride  is  very  useful  in  the  laboratory 
as  a  desiccating  agent, 

The  occurrence  of  phosphoric  acid  (in  a  state  of 
combination)  in  the  three  kingdoms  of  nature  has  been 
already  noticed  in  our  remarks  on  phosphorus.  The 
discovery  of  the  acid  was  made  in  1740  by  Marcgraf ; 
the  discovery  of  its  true  chemical  nature  is,  however, 
due  to  Lavoisier ;  and  that  of  its  various  modifications 
and  its  polybasicity,  to  the  investigations  of  the  illus- 
trious English  chemist  Graham. 

Phosphoric  oxide  or  anhydride  unites  with  water  in 
tnree  proportions,  forming  three  acids,  known  as  meta- 
phosphoric (HPO3,  or  H2O.P2O5),  pyrophosphoric 
(H4P2O7,  or  2H2O.P2O5),  and  orthophosphoric  (II3PO4, 
ot  3U2O.P2O5),  but  described  by  the  generic  name  of 


phosphoric  acid.     Metaphosphoric  acid  and  its  Halts 

differ  from  Orthophosphoric  acid  and  the  (iithnphos- 
phatCS   by  the  Want  Of  one   OT  two   atoms   of   water  or 

base.  Accordingly,  they  are  convertible  into  each 
other  by  loss  or  gain  of  one  or  two  atoms  of  water  or 

base,  as    by   boiling,  the    mela-    is    converted   into    the 

orthophosphoric  Pyrophosphoric,  heated  to  dull  red- 
ness, is  converted  into  metaphosphoric  arid,  and  by 
the  absorption  of  water  the  meta-  passes  into  the  ortho- 
phosphoric. The  metaphosphatea  are  remarkable  for 
exhibiting  very  different  properties  according  to  the 

manner  in  which  they  are  prepared,  and  form  fivo 
classes  of  salts.  Pyrophosphoric  acid  is  capable  of 
forming  four  classes  of  salts.  The  orthophosphoric 
acid  is  tribasic,  forming  three  distinct  classes  of  me- 
tallic salts;  one,  two,  or  three  of  its  element,  II,  being 
capable    of    replacement    by    a    base;    thus    the  sodic 

orthophosphates are  NaH»P<  >j,  NaaHPO*,  and  Xa3p()«. 
The  three  atoms  of  II  in  phosphoric  acid  may  be  re- 
placed in  like  manner  by  alcohol-radicles  forming  acid 
and  neutral  ethers.  The  salts  of  pyrophosphoric  acid 
may  he  viewed  as  compounds  of  one  atom  of  ortho- 
phosphate  and  one  atom  of  metaphosphate,  thus, 
MtPaOT  ^=  MsPO*  +  MPOs. 

Phosphorous  Acid  occurs  both  as  an  anhydride, 
P2O3,  and  as  a  hydrate,  PII3O3.  Hypophosphorou* 
Acid,  PH3O2,  is  only  known  in  its  hydrated  condition, 
in  which  it  occurs  as  a  very  acid,  colourless,  uncrys- 
tallisablc  syrup. 

Phosphorus  combines  with  hydrogen  in  three  pro- 
portions to  form  phosphuretted  hydrogen  or  phospha- 
mine,  PH3;  liquid  phosphide  of  hydrogen,  1TI2;  and 
solid  phosphide  of  hydrogen,  P2H.  Of  these,  the  first 
alone  requires  notice  in  these  pages.  There  are  various 
processes  for  obtaining  the  gas ;  one  of  the  simplest 
being  by  boiling  fragments  of  phosphorus  in  a  solution 
of  lime  water,  in  which  case,  hypophosphite  of  calcium 
is  formed,  while  phosphuretted  hydrogen  gas  is  extri- 
cated. The  reaction  is  explained  by  the  equation, 
3CaHO  +  I\  +  3HsO  =  3CaH2P02  +  PII3.  The  gas 
thus  evolved  is  colourless,  possesses  a  characteristic 
fetid  odour,  and  has  the  remarkable  property  of  taking 
fire  spontaneously  in  atmospheric  air  or  in  oxygen  gas, 
and  of  resolving  itself  into  anhydrous  phosphoric  acid 
and  water — a  phenomenon  of  which  Professor  Miller 
has  given  the  following  graphic  description  : '  If  allowed 
to  escape  into  the  air  in  bubbles,  each  bubble  as  it  breaks 
produces  a  beautiful  white  wreath  of  phosphoric  acid, 
composed  of  a  number  of  ringlets  revolving  in  vertical 
planes  around  the  axis  of  the  wreath  itself  as  it  as- 
cends; thus  tracing  before  the  eye,  with  admirable 
distinctness,  the  rapid  gyratory  movements  communi- 
cated to  the  superincumbent  air  by  the  bursting  of  a 
bubble  upon  the  surface  of  a  still  sheet  of  water.  If 
the  bubbles  he  allowed  to  rise  into  a  jar  of  oxygen,  a 
brilliant  flash  of  light,  attended  with  a  slight  concus- 
sion, accompanies  the  bursting  of  each  bubble.'  There 
is  reason  to  believe  that  perfectly  pure  phosphuretted 
hydrogen  gas  does  not  possess  the  power  of  igniting 
spontaneously,  and  that  the  self-lighting  gas  always 
contains  a  minute  quantity  of  the  vapour  of  the  liquid 
phosphide  (PH2).  The  luminous  phenomenon  known 
as  Will-o'-the-  Wisp  has  been  referred  to  the  natural 
evolution  of  the  gas ;  there  is,  however,  no  scientific 
evidence  in  favour  of  this  hypothesis. 

Various  compounds  of  phosphorus  with  sulphur, 
chlorine,  iodine,  bromine,  &c,  have  been  formed  and 
investigated ;  but  none  of  them  are  of  any  practical 
importance. 

The  medicinal  uses  of  phosphorus  and  phosphorit 
acid  have  still  to  be  considered.  Phosphorus,  dis- 
solved in  ether  or  oil,  was  formerly  prescribed  in  very 
minute  doses  as  a  stimulant  to  the  nervous  system  in 
certain  conditions.  It  is,  however,  now  rarely  em 
ployed  in  medicine,  in  consequence  of  its  poisonous 
properties.      Several  cases   are  on  record  in  which 

606 


PHOTIUS. 


children  have  been  killed  by  sucking  the  phosphoric 
ends  of  lucifer-matches.  Its  fumes  have  caused  ne- 
crosis of  the  lower  jaw  in  those  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  lucifer-matches.  Ohristison  relates  an 
instance  in  which  a  grain  and  a  half  of  phosphorus 
proved  fatal. 

The  symptoms  induced  by  this  poison  are  those 
of  acute  inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  bowels, 
and  the  only  treatment  that  can  be  recommended 
is  the  administration  of  large  quantities  of  mild 
demulcent  fluids,  such  as  milk  and  thin  arrowroot, 
BO  as,  if  possible,  to  envelop  the  phosphorus,  and 
exclude  it  from  the  action  of  the  air  in  the  intes- 
tinal canal ;  and  of  magnesia,  with  the  vi^w  of 
neutralising  any  phosphorous  and  phosphoric  acids 
that  may  be  formed. 

Dilute  Phosphoric  Acid  is  included  in  the  British 
Pharmaeopceia,  but  is  not  very  much  employed.  It 
may  be  prescribed  in  much  the  same  cases  as  those 
in  which  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids  are  employed, 
and  is  less  likely  to  disturb  the  digestive  functions, 
if  employed  for  a  long  period,  than  the  other  mineral 
acids.  The  late  Dr  Paris  used  to  recommend  it, 
when  properly  diluted,  as  the  best  acidulated  drink 
for  assuaging  the  thirst  in  diabetes.  It  may  be 
prescribed  in  half-drachm  doses. 

PHO'TIUS,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  one  of 
the  most  critical  periods  of  the  struggle  of  that 
see  with  the  great  patriarchate  of  the  West  for 
supremacy  in  the  entire  church,  was  a  member  of 
a  patrician  family  of  Constantinople,  and  was  born  in 
the  early  part  of  the  9th  century.  From  youth,  he 
was  distinguished  by  his  abilities  and  learning  ;  and 
having  served  in  various  important  public  offices, 
and  especially  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Assyria 
(or  more  probably  Persia),  he  secured  the  favour  of 
the  Emperor  Michael,  with  whom  P.'s  brother  was 
connected  by  marriage,  and  of  the  all-powerful 
Caesar  and  favourite  Bardas.  The  Patriarch  Igna- 
tius having  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Bardas  and 
of  the  emperor,  a  weak  and  profligate  man,  whose 
vices  Ignatius  tried  in  vain  to  correct,  it  was 
resolved  to  deprive  him  of  the  patriarchal  dignity; 
and  the  attempt  to  induce  him  to  resign  having 
failed,  he  was  deposed  with  much  indignity,  impri- 
soned, and  sent  into  exile.  P.,  although  a  layman, 
and  hitherto  engaged  in  secular  pursuits,  was 
appointed  in  his  stead,  hurried  in  a  few  successive 
days  through  all  the  stages  of  sacred  orders,  and 
finally  installed  as  patriarch.  A  councd  of  bishops, 
under  the  influence  of  the  court  (858),  declared  in 
favour  of  the  deposition  of  Ignatius,  and  confirmed 
the  election  of  P.,  and  the  latter  communicated 
his  election  to  the  pope,  Nicholas  L,  in  a  letter 
which  carefully  suppressed  all  these  irregularities, 
and  represented  that  he  had  reluctantly  under- 
taken the  office.  Meanwhile,  however,  Ignatius 
had  privately  written  to  Pome,  and  the  pope  sent 
two  legates  to  inquire  and  report  on  the  facts. 
A  new  council  was  assembled  (859),  in  which 
Ignatius    was    declared    deposed,    and    was    com- 

Selled  to  sign  the  act  of  abdication,  and  P.  was 
eclared  duly  elected.  The  legates  concurred,  it 
was  believed,  under  the  undue  influence  of  Bardas, 
in  this  sentence.  But  in  so  doing  they  had  exceeded 
their  power,  which  was  merely  to  report  to  the 
pope ;  and  Nicholas  refused  to  acknowledge  the  sen- 
tence, and  summoned  the  parties  to  a  new  hearing. 
P.,  however,  resisted ;  and  a  new  cause  of  dispute 
having  arisen  in  regard  to  the  jurisdiction  claimed 
by  the  see  of  Constantinople  in  part  of  the  province 
of  Illyricum  and  among  the  newly-converted  Bulga- 
rians, the  councd,  which  Nicholas  called  at  Rome  in 
862,  annulled  the  acts  of  that  of  Constantinople  and 
of  the  legates,  declared  P.'s  election  uncanonical 
And  invalid,  deposed  and  excommunicated  him,  and 
606 


reinstated  Ignatius  in  his  see.  Being  supported^ 
however,  by  the  emperor,  P.  retained  possession,  and 
not  only  refused  to  yield,  but  retaliated  ou  the  pope 
by  assembling  a  councd  at  Constantinople  in  867, 
in  which  the  question  was  removed  from  the  region 
of  a  personal  dispute  between  the  bishops  to  a  con- 
troversy of  doctrine  and  discipline  between  the 
churches  of  the  East  and  West  themselves.  In  this 
council,  P.  first  brought  forward  distinctly  certain 
grounds  of  difference  between  the  churches,  which, 
although  consideral  >ly  modified,  afterwards  led  to  theil 
final  separation.  In  all  these  doctrinal  differences, 
the  council  condemned  the  Western  Church,  excom- 
municated Nicholas  and  his  abettors,  and  withdrew 
from  the  communion  of  the  see  of  Pome.  During 
the  life  of  the  Emperor  Michael,  the  authority  of  P. 
remained  without  further  question ;  but  on  Michael 
being  deposed  and  put  to  death  by  Basilius  the 
Macedonian  in  867,  P.,  by  that  capricious  exercise 
of  imperial  authority  of  which  these  times  supply 
so  many  examples,  was  deposed,  and  banished  to 
Cyprus,  and  Ignatius  reinstated;  soon  after  which, 
in  869,  the  council  known  as  the  eighth  general 
council,  at  which  Pope  Adrian  IP's  legates  presided, 
was  assembled  at  Constantinople.  The  whole  case 
was  revised.  P.  being  convicted  of  fraud,  forgery 
of  documents,  and  uncanonical  usurpation,  was 
condemned  and  excommunicated,  the  rights  of 
Ignatius  established,  and  the  intercommunion  of 
the  churches  restored.  From  his  exile  at  Cyprus, 
P.  appealing  successfully  to  Basilius,  obtained  his 
recall,  and,  on  the  death  of  Ignatius,  wag  re-ap- 
pointed to  the  patriarchate.  The  pope  of  the  time, 
John  VIIL,  yielding  to  expediency,  or  deceived  by 
false  reports,  acquiesced  in  the  proceeding — a  sup- 
posed act  of  womanish  weakness,  which,  in  the 
opinion  of  some,  by  obtaining  for  John  the  feminine 
sobriquet  Joanna,  was  the  origin  of  the  fable  of 
Pope  Joan  (q.  v.).  P.,  in  879,  assembled  a  new 
council  at  Constantinople,  renewed  the  charge 
against  the  Western  Church,  and  erased  from  the 
creed  in  the  article  on  the  Procession  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  (q.  v.),  the  word  filioque,  which  had  been 
inserted  by  the  Latin  Church.  The  separation  of 
the  churches,  however,  was  not  completed  till  the 
time  of  Michael  Cerularius.  See  Greek  Church. 
P.  did  not  die  in  possession  of  the  see;  he  was 
deprived,  and  exiled  to  Armenia,  by  Leo,  surnamed 
the  Philosopher,  the  son  and  successor  of  Basilius,  in 
8S6,  and  died  soon  afterwards,  probably  in  891.  The 
character  of  P.  is,  of  course,  differently  represented 
by  the  Easterns  and  by  the  Westerns,  the  latter  of 
whom  ascribe  to  him  every  excess  of  craft,  violence, 
and  perfidy.  The  Greeks,  on  the  contrary,  defend  his 
memory.  It  is  hardly  possible,  however,  to  doubt  the 
substantial  justice  of  the  accusations  made  against 
him.  The  impression  produced  by  a  review  of  his 
chequered  career,  and  of  the  more  than  equivocal 
proceedings  with  which  his  name  is  connected,  ia 
made  more  painful  by  the  evidences  of  rare  genius, 
and  profound  and  cultivated  literary  judgment, 
which  his  works  reveal.  His  chief  remains  are  (1.) 
Myriobiblon,  called  also  Biblioiheca,  a  summary 
review  of  the  works  which  P.  had  read,  with  an 
epitome  of  the  contents,  and  a  critical  judgment  of 
their  merits.  The  number  of  works  thus  criticised 
is  no  less  than  279 ;  and  as  many  of  these  are  now 
lost,  the  judgment  and  remarks  of  such  a  man  are 
of  great  value  for  ancient  literary  history.  (2.)  A 
Lexicon,  which  was  edited  by  Hermann,  and  after- 
wards by  Porson  (or  rather  from  his  manuscript 
by  Dobree)  in  1822.  (3.)  The  Nbmocanon.  which 
is  a  collection  of  the  acts  and  decrees  of  the  councils 
up  to  the  seventh  ecumenical  council,  and  the 
ecclesiastical  laws  of  the  emperors  for  the  same 
period.      (4.)     Several    minor    theological    treatises 


PHOTOGRAPHY. 


(5.)  A  collection  of  letters,  many  of  them  extremely 
interesting  and  elegant.  There  is  one  in  which, 
from  his  exile,  he  appeals  to  he  permitted  tiie 
use  of  his  hooks,  which,  for  beauty  of  composition, 
delicacy  of  sentiment,  and  the  genuine  eloquence  of 
a  scholar's  love  of  learning,  ean  hardly  be  BUI 
in  ancient  or  modern  literature.  A  complete  edition 
of  his  works  is  found  iu  Migue's  Palroliyice  t'urnus 
Gcmpletus,  iu  4  vols.,  royal  8va 

PHOTO  GLY'PHIC  ENGRAVING.  See  Pho- 

lOORAiuiic  Engraving,  Photography. 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  ENGRAVING.  Several 
ingenious  attempts  have  been  made  to  prepare 
engraved  plate3  by  photogenic  action  ;  the  earliest 
of  these  dates  as  far  hack  as  IS'27,  which  was  six 
years  previous  to  the  introduction  of  the  Daguerre- 
otype process,  and  was  the  invention  of  M.  Nice- 
phore  Niepce  of  Paris,  who  first  discovered  that 
thin  plates  of  bitumen  were  curiously  affected  by 
light ;  he  therefore  coated  metal  plates  with  a 
thin  layer  of  bitumen,  of  the  kind  called  Jews' 
Pitch,  and  placed  them  in  a  camera  ohscura,  so 
arranged  that  he  could  insure  their  exposure 
to  the  same  image  for  several  hours.  The  plate 
was  then  submitted  to  the  action  of  oil  of  spike, 
which  readily  dissolved  those  portions  not  acted 
upon  by  the  light,  but  exerted  little  action  upon 
the  remainder ;  the  metal  exposed  by  the  solution 
of  the  bitumen  was  then  acted  upon  by  acid,  which 
produced  a  complete  etching-plate,  the  picture- 
part  being  protected  by  its  bituminous  varnish  from 
the  action  of  the  acid.  About  ten  years  after,  M. 
Fizeau  invented  another  process ;  he  took  a  Daguerre- 
otype picture,  and  acted  upon  it  with  a  mixture 
of  nitric,  nitrous,  and  hydrochloric  acids,  which, 
without  affecting  the  silver  where  the  metal  was 
free  from  the  photographic  action,  quickly  attacked 
the  dark  portions  of  the  picture  in  greater  or  less 
degree  according  to  their  intensity,  and  thus  etched 
the  picture  in  the  plate.  This  effect  was  increased  by 
other  operations,  not  now  of  sufficient  importance  to  be 
described,  since  the  entire  method  has  been  abandoned 
for  the  more  satisfactory  inventions  of  Or  W.  H.  Fox 
Talbot ;  these  were  patented  in  1852  (No.  179)  and  ]  858 
(No.  S75).  By  his  first  plan,  a  steel  plate,  such  as  is 
prepared  for  engravers,  is  first  dipped  into  a  solution 
containing  acetic  and  sulphuric  acids;  it  is  then 
coated  with  a  mixture  containing  a  solution  of  fine 
gelatine  ami  bichromate  of  potash.  This  is  im- 
pressed with  the  image  of  a  photographic  negative 
by  exposure  in  the  copying  frame,  and  washed.  The 
film  of  gelatine  is  previously  yellow,  but  the  action 
of  the  light  through  the  light  parts  of  the  photo- 
graph change  it  dark-brown,  while  the  remainder  is 
unaffected :  consequently,  a  picture  is  produced  of 
a  light-yellow  colour  on  a  brown  ground.  The 
action  of  the  light  is  to  i-educe  the  bichromate  of 
potash,  and,  consequently,  to  render  the  gelatine 
combined  with  it  insoluble ;  while  those  portions 
which  have  been  protected  from  the  action  of  the 
light  by  the  dark  parts  of  the  negative,  are  still 
readily  soluble  in  water,  and  can  be  removed  by 
soaking:  the  insoluble  portion  thus  forms  a  raised 
oicture,  which  is  submitted  to  a  solution  containing 
bichloride  of  platina  in  certain  proportions,  with 
a  little  free  acid  and  water,  which  etches  out  the 
exposed  parts  of  the  plate,  and  renders  it  tit  for 
engraving  from.  In  the  same  specification  is  added 
an  ingenious  method  of  giving  to  the  whole  picture 
the  appearance  of  an  engraving;  it  consists  in 
spreading  over  the  gelatinised  plate,  when  nearly  | 
dry,  a  piece  of  very  tine  muslin,  and  evenly  pressing  [ 
it  so  as  to  leave  an  impression  of  the  cross- lines  of  I 
the  textile  material  upon  the  surface.  By  his  second 
specification,  he   alters   the   process   so    far    as   the  | 


washing  is  concerned,  after  obtaining  the  picture  on 
the  gelatinised  plate,  and  thus  obviates  some  iniuriea 
to  which  it  was  thereby  rendered  liable, 
washing,  the  gelatinised  surface  i-  thinly  but  wry 
evenly  covered  with  finely-powdered  copal  or  other 
resin,  and   the   ander-side  of  the   plate   exposed  to 

sufficient  heat  to  melt  the  P    m.  BO    SB  to  form    n    thin 

varnish  over  the  whole.     The  etching  fluid  is  then 
poured  on,  and,  notwithstanding  the  resin  coating,  it 
acts  through  to  the  metal,  and  eats  in  wbererer  tbe 
gelatine    has    not   been   rendered   insoluble    by  the 
action  of   the   bichromate  of  potash  and  the  light 
When    sufficiently    etched,    it    is    washed    in 
water,   and    the    plate   is    freed    from    the    re-in    and 
gelatine.     Two  modifications  of  this  pro 
in  the  Specification,  to  which  the  reader  is  . 
for   fuller   particulars.      Or  Talbot  calls   hu 
Photo-glyphic  Engraving.     The  same  processes,  with 
some  modifications,  applied  to  zinc  constitute  Photo- 
zincography,  and  to  stone  Photo-lithography  (q.  v.) 
both  of  which  are  largely  practised  ;  and  they  have 
been     brought     to     such     extraordinary    perfection, 
especially    by    Sir    Henry   James,    Director   of    the 
Ordnance  Survey  in  Great  Britain,  and  by  ai.  eminent 
firm  in  Brussels  —  Messrs  Simonau,  TooTy  ft  Co.-  • 
that  quite  a  new  era  is  opened  in  the  art  of  engraving 
and  printing. 

These  processes  are  particularly  well  adapted  ft  >r  ropy- 
ingmaps  and  printed  books,  and  Drs  Bache  ami  Pierce 
have  turned  them  to  a  most  profitable  account  in  pro- 
ducing reductions  of  the  large  plans  of  the  U.  .S.  Const 
Survey  to  the  proper  size  of  maps.  Reductions  of  the 
maps  of  the  English  Ordnance  Survey  and  copies  of  the 
Ooomsday  Book  and  other  important  documents  have 
been  made  by  these  processes.     See  Photography. 

PHOTO'GKAPHY  (Gr.  phos,  Hght,  and  g 
I  write).  From  the  following  brief  sketch  of  tha 
history  of  this  art,  it  will  be  apparent  that  its 
present  advanced  form  has  resulted  from  the  com- 
bination of  various  discoveries  in  reference  to  the 
nature  and  properties  of  light  made  by  investigaton 
at  different  periods.  The  progress  has  been  far  more 
rapid  than  in  most  of  the  sciences  which  have 
been  built  up  in  a  similar  manner.  Like  other 
branches  of  chemistry,  it  owes  its  origin  to  the 
alchemists,  who,  in  their  fruitless  researches  after 
the  Philosopher's  Stone  and  Elixir  Vita,  produced 
a  substance  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of 
Luna  Cornea,  or  Horn  Silver,  which  was  observed 
to  blacken  on  exposure  to  light.  This  property 
of  the  substance  constitutes  the  leading  fact 
upon  which  the  science  of  photography  i<  based. 
More  recently,  the  illustrious  philosopher  Scheele 
made  experiments  with  the  substance  in  question, 
with  a  view  to  determine  the  effects  produced 
upon  it  by  different  rays  in  the  solar  spectrum. 
His  words  are  these  (published  in  1777):  'fix  a 
glass  prism  at  the  window,  and  let  the  refracted 
sunbeams  fall  on  the  floor;  in  the  coloured  light 
put  a  paper  strewed  with  luna  cornea,  and  you  will 
observe  that  the  horn  silver  grows  sooner  black  in 
the  violet  rays  than  in  any  of  the  other  rays.'  Still 
more  recently,  the  names  of  Wedgwood  and  Oavy 
(1802),  and  of  Niepce  and  Dagnerre  from  1814  to 
1839,  occur  as  followers  in  the  path  indicated  by 
Scheele  and  the  earlier  savans;  and  in  the  eaily 
months  of  the  year  1864  the  attention  of  tho 
Photographic  Society  of  London  was  occupied  by 
the  endeavour  to  establish  the  authenticity  and 
true  photographic  character  of  some  pictures  found 
in  the  library  of  Matthew  Boulton,  and  believed  to 
be  true  sun-pictures  by  James  Watt,  the  celebrated 
engineer;  thus  offering  great  probability  that  the 
mind  which  produced  the  wonders  of  steam-power, 
had  also  been  engaged  in  the  same  investigations 
which  have   resulted  in  the   present  more   extensive 

in 


PHOTOGRAPHY. 


*tev«jlopment  of  photographic  science.  Most  of  the 
experiments  alluded  to  may  he  said  to  have  been 
based  upon  the  fact,  that  the  salt  of  silver,  called  by 
the  ancients  tuna  cornea,  and  by  modern  chemists 
nitrate  of  silver  (otherwise  Innar  caustic,  from  its  use 
in  medicine),  is  highly  sensitive  to  the  influence  of 
light. 

There  seems  hut  little  doubt  that  some  of  the 
acute-minded  men  who  investigated  the  phenomena 
of  the  influence  of  light  must  have  made  use  of  the 
beautiful  invention  of  Baptista  Porta  of  Padu?., 
known  as  the  Camera  Obscnra  (q.  v.) ;  for  the  pic- 
tures of  natural  objects  formed  on  the  inner 
surface  of  this  instrument  would  readily  suggest  its 
use  in  combination  with  the  lima  cornea.  The 
honour  of  having  been  the  first  to  produce  pictures 
by  the  action  of  light  on  a  sensitive  surface  is  now 
very  generally  conceded  to  Thomas  Wedgwood, 
an  account  of  whose  researches  was  published  in 
1802  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Institution,  under 
the  title:  'An  Account  of  a  Method  of  copying 
Paintings  upon  Glass,  and  of  making  Profiles  by 
the  Agency  of  Light  upon  Nitrate  of  Silver"; 
with  Observations  by  II.  Davy.'  In  the  experi- 
ments detailed  in  this  communication,  white  paper 
and  white  leather  were  imbued  with  nitrate  of 
Bllver,  and  exposed  either  in  the  camera  obscnra, 
or  under  the  leaves  of  trees  or  wings  of  insects. 
The  residt  was,  that  the  shadows  preserved  the 
parts  concealed  by  them  white,  while  the  other 
parts  became  speedily  darkened.  The  misfortune 
was,  that  no  attempts  made  cither  by  Wedgwood 
or  Davy  to  prevent  the  uncoloured  portions  from 
being  acted  on  by  light  Cor,  as  we  now  say,  to  fix  the 
picture)  were  successful.  This  operation  was  not 
effected  in  a  thoroughly  efficient  manner  until  Sir 
John  Herschel  suggested  the  employment  of  hyposul- 
phite of  soda  for  that  purpose.  Many  other  fixing 
agents  had  been  previously  used,  as  ammonia,  iodide 
of  potassium,  chloride  of  sodium,  and  bromide  of 
potassium,  suggested  by  Mr  Fox  Talbot;  none  of 
these,  however,  were  found  equal  to  the  salt  proposed 
and  successfully  used  by  Sir  John  Herschel. 

M.  Niepce,  of  Chalons-on-the-Saone,  was  the  first  to 
enjoy  the  satisfaction  of  producing  permanent  pic- 
tures by  the  influence  of  solar  radiations.  This  was 
accomplished  in  1814,  and  the  name  chosen  to  desig- 
nate bis  process  was  heliograph  v — a  name  in  some 
respects  preferable  to  photography.  It  consisted  in 
coating  a  piece  of  plated  silver  or  glass  with  a  varnish 
made  by  dissolving  powdered  asphaltum  to  saturation 
in  oil  of  lavender,  taking  care  that  the  drying  and 
Betting  of  this  varnish  be  allowed  to  take  place  in  the 
entire  absence  of  light  and  moisture.  The  plate  so 
prepared  was  then  exposed  in  the  camera  obscura  for 
n  length  of  time,  varying  from  four  to  six  hours,  ac- 
cording to  the  amount  of  light.  A  faint  image  only 
is  at  first  visible,  and  this  is  afterwards  developed  and 
fixed  by  immersion  in  a  mixture  of  oil  of  lavender  and 
oil  of  white  petroleum ;  the  plate  being  finally  washed 
with  water,  and  dried. 

Adopting  date  of  publication  as  the  best  evidence 
of  discovery,  the  next  process  offering  itself  for 
consideration  is  that  for  photogenic  drawing,  by  Mr 
Henry  Fox  Talbot,  communicated  to  the  Royal 
Society  on  the  31st  of  January,  1839,  just  six  months 
previous  to  the  publication  of  Daguerre's  process. 
It  consisted  in  immersing  carefully  selected  writing- 
paper  in  a  weak  solution  of  common  salt,  and  drying 
it.  After  this,  a  dilute  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver 
was  spread  over  one  side,  and  the  paper  was  again 
dried  at  the  fire.  When  dry,  it  was  fit  for  use,  the 
sensitiveness  being  much  increased  by  alternate  treat- 
ment with  saline  and  argentine  solutions.  Paper 
thus  prepared  yielded  impressions  in  an  incredibly 
*hort  time,  and  notliing  could  be  more  perfect  than 


the  images  it  gave  of  leaves  and  flowers,  the  light 
passing  through  the  leaves  delineating  every  ramifi- 
cation of  their  nerves.  Considerable  improvement 
in  point  of  sensibility  was  attained  by  Mr  Talbot  in 
the  following  year,  1840,  by  the  employment  of 
iodide  of  silver  on  paper,  as  a  foundation,  to  be 
washed  over  with  a  mixture  of  aceto-nitrate  and 
gallo-nitrate  of  silver,  just  previous  to  exposure  in 
the  camera.  Paper  so  prepared  was  so  sensitive 
that  an  exposure  of  less  than  a  second  to  diffused 
light  was  enough  to  produce  an  impression.  After 
exposure  and  development,  the  picture  was  washed, 
and  fixed  by  immersion  in  a  solution  of  bromido  of 
potassium. 

Niepce  and  Daguerre  accidentally  discovered  that 
they  were  conducting  experiments  of  a  kindred 
character,  and  shortly  afterwards  entered  into  a 
partnership.  The  former,  however,  dying  in  July 
1833,  a  new  deed  of  partnership  was  signed  between 
his  son  Isidore  and  M.  Daguerre,  which  resulted  in 
the  publication,  in  July  1839,  of  the  process  known 
as  the  Daguerreotype.  This  was  not  clone,  however, 
until  the  French  government  had  passed  a  bill, 
securing  to  M.  Daguerre  a  pension  of  6000  francs, 
and  to  M.  Isidore  Niepce,  the  son  of  the  Niepce,  a 
pension  of  4000  francs,  both  for  life,  and  one-half 
in  reversion  to  their  widows.  This  handsome 
conduct  on  the  part  of  the  French  government  was 
based  upon  the  argument,  that  '  the  invention  did  not 
admit  of  being  secured  by  patent,  since,  as  soon  as 
published,  all  might  avail  themselves  of  its  advantages; 
they,  therefore,  chose  to  enjoy  the  glory  of  endow- 
ing the  world  of  science  and  of  art  with  one  of  the 
most  surprising  discoveries  that  honour  their  native 
land.'' 

The  discovery  of  the  Daguerreotype  may  be  said 
to  have  arisen  from  the  dissatisfaction  entertained 
by  Daguerre  with  the  insensibility  of  the  bituminous 
surfaces  of  Niepce,  which  induced  him  to  turn  his 
attention  to  the  salts  of  silver  as  a  means  of  pro- 
ducing a  higher  degree  of  sensitiveness.  This  he 
attained  by  exposing  a  highly  polished  plate  of 
silver  (attached,  for  greater  strength,  to  a  copper 
plate)  to  the  vapour  of  iodine,  by  which  pure  iodine 
of  silver  was  formed  on  the  surface.  The  plate  so 
prepared  was  exposed  in  the  camera  obscnra  for  a 
length  of  time  (20  minutes),  which  was  then  con- 
sidered very  short.  No  apparent  effect  was  produced 
on  the  plate,  the  image  being  a  latent  one,  arising 
from  a  minute  molecular  disturbance  caused  by  the 
impact  of  the  actinic  rays.  The  latent  image  was 
afterwards  developed  by  exposing  the  plate  to  the 
vapour  of  mercury  ;  and  it  is  this  development  of  a 
latent  image,  reducing  as  it  did  the  time  of  exposure 
from  hours  to  minutes,  which  truly  constituted  a 
new  era  in  the  science  of  photography.  It  is  further 
due  to  Daguerre  to  state,  that,  while  his  processes 
for  the  purpose  were  imperfect,  he  still  succeeded  in 
fixing  his  pictures,  although  it  was  reserved  for  Sir 
John  Herschel  to  announce  the  great  suitability 
of  the  hyposulphites  for  dissolving  the  haloid  salts 
of  silver.  The  sensibility  of  the  silver  plate  waa 
still  further  increased  by  Mr  Goddard,  who  suggested, 
in  1839,  the  association  of  the  vapour  of  bromine 
with  that  of  iodine ;  while  M.  Olaudet,  in  1840, 
employed  chlorine.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  in 
connection  with  these  discoveries,  that  the  elder 
Niepce  should,  so  early  as  1820,  have  tried  the 
treatment  of  silver  plates  with  the  vapours  of 
sulphur  and  phosphorus. 

But  the  progress  of  this  interesting  science 
received  a  very  important  impulse  from  a  discovery, 
which  at  first  scarcely  appeared  to  have  any  con- 
nection therewith.  In  1833,  Braconnot  gave,  in 
the  Annales  de  Chimie,  an  account  of  a  new  sub- 
stance obtained  by  the  action  of   nitric  acid   oo 


PHOTOGRAPHY. 


starch,  sawdust,  linen,  and  cotton-wool.  He  named 
this  substance  Xyloidine;  it  was  very  oombuBtible, 
ami  burned  almost  without  residua  In  1838, 
Pelouze,  in  the  Compta  Rendna.  suggested  iu 
application  in  artillery.  He  says,  '  Plunge  paper 
in  nitnc  acid  (specific  gravity  1*500),  leave  it  iu  for 

two  or  three  minutes,  and  wash:  a  kind  of  parch- 
ment is  obtained,  impermeable  to  moisture,  and 
extremely  combustible.'  Dumas,  in  1843,  proposed 
the  name  Nitramidine,  and  suggested  its  use  for 
fireworks.  At  a  meeting  of  the  British  Association 
held  at  Southampton  in  the  year  1846,  Herr 
BohSnbein,  an  eminent  Prussian  chemist,  lead  a 
paper  on  the  preparation  of  explosive  cotton,  a 
substance  obtained  by  acting  on  ordinary  carded 
cotton  by  a  mixture  of  strong  nitric  and  sulphuric 
acids.  This  explosive  cotton  was  afterwards  found 
to  be  soluble  in  ether  ;  and  the  BOlution  so  prepared 
was  named  collodion  by  its  discoverer,  Mr  Mayuard, 
who,  in  1S48,  published  in  the  American  Journal  of 
Medical  Science  the  formula  for  its  preparation. 
This  ethereal  solution  having  a  certain  proportion  of 
alkaline  iodides  and  iodide  of  silver  added  thereto, 
constituted  the  collodion  first  employed  by  Mr 
Archer,  who,  although  deserving  the  credit  of  hav- 
ing first  arranged  a  practicable  working  process 
with  collodion  for  its  basis,  without  which  photo- 
graphy could  not  have  attained  its  present  high 
position,  says,  in  the  second  edition  of  his  Manual, 
4  it  is  due  to  Legray  to  say  that  he  was  the  first  to 
publish  an  account  of  collodion  as  a  photographic 
agent ; '  thus  illustrating  the  candour  with  which 
Mr  Archer  admitted  hia  claim  to  be  considered 
the  first  to  suggest  its  value  in  photography.  Mr 
Fallon  Home  and  Mr  Fry  materially  assisted  Mr 
Archer  in  bringing  his  experiments  to  perfection. 
Although  the  announcement  at  the  British  Associa- 
tion in  1S46,  was  to  the  effect  that  Schbubcin  had 
made  cotton  as  explosive  as  gunpowder,  no  particu- 
lars were  published.  In  April  1847,  he  obtained  a 
patent ;  but  in  October  1846,  Mr  Thomas  Taylor  had 
published  a  similar  method  to  that  patented.  By 
one  of  those  singular  freaks  of  fortune  which  some- 
times occur,  Daguerre  succeeded  in  identifying  his 
name  with  his  process ;  but  Mr  Archer  was  not  so 
fortunate  as  to  give  his  name  to  the  process  which 
he  invented.  A  reference  to  the  article  Collodion 
will  shew  that  (bearing  in  mind  that  glass  perfectly 
cleaned  forms  the  supporting  medium)  the  sensitive 
surface  is  obtained  by  the  conversion  of  the  soluble 
iodides  and  bromides  in  the  collodion  film  into 
iodide  and  bromide  of  silver  by  immersion  in  a  solu- 
tion of  the  nitrate  of  that  base,  and  that  it  is 
exposed  in  the  camera  whde  still  moist  with 
adherent  nitrate,  the  latent  image  so  obtained  being 
developed  with  a  mixture  of  pyrogallic  acid,  acetic 
acid,  and  alcohol,  faced  with  hyposulphite  of  soda, 
and  varnished. 

In  the  Niepcotype  or  albumen  process,  glass  plates 
of  proper  thickness  and  quality,  and  perfectly  clean, 
are  coated  with  Albumen  (q.  v.),  to  which  an  alka- 
line iodide  has  been  added.  When  perfectly  dry, 
they  are  immersed  in  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  sdver, 
when  an  immediate  decomposition  takes  place ; 
iodide  of  silver  being  formed  in  the  albumen  film, 
and  nitrate  of  potash  or  ammonia  remaining  in 
solution.  The  plate  is  then  freely  washed  with 
water,  dried,  exposed,  developed  with  gallic  acid, 
and  fixed  with  hyposulphite  of  soda. 

A  retrospective  glance  will  shew  the  reader  that 
four  processes  have  now  been  passed  in  review ;  and 
on  a  little  consideration,  it  will  be  seen  that  one 
principle  pervades  the  whole — viz.,  the  production 
of  a  latent  image  by  the  action  of  light  on  iodide 
and  bromide  of  silver,  its  subsequent  development 
by  suitable  means,  and  the  final  removal  of  the 


unaltered  portions  ol    the  sensitive  film  by  a  fixing 
agent. 

Anion-  these  proci   see,  that  in  which  collodion  in 
employed   has   achieved    a   well-merited    distinction, 
and  is  now  so  generally  employed  as  almost  entirely 
to    exclude  the    oth<  re.      various  modificati 
this  process  have  been  from  time  to  time  bu-j 
to  meet  the  exigencies  of   landscape  photo 

has  already  been  Btated  thai  the  collodion  film  is  ex- 
posed while  still  moist  with  adherent  nitrate  o 
solution;  and  this  method  is  especially  applicable  to 
the  taking  of  portraits,  where  it  is  desired  to  reduce 
the  time  of  exposure  to  a  minimum;  but  Cor  Ian 
purposes  it  is  by  no  means  so  imperatively  « 
to  curtail  the  time  of  exposure;  and  as  the  necessary 
apparatus  and  materials  for  sensitising  and  developing 
a  wet  plate  are  somewhat  cumbrous  tor  field-work,  it 
was  suggested  by  the  Abbe  Despratz  to  wash  off  the 
free  nitrate  from  the  surface,  and  allow  the  film  to  dry 
in  the  absence  of  light.  A  number  of  sensitive  plates 
can  be  prepared  by  this  method  in  anticipation  of  a 
journey.  This  is  called  the  'Dry  Collodion  Process.' 
A  plate  so  prepared  is  much  inferior  in  point  of  sensi- 
tiveness to  a  wet  plate,  and  this  arises  as  much  from 
an  altered  molecular  condition  of  the  iodide  of  silver 
as  from  the  absence  of  free  nitrate  of  silver.  The 
Abbe  Despratz  introduced  resin  into  his  collodion, 
with  the  view  of  keeping  the  pores  open.  The  pic- 
tures obtained  by  his  process  were,  however,  difficult 
to  develop  without  stains;  and  a  variety  of  agents 
have  since  been  used,  both  from  the  organic  and  inor- 
ganic kingdoms,  to  preserve  the  film  in  the  same  mole- 
cular condition  when  dry  as  when  wet.  Among  these 
may  he  mentioned  nitrate  of  magnesia,  honey,  oxy- 
mcl,  and  a  host  of  other  materials,  such  as  sugar, 
albumen,  infusion  of  malt,  and  lastly  tannin,  which 
last  preservative  agent  bids  fair  to  supersede  all  others. 

A  late  improvement  in  the  preparation  of  the  glass 
for  a  negative  consists  in  giving  it  a  thin  coat  of  albu- 
men on  the  side  which  is  to  receive  the  collodion. 
Glass  so  prepared  will  hold  the  collodion  film  secure 
against  all  liability  to  peel  off. 

The  practice  of  photography  in  the  present  day  is 
confined  almost  exclusively  to  the  Positive,  the  Neg- 
ative, and  the  Dry  Collodion  Processes.  In  the 
first)  the  object  is  to  obtain  in  the  camera  a  direct 
image,  which  is  to  he  viewed  by  reflected  light;  and 
as  it  is  desired  that  the  pictures  so  produced  should 
possess  pure  blacks  and  whites,  an  inorganic  (nitric) 
acid  is  used  in  the  bath,  and  the  developer — protosul- 
phate  of  iron — is  also  of  inorganic  origin,  these  being 
the  conditions  best  calculated  to  produce  a  deposit  of 
pure  white  metallic  silver.  In  the  second,  however, 
an  image  possessing  density  to  transmitted  light  is  re- 
quired; accordingly,  an  organic  (acetic)  acid  is  used 
both  in  the  bath  and  developer;  and  in  order  still  fur- 
ther to  insure  an  efficient  supply  of  organic  matter  to 
combine  with  the  silver  at  the  moment  of  its  reduc- 
tion, pyrogallic  acid  is  sometimes  exclusively  used. 
The  third  or  dry  process  is  distinguished  from  the  pre- 
ceding modifications  of  the  wet  process  by  the  com- 
plete removal  of  the  adherent  free  nitrate  of  silver,  the 
application  of  a  preservative  agent,  and  the  necessity 
for  adding  nitrate  of  silver  to  the  developer. 

It  will  be  desirable,  before  concluding  this  article, 
to  refer  to  some  of  the  various  applications  of  photo- 
graphy which  have  been  made  since  the  principles  of 
the  science  have  been  well  understood ;  and  the  article 
Sand  Blast  will  contain  an  account  of  the  furthei 
employment  of  photography  put  into  operation  while 
this  volume  is  preparing  for  the  press  (June,  1871). 

PHOTO-LlTHOGKAPHY  is  the  application  of  photo- 
graphy to  drawing  on  stone.  Many  efforts  have  been 
made  in  this  direction,  and  success  has  been  achieved 
in  the  production  of  excellent  line  prints;  but  the  rep- 
resentation of  objects  of  nature,  with  their  infinit* 

600 


PHOTOGRAPHY. 


gradation  of  lights  and  shades,  has  not  been  success- 
ful witli  this  class  of  processes,  The  method  known 
as  Osborne's  is  generally  regarded  as  that  nearest  per- 
fection, and  is  in  great  favour  for  map-printing,  copying 
Jine  engravings,  and  other  work  to  which  it  is  appli- 
cable. The  following  account  is  condensed  from  the 
description  by  the  inventor,  Mr.  G.  J.  W.  Osborne,  of 
Australia : 

Albumenised  paper,  coated  with  a  mixture  of  bi- 
chromate of  potash  and  gelatine,  prepared  and  dried 
in  the  dark,  is  exposed  to  the  light  under  a  negative, 
then  taken  to  a  dark  room  and  rolled  with  ordinary 
lithographic  ink.  The  ink  will  adhere  permanentby 
only  to  those  parts  that  have  been  affected  by  the 
light,  and  with  a  depth  proportionate  to  the  intensity 
of  the  light  on  the  various  parts.  The  sheet  is  then 
floated,  paper  side  downwards,  on  scalding  water.  The 
unaltered  gelatine  is  now  easily  removed,  by  light 
sponging,  and  with  it  comes  off  the  superfluous  ink. 
The  paper  is  then  dried,  laid  on  a  lithographic  stone, 
and  passed  under  a  roller.  The  impression  is  thus 
transferred  to  the  stone,  which  is  now  ready  for  treat- 
ment in  the  ordinary  way. 

Photo-Xylography,  the  application  of  photo- 
graphy to  wood-engraving.  One  process,  patented  by 
Mr  Newton,  consisted,  first,  in  rubbing  into  the  wood 
block  a  varnish,  composed  of  asphaltum,  ether,  and 
lamp-black,  to  saturate  the  pores.  Collodion  was 
then  poured  on  as  in  the  ordinary  Collodion  Process 
(q.  v.).  The  surface  was  then  sensitised,  and  exposed 
in  the  camera,  the  picture  being  developed  in  the  usual 
way.  But  the  desired  success  was  not  complete,  for 
the  thickness  of  the  united  film  was  found  to  inter- 
fere with  the  operations  of  the  engraver,  and  the  pro- 
cess, in  consequence,  did  not  receive  general  adoption. 
W.  Crookes,  F.R.S.,  subsequently  simplified  the 
method  of  producing  an  impression  on  wood  blocks, 
by  rubbing  them  over  with  a  mixture  of  oxalate  of 
silver  and  water,  and  exposing  under  a  negative.  The 
advantage  of  this  process  was,  that  it  did  not  require 
any  treatment  of  the  block  for  the  purpose  of  fixing 
after  exposure,  as  if  kept  from  the  continued  action 
of  light,  the  block  would  keep  long  enough  for  the 
engraver  to  work  out  the  details  with  his  tools.  It  is 
fair  to  assume,  notwithstanding  the  ingenuity  dis- 
played in  these  processes,  that  some  insuperable  objec- 
tion exists  to  both  of  them,  since  neither  has  been 
adopted  to  much  extent. 

Photo-Micrography  consists  in  the  enlargement 
of  microscopic  objects,  by  means  of  the  microscope, 
and  the  projection  of  the  enlarged  image  on  a  sensi- 
tive collodion  film.  The  manipulatory  details  are  the 
same  as  in  the  Collodion  Process  (q.  v.),  only  that,  on 
account  of  the  delicate  nature  of  the  markings  to  be 
rendered,  it  is  necessary  to  employ  a  collodion  yield- 
ing what  is  termed  a  structureless  film.  The  princi- 
ple upon  which  the  enlargement  is  effected  is  that  of 
the  conjugate  foci.  This  branch  of  microscopic  and 
photographic  science  has  proved  a  useful  aid  in  the 
study  of  the  sciences  of  Botany,  Physiology,  and  En- 
tomology, by  delineating,  with  unerring  accuracy, 
woody  fibre,  ducts,  starch  granules,  muscular  fibre, 
blood  discs,  nerve  papillae,  &c.  Among  the  numerous 
experimenters  attracted  by  this  interesting  study,  Dr 
Maddox  is  perhaps  the  only  one  who  has  attained  to 
any  renown;  and  by  him,  minute  animalcula,  all  but 
invisible  by  unassisted  vision,  have  been  magnified  to 
a  superficial  area  of  three  square  inches,  in  which  the 
most  delicate  details  have  been  faithfully  preserved. 
By  reversing  the  arrangement  necessary  for  these  en- 
largements of  microscopic  objects,  it  will  be  seen  that 
minute  photographs  of  engravings,  or  other  objects, 
may  be  produced  which  would  require  a  microscope 
for  their  inspection,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  in 
this  way  war  despatches  might  be  transmitted  in  the 
seiting  of  a  ring  or  a  breast-pin ;  and  this  is  really  by 
610 


no  means  so  difficult  to  accomplish  as  it  may  seem  at 
first  sight,  since  photographs  no  larger  than  a  pin's 
head  have  been  produced,  including  in  that  small  spcr* 
portraits  of  no  less  than  500  eminent  men. 

Celestial  Photography  comprehends  the  appli- 
cation of  photography  to  the  automatic  registration  of 

celestial  phenomena.  The  labourers  in  this  field  of 
research  have  been  numerous  both  in  Europe  and 
America.  By  far  the  most  successful  results  within 
the  past  few  years  have  been  achieved  by  Mr  L.  M. 
Rutherford,  of  New  York.  To  him  is  due  the  merit 
of  making  the  first  telescope  corrected  for  photographic 
purposes.  Previous  to  his  improvement  no  telescope 
was  capable  of  bringing  the  actinic  rays  from  celestial 
objects  to  a  perfect  focus  ;  and,  hence,  accurate  phcto- 
graphy  in  this  department  was  simply  impossible. 
But,  with  the  corrected  telescope,  the  record  of  the 
stars  has  been  carried  from  the  fourth  to  the  ninth 
magnitude  ;  and  the  inventor  has  had  the  satisfaction 
of  obtaining  in  one  night  many  plates  of  the  constella- 
tion of  the  Pleiades  more  rigidly  accurate  than  the 
map  of  the  same  group  upon  which  Bessel  worked  at 
intervals  during  thirteen  years.  All  who  are  ac- 
quainted with  the  interest  attaching  to  stellar  move- 
ments will  appreciate  the  immense  advance  thus  made 
in  practical  astronomy.  Henceforth  such  proof-sheets 
of  position,  furnished  at  various  times  by  the  stars 
themselves,  can  be  laid  together  after  the  lapse  of 
years  and  centuries,  and  the  stars  will  tell  their  own 
story  of  what  they  have  been  doing  in  the  intervals. 
The  surface  of  the  moon,  with  many  of  its  delicate 
markings,  has  been  faithfully  portrayed  by  the  same 
means,  and,  besides  stereographic  views,  photographs 
of  the  moon  are  now  to  be  obtained  as  large  as  24 
inches  in  diameter.  The  application  of  photography 
to  solar  observations  has  of  late  years  received  a  great 
impulse.  The  periodical  variations  in  the  prevalence 
of  solar  spots,  and  the  connection  between  these  varia- 
tions, and  those  observed  in  terrestrial  magnetism, 
have  operated  to  direct  much  attention  to  these  phe- 
nomena; and,  in  some  observatories,  photographs  of 
the  sun's  disc  are  made  at  regular  and  frequent  in- 
tervals, thus  accumulating  results  which  cannot  fail 
to  be  of  great  importance  in  the  study  of  the  sun's 
constitution  and  influences. 

Great  use  is  now  made  of  photography  during  solar 
eclipses.  No  expedition  for  eclipse  observations  is  now 
considered  complete  unless  accompanied  by  a  corps  of 
photographers,  for  the  perfect  establishment,  by  means 
of  accurately-timed  negatives,  of  the  instants  and 
points  of  contact.  By  this  means,  also,  interesting 
views  have  been  made  of  the  corona  and  the  rose- 
coloured  flames  attending  total  eclipses  of  the  sun. 

Photo-Galvanography,  a  method  of  producing 
from  a  photograph  an  electrotype  copper-plate  in  a 
state  fit  for  printing.  It  was  invented  by  Mr  Paul 
Pretsch,  of  Vienna,  and  is  dependent  on  the  property 
which  unaltered  gelatine  possesses  of  swelling  up  in 
water.  The  first  operation  consists  in  coating  a  glass 
with  a  solution  of  gelatine  and  bichromate  of  potash, 
and,  when  this  is  dry,  exposing  the  same  to  light  under 
a  negative.  In  accordance  with  the  above-named 
property  of  gelatine,  it  will  be  found,  on  applyn  g 
water  to  the  film,  that  the  portion  unacted  on  will 
swell  up,  while  those  parts  upon  which  the  actinic 
rays  have  exercised  their  full  influence  will  remain 
unchanged  by  the  water.  From  the  image  thus  ob- 
tained, a  gutta-percha  mould  is  prepared,  and  its  sur- 
face made  conducting  by  means  of  levigated  graphite 
or  bronze-powder.  Copper  is  then  deposited  thereon 
by  the  electrotype  process,  and  the  plate  thus  produced 
is  printed  from  in  the  ordinary  way. 

Photo-Glyphography  is  a  process,  invented  by 
Mr  Fox  Talbot,  for  etching  a  photograph  into  a  steel 
plate.  It  consists  in  coating  the-  plate  with  a  mixture 
of  bichromate  of  potash  and  gelatine,  and  exposing 


PHOTO-METER— PIIOT()-S(  Tl.nriiR. 


ninlcr  a  negative.  The  effecl  of  this  treatment  is  to 
render  the  gelatine  insoluble,  just  in  proportion  to  the 

intensity  of  the  light's  action,  alter  which  a  Bolntion 
of  pcrchloride  of  iron,  of  a  certain  definite  strength,  is 
poured  over  the  film,  which  Bolution  penetrates  those 
parts  unacted  on  by  light,  reaching  the  steel  plate, 
and  biting  itself  in,  but  is  repelled  by  that  portion  of 
the  gelatine  rendered  insoluble;  the  plate  being  thuB 
protected  from  the  action  <>t*  the  Bolvent. 

Photo-Relief  Pkintinc— In  1865,  Mr  Walter 
R.  Woodbury,  of  London,  published  a  process  which 
differs  essentially  from  all  the  foregoing  methods, and 
lias  accomplished  better  results  in  the  production  of 
pictures  from  nature.  The  printing-plate  is  not  pre- 
pared by  etching,  but  by  mechanical  pressure  from  a 
mould,  the  formation  of  which  is  thus  described!  A 
thin,  dry  sheet  of  bichromatised  gelatine  is  exposed 
under  the  negative  to  the  action  of  light.  After  the 
gelatine  has  thus  been  changed,  as  described  in  several 
preceding  articles,  the  sleet  is  washed  to  remove  the 
soluble  parts.  The  insoluble  gelatine  remains  in  the 
form  of  si  'relief.'  When  dry,  this  is  placed  upon  a 
steel  plate  in  a  hydraulic  press,  a  sheet  of  lead  is  laid 
Upon  it,  and  the  two  arc  brought  together  by  a  pressure 
of  about  four  hundred  tons.  The  mould  thus  formed  by 
the  pressure  of  the  relief  into  the  lead  is  laid  flat  on 
another  press,  and  upon  the  centre  of  it  is  poured,  in 
a  little  pool,  a  warm  solution  of  gelatine  darkened 
with  pigment  of  any  desired  colour.  The  paper  is  laid 
upon  the  solution,  the  press  is  brought  down,  and 
the  mixture  oozes  outwards  in  all  directions,  fills  the 
hollows  in  the  mould,  and  attaches  itself  to  the  paper. 
In  a  few  moments  the  proof  is  removed  from  the 
mould,  immersed  in  an  alum  solution  which  renders  it 
insoluble  even  in  boiling  water,  then  dried  and  flat- 
tened, ami  the  work  is  done.  It  is  difficult  to  con- 
ceive that  anything  in  the  shape  of  a  print  can  ever 
surpass  sonic  of  these  pictures  in  the  exquisite  modu- 
lation of  all  the  parts,  including  the  difficult  gradation 
of  the  middle  tints.  Rut  we  may  look  for  improve- 
ment in  facility  and  cheapness  of  production  in  small 
as  well  as  in  large  quantities.  This  may  or  may  not 
be  possible  by  Woodbury's  process;  hut  everything  is 
to  be  hoped  from  the  inventive  genius  of  many  who 
are  now  pushing  forward  in  this  direction  of  art. 

The  reader  is  referred,  for  extended  information,  to 
Dr  Hermann  Vbgel's  (of  Rerlin)  Handbook  of  the  Prac- 
tice and  Art  of  Photography,  Philada.,  1871  ;  The  Pho- 
tographic News,  Lond.,  and  the  Philada.  Photographer. 

PHOTO'METER  (Gr.  phos,  light ;  metron,  mea- 
sure), an  instrument  for  measuring  the  intensity 
of  light.  The  first  who  occupied  himself  in  scienti- 
fically determining  the  intensity  of  light  was 
Bouguer  ;  but  his  investigations  were  far  surpassed 
by  those  of  Lambert,  about  1760.  The  latter  indi- 
cated an  exceedingly  simple  and  effective  kind  of 
photometer,  which  was  afterwards  constructed  by 
Rumford.  The  instrument  consists  of  a  screen  of 
thin  paper  placed  vertically,  and  behind  it,  at  the 
distance  of  a  few  inches,  is  placed  a  cylindrical  stick, 
or  any  other  similar  body.  When  the  intensity  of 
light  from  two  flames  is  to  be  compared,  they  are 
placed  behind  this  stick  in  such  a  way  that  each 
casts  a  separate  shadow  of  the  stick  upon  the  paper 
ecreen.  The  observer  stands  in  front  of  the  screen, 
and  directs  the  removal  of  the  two  lights  either  to 
or  from  the  stick,  till  the  shadows  which  are  cast 
upon  the  screen  are  equally  obscure.  The  distance 
of  each  light  from  the  shadow  it  casts  on  the  screen 
is  then  measured ;  and  the  squares  of  these  dis- 
tances give  the  relative  intensities  of  the  two 
lights.  This  photometer  may  also  be  modified  by 
employing,  instead  of  a  cylindrical  stick,  a  second 
screen  parallel  to  the  first,  but  of  greater  thickness, 
and  having  an  aperture  cut  in  its  centre.  The  two 
lights  being  then  placed  behind  the  second  screen, 


ami  considerably  apart,  each  cacti  a  separate  illu- 
mination through  the  aperture  in  the  second  upon 
the  first  Screen,  and  the  observer  in  front  of  the 
latter  changes  their  relative  distances  till  the  illu- 
minations appear  to  the  eye  of  equal  intensity.  The 
calculation  is  the  same  as  before.  There  are 
other  classes  of  photometers,  which,  however,  do 
not  deserve  the  name,  as  they  depend  upon  the 
heating  and  chemical  powers  which  generally 
accompany  light,  and  not  upon  the  intensity  oi 
its  action  on  the  organs  of  vision.  Thus,  Leslie*! 
instrument  is  nothing  more  than  a  differential 
thermometer,  while  Saussure's  and  Landriani't) 
depend  upon  the  chemical  effects  of  light.  Lam- 
padius,  instead  of  calculating  the  intensities  from 
the  different  distances  of  the  lights  from  the  screen, 
used  plates  of  horn,  or  other  semi-opaque  material, 
of  various  thicknesses,  and  deduced  his  results  from 
the  comparative  thickness  of  the  two  plates.  The 
results  attained  by  the  aid  of  the  photometer, 
owing  to  the  imperfection  of  the  instrument,  are 
to  be  relied  upon  only  within  certain  limits.  Some 
of  them  are  as  follows :  the  light  of  the  sun  is 
94,500  times  greater  than  that  of  the  moon ;  and 
an  ordinary  Argand  lamp,  with  cylindrical  wick, 
is  equal  to  nine  newly-trimmed  candles. 

PIIOTO-SCU'LPTURE,  a  new  art,  invented, 
in  the  year  1865,  by  M.  Willeme,  a  French- 
man. It  has  been  introduced  into  Great  Britain, 
and  is  successfully  practised  by  M.  Claudet  in 
London,  and  a  society  has  been  formed  for  carrying 
it  out  in  Paris.  It  consists  in  taking  likenesses  in 
the  form  of  statuettes  and  medallions  by  the  aid  of 
photography,  and  a  very  ingenious  series  of  acces- 
sory contrivances.  A  building  specially  adapted 
for  the  purpose  is  absolutely  necessary ;  this  con- 
sists of  a  circular  room,  40  feet  in  diameter,  and 
surmounted  by  a  glass  cupola  22  feet  high,  the 
supporting  wall  being  about  8  feet  in  height,  and 
pierced  with  24  equidistant  holes  about  4  feet  from 
the  floor ;  these  are  only  sufficiently  large  to  permit 
the  action  of  an  ordinary  camera  lens  through  each 
one.  Outside  the  surrounding  wall  of  this  circidar 
chamber  is  a  covered  dark  passage,  in  which  twenty- 
four  cameras  are  placed  with  their  lenses  adjusted 


Fig.  1. 


to  the  holes  in  the  wall.  The  person  whose  bke- 
ness  is  to  be  taken  stands  in  the  centre  under  the 
glass  dome,  and  at  a  given  signal  the  cameras  are 
simultaneously  brought  into  action,  and  a  photo- 
graph is  taken.  The  whole  of  this  arrangement 
will  be  fully  understood  by  reference  to  fig.  1. 

The     twenty-four     photographs     are     carefuJJy 
numbered,  so  that  no  error  can  take  places  tne 


PHOTO-ZINCOGRAPHY— PHRENOLOGY. 


subsequent  operation,  which  is  performed  in  another 
chamber :  any  room  which  can  be  darkened  will  do. 
It  consists  in  placing  them  in  consecutive  order  on  a 


Fig.  2. 

vertical  wheel,  which  is  so  arranged  that  at  the  will 
of  the  operator  each  one  can  be  brought  before  the 
lens  of  a  magic  lantern,  and  its  image  projected  on  a 

3st  Phrase. 


transparent  screen,  as  in  fig.  2.  The  modelling  clay 
is  so  placed,  rather  behind  the  screen,  that  the  artist 
can  use  a  pantograph,  which  has  its  reducing  point 
armed  with  a  moulding  or  cutting  tool  instead  of  a 
mere  marker ;  and  as  the  longer  arm  of  the  instru- 
ment describes  the  outline  of  the  projected  figures 
obtained  from  the  photographs,  the  shorter  one  is 
reproducing  on  a  smaller  scale  the  figure  in  the  clay. 
The  statuette  thus  produced  requires  retouching 
with  the  hand  to  remove  the  sharp  and  rugged 
lines  of  the  cutting-tools,  and  of  course  much 
depends  upon  artistic  skill  in  doing  this.  In  the 
skilled  hands  which  have  yet  had  to  do  with  its 
operations,  the  arrangement  has  had  so  marked  a 
success  as  to  promise  to  produce  in  time  the  most 
satisfactory  results. 

PHOTO-ZINCOGRAPHY.  See  Photographic 
Engraving. 

PHRAGMI'TES.    See  Reed. 

PHRASE,  the  name  given,  in  Music,  to  the 
simple  motives  containing  in  themselves  no  satis- 
factory musical  idea,  which  enter  into  the  composi- 
tion of  every  melody  containing  a  perfect  musical 


idea,  e.  g.. 


=«32 


m 


The  phraa 


most  usually  consists  of  two  measures;  in  com- 
pound time,  it  may  be  comprised  in  one  measure, 
and  an  extended  phrase  is  one  which  contains  three 
measures.  In  the  more  simple  and  regular  forma 
of  musical  composition,  two  phrases  unite  to  form 
a  section  ending  in  a  cadence ;  and  a  perfect  musical 
idea  is  formed  of  two  such  sections  terminating,  the 
first  with  the  dominant,  the  second  with  the  tonio 
harmony. 

2d  Phrase. 


Dominant 

Section 


I 


4S|>.  ,  J    ]  ^4-,-l u- 


1st  Phrase. 


2d  Phrase. 


Tonie 

Section. 


— -^fffflf=f-f*-*=j=y 


^Pfc 


LZIZ^p. 


^ 


3 


i 


Si 


-F-- 


A  little  confusion  has  arisen  from  the  use,  by 
seme  musical  writers,  of  the  word  phrase  for  what 
is  here  called  a  section. 

PHRENI'TIS.    See  Meningitis. 

PHRENO'LOGY  is  a  Greek  compound  signify- 
ing a  discourse  on  the  mind,  but  is  used  in  a  more 
limited  sense  to  mean  a  theory  of  mental  philo- 
sophy founded  on  the  observation  and  discovery  of 
the  functions  of  the  brain,  in  so  far  as  it  is  con- 
cerned in  intellectual  and  emotional  phenomena. 
Phrenology  takes  into  view  likewise  the  influence  of 
all  other  parts  of  the  body,  and  of  external  agents 
affecting  these,  upon  the  brain. 
612 


The  founder  of  this  system  was  Dr  Franz  Joseph 
Gall  (q.  v.),  who  died  in  1828.  In  Britain,  it  hag 
been  amply  expounded  by  his  pupil  Dr  Spurzheim 
(q.  v.),  by  George  and  Andrew  Combe  (q.  v.),  by  Dr 
Elliotson  of  London,  and  others.  In  America,  Dr 
Charles  Caldwell  has  been  its  ablest  advocate.  Gall's 
method  of  investigating  the  functions  of  the  brain  is 
that  which,  applied  to  other  organs,  has  led  to  the 
discovery  of  their  functions,  but  which  had  never 
before  been  systematically  applied  to  the  brain. 
When  a  physiologist  wished  to  ascertain  the  func- 
tion of  any  part  of  the  body,  he  rlid  not  rest  satisfied 
with  examining  its  structure,  and  speculating  on 
the  purposes  for  which  that  structure  seemed  to  be 


PHRENOLOGY. 


adapted.      He    observed    what    kind    of    function 
appeared  during  life  aa  the  invariable  accompani- 
ment of  the  presence  and  action  of  that  pai 
part;  and,  by  repeated  and  careful  observation,  lie 

succeeded  in  discovering  the  function.  The 
knowledge  thus  obtained  was  afterwards  verified 
and  completed  by  examination  of  the  structure,  and 

ition  of  the  effects  of  its  injury  or  di 
To  the  adoption  of  this  principle  in  studying  the 
functions  of  the  brain,  Gall  was  led  by  observing 
at  school  the  concomitance  of  a  quick  and  retentive 
memory  of  words  with  a  peculiar  appearance  of 
the  eye,  which  lie  afterwards  found  to  be  caused 
by  a  large  development  of  a  particular  part  of  the 
braii1..  At  school,  at  college,  and  in  many  other 
places,  and  under  the  most  different  circumstances, 
the  same  concomitance  of  talent  with  development 
of  brain  came  under  his  notice  so  frequently,  as  to 
Suggest  to  him  the  probability  that  there  might  be 
discovered  by  the  same  method  a  connection  of 
other  talents  and  dispositions  with  other  portions 
of  the  brain.  It  was  by  the  diligent  application 
of  the  method  of  inquiry  which  accident  had  thus 
suggested  to  him,  and  not,  as  some  suppose,  by 
the  exercise  of  his  imagination,  that  Dr  Gall  was  at 
last  led  to  conclude,  first,  that  the  brain  is  an 
aggregate  of  many  different  parts,  each  serving  for 
the  manifestation  of  a  particular  mental  faculty ; 
and,  secondly,  that,  all  other  conditions  being  equal, 
the  size  of  each  of  these  cerebral  organs  is  a  measure 
of  the  power  of  its  function.  These  two  proposi- 
tions constitute  the  distinctive  or  fundamental 
principles  of  Phrenology.  The  first  of  them,  how- 
ever, is  not  new.  The  impossibility  of  reconciling 
actual  phenomena  with  the  notion  of  a  single  organ 
of  the  mind  has,  for  many  centuries,  suggested 
the  probability  of  a  plurality  of  organs  in  the  brain. 
But  the  phrenologists  hold  that  Dr  Gall  was  the 
first  to  demonstrate  the  fact,  and  to  make  any 
considerable  progress  in  determining  with  what 
parts  of  the  brain  the  various  intellectual  and  emo- 
tional faculties  and  susceptibilities  are  connected. 

That  man,  in  his  present  state,  cannot  think, 
will,  or  feel  without  the  intervention  of  the  brain,  is 
generally  admitted  by  physiologists,  and  appears 
from  even  the  fact  that,  by  pressure  applied  to'  it, 
consciousness  is  at  once  suspended.  That  it  is  not 
a  single  organ  is  d  priori  probable  from  such  con- 
siderations as  these :  1.  It  is  a  law  in  physiology 
that  different  functions  are  never  performed  by  the 
same  organ.  The  stomach,  liver,  heart,  eyes,  ears, 
have  each  a  separate  duty.  Different  nerves  are 
necessary  to  motion  and  feeling,  and  there  is  no 
example  of  confusion  amongst  them.  2.  The  mental 
powers  do  not  all  come  at  once,  as  they  would  were 
the  brain  one  orgau.  They  appear  successively,  and 
the  brain  undergoes  a  corresponding  change.  3. 
Genius  varies  in  different  individuals :  one  has  a 
turn,  as  it  is  called,  for  one  thing,  and  another  for 
something  different.  4.  Dreaming  is  explained  by 
the  doctrine  of  distinct  organs  which  can  act  or 
rest  alone.  5.  Partial  insanity,  or  madness  on  one 
point  with  sanity  on  every  other,  similarly  points 
to  a  pliirality  of  cerebral  organs.  G.  Partial  injuries 
of  the  brain,  affecting  the  mental  manifestations  of 
the  injured  parts,  but  leaving  the  other  faculties 
sound,  tend  to  the  same  conclusion.  7.  There 
could  be  no  such  state  of  mind  as  the  familiar  one 
wb»j"e  our  feelings  contend  with  each  other,  if  the 
brain  were  one  organ. 

These  are  grounds  for  presuming  that  the  brain 
is  not  single  but  a  cluster  of  organs,  or  at  least  that 
it  is  capable  of  acting  in  parts  as  well  as  in  whole. 
For  this  conclusion  the  phrenologists  consider  that 
they  have  found  satisfactory  proofs  in  numerous 
observations,  shewing  that  particular  manifestations 
345 


of  mind  are  proportioned,  in  intensity  and  frequency 
of  recurrence,  to  the  size  or  expansion  oi  p  rticulai 
parte  of  the  brain-  this  law  being  subject  to  mod* 
fication  in  th<  thr  brain,  as  in  that  of  the 

muscles  and  other  parts  of  the  body,  by  dih 
of  health,  qualitj  4c. 

If  size  of  organ,  ceeteria  paribtu,  is  the  measure  of 
the  vigour  of  function,  it  is  of  great  moment  in 
what  region  of  the  brain  the  organs  ai 
whether  in  the  animal,  moral,  or  intellectual  On 
this  preponderance  depends  the  character.  Two 
brains  may  be  exactly  alike  in  size  generally,  yet 
the  characters  may  be  perfect  contrasts  to  each  other. 

It  is  held  by  phrenologists — 1.  That  by  accurate 
observation  of  human  actions,  it  is  possible  to  dis- 
cover the  strength  of  the  dispositions  and  intellectual 
powers  of  men;  2.  That  the  form  of  the  brain  can,  in 
normal  subjects  not  beyond  middle  age,  be 
tained  with  sufficient  accuracy  from  the  external 
form  of  the  head — the  brain,  though  the  softer 
substance,  being  what  determines  the  shape  of  tho 
skull ;  3.  That  the  organs  or  parts  of  which  the 
brain  is  composed  appear  on  its  surface  in  folds 
or  convolutions,  which  have  a  well-ascertained 
fibrous  connection  with  the  medulla  oblongata, 
which  unites  the  brain  to  the  spinal  cord ;  4.  That 
the  brain  being  divided  into  two  equal  parts  called 
hemispheres,  in  each  of  which  the  same  organ  occurs, 
all  the  organs  are  double,  like  the  ears  and  eyes. 
See  Brain.  But  when  the  term  organ  is  used, 
both  organs  are  meant. 

It  is  true  that  where  strength  is  most  needful,  the 
skull  is  thicker  than  at  other  places  ;  but  this  is  not 
overlooked  by  phrenologists,  nor  do  they  fail  to 
warn  observers  against  mistaking  for  signs  of  cere- 
bral development  the  bony  processes  and  ridges 
which  serve  for  the  attachment  of  muscles  to  the 
skull.  See  Skull.  They  recognise  also,  as  we 
shall  see,  the  uncertainty  often  occasioned  by  the 
frontal  sinus. 

Besides  the  brain  proper,  there  is  a  smaller  brain, 
lying  below  the  hinder  part  of  the  main  brain, 
and  called  the  cerebellum. 

The  brain  is  divided  into  the  anterior,  middle, 
and  posterior  lobes.  The  anterior  lobe  contains  the 
organs  of  the  intellectual  faculties ;  the  posterior 
lobe  and  lower  range  of  the  middle  one  are  the 
regions  of  the  animal  propensities  ;  while  the  moral 
sentiments  are  stated  to  have  their  organs  developed 
on  the  top  or  coronal  region  of  the  head. 

Phrenologists  distinguish  between  power  and 
activity  in  the  mental  faculties.  Power,  in  whatever 
degree  possessed,  is  capability  of  feeling,  perceiving, 
or  thinking;  while  activity  is  readiness  and  quick- 
ness in  the  exercise  of  power. 

The  powers  of  mind,  as  manifested  by  the  organs, 
are  called  faculties.  A  faculty  may  be  defined  to  be 
a  particular  power  of  thinking  or  feeling.  A  faculty 
is  regarded  as  elementary  or  primary — 1.  When  it 
exists  in  one  kind  of  animal,  and  not  in  another; 
2.  When  it  varies  in  the  two  sexes  of  the  same 
species ;  3.  When  it  is  not  in  proportion  to  the 
other  faculties  of  the  same  individual ;  4.  When 
it  appears  earlier  or  later  in  life  than  the  other 
faculties ;    5.  When  it  may  act  or  repose   singly ; 

6.  When  it  is  propagated  from  parent  to  child  ;  and 

7.  When  it  may  singly  preserve  its  soundness,  or 
singly  become  deranged  or  extinct. 

The  faculties  are  usually  divided  by  phrenolo- 
gists into  two  orders — Feelings  and  Intellect,  or 
Affective  and  Intellectual  Faculties.  The 
Feelings  are  divided  into  two  genera — the  Propeni 
sit irs  and  the  Sentiments;  while  the  Intellectual 
embrace  the  Perceptive  or  Knowing,  and  the  Reflective 
Faculties.     This  classification,  however,  is  avowedly 

imperfect. 

1  613 


PHRENOLOGY. 


The  following  is  a  representation  of  the  human 
head  in  four  points  of  view,  shewing  the  positions 
of  the  cerehral  organs,  according  to  Mr  Combe  : 


AFFECTIVE. 


I.  —  Propensities. 

1.  Amativeness. 

2.  Pbiloprogenitiveness. 

3.  Inhabitiveness   or  Con- 

centrativeness. 

4.  Adhesiveness. 

5.  Combativeness. 

6.  Destructiveness. 
[Alimentiveness.] 
[Love  of  Life.] 

7.  Secretiveness. 

8.  Acquisitiveness. 

9.  Constructiveness. 


II. — Sentiments. 

10.  Self-esteem. 

11.  Love  of  Approbation. 

12.  Cautiousneea. 

13.  Benevolence. 

14.  Veneration. 

15.  Firmness. 

16.  Conscientiousness. 

17.  Hope. 

18.  Wonder. 

19.  Ideality. 

20.  Wit,  or  Ludicrousness. 

21.  Imitation. 


INTELLECTUAL. 


I. — Perceptive. 

22.  Individuality. 

23.  Form. 

24.  Size. 

25.  Weight. 

26.  Colouring. 

27.  Locality. 

28.  Number. 


29.  Order. 

30.  Eventuality. 

31.  Time. 

32.  Tune. 

33.  Language. 

II.— Reflective. 
84.  Comparison. 
35.  Causality. 


1.  Amativeness,  or  sexual  love,  is  believed  to  have 
for  its  organ  the  cerebellum,  or  at  least  a  portion  of 
it.  As  the  basis  of  domestic  life,  this  faculty  is  of 
great  importance,  and  its  regulation  has  ever  been 
one  of  the  prime  objects  of  moralists  and  legislators. 

2.  Philoprogeni/iveness,  or  love,  of  offspring,  is  gener- 
ally strongest  in  the  female.  Its  organ  is  one  of 
the  easiest  to  distinguish  in  the  human  head.  Those 
who  are  flat  and  perpendicular  there,  instead  of 
being  delighted,  are  annoyed  by  children.  The 
feeling  is  said  to  give  a  tender  sympathy  with  weak- 
ness and  helplessness  in  general.  The  most  savage 
races  must  have  affection  for  their  young,  or  they 
would  become  extinct.  The  organ,  like  the  other 
cerebral  parts,  may  become  diseased ;  and  insanity 
on  the  subject  of  children  often  occurs. 

3.  Inhabitiveness  (called  by  Mr  Combe  Concert- 
trativeness)  has  its  organ  immediately  above  the 
preceding.  Dr  Gall  did  not  discover  its  function ; 
and  Dr  Spurzheim,  observing  it  large  in  persons 
attached  to  their  native  place,  or  any  place  in 
which  they  had  long  dwelt,  called  it  Inhabitiveness. 
Mr  Combe  thought  it  has  a  more  extended  sphere 

614  r 


of  action.  He  observed  it  large  in  those  who  can 
detain  continuously  their  feelings  and  ideas  in  their 
minds  ;  while  the  feelings  and  ideas  of  others  pass 
away  like  the  images  in  a  mirror,  so  that  they  are 
incapable  of  taking  systematic  views  of  a  subject, 
or  concentrating  their  powers  to  bear  on  one  point. 
The  organ  is  stated  as  only  probable,  till  further 
facts  are  obtained. 

4.  Adhesiveness. — The  organ  of  this  feeling  was 
discovered  by  Gall,  from  being  found  very  large  in 
a  lady  remarkable  for  the  warmth  and  steadiness  of 
her  friendships.  It  attaches  men  and  gregarious 
animals  to  each  other,  and  is  the  foundation  of  that 
pleasure  which  mankind  feel  in  bestowing  and 
receiving  friendship,  and  in  associating  with  each 
other.  Acting  with  Amativeness,  it  gives  constancy 
and  duration  to  the  attachment  of  the  married. 
Generally  speaking,  Adhesiveness  is  strongest  and 
its  organ  largest  in  woman. 

5.  Combativeness. — Dr  Gall  discovered  the  organ 
of  this  propensity  by  a  vast  number  of  observations 
on  the  heads  of  persons  fond  of  fighting.  Dr 
Spurzheim  extended  its  function  to  contention  in 
general,  whether  physical  or  moral.  Those  deficient 
in  it  shew  that  over-gentle  and  indolent  character 
which  yields  to  aggression,  is  easily  repelled 
by  the  appearance  of  difficulty  and  trouble,  and 
naturally  seeks  the  shades  and  eddy-corners  of 
life, 

6.  Destructiveness. — The  propensity  to  destroy  is 
abundantly  manifested  by  man  and  carnivorous 
animals,  and  when  too  strong  or  ill-regulated  is 
the  source  of  cruelty  and  wanton  mischief.  As 
a  defensive  power,  it  is  of  high  utility.  Anger, 
resentment,  and  indignation  spring  from  it.  A 
small  endowment  is  one  of  the  elements  of  a  '  soft ' 
character ;  while  persons  who  have  much  of  it  are 
generally  marked  by  an  energetic,  and  probably 
fierce  and  passionate  character. 

Alimentiveness  and  Love  of  Life. — Some  of  the 
recent  phrenological  works  treat  in  this  part  of  the 
order  of  the  faculties,  of  a  faculty  of  Alimentiveness, 
or  the  propensity  to  eat  and  drink,  and  also  of 
another  which  follows — viz.,  Love  of  Life.  The 
first  being  represented  as  no  more  than  probable, 
and  the  second  as  only  conjectural,  they  have  no 
number  allotted  to  them  on  the  bust.  The  place 
assigned  to  Alimentiveness  is  marked  by  a  cross  on 
the  side-view  of  the  bust.  Mr  Combe  suggests  that 
the  organ  of  the  Love  of  Life  is  probably  a  con- 
volution at  the  base  of  the  middle  lobe  of  the  brain, 
the  size  of  which  cannot  be  ascertained  during  life. 

7.  Secretiveness  is  the  propensity  to  conceal,  which 
in  excess  assumes  the  form  of  cunning.  It  helps 
animals  both  to  avoid  and  to  prey  upon  each  other. 
In  abuse,  it  leads  to  lying,  hypocrisy,  and  fraud, 
and  with  Acquisitiveness  disposes  to  theft  and 
swindling.  The  organ  is  subject  to  disease,  and 
cunning  madmen  are  difficult  to  deal  with.  Disease 
here  often  leads  to  belief  in  plots  and  conspiracies 
formed  against  the  patient. 

8.  Acquisitiveness. — The  existence  of  a  cerebral 
organ  for  the  desire  of  property  is  held  by  phreno- 
logists to  prove  that  this  is  not,  as  many  have 
thought,  a  derived  or  secondary  tendency.  It  ia 
what  Lord  Kames  calls  the  '  hoarding  appetite.' 
This  explains  the  miser's  desire  to  accumulate 
money,  without  regard  to  its  use  in  the  purchase  of 
other  enjoyment.  When  the  organ  is  diseased, 
persons  in  easy  circumstances  are  sometimes  prone 
to  pilfer  everything  of  value,  and  often  of  no  value, 
which  comes  in  their  way. 

9.  Constructiveness  is  the  impulse  to  fashion  and 
construct  by  changing  the  forms  of  matter.  Many 
of  the  inferior  animals  possess  it,  as  the  beaver, 
bee,  and  birds.     Physical  nature  consists  of  raw 


PIITiKNOLOGY. 


materials    which     Oonstruetiveness    prompts    and 
enables  man  to  adapt  to  his  purposes. 

1<>.  t  ia    the  source   of  that    self-com- 

placency which  enhances  the  pleasures  of  life,  gives 
the  individual  confidence  in  liia  own  powers,  and 
enables  him  to  apply  them  to  the  best  advantage. 
It  is  sometimes  called  proper  pride,  or  self-p 
in  which  form  it  aids  the  nmral  sentiments  in 
resisting  temptations  to  meanness  and  vice.  Its 
deficiency  renders  a  man  too  humble,  and  the  world 
wke  him  at  his  word,  and  push  him  aside.  Its 
excess  produces  arrogance,  Belnshness,  disobedience, 
and  tyranny.  Self-esteem  becomes  insane  perhaps 
more  frequently  than  any  other  faculty,  and  then 
shews  itself  in  extravagant  notions  of  self-import- 
ance. Such  maniacs  fancy  themselves  kings, 
emperors,  and  even  the  Supreme  Being.  The  organ 
is  generally  larger  in  men  than  in  women ;  and 
more  men  are  insane  from  pride  than  women. 

11.  Love  of  Approbation  is  the  desire  of  the  good 
opinion,  admiration,  and  praise  of  others.  It  is  an 
excellent  guard  upon  morals  as  well  as  manners. 
The  loss  of  character,  to  those  largely  endowed 
with  it,  is  worse  than  death.  If  the  moral  senti- 
ments be  strong,  the  desire  will  be  for  honest 
fame  ;  but  in  meaner  characters,  the  love  of  glory 
is  a  passion  that  has  deluged  the  world  with  blood 
in  all  ages.  Shamelessness  is  the  effect  of  its 
deficiency,  often  observed  in  criminals.  The  organ 
oftener  becomes  diseased  in  women  than  in  men,  as 
in  women  it  is  more  active  than  in  the  other  sex 
generally. 

12.  Cautiousness. — The  organ  of  this  faculty  is 
found  large  in  persons  much  troubled  with  fears, 
hesitations,  and  doubts.  Its  normal  character  is 
well  expressed  by  its  name.  When  diseased,  as 
it  often  ia,  the  organ  produces  causeless  dread  of 
evil,  despondency,  and  often  suicide. 

13.  Benevolence  is  the  desire  to  increase  the  happi- 
ness and  lessen  the  misery  of  others.  When  strong, 
it  prompts  to  active,  laborious,  and  continued 
exertions,  and,  unless  Accpusitiveness  be  powerful, 
to  liberal  giving  to  promote  its  favourite  object. 
Unregulated  by  Conscientiousness  and  Intellect, 
Benevolence  degenerates  into  profusion  and  facdity. 
It  often  coexists  with  Destructiveness  in  great  force  ; 
as  it  did  in  Burns,  whose  poem  on  a  Wounded 
Hare  expresses  both  feelings  highly  excited. 

14.  Veneration  ha3  for  its  object  whoever  and 
whatever  is  deemed  venerable  by  the  individual.  One 
man  venerates  what  another  treats  with  indifference, 
because  his  understanding  leads  him  to  consider 
that  particular  object  as  venerable,  while  his  neigh- 
bour deems  it  otherwise.  But  any  man  with  a  large 
endowment  of  the  organ  will  have  a  tendency  to 
consider  others  as  superior  to  himself.  Venera- 
tion is'  the  basis  of  loyalty,  and,  having  the  Deity 
for  its  highest  object,  forms  an  element  in  religious 
feeling.  So  liable  is  its  organ  to  disease,  that  high 
devotional  excitement  is  one  of  the  most  common 
forms  of  insauitj\ 

15.  Firmness  is  the  source  of  fortitude,  constancy, 
perseverance,  and  determination ;  when  too  powerful, 
it  produces  obstinacy,  stubbornness,  and  infatuation. 
The  want  of  it  is  a  great  defect  in  character. 
The  English  soldier  is  more  persistent  than  the 
French,  although  in  courage  and  spirit  they  are 
equal. 

16.  Conscientiousness  gives  the  love  of  justice,  but 
Intellect  is  necessary  to  shew  on  which  side  justice 
lies.  The  judge  must  hear  both  sides  before 
deciding,  and  his  very  wish  to  be  just  will  ^.compt 
him  to  do  so.  Conscientiousness  not  only  curbs 
our  faculties,  when  too  powerful,  but  stimulates 
those  that  are  too  weak,  and  incites  us  to  duty 
iven  against  strong  inclinations.     The  existence  of 


Conscientiousness  as  an  independent  element  ii.  the 
human  constitution,  explains  some  apparent  in 
tencies  in  human  oondoct— that  a  man,  for  in 

is   kind,  forgiving,  even    devout,    and  yet   not  just 

The  organ  is  commonly  larger  in  Europeans  than  in 

:s  and  Africans  ;  ■  ficieni 

in  the  savage  brain.      When   it  is  diseased,   the 

insanity  consists  in  morbid  self-reproach,  belief  in 
imaginary  debts,  and  the  like. 

17.  Hope  was  regarded  as  a  primary  faculty  by 
Spurzheim,  but  was  never  admitted  by  Gall,  who 
considered   it  as  a  function  of  every  faculty  that 

Dr  Spurzheim  answered,  that  wc  desire 
much  of  which  we  have  no  hope.  It  produces  gaiety 
and  cheerfulness,  looks  on  the  sunny  side  of  every- 
thing, and  paints  the  future  with  bright  colours. 
When  not  well  regulated,  Hope  leads  to  rash  specu- 
lation, and,  in  combination  with  Acquisitiveness,  to 
gambling,  both  at  the  gaming-table  and  in  the 
counting-house.  It  tends  to  make  the  individual 
credulous  of  promised  good,  and  often  indolent. 

18.  Wonder. — Dr  Gall  found  the  organ  of  this 
faculty  large  in  seers  of  visions  and  dreamers  of 
dreams,  and  in  those  who  love  to  dwell  on  the 
marvellous,  and  easily  believe  in  it.  Persons  who 
have  it  powerful  are  fond  of  news,  especially  if 
striking  and  wonderful,  and  are  always  expressing 
astonishment;  their  reading  i3  much  in  the  region 
of  the  marvellous,  tales  of  wonder,  of  enchanters, 
ghosts,  and  witches.  When  the  sentiment  is  exct  s- 
sive  or  diseased,  it  produces  that  peculiar  fanaticism 
which  attempts  miracles,  and  (with  Language  active, 
speaks  in  unknown  tongues. 

19.  Ideality. — The  organ  of  this  faculty  was  ob- 
served by  Dr  Gall  to  be  prominent  in  the  busts  and 
portraits  of  deceased,  and  in  the  heads  of  a  great 
number  of  living,  poets.  This  confirmed  to  him 
the  old  classical  adage,  that  the  poet  is  born,  not 
made.  He  called  it  the  organ  of  Poetry.  The  name 
of  legality  was  given  to  it  by  Dr  Spurzheim.  This 
faculty  is  said  to  delight  in  the  perfect,  the  exquisite, 
the  beau-ideal,  the  beautiful  and  sublime.  The 
organ  is  usually  small  in  criminals  and  other  coarse 
and  brutal  characters,  for  it  is  essential  to  refinement. 
It  prompts  to  elegance  and  ornament  in  dress  and 
furniture,  and  gives  a  taste  for  poetry,  painting, 
statuary,  and  architecture.  A  point  of  interroga- 
tion is  placed  on  the  bust  on  the  back  part  of  the 
region  of  this  organ,  conjectured  to  be  a  different 
organ,  but  one  allied  to  Ideality.  The  existence 
of  the  facidty  of  Ideality  is  held  by  phrenologists  to 
prove  that  the  sentiment  of  beauty  is  an  original 
emotion  of  the  mind,  and  to  settle  the  controversy 
on  that  subject.     See  Esthetics. 

20.  Wit,  or  the  Sentiment  of  the  Ludicrous. — The 
phrenological  writers  have  discussed  at  great  length, 
and  with  not  a  little  controversy,  the  metaphysical 
nature  or  analysis  of  this  faculty.  We  need  not 
follow  them  into  this  inquiry,  as  most  of  them  are 
agreed  that  by  means  of  it  we  feel  and  enjoy  tho 
ludicrous. 

21.  Imitation. — Dr  Gall  found  the  prominence  of 
this  organ  accompanied  by  instinctive,  and  often 
irrepressible  mimicry.  The  tendency  to  imitate 
is  evidently  innate;  from  the  earliest  years,  it  makes 
the  young  follow  the  customs  and  the  manner  of 
speech  of  those  around  them,  and  so  preserves  a 
convenient  uniformity  in  the  manners  and  externals 
of  society.  Celebrated  actors  always  possess  it 
strong  and  by  its  means  imitate  the  supposed 
manner,  and  even  feel  the  sentiments,  of  their 
characters.  Its  organ  is  found  large  also  in  painters 
and  sculptors  of  eminence.  In  its  morbid  states,  the 
impulse  to  mimic  becomes  irresistible. 

We  now  come  to  the  Intellectual  Faculties,  o> 

Ui 


PHRENOLOGY. 


those  -which  make  us  acquainted  with  things  that 
exist,  and  with  their  qualities  and  relations.  Dr 
Spurzheim  divided  them  into  three  genera— 1.  The 
External  Senses ;  2.  The  Internal  Senses,  or  Per- 
ceptive Faculties  ;  3.  The  Reflecting  Faculties. 

The  external  senses,  as  generally  received,  are 
Ave  in  number — Touch,  Taste,  Smell,  Hearing,  and 
Sight.  There  seem  to  be  two  more — namely,  the 
Suise  of  Hunger  and  Thirst,  and  the  Muscular  Sense, 
or  that  by  which  we  feel  the  state  of  our  muscles  as 
acted  upon  by  force  and  resistance.  Without  this 
last  sense,  we  could  not  keep  our  balance,  or  suit  our 
•movements  to  the  laws  of  the  mechanical  world. 
Whether  ~ick  sense  has  a  special  cerebral  organ 
in  addition  to  its  external  apparatus  and  nerves, 
is  a  question  regarded  by  phrenologists  as  still 
undetermined. 

22.  Individuality,  the  first  in  the  list  of  the  per- 
ceptive faculties,  is  not  easily  defined.  It  is  said 
to  take  cognizance  of  individual  objects  a3  such, 
e.  g.,  a  horse  or  a  tree.  Other  knowing  faculties 
perceive  the  form,  colour,  size,  and  weight  of  the 
horse,  but  Individuality  is  thought  to  unite  all 
these  and  give  the  idea  of  a  horse.  It  is  regarded 
as  the  storehouse  of  knowledge  of  things  simply 
existing.  When  it  is  strong,  without  being  accom- 
panied by  reflecting  power,  the  mind  is  full  of 
facts,  but  unable  to  reason  from  them.  After 
puberty,  the  size  of  the  organ  of  Individuality,  as 
well  as  of  the  neighbouring  organs  of  Size,  Weight, 
Colouring,  and  Locality— all  situated  behind  the 
superciliary  ridge  of  the  skull— is  often  rendered 
doubtful  by  the  existence  of  a  hollow  space,  of  un- 
certain width  and  extent,  between  the  two  plates  of 
the  skull.  This  hollow  is  called  the  frontal  sinus  ; 
and  when  it  is  large,  there  may  be  a  great  projection 
of  the  bone  over  the  eyes,  without  a  corresponding 
projection  of  brain  within.  When  this  part  of  the 
skull  is  flat,  however,  the  organs  must  be  at  least 
as  defective  as  the  flatness  indicates.  Owing  to  the 
source  of  uncertainty  here  pointed  out,  and  the 
smallness  of  the  organs  behind  the  eyebrows,  the 
functions  of  those  parts  of  the  brain  are  not  regarded 
as  being  so  well  ascertained  as  those  of  the  larger 
organs,  nor  will  a  cautious  phrenologist  be  too  ready 
to  pronounce  them  large. 

23.  Form. — When  the  organ  of. Form  is  large, 
the  eyes  are  wide  asunder.  Dr  Gall  discovered  it 
in  persons  remarkable  for  recognising  faces  after 
long  intervals,  and  although  perhaps  only  once  and 
briefly  seen.  The  celebrated  Cuvier  owed  much 
of  his  success  in  comparative  anatomy  to  his  large 
organ  of  Form.  Decandolle  mentions  that  '  his 
[Cuvier's]  memory  was  particularly  remarkable  in 
what  related  to  forms,  considered  in  the  widest 
sense  of  that  word ;  the  figure  of  an  animal  seen  in 
reality  or  in  drawing  never  left  his  mind,  and 
served  him  as  a  point  of  comparison  for  all  similar 
objects.' 

24.  Size. — Every  object  has  size  or  dimension  ; 
Hence  a  faculty  seems  necessary  to  cognize  this 
quality.  The  supposed  organ  is  situated  at  the 
inner  extremities  of  the  eyebrows,  where  they  turn 
upon  the  nose.  A  perception  of  size  (including 
distance)  is  important  to  our  movements  and  actions, 
and  essential  to  our  safety. 

25.  Weight. — A  power  to  perceive  the  different 
degrees  of  weight  and  force  is  likewise  essential  to 
man's  movements,  safety,  and  even  existence. 
Phrenologists  have  generally  localised  the  organ  of 
that  power  in  the  part  of  the  brain  marked  25  on 
the  bust. 

26.  Colouring. — The  organ  of  this  faculty  is  large 
in  great  painters,  especially  great  colourists,  and 
gives  an  arched  appearance  to  the  eyebrow  ;  for 
example,  in  Rubens,   Titian,  Rembrandt,   Salvator 

:.16 


Rosa,  and  Claude  Lorraine.  In  cases  of  colour. 
blindness,  it  is  found  small.  Many  persons,  though 
able  to  distinguish  colours,  have  no  perception  of 
their  harmonies:  for  this  perception,  a  higher  endow* 
ment  of  the  faculty  seems  to  be  required. 

27  Locality. — Dr  Gall  was  led  to  the  discovery 
of  tais  faculty  by  comparing  his  own  difficulties 
with  a  companion's  facilities,  in  finding  their  way 
through  the  woods,  where  they  had  placed  snares 
for  birds,  and  marked  nests,  when  studying  natural 
history.  Every  material  object  must  exist  in  some 
part  of  space,  and  that  part  of  space  becomes 
■place  in  virtue  of  being  so  occupied.  Objecto 
themselves  are  cognized  by  Individuality ;  but 
their  place,  the  direction  where  they  lie,  the  way 
to  them,  fall  within  the  sphere  of  Locality.  Its 
organ  is  large  in  those  who  find  their  way  easily, 
and  vividly  remember  places  in  which  they  have 
been.  It  materially  aids  the  traveller,  and  is 
supposed  to  give  a  love  for  travelling.  The  organ 
was  large  in  Columbus,  Cook,  Park,  Clarke,  and 
other  travellers. 

28.  Number. — The  organ  of  this  faculty  is  placed 
at  the  outer  extremity  of  the  eyebrows  and  .angle  of 
the  eye.  It  occasions,  when  large,  a  f  idness  or  breadth 
of  that  part  of  the  head,  and  often  pushes  downwards 
the  external  corner  of  the  eye.  When  it  is  small, 
the  part  is  flat  and  narrow  between  the  eye  and 
the  temple.  Dr  Gall  called  the  faculty  le  sens  des 
rapports  des  nombres  (the  Sense  of  the  Relations 
of  Numbers),  and  assigned  to  it  not  only  arith- 
metic, but  mathematics  in  general.  Dr  Spurzheim 
more  correctly  limits  its  functions  to  arithmetic, 
algebra,  and  logarithms ;  geometry  being  the 
products  of  other  faculties,  particularly  Size  and 
Locality.  Dr  Gall  first  observed  the  organ  in  a  boy 
who  could  multiply  and  divide,  mentally,  ten  or 
twelve  by  three  figures,  in  less  time  than  expert 
arithmeticians  could  with  their  pencils.  Many  such 
examples  are  on  record. 

29.  Order. — The  organ  of  this  faculty  is  said  to  be 
large  in  those  who  are  remarkable  for  love  of  method, 
neatness,  arrangement,  and  symmetry,  and  are 
annoyed  by  confusion  and  irregularity.  In  savages, 
whose  habits  are  slovenly,  filthy,  and  disgusting,  the 
organ  is  comparatively  small. 

30.  Eventuality. — The  organ  is  situated  in  the 
very  centre  of  the  forehead,  and  when  large,  gives 
to  this  part  of  the  head  a  rounded  prominency. 
Individuality  has  been  called  the  faculty  of  nouns  ; 
Eventuality  is  the  faculty  of  verbs.  The  first  per^ 
ceives  merely  things  that  exist ;  the  other,  motion, 
change,  event,  history.  The  most  powerful  knowing 
minds  have  a  large  endowment  of  both  Indivi- 
duality and  Eventuality ;  and  such  persons,  even 
with  a  moderate  reflecting  capability,  are  the  clever 
men  in  society — the  acute  men  of  business— the 
ready  practical  lawyers.  The  organ  of  Eventuality 
is  generally  well  developed  in  children,  and  their 
appetite  for  stories  corresponds. 

31.  Time. — Some  persons  are  called  walking  time- 
pieces ;  they  can  tell  the  hour  without  looking  at  a 
watch  ;  and  some  eveu  can  do  so,  nearly,  when 
waking  in  the  night.  The  impulse  to  mark  time 
is  too  common,  too  natural,  and  too  strong,  not  to 
be  the  result  of  a  faculty ;  it  is  an  element  in  the 
love  of  dancing,  almost  universal  in  both  savage 
and  civilised  man. 

32.  Tune.—  The  organ  of  Tune  is  large  in  great 
musicians ;  and  when  it  is  small,  there  is  an  utter 
incapacity  to  distinguish  either  melody  or  harmony. 
The  great  bulk  of  mankind  possess  it  in  a  moderate 
endowment,  so  as  to  be  capable  of  enjoying  music 
in  some  degree.  Those  in  whom  it  is  large  and 
active,  become,  in  all  stages  of  society,  distinguished 
artists,    exercising    a    pecidiar    power    over    theil 


PHRENOLOGY. 


fellow-creatures,  so  as  to  rouse,  melt,  soothe,  and 
gratify  them  at  pleasure.  But  the  gift,  in  this  active 
form,  is  liable  to  be  much  modified  according  as 
it  ia  accompanied  by  Adhesiveness,  Combativeness, 
Ideality,  Benevolence,  Wit,  and  oilier  faculties. 

;!;;.  Language.  The  comparative  facility  with 
which  different  nun  clothe  their  thoughts  in  words, 
ami  learn  to  repeat  them  by  heart,  depends 
on  tho  size  of  the  organ  of  Language,  which  Is 
situated  on  the  supra-orbitar  plate,  immediately 
over  the  eyeball,  and,  when  large,  pushes  the  eye 
outwards,  and  sometimes  downwards  j  producing, 
in  the  latter  case,  a  wrinkling  or  pursing  of  the 
lower  eyelid.  Verbal  memory  is  strong  <>r  weak, 
without  relation  to  the  strength  or  weakness  of 
the  memory  of  things,  forms,  or  numbers. 

The  Perceptive  Organs  are  for  the  most  part 
called  into  activity  bj  external  objects  ;  but  internal 
causes  often  excite  them,  and  objects  are  then 
perceived  which  have  no  external  existence,  but 
which,  nevertheless,  the  individual  may  believe 
to  be  real.  This  is  the  explanation  of  visions  and 
ghosts,  and  of  the  fact  that  two  persons  never  see 
the  same  spectres  at  the  same  time.  Excess  or 
disease  in  tiie  organ  of  Wonder  predisposes  to  belief 
in  the  marvellous  and  supernatural,  and  probably 
stimulates  the  Perceptive  Organs  into  action,  when 
spectral  illusions  are  the  consequence. 

34.  Comparison. — Dr  Gall  discovered  the  organ 
of  this  faculty  in  a  man  of  science  who  reasoned 
chiefly  by  means  of  analogies  and  comparisons,  and 
rarely  by  logical  deductions.  The  middle  of  the 
upper  part  of  his  forehead  was  very  prominent. 
The  precise  nature  of  the  faculty  has  been  much 
disputed  among  phrenologists,  but  they  seem  to  agree 
that  the  perception  of  analogy  depends  upon  it. 
Every  faculty,  we  are  told,  can  compare  its  own 
objects  :  Colouring  can  compare  colours  ;  Weight, 
weights  ;  Form,  forms ;  Tune,  sounds  ;  but  Com- 
parison can  compare  a  colour  with  a  note,  or  a 
form  with  a  weight,  &c.  Analogy  is  a  comparison 
not  of  things,  but  of  their  relations. 

35.  Causality. — This  is  regarded  as  the  highest 
and  noblest  of  the  intellectual  powers.  Dr  Spurz- 
heim  so  named  it  from  believing  that  it  traces  the 
connection  between  cause  and  effect,  and  recognises 
the  relation  of  ideas  to  each  other  in  respect  of 
necessary  consequence.  Some  metaphysicians  have 
held  that  we  have  no  idea  of  cause,  but  see  only 
sequence,  or  one  event  following  another.  See 
Cause.  It  is  true  that  we  do  see  sequence ;  but 
we  have  a  third  idea — that  of  power,  agency,  or 
efficiency,  existing  in  some  way  in  the  antecedent, 
to  produce  the  consequent.  Whence  do  we  get  this 
third  idea  ? — from  a  distinct  faculty,  Causality.  It 
is  a  large  ingredient  in  wisdom. 

The  phrenologists  have  chiefly  confined  their 
attention  to  the  organs  of  the  brain,  and  the  various 
faculties  of  which  "these  are  the  instruments.  The 
former  writers  on  mind — Reid,  Stewart,  Brown,  and 
others — gave,  on  the  contrary,  their  chief  care  to 
the  mental  acts  called  Attention,  Perception,  Con- 
ception, &c,  which  they  considered  as  faculties. 
The  phrenologist  does  not  overlook  the  importance 
of  this  department  of  mental  philosophy,  but  differs 
from  the  metaphysicians  in  considering  perception, 
conception,  memory,  &c,  as  only  modes  in  which 
the  real  faculties  above  described  act.  This  dis- 
tinction is  one  of  great  importance. 

According  to  the  phrenologists,  the  faculties  are 
uot  mere  passive  susceptibilities ;  they  all  tend  to 
action.  When  duly  active,  the  actions  they  pro- 
duce are  proper  or  necessary ;  in  excess  or  abuse, 
they  are  improper,  vicious,  or  criminal.  Small 
moral  organs  do  not  produce  abuses;  but  they  are 


unable  to  prevent  the  abuse  of  the  animal  organs, 
as  larger  tend  to  do;  thus  small  Benevolence  is 
not  cruel,  but  it  dors  not  oflfer  sufficient  control  to 
Destructiveness,  which  then  impels  to  cruelty. 
ceteris  paribus,   i.  ma   have    the  greatest, 

and  small  the  lea  y  to  act— each  faculty 

producing  the  feeling  or  idea  peculiar  to  itself. 
In  active  constitutions,  the  brain  partakes  of  the 
general  activity,  and  comes  more  readily  into  play 
than  where  the  constitution  or  temperament  ia 
lymphatic.  Health  and  disease,  exercise  and  inac- 
tion, nutrition  and  starvation,  have  ah)0  great 
influence  in  modifying  both  the  power  of  the 
cerebral  organs  and  their  readiness  to  act.  M> 
when  certain    faculties   have   been   much  exi  i 

for  a  series  of  generations  in  a  family,  they  are  apt 
to  be  manifested  in  greater  strength  and  activity 
than  where  no  such  hereditary  influence  exists. 
Seeing  that  all  the  organs  tend  to  action,  each,  it  is 
concluded,  must  have  a  legitimate  sphere  of  action, 
and  be  necessary  for  the  welfare  of  man. 

The  Propensities  and  Sentiments  cannot  bo 
called  into  action  by  the  will.  We  cannot  fear,  <>r 
pity,  or  love,  or  be  angry,  by  willing  it.  But 
internal  causes  may  stimulate  the  organs,  and  then, 
whether  we  will  or  not,  their  emotions  will  be  felt. 
Again,  these  feelings  are  called  into  action  in  spite 
of  the  will,  by  the  presentation  of  their  external 
objects — Cautiousness,  by  objects  of  terror ;  Love, 
by  beauty ;  and  so  on.  The  excitability  of  the 
feelings,  whether  stimulated  from  within  or  without, 
is  increased  by  activity  of  the  temperament.  Insanity 
is  a  frequent  result  of  over-activity  of  the  propen- 
sities and  sentiments.  Theso  may  be  diseased  and 
yet  the  intellect  sound.  The  converse  is  also  true. 
When  an  organ  is  small,  its  feeling  cannot  be 
adequately  experienced.  The  will  can  indirectly 
excite  the  propensities  and  sentiments  by  setting 
the  intellect  to  work  to  find  externally,  or  conceive 
internally,  the  proper  objects.  Lastly,  these  faculties 
do  not  form  ideas,  but  simply  feel ;  and  therefore 
have  no  memory,  conception,  or  imagination. 

The  Perceptive  and  Reflecting  Faculties,  or 
Intellect,  form  ideas,  perceive  relations,  and  are 
subject  to,  or  rather  constitute,  the  Will ;  and 
minister  to  the  affective  faculties.  They  may  be 
excited  by  external  objects  and  by  internal  causes. 
When  excited  by  the  presentation  of  external 
objects,  these  objects  are  perceived,  and  this  act  is 
called  Perception.  It  is  the  lowest  degree  of 
activity  of  the  intellectual  faculties  ;  and  those  who 
are  deficient  in  a  faculty  cannot  perceive  its  object. 
— Conception  also  is  a  mode  of  action  of  the 
faculties,  not  a  faculty  itself.  It  is  the  activity  of 
the  faculties  from  internal  causes,  either  willed,  or 
involuntary  from  natural  activity.— Imagination  is 
Conception  carried  to  a  high  pitch  of  vivacity. 
— Memory,  too,  is  not  a  faculty,  but  a  mode  of 
action.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  the  general  memory 
of  the  metaphysicians,  but  every  intellectual  faculty 
has  its  own  memory.  Memory  differs  from  Con- 
ception and  Imagination  in  this,  that  it  recollect  i 
real  objects  or  events  which  it  has  actually  pi.r- 
ceived,  and  adds  the  consciousness  of  time  elapsed 
since  they  were  perceived.  The  other  named 
modes  of  action  do  not  require  realities  or  time. 
Judgment  is,  properly,  the  perception  of  adapta- 
tion, fitness,  and  necessary  consequence  ;  this  is 
a  mode  of  action  of  the  reflecting  powers.  In 
a  certain  sense,  the  Perceptive  Faculties  may  each 
be  said  to  possess  judgment ;  as  Colouring  judges 
of  colours;  Form,  of  forms;  Tune,  of  music. 
By  the  word  'judgment,'  however,  is  meant  right 
reasoning,  sound  deciding.  To  this,  a  proper  balance 
of  the  affective  faculties  is  essential.  There  can  be 
no  sound  judgment  where  any  of  the  feelings  are 


PHRYGANEA— PHRYGIA. 


excessive. — Consciousness  is  the  knowledge  which 
the  mind  has  of  its  own  existence  and  operations. 
— Attention  is  not  a  faculty,  but  the  application, 
or  tension,  of  any  or  all  of  the  intellectual  faculties. — 
Association  is  the  succession  of  ideas  in  the  mind, 
each  seeming  to  call  up  that  which  succeeds;  so 
that  in  our  waking-hours  the  mind  is  never  without 
an  idea  passing  through  it.  This  is  a  state  or  con- 
dition of  the  faculties,  not  a  faculty. — Passion  is  any 
faculty  in  excess :  Love  is  the  passion  of  Amative- 
ness  in  unison  with  Adhesiveness  and  Veneration ; 
Avarice,  of  Acquisitiveness;  Rage,  of  Destructive- 
aess.— Pleasure  and  Pain,  Joy  and  Grief,  also 
belong  to  each  faculty,  according  as  it  is  agreeably 
or  disagreeably  affected.— Habit  is  the  power  of 
doing  anything  well,  acquired  by  frequently  doing 
it.  But  before  it  can  be  done  at  all,  there  must 
be  the  faculty  to  do  it,  however  awkwardly. — 
Taste  was  held  by  Mr  Stewart  to  be  a  faculty, 
and  to  be  acquired  by  habit.  It  seems  to  be  the 
'•^sult  of  a  harmonious  action  of  all  the  faculties. 

Such  is  an  outline  of  the  system  propounded  by 
tbe  phrenologists.  So  far  as  it  shall  be  confirmed 
by  the  mature  experience  and  observation  of  com- 
petent inquirers,  the  facts  and  principles  which  it 
unfolds  must  be  of  great  practical  value  to  man- 
kind. The  study  of  the  mutual  influence  of  the 
mind  and  body  has  ever  been  recognised  by  wise 
and  observant  men  as  one  of  high  importance, 
though  of  great  difficulty ;  and  certainly,  Gall  and 
his  followers  have  not  only  given  a  strong  impulse 
to  that  study,  but  have  thrown  much  light  on  the 
diversities  of  human  character,  and  accumulated  a 
large  body  of  facts  of  a  kind  which  had  previously 
been  too  much  overlooked.  Much,  it  is  admitted,  still 
remains  to  be  discovered.  '  No  phrenologist,'  says 
Mr  Combe,  'pretends  that  Gall's  discoveries  are 
perfect ;  they  are  far  from  it,  even  as  augmented 
and  elucidated  by  his  followers ;  but  I  am  humbly 
of  opinion  that,  in  their  great  outlines,  his  doctrines 
are  correct  representations  of  natural  facts.  .  .  . 
The  future  of  phrenology  will  probably  exhibit  a 
slow  and  gradual  progress  of  the  opinion  that  it  is 
true  and  important ;  and  only  after  this  stage  shall 
have  been  passed,  will  it  be  seriously  studied  as 
ncience.  Hitherto  this  has  not  been  done :  the 
number  of  those  who  have  bestowed  on  it  such  an 
extent  of  accurate  and  varied  observation  and 
earnest  reflection  as  is  indispensable  to  acquiring  a 
scientific  knowledge  of  chemistry,  anatomy,  natural 
philosophy,  or  any  other  science,  is  extremely  small ; 
and  the  real  knowledge  of  it,  on  the  part  of  such 
as  continue,  through  the  press  and  in  public  lectures, 
to  oppose  it,  appears  to  me  scarcely  greater  than 
it  was  in  1815  and  1826,'  when  it  was  ridiculed  in 
the  Edinburgh  Review. 

In  considering  the  claims  of  phrenology,  two 
questions  should  not  be  confounded.  One  is — How 
far  the  functicis  of  the  different  parts  of  the  brain 
have  been  established  by  observation  of  extreme 
instances  of  their  large  and  small  development? 
— the  other,  To  what  extent  the  facts  so  ascer- 
tained can  be  applied  physiognomically  in  practice  ? 
Gill  disclaimed  the  ability  to  distinguish  either 
ill-defined  modifications  of  forms  of  the  skull,  or 
the  slighter  shades  of  human  character  (Sur  les 
Functions  du  Cerveau,  hi.  41)  ;  nor,  we  believe,  did 
he  or  Spurzheim  ever  pretend  to  estimate  the  size 
of  every  organ  in  a  single  bi-ain.  By  attempting  too 
much  in  these  directions  some  of  their  disciples 
may  have  helped  to  prolong  the  incredulity  with 
which  phrenology  is  still  widely  regarded. 

For  the  titles  of  numerous  books  on  phrenology, 
Bee  Gall  (F.  J.),  Spurzheim  (J.  G.),  and  Combe 
(G.) ;   also  an  article  in   The  British  and  Foreign 

518 


Medical  Review,  vol.  ix.  p.  190.  Among  the  more 
recent  works  bearing  on,  or  criticising  phrenology, 
we  may  mention  Dr  Laycock's  Mind  and  Bruin, 
or  the  Correlation  of  Consciousness  and  Organisation 
(2  vols.  Edin.  I860) ;  his  article  on  Phrenology  in  the 
8th  ed.  of  the  Ency,c.  Brit.;  an  article  on  Phren- 
ological Ethics  in  the  Edinburgh  Review  for  Jan- 
uary 1842,  vol.  lxxiv.  p.  376 ;  Aug.  Comte'3  Philo- 
sophie  Positive,  torn.  iii.  (or  Miss  Martineau's  transl., 
i.  4G6) ;  Sir  Benj.  C.  Brodie's  PsycJwlogical  Inquiries, 
Dialogue  vi.  (Lond.  1854) ;  G.  H  Lewes's  Biog. 
Hist,  of  Philos.,  p.  629  (Lond.  1857);  Samuel 
Bayley's  Letters  on  the  Pldlosophj  of  the  Human 
Mind,  2d  Series,  Letters  xvi. — xxi.  (Lond.  1858) ;  and 
Professor  Bain  On  the  Study  of  Character,  including 
an  Estimate  of  Phrenology  (Lond.  1861).  Sir  William 
Hamilton's  objections,  mostly  published  many  years 
since,  and  which  are  now  appended  to  his  Lectures  on 
Metaphysics,  i.  404  (Edin.  1859),  were  discussed  in 
the  Phren.  Jour.,  vols.  iv.  and  v.,  and  are  remarked 
on  by  Mr  Combe  in  his  work  On  the  Relation  between 
Science  and  Religion,  pref.,  p.  xvii.  (Edin.  1857). 

PHRYGA'NEA.     See  Caddice. 

PHRY'GIA,  a  country  in  Asia  Minor,  the  extent 
and  boundaries  of  which  varied  very  miich  at 
different  periods  of  ancient  history.  In  pre-historic 
ages  it  is  believed  to  have  comprised  the  greater 
part  of  the  peninsula,  but  at  the  time  of  the 
Persian  invasion  it  was  limited  to  the  districts 
known  as  Lesser  Phrygia  and  Greater  Phrygia — the 
former  stretching  from  the  Hellespont  to  Troaa 
(inclusive),  the  latter  occupying  a  central  portion 
of  Asia  Minor.  The  inland  boundaries  of  Lesser 
Phrygia  are  not  well  ascertained ;  but  Greater 
Phrygia  was  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Bithyuia  and 
Paphlagonia,  on  the  E.  by  Cappadocia  and  Lycaonia, 
on  the  S.  by  the  Taurus  range,  and  on  the  W.  by 
the  maritime  countries  of  Mysia,  Lydia,  and  Caria. 
At  a  later  period  it  was  considerably  reduced  by  the 
formation  of  Galatia  (q.  v.)  and  the  extension  of 
Lycaonia.  P.  was  in  general  a  high  and  somewhat 
barren  plateau,  though  its  pastures  supported 
immense  flocks  of  sheep,  noted  for  the  fineness  of 
their  wool,  as  indeed  they  still  are.  The  most 
fertile  part  was  the  valley  of  the  Sangarius,  but  the 
most  beautiful  and  populous  district  was  the  south- 
west, at  the  base  of  the  Taurus,  where  the  Marauder 
and  other  streams  had  their  rise.  The  mountains 
and  streams  yielded  gold ;  Phrygian  marble  was 
anciently  celebrated,  and  the  cultivation  of  tho 
vine  appears  to  have  been  extensively  carried  on. 

The  origin  of  the  Phrygians  is  one  of  the  mysteries 
of  ancient  ethnology.  Some  think  that  they  were 
settled  at  a  very  remote  period  in  Europe,  and  that 
they  emigrated  from  Thrace  into  Asia  Minor ;  and 
Xanthus,  Herodotus,  and  Strabo  certainly  speak 
of  such  a  migration.  Xanthus  places  it  after  the 
Trojan  war ;  but  if  there  be  any  truth  in  the 
tradition  at  all,  it  can  only  refer  to  a  return  of  some 
tribes  to  the  cradle  of  the  race  in  the  valley  of  the 
Sangarius,  for  the  Phrygians  were  regarded  as  one 
of  the  oldest  races  (if  not  the  very  oldest)  in  Asia 
Minor.  Instead  of  seeking  for  their  origin  in 
Thrace,  the  best  classical  ethnologists  seek  for  it  in 
the  neighbouring  highlands  of  Armenia,  whence  the 
Phrygians  are  believed  to  have  spread  at  a  period  far 
before  the  dawn  of  authentic  history  over  the  greater 
part  of  the  Peninsula,  and  thence  to  have  crossed  into 
Europe,  and  occupied  the  greater  part  of  Thrace, 
Macedonia,  and  Illyria ;  while  the  mythic  Pelops, 
who  colonised  the  Peloponnesus,  and  gavo  it  his  name, 
was  said  by  tradition  to  be  a  Phrygian.  In  both 
Greek  and  Latin  poetry  the  Trojans  are  also  called 
Phrygians,  and  the  same  name  is  applied  to  other 
nations  of  Asia  Minor,  such  as  the  Mydonians  and 


PHRYNE-PHYSALIS. 


Mysinns.  In  Thrace,  too,  many  of  the  names  of  places 
were  the  same  as  in  Troas  ;  while  it  lias  now  been 
demonstrated  that  the  Armenian,  Phrygian,  and 
Greek  Iangnagea  are  akin  to  each  other,  so  that  the 
peoples  Bpeaking  tlic  two  former  tongues,  like  those 
■peaking  the  latter,  belong  to  the  great  Aryan 
branch  of  the  human  family.  The  Phrygians  began 
to  decline  in  power  and  numbers  after  the  Trojan 
war.  They  were  -  if  we  can  make  anything  like 
historic  fact  out  of  the  mythic  narratives  of  that 
early  time  -pushed  out  of  Europe  by  the  Illyrians 
in  the  north  and  the  Macedonians  in  the  south, 
while  in  Asia  Minor  the  riseof  the  Semitic  Assyrians 
also  depressed  and  weakened  them,  by  breaking  up 
the  integrity  of  their  territory.  The  whole  of  the 
south  coast  of  the  peninsula  was  occupied  by  Semitic 
invaders ;  the  Lydians  and  Cappadocians  were  of 
Syro-Phcenieian  origin  ;  and  Strabo  speaks  of  struc- 
tures of  Semiramis  as  far  north  as  Poutus.  Their 
language,  manners,  and  religion  even,  underwent 
radical  changes — hence  the  great  difficulty  experi- 
enced in  ascertaining  their  original  characteristics. 
After  being  subjugated  by  Croesus,  they  passed,  on 
the  dissolution  of  the  Lydian  monarchy,  under  the 
sway  of  Cyrus  ;  and  it  is  only  from  this  date  that 
they  are  brought  within  the  pale  of  positive  history. 
Their  country  formed  part  of  the  empire  of  Alex- 
ander, and  subsequently  belonged  to  the  Syrian 
Seleucidas,  to  the  kings  of  Pergamum,  and  to  the 
Romans,  who  obtained  possession  of  it,  133  B.  c 

The  Phrygians  had  not  a  warlike  reputation 
among  the  ancients,  but  though  in  later  times 
commonly  described  as  indolent  and  stupid,  yet, 
like  negroes,  they  were  of  a  mystic  and  excitable 
disposition.  Their  religious  orgies,  accompanied  by 
wild  music  and  dancing,  are  frequently  mentioned 
by  classic  writers,  and  appear  to  have  exercised  a 
very  material  influence  on  Hellenic  worship.  Cybele, 
'the  great  mother  of  the  gods,'  was  the  chief 
Phrygian  divinity  ;  others  were  Sabazius  (Dionysus), 
Olympus,  Hyagnis,  Lityerses,  and  Marsyas. 

PHRY'XE,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  courtesans 
of  antiquity,  was  the  daughter  of  Epicles,  and  was 
born  at  Thespiee  in  Bceotia.  Her  position  in  life 
was  originally  very  humble,  and  she  is  said  to  have 
at  one  time  earned  a  livelihood  by  gathering  capers ; 
but  as  the  fame  of  her  marvellous  beauty  spread, 
she  obtained  numerous  lovers,  who  lavished  gifts 
on  her  so  profusely  that  she  became  enormously 
rich.  In  proof  of  this,  the  story  goes  that  she 
offered  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  Thebes,  if  the  citi- 
zens would  allow  her  to  place  this  inscription  on 
them :  '  Alexander  destroyed  them  ;  Phryne,  the 
courtesan,  rebudt  them.'  The  Thebans  declined  the 
proposal.  Her  enemies  accused  her  of  profaning 
the  Eleusinian  mysteries.  Summoned  before  the 
tribunal  of  the  Heliasts,  she  was  defended  by  the 
rhetorician  Hyperides,  one  of  her  lovers,  who, 
perceiving  that  his  eloquence  failed  to  convince  the 
judges,  threw  back  her  veil,  and  displayed  her 
naked  shoulders  and  bosom.  She  was  immediately 
acquitted,  and  carried  in  triumph  to  the  Temple  of 
Venus.  The  famous  picture  of  Apelles  (q.  v.) — the 
•Venus"  Anadyomene'- — is  said  to  have  been  a 
representation  of  P.  Praxiteles,  also  a  lover  of 
hers,  employed  her  as  a  model  for  his  '  Cnidian 
Venus  * 

PHTHI'SIS     See  Conscjmption. 

PHULWARA  TREE.     See  Bassia. 

PHYLA'CTERY  (from  Gr.  phylasso,  to  guard), 
an  atmdet  or  charm  worn  by  the  Greeks  against 
demoniac  influences.  Certain  strips  of  parchment, 
inscribed  with  certain  passages  from  the  Scripture 
(Exodus  xiii  1 — 10,  11—16  ;  Deuteronomy  vi.  4 — 9, 
xi.  13—21),  enclosed  in  small  cases,  and  fastened 


to  the  forehead  and  the  left  arm  (Tefillin)  —  also,  lu 
another  form,  to  door-posts  (MfsusaJi) — in  use  with 
the  Jews,  in  imagined  accordance  with  Exodus  xiii. 
9 — 1G,  &c,  are  also  called  in  the  New  Testament 

phylacteries.     The  writing  of  these  is  in  the  hands 
of  privileged  seniles  (Soferim)  only, 
and  many  and  scrupulous  are  the 
ordinances    which    they    have    to 
follow   in   the   execution   of    this 
task.      Only    vellum    of    a    very 
superior  kind  is  to  be  used ;  the 
characters   must   be    traced    with 
the  greatest  care ;  no  erasures  or 
corrections  are  allowed;  the  lines 
and  letters  must  be  of  equal  length ; 
&c.     The  case  in  which   they  are 
enclosed  consists  of  several  layers        Phylactery, 
of  calf-skin  or  parchment.     It  may 
be  observed,  by  the  way,  that   not    the  wearing, 
but  the  exaggerated  form  of  the  phylacteries  worn 
by  some  of  the  Pharisees,  is  inveighed  against  by 
Christ. 
PHYLLOSO'MA.    See  Glass-craes. 

PHYSA'LIA,  a  genus  of  Acakphce,  having  an 
oval  or  oblong  body,  which  consists  in  great  part 
of  an  air  sac,  so  that  the  creature  floats  on  the 
surface  of  the  sea,  with  numerous  appendages  of 
various  kinds  hanging  from  its  under  side.  The 
shorter  of  these  appendages  are  suckers,  which  are 
kept  in  constant  motion  for  procuring  prey,  and 
which  seem  also  to  be  em-  h 

ployed  in  extracting  nutri- 
ment from  it,  as  the  P. 
has  no  proper  mouth  nor 
alimentary  canal.  Among 
these  shorter  appendages, 
also,  some  seem  to  be  devoted 
to  the  purpose  of  reproduc- 
tion by  germination.  The 
longer  appendages,  which 
are  extremely  long — those 
of  a  P.  live  or  six  inches  in 
length,  being  capable  of 
extension  to  twelve  or 
eighteen  feet— are  rope-like 
tentacles,  possessing  a  re-  Portuguese  Mn*i-of- War 
markable  stinging  power,  (Physalis  pelagica). 
which  is  probably  used  for 

benumbing  prey.  It  is  a  common  trick  with 
sailors  to  make  a  novice  pick  up  a  P.,  the  beautiful 
colours  of  which  always  attract  admit  ation.  The 
stinging  power  is,  however,  such  as  not  merely  to 
produce  local  pain,  but  constitutional  irritation. 
It  was  at  one  time  supposed  that  the  P.  has 
the  power  of  expelling  air  from  its  bladder, 
and  sinking  at  pleasure  in  the  sea;  but  the 
observations  of  Mr  Bennett  (Gatherings  of  a 
Naturalist  in  Australia)  render  it  more  probable 
that  it  always  floats  on  the  surface,  and  is  driven 
about  by  the  winds.  The  name  Portuguese  Man-of- 
War  is  often  popularly  given  to  the  species  of  P., 
and  particularly  to  P.  pelagica.  The  Physalwe  are 
inhabitants  of  the  seas  of  warm  latitudes,  but  shoals 
of  them  are  occasionally  driven  to  the  American 
coasts. 

PHY'SALIS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Solanacea,  remarkable  for  the  calyx,  which 
becomes  large  and  inflated  after  flowering  is  over, 
and  encloses  the  ripened  berry.  The  species  are 
annual  and  perennial  herbaceous  plants  and  shrubs, 
natives  of  temperate  and  warm  climates,  and  widely 
scattered  over  the  world.  The  Common  Winter 
Cherry  (P.  alkekengi)  is  a  perennial,  native  of  the 
south  of  Europe  and  great  part  of  Asia,  growing  in 
vineyards  and  bushy  places.     It  is  not  a  native  of 


PHYSETER— PHYSICIANS. 


Britain,  but  is  pretty  frequent  in  flower-gardens. 
It  has  ovate  triangular  downy  leaves,  dirty- white 
flowers  ;  and  the  fruit  when  ripe  is  a  shining  red 
berry,  enclosed  in  a  very  large  vermilion-coloured 
bladder.  The  berries  have  a  sweetish  subacid  taste  ; 
they  are  seldom  eaten  in  Britain,  but  very  generally 


Love  Apple  (Physalis  edulis). 

m  many  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe.  They 
are  refrigerant  and  diuretic,  and  were  formerly 
employed  in  medicine  on  account  of  these  properties. 
— The  Downy  Winter  Cherry,  or  Peruvian 
Gooseberry  (P.  pubescens  or  P.  Peruviana),  is  an 
annual  American  species,  densely  clothed  with 
down;  with  heart-shaped  leaves,  yellow  flowers, 
and  yellowish  berries  which  are  eatable,  and  when 

ijreserved  with  sugar,  make  an  excellent  sweetmeat. 
.t  is  cultivated  and  naturalised  in  many  of  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  world,  and  sometimes  ripens  its 
fruit  in  England,  and  even  in  Scotland. — Some  of 
the  other  species  of  P.  are  among  the  most  common 
weeds  of  the  West  Indies  and  tropical  America ; 
and  three  or  more  species — the  P.  angulata,  pubes- 
cens, and  viscosa — are  known  in  the  Northern  U.  States. 

PHYSE'TER.     See  Cacholot. 

PHYSIC  NUT  (Curcas),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Euphorbiacece,  having  a  5-partite 
calyx,  5  petals,  and  8 — 10  unequal-united  stamens. 
The  species  are  not  numerous.  They  are  tropical 
shrubs  or  trees,  having  alternate,  stalked,  angled  or 
lobed  leaves,  and  corymbs  of  flowers  on  long  stalks ; 
and  notable  for  the  acrid  oil  of  their  seeds.  The 
Common  P.  N.  of  the  East  Indies  (C.  pun/ans),  now 
also  common  in  the  West  Indies  and  other  warm 
parts  of  the  world,  is  a  small  tree  or  bush,  with  a 
milky  juice.  It  is  used  for  fences  in  many  tropical 
countries,  and  serves  the  purpose  well,  being  much 
branched  and  of  rapid  growth.  The  seeds  are  not 
unpleasant  to  the  taste,  but  abound  in  a  verj'  acrid 
fixed  oil,  which  makes  them  powerfully  emetic  and 
purgative,  or  in  large  doses  poisonous.  Instances 
nave  recently  occurred  of  very  alarming,  although 
not  fatal,  results  from  the  eating  of  the  seeds, 
imported  into  Britain  under  the  name  of  Physic 
Nuts,  Jatropha  Nuts  or  Jatropha  Seeds  (the  Liu- 
nsean  name  of  the  plant  being  Jatropha  purgans), 
and  Barbadoes  Nuts  or  Barbadoea  Seeds.  The 
expressed  ofl,  commonly  called  Jatropha  Oil,  is  used 
in  medicine  like  croton  oil,  although  less  powerful ; 
it  is  also  used  in  lamps.  The  milky  juice  of  the 
shrub  is  used  by  the  Chinese  f  >r  making  a  black 

ESQ 


varnish,  in  order  to  wdiich  it  is  boiled  with  oxide  cl 
iron. — The  French  P.  N.,  or  Spanish  P.  N.  ((?. 
multifidus),  a  shrub,  native  of  the  tropical  parts  oi 
America,  with  many-lobed  leaves,  yields  a  purgative 
acrid  oil,  called  Oil  of  Pinhoen.  It  is  very  similar 
in  its  qualities  to  the  oil  obtained  from  the  former 
species,  perhaps  stronger.  To  this  genus  belongs  the 
Pinoncillo  (O.  lobatus)  of  Peru,  the  seed  of  which 
is  eaten  when  roasted,  and  has  an  agreeable  flavour, 
although  when  raw  it  is  a  violent  purgative.  When 
an  incision  is  made  in  the  stem  of  this  tree,  a  clear 
bright  liquid  flows  out,  which  after  some  time 
becomes  black  and  horny.  It  is  a  very  powerful 
caustic,  and  retains  this  property  for  years. 

PHY'SICAL  GEOGRAPHY.    See  Geography. 

PHYSI'CIANS,  The  Royal  College  of  (of 
London),  was  founded  in  1518  by  the  munificence  of 
Thomas  Linacre,  a  priest  and  distinguished  physician, 
who  was  born  in  1460,  and  died  in  1524.  In  1518, 
through  the  influence  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,  he 
obtained  from  Henry  VIII.  letters-patent  grant- 
ing to  John  Chambre,  himself,  and  Ferdinandus  de 
Victoria,  the  acknowledged  physicians  to  the  king, 
together  with  Nicholas  Halsewell,  John  Francis, 
Robert  Yaxley,  and  all  other  men  of  the  same  faculty 
in  London,  to  be  incorporated  as  one  body  and  per- 
petual community  or  college.  They  were  permitted 
to  hold  assemblies,  and  to  make  statutes  and  ordin- 
ances for  the  government  and  correction  of  the 
College,  and  of  all  who  exercised  the  same  faculty 
in  London  and  within  seven  miles  thereof,  with  an 
interdiction  from  practice  to  any  individual  unless 
previously  licensed  by  the  President  and  College. 
Linacre  was  the  first  president,  and  held  the  office 
till  his  death  in  1524.  The  meetings  of  the  College 
were  held  at  his  house  in  Knightrider  Street,  which 
he  bequeathed  to  the  College,  and  which,  until  the 
year  1860,  continued  in  the  possession  of  that  body. 
About  the  time  of  the  accession  of  Charles  I.,  the 
College,  requiring  more  accommodation,  took  a  house 
at  the  bottom  of  Amen  Corner,  which  was  sub- 
sequently purchased  by  Dr  Harvey,  and  in  1649  was 
given  by  him  to  his  colleagues.  This  was  the  seat 
of  the  College  till  1666,  when  it  was  destroyed  by 
the  great  fire  of  London.  A  new  College  was  then 
built  in  Warwick  Lane,  and  opened  in  1674  under 
the  presidency  of  Harvey's  friend,  Sir  George  Ent ; 
and  here  the  meetings  were  held  till  1825,  when  the 
present  edifice  in  Pall-Mall  East  was  opened  under 
the  presidency  of  Sir  Henry  Halford. 

The  reason  for  forming  the  incorporation,  as  set 
forth  in  the  original  charter,  is  '  to  check  men  who 
profess  physic  rather  from  avarice  than  in  good  faith, 
to  the  damage  of  credulous  people ; '  and  the  king 
(following  the  example  of  other  nations)  founds  'a 
college  of  the  learned  men  who  practise  physic  in 
London  and  within  seven  miles,  in  the  hope  that 
the  ignorant  and  rash  practisers  be  restrained  or 
punished.'  The  charter  further  declares,  that  'no 
one  shall  exercise  the  faculty  of  physic  in  th« 
said  city,  or  within  seven  miles,  without  the  College 
licence,  under  a  penalty  of  £5  ; '  that,  in  addition  to 
the  president,  '  four  censors  be  elected  annually  to 
have  correction  of  physicians  in  London  and  rseven 
miles'  circuit,  and  of  their  medicines,  and  to  punish 
by  fine  and  imprisonment ;'  and  that  •  the  President 
and  College  be  exempt  from  serving  on  juries.' 
Four  years  later,  in  1522 — 1523,  an  act  was  passed 
confirming  the  charter,  and  enacting  that  'the  six 
persons  beforesaid  named  as  principals  and  first- 
named  of  the  said  commonalty  and  fellowship,  shall 
choose  to  them  two  men  of  the  said  commonalty 
from  henceforward  to  be  called  and  cleaped  Elects, 
and  that  the  same  elects  yearly  choose  one  of  them 
to  be    president  of    the   said    commonalty ; '   and 


PHYSICS— PHYSIOGNOMY 


further  directing  that,  in  case  of  a  vacancy  by  death 
or  otherwise,  the  surviving  electa  'shall  choose, 
Dame,  and  admit  one  or  two,  as  Deed  shall  require) 
nf  the  most  cunning  and  expert  men,  of  and  in  the 

Baiil  faculty  in  London  ;'  and  that  'no  person  from 
henceforth  he  suffered  to  exercise  or  practise  in 

{)hysie  except  he  be  a  graduate  of  Oxford  or  Cam- 
nidge,  until  such  time  as  ho  he  examined  at 
London  by  the  .said  president  and  three  of  the  said 
elects,  and  have  from  them  letters  testimonials  of 
their  approving  and  examination.1 

In  1540  an  act  was  passed  (32  Hen.  VIII.  c.  40) 
by  which  the  President  and  College  were  exempted, 
in  consequence  of  their  professional  duties,  'from 
keeping  watch  and  ward,  and  from  being  chosen  to 
the  otliee  of  constable  and  other  offices;'  and  the 
censors  were  authorised  'to  enter  apothecaries' 
houaes,  to  search,  view,  and  see  their  wares,  drugs, 
and  stuffs,  and  to  cause  to  he  brent,  or  otherwise 
destroyed,  such  as  they  find  defective,  corrupted, 
and  not  meet  nor  convenient  to  he  ministered  in 
any  medicine  for  the  health  of  man's  body.'  In 
this  act  it  was  further  declared  explicitly  that 
'surgery  is  a  part  of  physic,  and  may  be  practised 
by  any  of  the  company  or  fellowship  of  physicians' 
■ — a  doctrine  which  in  later  times  has  been  totally 
repudiated  by  the  collegiate  body,  who,  until  a  few 
years  ago,  would  not  admit  to  their  privileges  a 
member  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  unless  he 
formally  resigned  his  surgical  diploma  (for  which 
act  of  resignation  the  College  of  Surgeons  charged 
him  a  fee  of  £5).  Other  'Acts  touching  the  Corpor- 
ation of  the  Phjrsicians,  London,'  were  passed  in 
1553,  1814,  and  1858  (the  last  being  known  as  'the 
Medical  Act '),  which  require  no  special  notice,  except 
that  the  Medical  Act  provides  for  the  granting  of  a 
new  charter  to  the  College,  which  was  obtained  in 
1S62.  Finally,  in  1860,  'an  Act  to  Amend  the 
Medical  Act '  was  passed,  which  repeals  the  provi- 
sions of  the  act  of  Henry  VIII.  (1522 — 1523)  as  to 
the  elects,  on  the  ground  that  their  main  function 
was  licensing  country  physicians  (the  class  recognised 
as  Licentiates  extra  urban),  and  that  it  has  virtually 
ceased;  and  declares  that  'the  office  and  name  of 
elects  of  the  said  College  shall  henceforth  wholly 
cease,'  and  that  the  Presidency  shall  in  future  be  an 
annual  office,  opeu  to  the  Fellows  at  large,  who 
Bhall  also  be  the  electing  body. 

The  College  has  cousisted,  till  the  last  few  years,  of 
Fellows  (amongst  whom  were  the  eight  Elects),  who 
are  a  self-electing  body,  and  were,  until  about 
20  years  ago,  almost  invariably  graduates  of  Oxford 
or  Cambridge ;  Licentiates,  who  were  examined  by 
the  president  and  censors,  and  who  alone,  excepting 
the  Fellows,  had  the  privilege  of  practising  in  and 
within  seven  miles  of  London  ;  and  Extra-licentiates, 
who  were  examined  by  the  Elects,  and  had  the 
privilege  of  practising  in  any  part  of  England  except- 
ing in  and  within  seven  miles  of  London.  As  at 
present  constituted,  it  consists  of  Fellows,  Members, 
Licentiates,  and  Extra-licentiates.  The  Fellows  are 
elected  from  members  of  at  least  four  years'  stand- 
ing, who  have  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
practice  of  medicine,  or  in  the  pursuit  of  medical  or 
general  science  or  literature.  The  government  of.  the 
College  is  vested  in  the  President  and  Fellows  only. 
The  present  Members  consist  of  persons  who  had 
been  admitted  before  February  1859  licentiates  of 
the  College  ;  of  extra-liceutiates  who  have  complied 
with  certain  conditions ;  and  of  persons  who  have 
attained  the  age  of  25  years,  who  do  not  dispense 
or  supply  medicine,  and  who,  after  being  duly 
pioposed,  have  satisfied  the  College  'tmching  their 
knowledge  of  medical  and  general  science  and  litera- 
ture,' and  that  they  have  '  been  engaged  in  the  study 
of  physic  during  a  period  of  fire  years,  of  which 


four  years    at  least    shall    have    b  I    at    i 

medical  school  recognised  by  the  College.'  Tho 
members  constitute  a  portion  of  the  corporation,  in 
so  far  as  tiny  have  the  use  of  the  library  and 
museum,  and  the  privilege  of  admission  to  all  lec- 
tures, hut  they  do  not  take  any  share  in  the  govern- 
ment, or  attend  or  vote  at  meetings.  The  Licentiates 
are  not  members  of  the  corporation,  and  in  their 
qualifications  very  much  resemble  those  who  have 

diplomas  both  from  the  College  of  Surgeons  and 
the  Apothecaries'  Hall.  They  must  be  21  years  of 
age,  and  must  have  been    en     ged  in   profe  .! 

studies  for  four  years  before  being  admitted  to 
examination. 

The  fee  for  admission  as  a  Fell  lineas, 

exclusive  of  stamp-duty  ;  the  fee  for  admission  as  a 
Member  is  30  guineas  ;  and  the  fee  '  for  the  licence 
to  practise  physic  as  a  Licentiate  of  the  College'  is 
15  guineas. 

The  following  by-laws  of  the  College  should  be 
generally  known.  1.  No  Fellow  of  the  College  is 
entitled  to  sue  for  professional  aid  rendered  by  him. 
This  by-law  does  not  extend  to  Members.  2.  No 
Fellow,  Member,  or  Licentiate  of  the  College  is 
entitled  to  assume  the  title  of  Doctor  of  Medicine 
unless  he  be  a  graduate  in  medicine  of  a  university. 
3.  No  Fellow  or  Member  of  the  College  shall  offi- 
ciously, or  under  colour  of  a  benevolent  purpose, 
offer  medical  aid  to,  or  prescribe  for,  any  patient 
whom  he  knows  to  be  under  the  care  of  another 
legally  qualified  medical  practitioner. 

PHYSICS,  or  PHYSICAL  SCIENCE  (Gr.  phjsi- 
kos,  natural),  comprehends  in  its  widest  sense  all  that 
is  classed  under  the  various  branches  of  mixed  or 
applied  mathematics,  natural  philosophy,  chemistry, 
and  natural  history,  which  branches  include  the 
whole  of  our  knowledge  regarding  the  material 
universe.  In  its  narrower  sense,  it  is  equivalent 
to  Natural  Philosophy  (q.  v.),  which,  until  of  late 
years,  was  the  term  more  ccjpimonly  used  in  Great 
Britain,  and  denotes  all  knowledge  of  the  properties 
of  bodies  as  bodies,  or  the  science  of  phenomena 
unaccompanied  by  essential  change  in  the  objects ; 
while  chemistry  is  concerned  with  the  composition 
of  bodies,  and  the  phenomena  accompanied  by 
essential  change  in  the  objects  ;  and  natural  history, 
in  its  widest  sense,  includes  all  the  phenomena  of 
the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  world.  The 
application  of  the  term  Physic  to  a  branch  of  this 
last — viz.,  the  science  of  medicine — is  peculiar  to 
the  English  language. 

PHYSIO'GNOMY  (Gr.),  the  art  of  judging  of 
the  character  from  the  external  appearance,  especi- 
ally from  the  countenance.  The  art  is  founded 
upon  the  belief,  which  has  long  and  generally  pre- 
vailed, that  there  is  an  intimate  connection  between 
the  features  and  expression  of  the  face  and  the 
qualities  and  habits  of  the  mind ;  and  every  man 
is  conscious  of  instinctively  drawing  conclusions  in 
this  way  for  himself  with  more  or  less  confidence, 
and  of  acting  upon  them  to  a  certain  extent  in 
the  affairs  of  life.  Yet  the  attempt  to  reach  this 
conclusion  by  the  application  of  certain  rides,  and 
thus  to  raise  the  art  of  reading  the  human  counten- 
ance to  the  dignity  of  a  science,  although  often 
made,  has  never  yet  been  very  successful.  Com- 
parisons have  been  instituted  for  this  purpose 
between  the  physiognomies  of  human  beings  and 
of  species  of  animals  noted  for  the  possession  of 
peculiar  qualities,  as  the  wolf,  the  fox,  &c.  This 
was  first  begun  by  Delia  Porta,  a  Neapolitan,  who 
died  in  1615,  and  was  afterwards  carried  further  by 
Tischbein.  The  subject  of  physiognomy  was  eagerly 
prosecuted  by  Thomas  Campauella ;  and  when  las 
labours  had  nearly  been  forgotten,  attention  was 

521 


PHYSIOLOGY— PIACENZA. 


again  strongly  attracted  to  it,  although  only  for  a 
short  time,  by  the  writings  of  Lavater  (q.  v.). 

PHYSIO'LOGY  (Gr.  physis,  nature;  logos,  a 
discourse)    is    the    science    which     treats    of    the 

[menoinena  which  normally  present  themselves  in 
iving  beings,  of  the  laws  or  principles  to  which 
they  are  subject,  and  of  the  causes  to  which  they 
are  attributable.  It  is,  in  short,  the  science  of  life, 
and  hence  the  term  Biology  (Gr.  bios,  life)  has 
been  adopted  by  some  writers  in  place  of  physi- 
ology. Biology  is,  however,  regarded  by  some 
authors  (and,  we  think,  correctly)  as  including 
in  its  scope  more  than  physiology,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  following  extract  from  Professor  Greene's 
remarks  '  On  the  Principles  of  Zoology  : '  '  Biology,' 
he  observes,  'is  that  branch  of  scientific  inquiry 
which  undertakes  to  investigate  the  nature  and 
relations  of  living  bodies.  Every  living  being  may 
be  regarded  from  two  points  of  view,  which  it  ia 
necessary  to  distinguish  clearly  from  one  another. 
The  first  of  these  exhibits  to  us  living  beings  as 
possessing  definite  forms,  which,  in  most  instances, 
are  found  to  be  made  up  of  a  number  of  dissimilar 
parts  or  organs ;  whUe  the  second  takes  cognizance 
of  the  vital  actions  or  functions  which  these  organs 
perform.  That  department  of  biology  which  deter- 
mines the  former  is  termed  Morphology  ;  that  which 
investigates  the  latter,  Physiology.  Hence  the 
nature  of  living  beings  is  twofold — morphological 
and  physiologicaV — A  "Manual  of  the  Protozoa,  1S59, 
pp.  ix — x. 

PHYTOLA'CCA,  a  genus  of  exogenous  plants, 
of  the  natural  order  Phytolaecacece.  This  order 
contains  about  70  known  species,  half-shrubby  and 
herbaceous  plants,  natives  of  warm  parts  of  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America,  and  is  nearly  allied  to  the 
order  Chenopodiacea;  from  which  it  is  distinguished 
by  the  frequently  numerous  carpels,  the  corolla-like 
perianth  when  the  carpel  is  single,  and  the  stamens 
either  exceeding  the  number  of  the  segments  of  the 
perianth,  or  alternate  with  them.  It  is  also  nearly 
allied  to  Polygonem.  The  genus  Phytolacca  has  for 
its  fruit  a  berry  with  8—10  cells,  each  cell  one- 
seeded.  P.  decandra,  the  Poke  or  Pocan,  a  native 
of  North  America,  now  naturalised  in  some  parts  of 
the  south  of  Europe,  is  sometimes  cultivated  for  its 
young  shoots,  which,  when  blanched,  are  eaten  like 
asparagus.  Yet  the  leaves  are  acrid,  and  the  root 
is  an  emetic  almost  or  altogether  equal  to  ipeca- 
cuanha. The  root  is  also  externally  applied  to  cure 
itch  and  ringworm.  A  tincture  of  the  ripe  berries, 
which  are  fully  larger  than  Black  Currants,  and 
grow  in  racemes,  is  efficacious  in  chronic  rheumatism 
and  syphilitic  pains.  By  some  it  is  held  to  be  more 
valuable  than  guaiacum.  The  pulp  of  the  berries 
is  employed  in  the  adulteration  of  wine. — The 
young  shoots  of  P.  acinosa  are  boiled  and  eaten  in 
the  Himalayas,  those  of  P.  octandra  in  Caj^enne, 
and  a  Chinese  species  has  recently  been  introduced 
into  British  gardens  for  the  same  use  under  the 
name  of  P.  esculenta. 

PHYTO'LOGY,  another  name  for  Botany,  not 
much  in  use. 

PHYTOZO'A  (Gr.  phyton,  a  plant  ;  zoon,  an 
animal),  also  called  Antherozoids,  are  minute  bodies 
produced  amidst  a  mucilaginous  fluid  in  the  anthe- 
ridia  of  many  cryptogamous  plants  (Alga?,  Hepaticse, 
Mosses,  Ferns),  which  are  either  aquatic  or  delight 
in  moist  situations.  In  some  many-celled  antheridia 
of  the  higher  cryptogamous  plants,  each  cell  is 
devoted  to  the  production  of  a  single  phytozoon. 
When  the  antheridium  is  mature,  and  bursts,  the 
phytozoa  move  for  a  short  time  by  means  of  cilia — 
a  provision,  apparently,  for  their  reaching  the  pis- 
fcillidia,  the  spores  contained  in  which — according 
522 


to  an  opinion  rapidly  gaining  ground  among  bot&-i- 
ists — they  are  destined  to  fertilise.  Great  divtr- 
sities  exist  in  the  phytozoa    of    different   crypto- 

famous  plants.     The  annexed  figure  will  convey  a 
etter  notion  of  them  than  any  mere  description. 


'«SBf 

Phytozoa : 
(From  Carpenter  on  the  Microscope.) 

A.  Antherozoids  of  Fucus  plalycnrpus  (a  sea-weed),  some  01 
them  free,  others  still  included  in  their  antheridiol  cells. 

B.  Cellular  contents  of  an  antheridium  of  Potytrichum  communi 
(a  moss),  mature  and  discharging  the  antherozoids. 

C.  Anthorozoid  of  Pteris  serrulata  (a  fern)  shewing  a,  its  large 
extremity;  b,  its  small  extremity;  d,  d,  its  cilia. 

Cryptogamous  plants,  which,  as  lichens,  live  in  dry 
situations,  have  no  phytozoa,  although  it  is  sup- 
posed that  they  have  organs  destined  to  the  same 
purpose,  but  destitute  of  the  power  of  motion  by 
cilia. 

PIACE'NZA,  a  city  of  Northern  Italy,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  the  same  name,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Po, 
2  miles  below  the  confluence  of  the  Trebbia  with 
that  river,  and  36  miles  west-north-west  of  the  city 
of  Parma.  Beautifully  situated  on  a  fine  plain, 
confined  on  the  south  by  well-cultivated  hills,  the 
city  itself  is  gloomy  and  desolate  in  appearance. 
Its  streets  are  broad  and  regular — that  called  the 
Stradone  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  Italy — but 
many  of  them  are  unfrequented  and  grass-grown. 
It  contains  numerous  palaces,  and  about  50 
churches.  The  cathedral,  an  edifice  in  the  ancient 
Lombard  style,  founded  in  the  11th  c,  is  famous 
for  the  richly-curious  and  grotesque  character  of 
its  internal  decorations,  for  its  numerous  sculp- 
tures, its  paintings,  and  for  a  number  of  frescoes 
of  great  grandeur,  by  Caraccio,  Guercino,  and 
others.  The  Church  of  Sant'  Ant<uiio,  the  origi- 
nal cathedral  of  P.,  was  founded  in  324  A.D., 
but  has  been  several  times  rebuilt.  Among  the 
other  principal  buildings,  are  the  Palazzo  Far- 
nese,  founded  in  1558,  and  once  a  sumptuous 
edifice,  but  which  has  been  long  in  iv»e  as  a  bar- 
rack ;  the  Palazzo  del  Commune,  and  the  Collegio 
dei  Mercanti  are  fine  monuments  of  art.  The 
principal  square  is  the  Piazza  Cavalli,  so  called 
from  the  colossal  bronze  equestrian  statues  of  the 
dukes  Alessandro  and  Ranuuccio  Farnese.  This 
town  occupies  by  far  the  most  important  position, 
in  a  military  point  of  view,  in  Italy— a  fact  which 
was  fully  appreciated  by  those  who  fortified  it 
with  solid  walls  and  a  strong  castle,  which,  till  1S59, 
were  guarded  by  the  Austrians.  On  being  forced 
from  the  city  by  the  war  of  1859,  the  Austrians 
did  not  destroy  the  works,  and  the  Italian  govern- 
ment ha?  strengthened  and  extended  them  by  the 
formation  of  externally  defended  works,  and  of  a 
formidable  intrenched  camp, "which  unites  and  pro- 
tects the  other  works  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Pc. 


PIA  MATER— PIANOFORTE. 


Manufactures  of  .silks,  fustians,  linens,  lints,  &c., 
are  carried  on  to  some  extent  Pop.  (which  lias 
considerably  decreased  within  the  last  few  years) 
in  1872.  34,989. 

P.,  called  by  the  Romans  Placentia,  on  account 
of  its  pleasing  situation,  first  mentioned,  in  21!)  B.C, 
when  a  Roman  colony  was  settled  there.  In  200  B.C., 
it  was  plundered  and  burned  by  the  Gauls,  but 
rapidly  recovered  its  prosperity,  and  was  long  an 
important  military  station.  P.  was  the  western 
terminus  of  the  great  .Emiliau  road,  which  began 
kt  Aximinum  on  the  Adriatic.  In  later  history,  it 
plays  an  important  part  as  one  of  the  independent 
Lombard  cities. 

PIA  MA'TER.     See  Nervous  System. 

PIA'NO  (Ital.  so/t),  abbreviated  p,  is  used  in 
music  to  denote  that  the  strain  where  the  indication 
occurs  is  to  be  played  with  less  than  the  average 
intensity  of  force,  pp,  or  ppp,  for  pianissimo,  sig- 
nifies very  soft,  or  as  soft  as  possible.  In  contra- 
distinction from  piano,  forte,  abbreviated  /,  is  used 
to  denote  a  more  than  usual  force  ;  and  j},  ovfff,  for 
fortissimo,  a  still  greater  degree  of  force.  The  gradual 
transition  from  j>'lnno  to  forte  is  indicated  by  the 
sign  <;  from  forte  to  piario  by  the  sign  >. 

PIANOFORTE  (Ital.  piano,  soft,  and  forte, 
loud),  a  stringed  musical  instrument,  played  by- 
keys,  developed  out  of  the  Clavichord  and  Harpsi- 
chord (q.  v.),  from  which  the  pianoforte  differs 
principally  hi  the  introduction  of  hammers,  to  put 
the  strings  in  vibration,  connected  with  the  keys  by 
a  mechanism  that  enables  the  player  to  modify  at 
will  the  intensity  of  the  sounds ;  whence  the  name 
of  the  instrument. 

The  idea  of  the  pianoforte  was  conceived  inde- 
pendently about  the  same  time  by  three  persons  in 
different  parts  of  Europe — a  German  organist  of  the 
name  of  Schruter ;  Marius,  a  French  harpsichord- 
maker;  and  Bartolomeo  Cristofali,  a  harpsichord- 
maker  of  Padua.  Priority  in  point  of  invention  (1714) 
is  due  to  the  Italian  maker.  Schroter's  discovery  was 
followed  up  in  Germany  by  Silbermann  of  Strasburg, 
Spat  of  Ratisbon,  Stein  of  Augsburg,  and  others. 
The  first  pianoforte  seen  in  England  was  made  at 
Rome  by  Father  Wood,  an  English  monk  there..  A 
few  German  manufacturers  and  workmen  settling  in 
London,  gave  an  impetus  to  the  new  instrument.  The 
English  pianoforte  has  been  brought  to  its  present 
state  of  perfection  by  a  succession  of  improvements 
received  at  the  hands  of  Broadwood,  Stodart,  Erard, 
Clementi,  Collard,  Wornum,  Hopkinson,  and  other 
makers.  All  the  really  important  later  inventions 
are  English.  The  compass  of  the  early  pianoforte 
was,  like  that  of  the  harpsichord,  four  to  five 
octaves,  from  which  it  has  been  gradually  increased 
to  6 1,  or  seven  octaves,  or  occasionally  more. 

The  most  natural  of  the  various  forms  which  the 
instrument  assumes  is  that  of  the  grand  pianoforte, 
derived  from  the  harpsichord,  with  the  strings  placed 
horizontally,  and  parallel  to  the  keys.  The  strings 
are  stretched  across  a  compound  frame  of  wood  and 
m  zual,  composed  of  bars,  rods,  and  strengthened  of 
various  kinds — appliances  necessary  to  resist  the 
enennoua  tension.  This  framework  includes  a 
woodeu  sound-board.  The  mechanism  by  which 
hammers  are  connected  with  the  keys,  is  called 
the  action  of  the  instrument.  In  the  earliest  piano- 
fortes, the  hammer  was  raised  from  below  by  a 
button  attached  to  an  upright  wire  fixed  on  the 
back-end  of  the  key.  The  impulse  given  to  the 
hammer  caused  it  to  strike  the  string,  after  which 
it  immediately  fell  back  on  the  button,  leaving  the 
string  free  to  vibrate.  This  was  called  the  single 
action.  As  the  hammer,  when  resting  on  the  button 
with  the  key  pressed  down,  was  thus  necessarily 


at  a  little  distance  from  the  string,  the  ■  -IF.  etual 
working  of  this  action  required  that  a  certain  impe- 
tus should  be  communicated  1o  the  hammer  to 
enable  it  to  touch  the  string.  Hence  it  was  impon- 
sible  to  play  very  piano,  and  it  was  found  that  if 
the  hammer  was  adjusted  so  as  to  be  too  flo.se  to 
the  string  when  resting  on  the  button,  it  was  apt 
not  to  leave  the  string  till  after  the  blow  had  been 
given,  thereby  deadening  the  sound.  This 
was  remedied  by  a  jointed  upright  piece  called  the 
hopper,  attached  to  the  back-end  of  the  key,  in  place 
of  the  wire  and  button.  "When  the  key  was  pressed 
down,  the  hopper,  engaging  in  a  notch  in  the  lower 
side  of  the  hammer,  lifted  it  so  close  to  the  hammer, 
that  the  lightest  possible  pressure  caused  it  to  ■ 
strike  ;  and  at  this  moment,  when  the  key  was  still 
pressed  down,  the  jointed  part  of  the  hopper,  coming 
in  contact  with  a  fixed  button  as  it  rose,  escaped 
from  the  notch,  and  let  the  hammer  fall  clear  away 
from  the  string.  To  prevent  the  hammer  from 
rebounding  on  the  string,  a  projection  called  the 
dieck  was  fixed  on  the  end  of  the  key,  which  caught 
the  edge  of  the  hammer  as  it  fell,  and  held  it  firmly 
enough  to  prevent  it  from  rising.  A  necessary  part 
of  the  action  is  the  damper,  which  limits  the 
duration  of  each  particular  note,  so  as  to  cause  it  to 
cease  to  sound  as  soon  as  the  pressure  is  removed 
from  the  key.  It  consists  of  a  piece  of  leather  resting 
on  the  top  of  the  string,  and  connected  with  the  lack- 
part  of  the  key  by  a  vertical  wire.  When  any  key 
is  pressed  down,  its  damper  is  raised  off  the  string, 
so  as  to  allow  the  sound  produced  to  be  clear  and 
open ;  but  immediately  on  the  finger  being  lifted 
off  the  key,  the  damper-wire  falls,  and  the  damper 
again  presses  on  the  string,  muffling  and  stopping 
the  vibration.  The  whole  range  of  dampers  may, 
when  required,  be  raised  by  the  use  of  the  damper 
pedal,  so  as  to  prolong  the  sound  of  one  note  into 
another. 

One  further  frequent  and  important  addition  to 
the  action  may  be  alluded  to.  In  the  mechanism 
above  described,  the  ke}'  must  rise  to  its  position 
of  rest  before  the  hopper  will  again  engage  in  the 
notch  of  the  hammer  for  another  stroke ;  hence,  a 
note  cannot  be  repeated  until  time  has  been  allowed 
for  the  full  rise  of  the  key.  The  repetition  action 
is  a  contrivance,  varying  in  different  instruments, 
for  getting  rid  of  this  defect,  by  holding  up  the 
hammer  at  a  certain  height  while  the  key  is 
returning. 

Great  "difference  of  detail  exists  in  the  actions  of 
different  makers.  Some  are  more  complicated  than 
others  ;  but  in  all  are  to  be  found  the  same  essential 
parts,  only  modified  in  shape  and  arrangement. 
The  subjoined  figure  represents  one  of  the  sim- 
plest grand  pianoforte  actions  now  in  use.     A  is  the 


key,  B  the  lever  which  raises  the  hammer,  C  the 
hammer,  J)  the  string,  and  E  the  damper ;  F  is  the 
button  which  catches  the  lever  after  it  has  struck 
the  hammer,  G  the  check,  H  the  damper  pedal- 
lifter,  I  the  spring,  and  K,  K,  K  are  rails  and 
sockets. 

Formerly,  the    strings    of    the    pianoforte    were 
all  of  thin  wire  :    now,  the  bass-strings  are  v«ry 

523 


PIARISTS-PIAZZI. 


thick,  and  coated  with  a  fine  coil  of  copper- wire ; 
and  the  thickness,  strength,  and  tension  of  the 
strings  all  diminish  from  the  lower  to  the  upper 
notes.  A  grand  pianoforte  has  three  strings  to 
each  of  the  upper  and  middle  notes,  and  now, 
generally,  only  two  to  the  lower  notes,  and  one 
to  the  lowest  octave.  When  the  soft  pedal  is 
pressed  down,  the  hammers  are  shifted  sideways, 
80  as  to  strike  only  two  strings  instead  of  three, 
or  one  string  instead  of  two. 

Besides  the  grand,  the  kinds  of  pianoforte  in  use 
are  the  square,  in  which  the  strings  are  placed  still 
in  a  horizontal  position,  but  obliquely  to  the  keys  ; 
and  the  upright,  in  which  the  strings  run  vertically 
from  top  to  bottom  of  the  instrument.  The  differ- 
ence in  form  necessitates  alterations  in  the  details 
of  the  action,  but  the  general  principle  is  the  same. 

The  pianoforte  has  in  modern  times  attained  a 
widespread  popularity  beyond  that  of  any  other 
musical  instrument.  It  possesses  nearly  all  the 
powers  of  expression  of  any  other  instrument ;  on 
no  other  except  the  organ  can  we  execute  such 
complete  successions  of  harmonies  ;  no  other  repre- 
sents the  orchestra  so  well,  with  the  advantage  that 
the  various  parts  adapted  to  it  are  brought  out  by 
the  same  performer.  In  all  cities  of  the  civilised 
world,  there  are  numerous  manufacturers  of  the 
pianoforte,  employing  multitudes  of  workmen  ;  and 
even  in  the  secondary  towns  of  Europe,  the  number 
of  makers  is  daily  increasing.  In  England,  the 
manufacturers  who  have  for  some  time  past  enjoyed 
the  highest  repute  are  Messrs  Broadwood,  Collard 
&  Co.,  and  Erard ;  but  other  makers  are  rapidly 
approaching  them  in  excellence.  Till  lately,  the 
German  makers  adopted  a  much  less  perfect  action 
than  the  English,  producing  a  very  different  touch 
and  tone ;  but  they  are  now  largely  using  the 
English  action,  which  is  spreading  over  the  con- 
tinent. Music  for  the  pianoforte  is  written  in  two 
Btaves,  and  on  the  treble  and  bass-cleffs.  Many  of 
the  most  eminent  musicians  have  devoted  them- 
selves to  composing  for  the  pianoforte,  and  some 
composers  of  note,  as  Hummel,  Czerny,  Kalkbrenner, 
Chopin,  Thalberg,  Liszt,  and  Heller,  have  almost 
entirely  confined  themselves  to  that  instrument. 
See  Rimbault,  The.  Pianoforte,  its  Origin,  Progress, 
and  Construction  (Lond.  1S60). 

PI'ARISTS,  called  also  familiarly  Scolopini,  or 
•  Brethren  of  the  Pious  Schools,'  a  religious  congrega- 
tion for  the  education  of  the  poor,  founded  at  Borne 
in  the  last  year  of  the  16th  century.  The  originator 
of  this  institute  was  a  Spanish  priest,  named  Joseph 
of  Calasanza,  who,  while  in  Rome,  was  struck  with 
the  imperfect  and  insufficient  character  of  the 
education  which  then  prevailed,  even  for  the  chil- 
dren of  the  higher  classes,  and  conceived  the  idea  of 
organising  a  body  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  this 
want,  which  the  Jesuit  Society  had  already  partially 
Bupplied.  The  school  which  he  himself,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  a  few  friends,  opened,  rapidly  increased  in 
number  to  100,  and  ultimately  to  700  pupils ;  and 
in  1617,  the  brethren  who,  under  the  direction  of 
Joseph,  had  associated  themselves  for  the  work, 
were  approved  as  a  religious  congregation  by  Paul 
V.  (q.  v.),  who  entered  warmly  into  this  and  all 
other  projects  of  reformation.  In  1621,  Gregory 
XV.  approved  the  congregation  as  a  religious  order. 
The  constitution  of  the  order  was  several  times 
modified  by  successive  popes,  down  to  the  time  of 
Innocent  XL  Its  held  of  operations  has,  of  course, 
been  confined  to  European  countries ;  and  at  pre- 
sent it  can  reckon  communities  in  Itaty,  Austria, 
Spain,  Hungary,  and  Poland.  In  Italy,  during  the 
revolutionary  wars,  the  P.  received  into  their  ranks 
many  members  of  the  suppressed  Society  of  the 
Jesuits.  In  Spain,  their  establishments  were  spared, 
521 


on  the  general  suppression  of  religious  orders  in 
1836.  In  Poland,  eleven  houses  still  were  in  exist- 
ence in  1832.  The  number  of  members  in  Hungary 
is  said  to  be  about  400,  and  the  order  is  also  found 
in  the  other  dependencies  of  Austria.  See  Wetser's 
Kirchen- Lex  icon. 

PIA'SSABA,  or  PIACABA,  a  remarkable  veget- 
able fibre  which,  during  the  last  twenty  years,  has 
become  an  article  of  much  importance  in  thia 
country.  It  is  procured  from  Brazil,  chieily  from 
the  ports  of  Para  and  Marauham,  and  is  produced 
by  one  or  more  species  of  palm.  That  whitb 
furnishes  the  greater  part  is  the  Coquilla-nut  Palm 
(Attcdna  fun'iftra) ;  but  Mr  Wallace  states  that  much 
of  it  is  procured  from  a  species  of  Leopoldinia,  which 
he  has  named  L.  piassaba.  The  fibre  is  produced 
by  the  stalks  of  the  large  fan-like  leaves.  When 
the  leaves  decay,  the  petioles  or  stalks  split  up  into 
bundles  of  cylindrical  fibres  of  a  dark-brown  colour, 
and  of  a  hard  texture,  varying  in  thickness  from 
that  of  a  horse-hair  up  to  that  of  a  sinall  crow-quilL 
This  material  has  been  found  of  great  utility  in 
making  brushes  of  a  coarse  kind,  particularly  those 
required  to  sweep  the  street ;  and  for  this  purpose 
they  have  almost  superseded  birch-brooms,  split 
whale-bone  brushes,  and  other  similar  means  for 
scavengers'  work.  The  coarsest  fibres  are  best  for 
such  purposes,  and  the  finer  ones  are  found  very 
valuable  for  finer  kinds  of  brushes. 

PI A'STRE  (Gr.  and  Lat.  emplastron,  a  plaister ; 
transferred  in  the  Romanic  languages  to  anything 
spread  out  or  flattened,  a  plate,  a  coin),  a  Spanish 
silver  coin  which  has  been  extensively  adopted  by 
other  nations.  It  was  formerly  divided  into  8 
silver  reals,  and  hence  was  termed  a  piece  of  eight, 
which  name  was  invariably  applied  to  it  by  the 
Bucaneers  of  the  Spanish  Main.  The  present 
Spanish  piastre,  commonly  known  as  the  peso  duro, 
peso  fuerte,  or,  briefly,  duro,  is  the  standard  of  the 
money  system,  and  is  eqiiivaleut  to  about  4«.  3d.  of 
our  money.  It  is  divided  into  20  copper  reals 
(reales  de  vellon).  In  the  Levant,  the  piastre  is 
called  a  colonnato,  on  account  of  the  original  coins, 
which  were  struck  for  use  in  Spanish  America,  bear- 
ing two  columns  on  the  reverse  side. — The  Italian 
piastre,  or  scudo,  is  an  evident  imitation  of  the 
Spanish  coin,  and  is  exactly  equal  to  it  in  value. — 
The  same  is  true  of  the  piastres  in  use  in  Chili, 
Mexico,  and  South  America,  with  the  sole  exception 
of  New  Granada,  where  it  is  about  2\d.  sterling  less. 
The  Dollar  (q.  v.)  of  the  United  States  of  North 
America  was  adopted  from  the  Spanish  piastre,  but 
is  a  fraction  less  in  value,  owing,  it  is  said,  to  an 
error  in  the  original  estimate.  The  original  Spanish 
'pillar'  piastres  or  dollars  are  current  nearly  all 
over  the  world. — The  coin  known  as  the  Turkish 
piastre  is  not  an  imitation,  but  is  an  independent 
national  silver  coin,  which,  in  1753,  was  worth  about 
3s.  dd.  sterling,  but  has  since  gradually  and  rapidly 
deteriorated,  till  at  the  present  day  it  is  equal  to 
not  more  than  2\d.  of  our  money. — The  Egyptian 
piastre  is  worth  about  2^d.  sterling.  Pieces  of  2, 
5,  10,  and  20  piastres  are  struck  in  silver,  and  of 
50  and  100  in  gold ;  the  piece  of  100  piastres  being 
in  Egypt  the  exchange  at  par  for  £1  sterling. 

PIA'ZZA,  an  open  place  or  square.  The  name  is 
also  applied  to  a  portico  or  arcade,  such  as  often 
surrounds  a  piazza  in  warm  countries. 

PIAZZI,  Giuseppe,  a  celebrated  astronomer,  was 
born  at  Ponte  in  the  Valteline,  July  16,  1746.  He 
was  received  into  the  order  of  the  Theatins  at  Milan 
in  1761 ;  and  studied  in  that  city,  and  subsequently 
in  the  houses  of  the  same  order  at  Rouie  and  Turin. 
Summoned  to  the  professorial  chair  of  Philosophy 
at  Genoa,  he  so  alarmed  the  Dominicans  by  the 


I'IBROCH— PICCOLOM  INT. 


freedom  and  boldness  of  his  opinions,  that  his  friend 
the  grand-master  thought  it  desirable  to  remove 
him  to  Malta,  where,  in  1 77",  he  became  Professor 
of  Mathematics  in  the  newly-founded  university. 
On  the  breaking  np  of  this  seminary,  he  return*  il  to 
Italy,  and  after  teaching  philosophy  in  the  Nobles' 
College  at  Ravenna,  he  went  to  Home,  where  he 
became  Professor  of  Dogmatic  Theology  in  the  insti- 
tution of  s.in  Andrea  della  Valla  lie  was  trans- 
ferred in  1780  to  the  chair  of  Mathematics  in 
Palermo  ;  and  after  some  time,  obtained  the  consent 
and  aid  of  government  to  establish  an  observatory 
nt  Palermo,  which  was  jmt  in  working  order  in 
1789.  The  first  results  of  his  observations  were, 
the  rectification  of  some  errors  in  the  estimation 
of  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  the  aberration  of 
light,  the  length  of  the  tropical  year,  and  the 
parallax  of  various  heavenly  bodies;  these  results 
were  published  in  1792.  P.  had  now  attained  a 
European  reputation,  which  was  further  heightened 
by  his  discovery,  on  the  night  of  1st  January  1801, 
of  a  new  planet,  the  first  known  of  the  great  group 
of  planetoids  between  Mars  and  Jupiter.  1'.  was 
only  able  to  give  a  description  of  it,  accompanied 
with  some  hypotheses  of  his  own,  to  some  of  the 
German  and  Italian  astronomers,  when  it  dis- 
appeared ;  Gauss  (q.  v.),  however,  rendered  certain 
the  fact  of  its  being  a  planet.  It  received  from  P. 
the  name  Ceres,  after  the  ancient  goddess  of  Sicily. 
P.  was  so  sincerely  attached  to  Sicily,  which  he 
regarded  as  if  it  were  his  native  country,  that  all 
the  splendid  offers  of  Napoleon  were  insufficient  to 
induce  him  to  remove  to  Bologna.  In  1803,  he  pub- 
lished a  map  of  the  fixed  stars,  far  superior  to  any 
before  published,  the  result  of  ten  years'  observa- 
tions :  the  work  was  crowned  by  the  Institute  of 
France.      In  1S14,  appeared  a  new  and  more  com- 

Elete  catalogue  (containing  7646  stars),  for  which 
e  was  again  rewarded  with  a  prize  from  the  French 
Institute.  He  also  made  researches  into  the  nature 
of  comets,  aided  to  regulate  the  weights  and  measures 
of  Sicily,  and  devoted  the  later  years  of  his  life 
to  the  improvement  of  public  education  in  Sicily. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  works,  of  which,  besides 
the  two  catalogues  of  stars  above  mentioned,  the 
Lezioni  Elementari  di  Astronomia  (Palermo,  1817) 
is  the  chief.  He  is  also  the  author  of  many  memoirs 
drawn  up  for  the  various  scientific  societies  of 
Europe.     P.  died,  22d  July  1S26,  at  Naples. 

PI'BROCH,  a  species  of  martial  music  performed 
on  the  bagpipe  of  the  Highlanders,  which  has  been 
found  to  have  a  wonderful  power  in  arousing  their 
military  instincts.  Its  rhythm  is  so  irregular,  and 
its  notes  in  the  quicker  parts  so  much  jumbled 
together,  that  a  stranger  has  difficulty  in  following 
the  modulations  or  reconciling  his  ear  to  them.  The 
earliest  mention  of  the  military  music  of  the  bagpipe 
is  in  1594,  at  the  battle  of  Balrinnes ;  indeed,  prior 
to  that  period,  the  bagpipe  can  hardly  be  looked  on 
as  a  national  instrument  of  Scotland.  There  are 
appropriate  pibrochs  belonging  to  various  clans  and 
districts,  but  some  of  these  may  not  be  older  than 
the  beginning  of  last  century.  One  of  the  oldest 
known  pibrochs  is  called  the  '  Battle  of  Harlaw,'  but 
it  may  be  doubted  whether  it  was  contemporary  with 
that  event  (1411).  In  the  ballad  account  of  that 
battle,  there  is  mention  of  trumpets  and  horns,  but 
none  of  the  bagpipe  ;  and  the  pibroch  style  of  music 
has  so  obvious  a  relation  to  the  bagpipe,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  suppose  that  it  preceded  the  use  of  that 
instrument.  According  to  Sir  Walter  Scott,  the 
connoisseurs  in  pipe-music  affect  to  discover  in  a 
well-composed  pibroch  the  imitative  sounds  of 
march,  conflict,  flight,  pursuit,  and  all  the  current 
of  a  heady  tight.  Many  remarkable  instances  have 
bean  recorded  of  the  ell'ect  of  the  pibroch  on  the 


Highlanders.      At  tin-  battle  of  Our!**.-,  jn  April 
1760,  whilst  the  British  tro  in«  in 

confusion,  the  pi]  ordered  to  strii 

favourite  pibroch, and  the  result  was  that  the  High- 
landers,  who  were  broken,  rallied  I 
they  heard  the  music,  and  formed  with  •_ 
in  the  rear. 

PI'CA.     See  Maopie. 

PICA.    See  Morbid  Appetites. 

PICA.     See  PsiMTIKO. 

PICARDY  (Picardie),  an  ancient  province  ia 
the  north  of  France,  was  bounded  on  tin-  W.  by 
the  English  Channel,  and  on  the  E.  bj  I 
The  name  does  not  occur  till  the  Kith  century.  Ti.e 
capital  of  this  province  was  Amiena  The  territory 
now  forms  the  department  of  Somme,  and  | 
of  the  departments  of  Aline  and  Pas-de-Culalt. 

PI'CCOLO  (Ital.  flauto  piccolo,  small  flute),  a  flute 
of  small  dimensions,  having  the  same  con 
ordinary  flute,  while  the  notes  all  sound  an  octave 
higher  than  their  notation.  In  joyous  as  well  as 
violent  passages,  this  instrument  is  sometimes  very 
effective  in  an  orchestra. 

PICCOLOMINI,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most 
distinguished  families  of  Italy,  was  originally 
settled  at  Bome,  but  afterwards  removed  to  Siena, 
and  subsequently  obtained  possession  of  the  duchy 
of  Amain*.  It  has  produced  numerous  celebrated 
litterateurs  and  warriors,  one  pope  (Pros  IL),  and 
several  cardinals.  One  of  the  most  distinguished 
in  the  history  of  this  family  was  Oitavio  P., 
the  first  Duke  of  Amalfi,  born  in  1509,  and  fifth 
in  direct  descent  from  Pope  Pius  II.  He  early 
entered  the  Spanish  military  service,  and  after 
taking  part  in  the  Milanese  campaigns,  was  sent 
as  captain  with  a  Florentine  cavalry  regiment 
to  aid  Ferdinand  II.  against  the  Bohemiaus.  As 
a  cavalry  leader,  he  distinguished  himself;  and 
from  the  regiment  of  cuirassiers  under  his  com- 
mand issued  the  death-dealing  bullet  to  Gustavns 
Adolphus.  In  1634,  he  was  placed  under  tb«j 
orders  of  Wallenstein,  who  took  a  great  fancy 
to  him,  and  confided  to  him  his  secret  designs 
against  the  emperor;  P.,  however,  communicated 
these  designs  to  the  emperor,  and  received,  as  & 
reward  for  his  fidelity,  a  part  of  Wallenstein's 
estates.  During  the  remainder  of  this  year,  he  was 
actively  engaged  against  the  Swedes,  and  greatly 
distinguished  himself  in  the  first  battle  of  Nordlin- 
gen.  In  the  following  season  he  was  sent  with 
20,000  troops  to  aid  the  Spaniards  in  the  Nether- 
lands, where  the  French  and  Dutch  were  carry- 
ing all  before  them.  P.  speedily  drove  out  the 
French,  but  his  success  against  the  Dutch  was 
not  so  marked.  He  was  withdrawn  by  the  emperor 
in  1640  to  stay  the  Swedes,  who,  under  Baner,  were 
threatening  the  hereditary  possessions  of  Austria ; 
and  his  success  against  these  invaders  in  Bohemia 
and  the  Palatinate,  though  damped  by  the  defeat 
inflicted  on  him  in  Silesia  by  Torstensohn,  induced 
the  king  of  Spain  to  entreat  the  emperor  to  send 
him  again  to  the  Netherlands  to  take  the  command 
of  the  Spanish  troops.  But  his  success  was  not 
nearly  so  decisive  as  before,  the  prestige  of  the 
Spanish  infantry  having  been  completely  desf 
by  the  great  Conde  at  Bocroi  (19th  May  1643). 
P.,  however,  was  again  successful  against  both  the 
French  and  Dutch  till  1648,  when  he  was  anew 
summoned  to  Germany  to  encounter  the  victorious 
Swedes;  but  after  a  brief  campaign,  the  peace  of 
Westphalia  (1648)  put  an  end  to  his  career.  He 
was  created  a  field-marshal  by  the  emperor,  and 
was  sent  as  plenipotentiary  to  the  Congress  of 
Nuremberg  (1649),  and  soon  after  was  raised  to  the 


PICHEGRU— PICKET. 


high  dignity  of  a  prince  of  the  empire.  The  king  of 
Spain  conferred  upon  him  the  order  of  the  Golden 
Fleece,  and  bestowed  upon  him  in  fief  the  duchy 
of  Amain,  which  had  previously  helonged  to  his 
family.  P.  died  at  Vienna,  11th  August  1656, 
leaving  no  children  ;  his  son  Max,  who  figures  in 
Schiller's  Wallenstein,  is  only  a  poetical  fiction. 
His  fame  as  a  warrior  and  general  is  somewhat 
tarnished  by  his  cruel  treatment  of  a  number  of 
Hessian  and  Liineburger  prisoners  in  1640. 

PICHEGRU,  Charles,  a  French  general,  was 
born  16th  February  1761,  at  Arbois,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Jura,  France.  Though  of  humble  parentage 
he  succeeded  in  gaining  admission  to  the  college 
of  his  native  town,  where,  and  subsequently  at 
Brienne,  he  received  a  thorough  education.  He 
was  specialty  distinguished  in  mathematics,  and  had 
some  thoughts  of  devoting  himself  to  teaching  as 
a  profession ;  but  the  advice  of  Father  Perault 
induced  him  to  enter  an  artillery  regiment  in  1783, 
and  he  had  risen  to  the  rank  of  a  lieutenant  when 
the  Revolution  broke  out.  P.  became  an  ardent 
democrat ;  joined  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  and  by 
his  brilliant  soldierly  qualities  soon  attracted 
general  attention.  In  1793,  he  became  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army,  and  in  conjunction  with  the 
army  of  the  Moselle  under  lioche,  repeatedly 
defeated  the  Austrians,  took  from  them  many 
important  towns,  as  Geimersheim,  Spire,  Worms, 
&c,  and  established  himself  in  the  Palatinate ; 
while,  after  the  arrest  of  his  coadjutor  Hoche, 
his  success  at  the  head  of  the  combined  Rhine 
and  Moselle  armies  was  not  less  decided.  The 
rapidity  and  boldness  of  his  manoeuvres,  when  he 
took  the  command  of  the  army  of  the  north,  in 
1794,  disconcerted  the  allies  ;  and  before  long  they 
were  compelled  to  retreat  beyond  the  Meuse.  After 
a  brief  respite,  P.  crossed  this  river,  driving  the 
British  before  him  ;  and  by  February  1795,  had  com- 
pleted the  conquest  of  the  Dutch  towns  and  provinces, 
ending  the  campaign  by  capturing  the  enemy's  fleet 
(which  had  been  frozen  iu).  He  next  visited  Paris, 
and  while  there,  suppressed  an  insurrection  of  the 
faubourgs  (1st  April  1795)  ;  but  soon  afterwards 
returned  to  the  array,  which  was  now  opposed  to 
the  Austrians  on  the  western  frontier,  and  for  some 
time  displayed  his  usual  skill  and  energy,  crossing 
the  Rhine  in  the  face  of  the  enemy,  and  capturing 
Mannheim,  the  chief  fortress,  on  its  banks.  But 
the  anarchy  which  he  had  found  at  Paris,  com- 
bined with  the  flattering  promises  and  bribes  held 
out  to  him  by  the  Prince  of  Conde,  converted 
P.  into  a  secret  partisan  of  the  Bourbons.  His 
remissness,  the  unwonted  folly  and  awkwardness 
of  his  military  manoeuvres,  though  prearranged 
with  the  Austrian  generals,  was  not  suspected 
till  he  suffered  himself  to  be  shamefully  defeated 
at  Heidelberg,  and  then  retreated,  leaving  Jour- 
dan  (q.  v.)  without  support,  thus  compelling  the 
latter  also  to  retire.  The  suspicions  of  the 
Directory  were  now  aroused,  and  being  confirmed 
by  the  seizure  of  P.'s  correspondence,  he  was  imme- 
diately superseded  by  Moreau  (q.  v.),  and  retired 
to  his  native  towTi,  where  he  lived  till  1797,  when 
he  was  elected  one  of  the  council  of  Five  Hundred. 
He  soon  became  president ;  but  continuing  his 
intrigues  with  the  Bourbons,  he  was  arrested,  and 
subsequently  transported  to  Cayenne.  Escaping  in 
June  1798,  he  made  his  way  to  Surinam,  whence  he 
Bailed  for  England.  He  now  entered  heart  and 
soul  into  the  Bourbon  conspiracy  along  with  George 
Cadoudal  (q.v.),  the  two  Polignacs,  De  Riviere,  and 
others,  the  primary  object  being  the  assassination  of 
the  First  Consul.  The  conspirators  secretly  reached 
Paris,  and  there  P.  attempted  to  persuade  Moreau, 
who  was  als:>  a  royalist,  to  join  with  them,  but 
625 


without  success.  But  the  plans  of  the  conspirators 
were  soon  known  to  the  police  ;  and  an  intimate 
friend  of  P.,  with  whom  he  resided,  sold  the  secret 
of  his  retreat  to  the  police  for  100,000  crowns.  P. 
was  surprised  in  his  sleep,  and  carried  off  naked  to 
the  Temple,  where  he  was  found  dead  in  his  bed 
on  the  morning  of  6th  April  1804.  The  Royalists 
have  endeavoured  to  fasten  a  charge  of  private 
assassination  on  Napoleon,  but  it  is  more  generally 
believed  that  P.  strangled  hitnself. 

PICHI'NCHA,  an  extinct  volcano  in  the  west 
Cordillera  of  the  Andes,  in  Ecuador,  about  ten  miles 
north-west  of  Quito.  It  is  of  irregular  form,  and  is 
14,9S4  feet  in  height.  Around  the  crater  are  two 
other  peaks  of  nearly  equal  elevation. 

PICHLER,  Karoline,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
novelists  of  German y,  was  born  in  1769  at  Vienna, 
where  her  father,  Franz  von  Greiner,  held  several 
legal  offices  and  court  dignities.  In  1796,  she 
married  Councillor  Andrew  Pichler,  and  published 
her  first  work  under  the  title  of  Gleichnisse  (Wien, 
1800).  This  was  quickly  followed  by  other  writings, 
as  the  novels  Olivier  (Wien,  1802)  ;  Leonora  (Wien, 
1804)  ;  Ruth  (Wien,  1805),  &c.  ;  and  the  success 
which  attended  the  appearance  of  these  productions, 
encouraged  her  to  try  a  more  ambitious  line  of  com- 
position. In  1808  appeared  Agathohles,  which, 
according  to  some  critics,  is  the  best  of  her  novels. 
In  this  work,  she  endeavoured,  in  opposition  to  the 
views  expressed  by  Gibbon,  in  his  History  of  th* 
Decline  of  the  Roman  Empire,  to  depict  the  en- 
nobling effect  of  Christianity  on  the  human  mind. 
At  the  suggestion  of  Hormayr  and  other  literary 
friends,  who  had  been  struck  by  the  success  with 
which  she  threw  herself  into  the  spirit  of  the  times 
of  which  she  wrote,  she  turned  her  attention  to  the 
task  of  popularising  German  history,  with  the  view 
of  fostering  a  more  general  feeling  of  pati-iotism. 
Among  her  best  works  of  this  kind,  which  ap- 
peared between  1811  and  1832,  and  the  earlier  of 
which  preceded  Scott's  greatest  historical  novels,  we 
may  instance  Grafen  von  Hohenberg  (Leip.  1S11); 
Die  Belageruvg  Wren's  von  16S3  (Wien,  1824)  ;  Die 
Schiveden  in  Prag  (Wien,  1827)  ;  and  Henriette  von 
England  (Wien,  1832)  ;  while  of  her  social  novels, 
the  following  are  among  the  most  popular  :  Fraueii' 
wiirde  (Wien,  1808[ ;  Die  Nebenbulder  (Wien,  1821) ; 
and  Zeitbilder  (Wien,  1840).  She  died  at  Vienna 
in  1843.  Her  dramas  were  failures,  and  in  her 
novels  there  is  not  a  little  tedious  diffuseuess, 
a  remark  which  applies  with  equal  truth  to  her 
autobiography,  which  appeared  at  Vienna  in  1S44 
under  the  title  of  Denkwurdigkeiten  a.  in.  Leben,  and 
formed  part  of  the  edition  of  her  collected  works, 
published  at  Vienna  in  1S45  in  sixty  volumes. 

PI'CKET,  in  Military  Language,  has  several 
significations.  It  applies  to  a  stake  shod  and 
sometimes  ringed  with  iron,  driven  into  the  ground, 
and  used  to  sustain  ropes,  which  mark  off  sections  iii 
a  camping -ground,  or  for  tying  horses  to.  These 
pickets  are  four  or  five  feet  long.  Short  pickets 
about  eight  inches  long  are  employed  as  anchors  for 
the  ropes  extending  tents. — In  Fortification,  picketa 
are  pointed  stakes  for  piuning  gabions  together  and 
to  the  ground ;  also,  when  pointed  at  both  ends,  and 
laid  close  together,  of  different  lengths,  and  in  a 
position  inclined  towards  the  front,  they  form  a 
powerful  obstruction  to  the  advance  of  a  storming- 
party,  having  a  great  effect  in  breaking  a  line  of 
soldiers.— Picket  was  formerly  a  military  punishment, 
where  the  culprit  wras  held  by  the  raised  arm  in 
such  a  position  that  his  whole  weight  fell  on  one 
foot,  which  was  supported  on  a  picket  with  a  blunt 
point.  The  time  the  man  thus  stood  was  propor- 
tioned to  the  offence.     The   punishment    became, 


PICKLES -PICO. 


after  a  few  moments,  extremely  painful :  it  has  long 
been  discontinued  on  sanitary  grounds. — The  word 
picket,  when  applied  to  a  small  guard  of  men,  is 
ordinarily  written  Piquet  (q.  v.). 

PICKLES.  Although  the  term  pickled  is  applied 
to  animal  substances,  such  as  beef,  pork,  fish,  &c, 
preserved  in  salt,  yet  pickles  are  generally  under- 
stood to  lie  the  various  parts  of  vegetables  preserved 
in  vinegar.  The  process  employed  is  first  to  wash 
the  articles  intended  for  pickles  in  clean  cold  water, 
and  afterwards  to  soak  them  for  a  few  days  in  a 
strong  solution  of  salt  in  water.  They  are  next 
taken  out,  and  if  fruits  or  roots,  dried  in  a  cloth  ;  hut 
if  vegetables,  such  as  cauliflower,  &c,  they  must  be 
well  drained,  and  then  placed  in  the  vessels  intended 
to  hold  them,  a  few  peppercorns,  or  any  other  spice 
which  is  suitable,  being  sprinkled  in  from  time  to 
time.  When  the  vessel  is  so  far  filled  that  it  wdl 
hold  no  more,  boiling  vinegar  is  poured  in  until  it 
is  quite  full,  and  tightly  covered  up.  Many  persons 
prefer  to  boil  the  spices,  of  whatever  kind  used,  in 
the  vinegar ;  and  some  add  the  vinegar  cold  to  such 
vegetables  or  fruit  as  are  of  a  naturally  soft  sub- 
stance, because,  except  in  the  case  of  green  walnuts, 
and  one  or  two  other  fruits,  extreme  softness  is 
objectionable  in  pickles.  When  the  materials  to  be 
pickled  are  naturally  green,  as  in  the  case  of 
gherkins  or  small  cucumbers,  French  beans,  &c,  it 
is  considered  very  desirable  to  preserve  their  colour 
as  much  as  possible  ;  and  it  is  sometimes  very  suc- 
cessfully accomplished  by  steeping  vine,  cabbage, 
spinach,  or  parsley  leaves  in  the  vinegar,  by  which 
their  colour  is  imparted  through  the  vinegar  to 
the  pickles.  But  this  requires  great  care  and 
patience,  more,  indeed,  than  is  generally  thought 
worth  applying  to  it,  and  dealers  consequently 
resort  to  very  reprehensible  methods  of  colouring 
their  pickles,  such  as  boiling  the  vinegar  in  copper 
vessels,  and  thereby  forming  an  acetate  of  copper, 
which  is  green  ;  or  even  directly  adding  that  salt 
to  the  pickles.  Many  serious  accidents  have  resulted 
from  the  presence  of  this  poison. 

The  principal  pickles  made  in  this  country  are 
cabbage,  almost  always  made  from  the  red  variety ; 
to  this  is  frequently  added  slices  of  beet-root,  which 
are  an  agreeable  addition,  and  improve  the  colour. 
The  celebrated  Spanish  pickle  is  a  mixture  of  the 
red  cabbage  and  slices  of  the  large  Spanish  onion. 
Some  housewives,  in  their  efforts  to  outrival  their 
neighbours,  add  a  little  cochineal  to  improve  the 
colour.  The  spices  considered  most  suitable  for 
pickled  cabbage  are  white  and  black  peppercorns, 
ginger,  and  mace. — Cauliflowers.  Only  the  flower 
portion,  with  its  white  branches,  is  used,  and  in 
other  respects  they  are  treated  as  cabbage. — 
Gherkins,  or  very  young  cucumbers.  These  require 
the  same  spices  as  the  cabbage ;  but  much  care  is 
required  to  keep  as  well  as  possible  their  green 
colour.  This  pickle  is  the  one  which  British  cooks 
and  housewives  most  pride  themselves  upon  making 
well;  and  almost  every  one  has  some  particular 
plan  for  its  preparation.  A  very  much  approved 
method  is  to  soak  the  gherkins  in  a  brine,  composed 
of  six  ounces  of  salt  to  the  quart  of  water  for 
twenty-four  hours,  then  drain  or  dry  in  a  cloth, 
place  them  in  jars,  and  pour  in  the  pickle,  composed 
of  vinegar,  with  an  addition  to  each  quart  of  one 
ounce  salt,  black  peppercorns  a  quarter  of  an 
ounce,  one  ounce  of  ginger  slightly  bruised,  one  or 
two  blades  of  mace,  and  a  dozen  bay-leaves.  After 
soaking  two  days,  they  are  set  on  the  fire  until 
they  simmer,  and  then  replaced  in  the  jars,  which 
must  be  well  corked,  and  covered  with  skin,  to 
exclude  the  air. — French  Beans.  The  young  green 
pods  are  prepared  in  the  same  way  as  gherkins. — 
Onions  and  Eschalots  are  carefully  peeled,  and,  after 


two  days'  steeping  in  brine,  covered  with  boiling 
vinegar,  to  which  the  spice,  usually  Mark  p 
corns,  has  been  added.  A  small  variety  of  onion, 
called  the  silver-skin,  is  generally  naedL— -IPofetcta 
These  are  gathered  green,  and  so  tender  that  a  pin 
ily  be  pushed  through  them  :  they  are  useless 
when  the  shell  lias  begun  to  form.  They  require 
at  least  a  week's  steeping  in  the  bi  ine.    'J  he  \  i 

must  be  poured  on  them  boiling  hot  The  spices 
used  are  peppercorns,  mace,  ginger,  and  sometimes 
a  little   garlic  and  cloves.-  .  ,  are  some- 

times juckled  only  in  brine,  and  are  very  useful  for 
gravies,  &c,  in  winter-time.  They  are  also  pre- 
served in  vinegar,  and  must  be  washed  in  salt  and 
water  quickly,  and  then  boiled  in  the  vinegar,  to 
which,  besides  the  spices,  a  small  quantity 
is  added. — Nasturtiums.  The  young  green  fruit  or 
seeds  of  the  Nasturtium  plant,  or  greater  Indian 
Cress  (Tropaoleum  nasturtium),  make  a  most  excel- 
lent pickle,  which  is  an  admirable  substitute  for  the 
foreign  capers  in  sauces  for  various  dishes,  and 
alone  is  an  agreeable  pickle. — Several  kinds  of 
mixed  pickles  are  made,  the  chief  of  which  is  one 
called  Picalilly,  or  '  Indian  Pickle,'  which  consists 
of  a  mixture  of  cucumber,  cauliflowers,  &c,  with  a 
considerable  quantity  of  mustard-seed  and  flour  of 
mustard  used  as  a  spice,  which  gives  it  a  bright 
yellow  colour. 

Of  the  foreign  pickles  imported  from  other  coun- 
tries, we  have  the  unopened  buds  of  the  beautiful 
plant  Capparis  spinosa,  called  Capers;  olives,  pickled 
both  in  brine  and  vinegar,  but  chiefly  in  the  former 
— both  from  Southern  Europe.  From  tropical 
countries,  every  variety  of  the  capsicum— green 
shoots  of  bamboo — and  the  fruit  of  the  mango, 
which  is  in  much  esteem  wherever  it  is  known,  not- 
withstanding a  tuqientine  flavour,  which  is  not 
agreeable  at  first.  Besides  these,  there  are  numer- 
ous other  pickles  of  less  importance,  almost  every 
soft  part  of  wholesome  vegetables  being  adapted 
for  this  mode  of  preparation.  Pickles  generally 
are  considered  provocatives  to  appetite,  and  if  used 
judiciously,  and  made  properly,  are  wholesome  and 
agreeable  additions  to  our  food. 

PI'CO,  one  of  the  Azores  Islands,  stands  midway 
between  the  eastern  and  western  extremities  of  the 
group,  a  few  mdes  south-east  of  FayaL  It  is  45 
miles  long,  and  5  miles  in  average  width  ;  area  about 
225  square  miles ;  pop. — the  descendants  of  Portu- 
guese—about 30,000.  It  is  traversed  by  a  volcanic 
ridge,  which  rises  7613  feet  high  in  the  Peak  (Pico), 
whence  the  name  of  the  island.     See  Azores. 

PICO,  Giovanni,  della  Mirandola,  an  Italian 
philosopher  and  theologian,  whose  genius  is  decidedly 
inferior  to  the  reputation  he  once  enjoyed,  was  the 
son  of  the  sovereign  prince  of  Mirandola  and  Con- 
cordia, and  was  born  24th  February  1463.  At  the 
age  of  14,  he  was  sent  to  the  university  ci  Bologna, 
and  after  spending  some  years  there,  visited  the 
principal  schools  of  Italy  and  France,  everywhere 
distinguishing  himself  by  the  extraordinary  facility 
with  which  he  mastered  the  most  difficult  branches 
of  knowledge.  His  linguistic  acquisitions  embraced 
Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and  Arabic,  besides 
Italian  and  French ;  he  was  familiar  with  the  diffe- 
rent phases  of  the  scholastic  philosophy,  and  he  was 
also  versed  in  mathematics,  logic,  and  physics.  At 
the  age  of  23,  he  returned  to  Pome,  when  Innocent 
VIII.  was  pontiff,  and  immediately  sought  an  oppor- 
tunity of  shewing  his  learning  in  the  most  striking 
manner,  by  publicly  posting  up  no  fewer  than  900 
theses  or  propositions  in  logic,  ethics,  physics, 
mathematics,  theology,  natural  and  cababstic  magic, 
drawn  from  Latin,  Greek,  Jewish,  and  Arabio 
writers,  offering  to  maintain  an  argument  on  each 

52T 


PICOTEE— PICTS. 


against  all  the  scholars  of  Europe,  and  undertaking 
to  pay  the  expenses  of  those  who  came  from  a 
distance.  P.  presumptuously  entitled  his  theses  De 
Omni  Be  Sclbili  (On  Everything  that  can  be  Known), 
and  Voltaire  sarcastically  added,  et  de  quibusdam 
aliis,  which  addition  is  as  true  as  it  is  witty.  P. 
had  several  encounters  with  notable  scholars,  and 
is  reported  to  have  come  off  victorious  on  every 
occasion.  But  his  very  success  was  the  cause  of 
misfortune.  The  church  appointed  a  committee  to 
report  on  the  propositions  of  the  young  prince, 
and  the  result  was  that  several  of  them  were 
condemned  as  '  heretical,'  although  the  author 
was  acquitted  of  any  heretical  intentions.  P.  now 
withdrew  from  Rome,  and  after  a  short  time  settled 
in  Florence,  where  he  austerely  devoted  his  whole 
time  to  the  composition  of  polemical  treatises  against 
Jews  and  Mohammedans,  and  to  the  refutation 
of  judicial  astrology.  Among  his  closest  friends  were 
Politian  and  Ficino.  He  died  17th  November  1494, 
at  the  early  age  of  31.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
works  was  published  at  Bologna  in  149G  ;  it  has  since 
been  frequently  reprinted.  The  principal  are  Hepta- 
plus,  id  est  de  Dei  Creatoris  Opere  sex  Dierum  Libri 
Septem,  an  allegorical  explanation  of  Creation  as 
recorded  in  the  Book  of  Genesis  ;  Conclusiones  Philo- 
sophicce,  CabaMs&iece  et  Theologicce— these  are  the 
famous  propositions  which  excited  so  much  ferment 
at  Rome ;  Apologia  Concordia;  Comitis ;  Disputa- 
tiones  adversus  Astrologiam  Divinatricem  Libri  xii.; 
Aurece  ad  Familiares  Epistolaz ;  De  Hominis  Dig- 
nitate.  P.  is  a  happy  illustration  of  the  immediate 
effects  produced  in  literature  by  the  'revival  of 
letters ; '  he  is  full  of  a  specious  kind  of  universal 
learning,  zealous  and  enthusiastic,  but  destitute  of 
originality,  depth,  or  creative  power.  '  He  w  as,' 
says  M.  Matter,  '  a  prodigy  of  memory,  elocution, 
and  dialectics,  but  neither  a  writer  nor  a  thinker.' 

PICOTEE.    See  Carnation. 

PICROTO'XINE  (Ci2Hu05)  is  the  active  principle 
of  Cocadus  indicus,  from  which  it  may  be  extracted 
by  boiling  alcohol,  or  by  water  containing  a  little  hy- 
drochloric acid.  It  crystallises  in  colourless  prisms. 
This  substance  is  extremely  poisonous,  one-third  of  a 
grain  being  sufficient,  when  introduced  into  the  stom- 
ach of  a  cat,  to  produce  tetanic  convulsions  and  death 
in  ten  minutes. 

PICTOU',  a  thriving  seaport  on  the  north  coast  of 
Nova  Scotia,  on  the  north  shore  of  an  ample  and  per- 
fectly protected  harbour,  85  miles  in  direct  line  north- 
north-east  of  Halifax.  Lat.  of  light-house,  45°  41'  N.; 
long.  62°  40'  W.  It  stands  in  a  fertile  and  well-cul- 
tivated district,  with  extensive  coal-mines  and  quarries 
of  building-stone  in  the  vicinity.  In  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1870,  415,728  tons  of  bituminous  coal  were 
imported  into  the  U.  States,  chiefly  from  Pictou.  It  also 
exports  building-stone,  dried  fish,  and  potatoes.  Its 
commerce  is  rapidly  increasing.  The  mean  summer 
temperature  of  P.  is  63°  52',  and  the  mean  tempera- 
ture for  the  year  is  42°  09'.     Pop.  (1871 )  3200. 

PICTS,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  north- 
eastern provinces  of  Scotland.  Everything  con- 
nected with  the  history  of  the  P.  has  been  made 
matter  of  controversy,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  ascertain 
the  truth,  where  the  information  given  by  early 
writers  is  so  scanty,  and  where  most  modern  authors 
seem  only  to  have  looked  for  materials  to  support  a 
favoui'ite  theory. 

It  will  be  unnecessary  to  enter  on  an  examina- 
tion of  the  name  itself.  The  •  Picti '  of  the  Romans 
probably  represented  a  word  by  which  the  nation 
was  known  in  its  own  language,  as  well  as  the  bar- 
baric custom  to  which  the  well-known  expression  of 
Claudian,  '  nee  falso  nomine  Pictos,'  bears  reference. 
Of  much  more  importance  is  the  inquiry  regarding 


the  origin  and  language  of  the  Picta.  This  is  what, 
among  Scottish  antiquaries,  has  been  emphatically 
called  '  the  Pictish  question  ;'  respecting  which  the 
best-known  and  most  amusing,  and  certainly  not 
the  least  useful  discussion,  is  that  between  Jonathan 
Oldbuck  and  Sir  Arthur  Wardonr,  in  the  sixth 
chapter  of  The  Antiquary.  The  disputants  can 
hardly  even  now  be  said  to  be  agreed  ;  but  the 
prevailing  opinion  is,  what  sound  criticism  always 
pointed  to,  that  the  P.  were  a  Celtic  race— perhaps 
the  first  known  inhabitants  of  Northern  Britain,  and 
(as  some  hold)  to  be  identified  with  the  Caledo- 
nians of  the  Roman  writers.  At  the  time  when  they 
became  generally  spoken  of  under  the  name  of  P., 
they  occupied  the  whole  territory  north  of  the  Firth 
of  Forth,  except  the  western  portion,  which  had  been 
colonised  or  subdued  by  the  Scots,  another  Celtic 
nation,  whose  chief  seat  was  in  Ireland — the  proper 
and  ancient  Scotland.  The  southern  boundary 
of  the  P.  was  the  Roman  province  of  Valentia, 
embracing  the  territory  between  the  two  Roman 
walls.  At  a  later  period,  when  Britain  was  aban- 
doned by  its  imperial  rulers,  the  boundaries  of  the 
various  nations  occupying  the  northern  part  of  the 
island  may  be  traced  with  considerable  distinctness. 
Making  allowance  for  partial  changes  at  various 
times,  these  boundaries  may  be  held  to  be  the  fol- 
lowing :  The  Pictish  territory  extended  along  the 
whole  sea-coast  from  the  Firth  of  Forth  to  the 
Pentland  Firth.  It  was  bounded  on  the  west  by 
the  country  of  the  Scots,  which  extended  along 
the  western  coast  from  the  Firth  of  Clyde  to  the 
modern  Ross-shire ;  but  the  precise  line  between 
the  two  nations  cannot  be  ascertained.  The  country 
of  the  P.  was  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Firth  of 
Forth  and  the  province  of  Lothian,  then  possessed 
by  the  English  ;  while  the  country  of  the  Scots  had 
for  its  southern  boundaries  the  Firth  of  Clyde  and 
the  kingdom  of  Cumbria,  held  by  the  independent 
Britons. 

The  Pictish  nation  consisted  of  two  great  divi- 
sions, called  the  Northern  and  the  Southern  P.,  the 
boundary  between  them  being  the  mountain  range 
known  afterwards  as  the  Grampians.  These  divi- 
sions seem  at  some  times  to  have  been  ruled  by 
different  princes,  at  other  times  to  have  been  under 
one  sovereign.  The  P.  were  converted  to  Christianity 
at  different  periods.  The  Southern  P.  received  the 
faith  from  St  Ninian,  Bishop  of  Candida  Casa,  early 
in  the  5th  century.  Thi3  is  mentioned  by  Bede,  and 
the  fact  itself  has  never  been  doubted  ;  but  contro- 
versy, as  usual,  has  been  busy  with  the  details. 
The  point  in  dispute  is  the  situation  of  the  P.  who 
owed  their  conversion  to  Ninian  (q.  v.).  A  careful 
examination  of  the  statements  of  Venerable  Bede, 
and  the  fuller  but  less  trustworthy  narrative 
of  Ailred  of  Ptievaux,  will  shew  that  the  Southern 
P.,  converted  by  Ninian,  had  their  seat  north  of  the 
Forth ;  that  they  were,  in  fact,  the  great  division 
of  the  Pictish  nation  occupying  the  coiintry  between 
the  Firth  and  the  Grampians.  The  labours  of 
Ninian  were  carried  on  and  completed  by  teachera 
whose  names  are  well  known  to  the  readers  of 
ecclesiastical  history — Palladium,  Serf,  Ternan,  and 
others.  The  Northern  P.  owed  their  conversion  to 
a  teacher  of  higher  renown — St  Columba  (q.  v.).  The 
life  of  that  abbot,  from  his  leaving  Ireland  in  563,  to 
his  death  in  597,  was  chiefly  spent  in  converting  the 
Northern  Picts.  Their  ruler  at  this  time  was  Brude, 
son  of  Mailcon,  whom  Bede  styles  a  very  powerful 
king.  His  chief  residence  was  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ness,  and  there  Columba  baffled  and  confuted 
the  heathen  Magi  in  the  manner  recorded  by  hia 
biographer  Adamnan.  It  is  impossible  to  ascertain 
the  precise  character  of  the  superstitions  held  by  the 
P.  before  their  conversion.     Those  whom  Adaninao 


ticts. 


calls  Magi,  are  by  some  modern  writers  styled 
Druids,  and  their  religion  is  said  to  have  been  a 
■pedes  of  Druidism  whatever  that  may  he  held 
to  mean. 

Brude,  the  first  Christian  king  of  the  P.,  died 
in  686.  Catalogues  are  preserved,  of  more  or  less 
authority,  of  the  sovereigns  who  succeeded  him. 
It  is  impossible  to  reconcile  the  discrepancies  of 
these  lists,  which  probably  contain  the  names 
of  princes  who  reigned  at  the  same  time  in  the 
northern  and  southern  divisions  of  the  kingdom. 
The  limits  of  the  Pictish  territories  continued  much 
the  same  till  the  middle  of  the  7th  c.,  when  a  portion 
of  the  southern  province  was  subdued  by  Oswy, 
king  of  Northumbria.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
reign  of  Oswy's  son  and  successor,  Egfrid,  the  P. 
made  an  attempt  to  recover  the  territory  which  had 
been  wrested  from  them.  It  was  unsuccessful ;  and 
the  power  of  the  English  was  so  firmly  established, 
that  the  conquered  province  was  erected  into  a 
diocese  separate  from  Lindisfarne,  the  seat  of  the 
bishop  being  fixed  at  Abercorn.  Encouraged  by  the 
success  which  had  attended  his  enterprises,  Egfrid 
aeems  to  have  contemplated  the  subjugation  of  the 
whole  Pictish  kingdom.  He  advanced  northwards 
with  his  army  ;  Brude,  son  of  Bili,  king  of  the  P., 
retreating  before  him.  The  English  sovereign  passed 
the  Taj%  and  the  P.  made  a  stand  at  Nechtansmere, 
supposed  to  be  Dunnichen,  in  Angus.  A  conflict 
ensued  ;  the  English  were  utterly  defeated,  and 
their  king  was  slain.  The  consequences  of  this 
battle,  which  was  fought  on  the  20th  of  May  6S5, 
were  very  important.  The  P.  recovered  the  whole 
territory  which  they  had  lost,  and  even  subdued 
for  a  time  a  portion  of  the  proper  Northumbrian 
kingdom. 

The  next  Pictish  prince  whose  name  calls  for 
special  notice  is  Nectan,  son  of  Dereli,  who  suc- 
ceeded about  the  year  710.  He  cultivated  learning 
to  some  extent,  and  aspired  to  the  position  of  an 
ecclesiastical  reformer.  The  Pictish  Church  held 
precisely  the  same  doctrines  as  the  English ;  but 
it  differed  in  various  points  of  ritual,  the  most 
important  of  which  related  to  the  proper  time  of 
keeping  Easter.  The  king  applied  for  advice  to 
Ceolfrid,  Abbot  of  Jarrow,  and  the  answer,  which 
is  addressed  '  To  the  most  Excellent  Lord,  and  most 
Glorious  King,  Nectan,'  is  preserved  among  the 
works  of  Venerable  Bede.  Encouraged  by  this 
epistle,  he  summoned  a  council  of  his  clergy  and 
nobles,  and  enjoined  them  to  observe  the  English 
usages.  The  royal  command  met  with  a  ready 
obedience.  He  had  also  applied  to  the  Abbot  of 
Jarrow  for  architects  to  build  a  church  of  stone  in 
the  Roman  fashion,  which  he  proposed  to  dedicate 
to  St  Peter.  We  are  told  by  Bede  that  the  archi- 
tects were  sent,  but  have  no  further  information  on 
this  interesting  subject.  The  plans  of  the  king 
were  probably  interrupted  by  dissensions- among 
his  people  ;  and  the  entire  assimilation  of  the  eccle- 
siastical institutions  of  Northern  Britain  to  those 
of  England  was  postponed  for  four  centuries. 

The  most  active  of  all  the  Pictish  sovereigns 
was  Hungus,  son  of  TJrgust,  who  succeeded  in  730, 
and  reigned  for  thirty  years.  He  was  engaged  in 
constant  wars  with  the  Scots,  the  Britons,  and  the 
English,  in  which  he  was  generally  victorious. 
After  his  death,  the  kingdom  began  to  decline. 
The  history  of  its  latest  period  is  involved  in  impe- 
netrable obscurity  ;  all  that  we  know  for  certain  is 
the  final  result.  Various  princes  claimed  the  crown, 
and  held  possession  of  portions  of  the  kingdom. 
But  the  most  powerfid  competitor  was  Kenneth, 
eon  of  Alpin,  king  of  the  Scots,  who  was  descended, 
in  the  female  line,  from  the  ancient  sovereigns  of  the 
P.,  and  was  probably  the  true  inheritor,  according 
34G 


to  the  peculiar  law  of  succession  which  is  said  to 
have  existed  among  that  nation.  Kenneth  was 
acknowledged  as  king  in  Mill  and  fixed  his  re  idenoe 
at  Forteviot  in  Stratherne,the  capital  of  the  Pictish 
kingdom. 

A  famous  passage  from  Henry  of  Huntingdon  has 
often  been  quoted,  in  illustration  oi  the  supposed 
utter  destruction  of  the  P.,  of  their  princes,  their 
race,  and  their  language.  It  is  referred  to  in  that 
sense  at  the  close  of  the  following  sentences  of  a 
work  published  a  few  years  ago;  'The  Pictish 
vessel  is  seen  in  the  distant  horizon;  Bhe  ap- 
proaches rapidly,  till  you  clearly  distinguish  the 
crew  upon  the  deck;  hut  before  you  arc  near 
enough  to  hear  their  voices,  she  sinks,  the  waters 
close  over  her,  and  the  wreck  never  can  be  raised. 
The  total  extinction  of  the  Pictish  language  ren- 
ders any  further  inquiry  impossible.  The  acumen 
and  criticism  of  the  nineteenth  century  cannot  ad- 
vance beyond  the  homely  wisdom  of  the  twelfth 
century.'  —  Sir  Francis  Palgravc's  History  of  Nor- 
mandy  and  of  England  (4  vols.,  1851 — 1864),  vol. 
iv.,  p.  294. 

The  impression  conveyed  by  such  words  is  an 
erroneous  one.  The  Pictish  princes  still  continued 
to  reign  in  the  persons  of  Kenneth  and  his  descend- 
ants. They  were  kings  of  the  P.  in  reality  and  by 
race,  as  much  as  James  I.  and  his  successors  were 
kings  of  England.  The  princes  did  not  cease  in  the 
one  case  more  than  in  the  other  to  be  sovereigns  of 
the  larger  kingdom,  because  they  had  previously 
rided  in  the  lesser  one.  Neither  did  the  nation  of 
the  P.  cease  to  exist.  They  dwelt  as  before  in  their 
own  land;  their  old  capital  was  the  capital  of  the 
new  kingdom  ;  and  Pictavia  is  spoken  of  by  the 
chronicles  long  after  the  accession  of  Kenneth,  and 
long  before  Scotia  became  identified  with  Northern 
Britain,  or  ceased  to  be  the  ordinary  name  for 
Ireland.  Undoubtedly,  through  the  influence  of 
the  kings,  and  perhaps  of  the  clergy,  whom  the 
later  Pictish  princes  had  held  under  an  oppressive 
bondage,  the  Scots  became  the  predominant  race, 
and  finally  gave  their  name  to  the  united  kingdom 
and  nation.  Neither  did  the  language  of  the  P. 
cease  to  be  spoken.  It  continued,  as  before,  to  be 
the  dialect  of  the  north-eastern  provinces,  till,  first 
in  the  extreme  north,  it  yielded  to  the  Scandi- 
navian invader,  and  afterwards — more  than  two 
centuries  subsequently  to  the  accession  of  Kenneth 
— it  began  to  recede  slowly  before  the  Teutonic 
tongue '  of  English  and  Flemish  colonists.  The 
same  process  which  destroyed  the  Celtic  language 
of  the  Pictish  people,  destroyed  also  the  Celtic 
language  of  the  British  kingdom  of  Cumbria.  There 
is  no  more  reason  to  question  the  causes  which 
overthrew  the  ancient  dialect  of  Fife  and  Buchan, 
than  there  is  to  question  those  which  subverted 
the  old  speech  of  Carrick  and  Clydesdale.  If  any- 
thing were  wanting  to  refute  completely  the  popular 
error  in  regard  to  the  destruction  of  the  Pictish 
language,  it  would  be  supplied  by  the  recent 
discovery  at  Cambridge  of  a  manuscript  of  the 
11th  or  12th  c  (see  Deek,  Old)  which  contains  the 
Celtic  record  how  Columba  and  Drostan  came  from 
Iona  to  Aberdour,  and  how  Bede  the  Pict,  who  was 
then  Maormor  of  Buchan,  gave  them  the  cities  of 
Aberdour  and  Deer. 

The  chief  ancient  authorities  for  the  history  of 
the  P.  are  Adamnan's  Life  of  St  Columba,  edited 
by  Dr  Beeves  ;  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Vener- 
able Bede  ;  the  Life  of  St  Ninian,  by  Ailred  of 
Bievaux,  in  Pinkerton's  Ancient  Lives  of  Scottish 
Saints;  the  Pictish  Chronicle,  in  the  appendix 
to  Innes's  Critical  Essay  on  the  Ancient  Inhabit- 
ants  of  Scotland,  and  in  the  appendix  to  Jmker* 
ton's  'inquiry  into   the  History   of  Scotland ;    and 


PICTS'  HOUSES— PIEDMONT. 


the  Irish  Annals,  edited  by  0' Conor.  The  best 
modern  works  on  the  subject  are  Innes's  Critical 
Essay,  and  his  Civil  and  Ecclesiastical  History  of 
Scotland;  Pinkerton's  Inquiry;  Chaimers's  Cale- 
donia, vol.  L  ;  Ritson's  Annals  of  the  Caledonians, 
Picts,  and  Scots;  Mr  Grab's  Ecclesiastical  History 
of  Scotland,  vol.  i.  ;  and  a  dissertation  *  On 
the  Probable  Relations  of  the  Picts  and  Gael  with 
the  other  Tribes  of  Great  Britain'  in  Garnett's 
Philological  Essays,  pp.  196—204. 

PICTS'  HOUSES,  the  name  popularly  given  in 
many  parts  of  Scotland  to  the  rude  underground 
buildings,  more  commonly  and  accurately  called 
Earth-houses  (q.  v.).  The  name  is  often  given 
also  to  a  more  advanced  class  of  buildings  of  the 
same  kind,  found  in  the  more  northern  counties  of 
Scotland.  The  ground-plan  of  one  of  these  at 
Kettleburn,  in  Caithness,  explored  and  described 
by  the  late  Mr  A.  H.  Rhind,  of  Sibster,  is  figured 
in  the  accompanying  woodcut.     The  outmost  circle 


20  Feet. 

ifict's  House  at  Kettleburn,  Ground-plan. 

represents  the  extreme  limits  of  the  mound  which 
covered  tbe  structure;  a,  a  bouncing  wall,  three 
feet  thick,  and  three  feet  high,  rudely  built  of  large 
unshaped  stones  ;  b,  an  inner  wall,  four  or  five  feet 
high  ;  c  and  d,  fragments  of  walls  faced  outwards ; 
e  and  /'  passages  leading  to  the  inner  chambers ; 
g,  h,  and  i,  passages  leading  to  smaller  side  cham- 
bers ;  k,  a  wall  within  the  wall  of  the  chamber  s; 
m,  a  chamber,  so  ruined  that  its  walls  could  not  be 
traced  all  round ;  n,  a  large  boulder,  which,  being 
difficult  to  remove,  had  been  buiit  over;  o,  a 
chamber  containing  a  regularly  built  well  (between 
p  and  p),  nine  feet  deep,  and  roofed  over.  The 
whole  walls  were  built  without  mortar.  The  objects 
found  within  them  were  remains  of  animals  and 
shell-fish,  fragments  of  pottery,  and  implements  of 
stone,  bone,  horn,  bronze  and  iron.  The  name  of 
Picts'  Houses  is  also  occasionally  given  in  the  north 
of  Scotland  to  rude  stone  structures  above  ground. 

PICTURES  are  now  protected  in  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain  in  a  manner  similar  to  books  the  copy- 
right of  which  belongs  to  some  individual.  By  the  act 
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right is  desired,  inclosing  one  dollar  for  each  certificate 
of  copyright,  must  be  sent  by  mai1  to  the  Librarian  of 
630 


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posited, the  copyright  is  void,  and  a  penalty  of  $25  ia 
incurred.  Copyrights  recorded  prior  to  July  8,  1 870, 
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require  re-entry  at  Washington.  But  one  copy  of  each 
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void. 

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PI'CUS  and  PI'CID^E.     See  Woodpecker. 

PIEDMONT,  or  PIEMONT  (Fr.  pied,  foot, 
mont,  mountain),  an  Italian  principality,  which 
now  forms  the  north-west  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Italy,  is  enclosed  mostly  by  natural  boundaries, 
having  on  the  N.  the  Pennine  Alps,  on  the  W.  the 
Graian  and  Cottian  Alps,  on  the  S.  the  Maritime 
Alps  and  Genoa,  and  on  the  E.  the  Ticiuo  and  the 
duchy  of  Parma.  It  includes  the  former  duchy  of 
Montferrat  (q.  v.),  which  lies  in  its  south-eastern 
corner,  and  the  Sardinian  portion  of  the  old  duchy 
of  Milan,  and  contains  11,777  English  square 
miles,  with  a  population  (1871)  of  2,834,155. 
The  mountain  ranges  which  form  its  boundary 
on  the  north,  west,  and  south,  attain,  in  various 
places,  a  great  elevation  above  the  sea  ;  the  Col 
de  Tende,  Monte  Viso,  Mont  Cenis,  Mont  Iseran, 
Mont  Blanc,  Mont  St  Bernard,  Mont  Cervin, 
Monte  Rosa,  and  the  Simplon,  being  all  on  the 
boundary-line.  As  to  its  general  character, 
the  country  is  partly  mountainous,  partly  hilly, 
and  much  diversified  with  hill  and  dale ;  the 
ranges  which  traverse  the  country  being  spurs  from 
the  alpine  boundary,  and  converging  towards  the 
central  tract,  through  which  flow  the  Po  and  its 
chief  tributary  the  Tanaro.  The  valleys  which 
separate  these  ranges  are  all  watered  by  rivers 
which  take  their  rise  in  the  Alps,  and  pour  their 
supplies  into  either  the  Po  or  the  Tanaro,  according 
as  they  come  from  the  north  and  west,  or  from  the 
south.  The  amount  of  the  water-supply  in  the 
country  may  be  imagined  when  it  is  considered  that 
in  P.  the  Po  receives  no  fewer  than  10  tributaries 
on  the  left,  and  6  on  the  right,  all  of  them  of  con- 
siderable size,  and  some  of  them,  as  the  Tanaro  and 
Dora  Baltea,  worthy  of  being  classed  as  rivers. 
The  valleys  of  the  Po  and  Tanaro  are  exceed- 
ingly rich  and  fertile,  producing  abundant  crops 
of  grain,  pulse,  hemp,  chestnuts,  olives,  and  many 
kinds  of  fruit.  Maize  and  barley  are  the  chief 
cereals,  the  former  being  the  ordinary  article  of  food 
to  the  inhabitants,  while  abundant  herds  of  swine 
are  fed  upon  the  latter.  The  climate  is  mild  in 
winter;  but  in  summer,  especially  on  the  level 
country  east  of  the  Dora  Baitea  and  the  Tanaro, 
the  heat  is   scorching,    and  *his  porticn   would   be 


PIEPOWDER  COURT— PIETA. 


rendered  a  perfect  sandy  desert,  were  it  not  for 
the  complete  system  of  irrigation,  which  supplies 
moisture  to  more  than  half  a  million  of  acres, 
and  renders  the  eastern  districts  the  granary  of 
the  country.  So  valuable  is  the  privdege  of  using 
the  water  of  rivers  as  a  means  of  irrigation,  that  a 
considerable  tax  is  levied  upon  it.  The  other  pro- 
ducts of  P.  are  wine  and  silk,  which  are  produced 
in  great  abundance,  especially  Bilk,  which  is  the 
best  in  Italy,  and  is  generally  exported  raw.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  silk,  linen,  woollen,  and 
cotton  goods,  hosiery,  paper,  leather,  cutlery,  various 
fermented  liquors,  glass,  and  iron.  The  inhabitants 
are  active  and  industrious,  and  mostly  belong  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion,  but  are  more  tolerant 
than  in  other  parts  of  Italy.  The  Vaudois  or 
Waldenses  (q.  v.),  have  from  time  immemorial 
inhabited  the  wild  vales  at  the  foot  of  the  Cottian 
Alps,  in  the  western  corner  of  the  principality.  Many 
of  the  Piedmontese,  like  the  Swiss  and  Tyrolese, 
spend  their  youth  and  early  manhood  in  travelling 
through  other  countries  as  dealers  in  engravings, 
jewellery,  and  other  articles  of  merchandise,  and 
returning  with  a  small  hoard  to  spend  the  rest  of 
their  days  in  comfort  in  their  native  land. 

P.,  in  the  10th  c,  was  possessed  by  the  marquises 
of  Susa,  Ivrea,  Montferrat,  and  Saluzzo ;  and  it  was 
not  till  when,  a  century  afterwards,  the  marquisate 
of  Susa  passed  into  the  House  of  Savoy,  that  the 
latter,  then  counts  of  the  Maurienne  (the  south 
portion  of  Savoy),  gained  a  footing  in  the  country. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  12th  c,  the  possessions 
of  the  House  of  Savoy  were  divided,  and  the  lines 
of  Savoy  and  P.  formed  ;  but  they  were  again  united, 
in  1416,  by  Amadeus  VIIL  (afterwards  Pope  Felix 
V.),  who,  in  the  following  year,  obtained  from  the 
Emperor  Sigismund  the  title  of  Duke  of  Savoy, 
which  they  exchanged  for  that  of  king  in  1684. 
During  the  Spanish  War  of  Succession,  P.  was 
increased  by  the  addition  of  the  provinces  of 
Alessandria,  Valence,  Lomellino,  and  the  Val  di 
Sesia  (1703),  by  Tortona  and  Novara  in  1735— 
1736,  and  by  Vigevanase  and  Bobbio  in  1743.  In 
1796,  it  was  seized  by  the  French,  and  parcelled  out 
into  six  departments,  five  being  incorporated  with 
France,  and  one  with  the  kingdom  of  Italy ;  but 
after  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  the  House  of  Savoy 
recovered  possession  of  it.  See  Italy,  Sardinia, 
Savoy.  Since  I860,  the  name  P.,  as  a  provincial 
designation,  has  been  disused  ;  and  in  the  new  divi- 
eion  of  Italy  into  provinces,  the  boundaries  of  P.  as  a 
distinct  country  have  been  disregarded. 

PIE'POWDER  COURT,  in  England,  an  ancient 
court  held  in  fairs  and  markets  to  administer  justice 
in  a  rough  and  ready  way  to  all  comers,  called  also 
the  Court  of  Dusty  Foot  (Fr.  pied  poudreux).  Its 
jurisdiction  seems  to  have  been  confined  mostly  to 
petty  vagabonds,  pedlers,  and  other  wanderers. 
The  court  has  long  been  obsolete,  the  only  juris- 
diction of  that  kind  being  now  merged  in  the  court 
of  Petty  Sessions  (q.  v.). 

PIER,  the  block  of  solid  wall  between  doors, 
windows,  &c. ;  also  a  solid  mass  of  masonry  built  to 
receive  the  arch  of  a  bridge.  The  term  is  also  used 
synonymously  for  the  Pillars  (q.  v.)  of  a  church ; 
thus,  we  speak  of  nave-piers,  &c. 

PIERCE,  Franklin,  the  fourteenth  President 
of  the  U.S.  of  America,  was  born  in  Hillsborough, 
New  Hampshire,  November  23,  1804.  His  father, 
General  Benjamin  Pierce,  was  a  soldier  of  the  war 
of  independence,  and  governor  of  New  Hampshire. 
Franklin  P.  was  educated  at  Bowdoin  College,  Maine, 
and  was  an  officer  in  a  college  military  company,  in 
which  his  biographer,  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  was  a 
private.     He  spent  his  first  vacation  in  teaching  a 


country  school,  studied  law  with  Levi  Woodbury, 

Sovernorand  senator,  was  admitted  to  the  barin  1S-J7, 
■  Speaker  of  the  state  House  of  Kepi  | 

tives  in  1829,  and  was  elected  to  the  33d  >■>«■..  * 

democrat  of  the  school  of  Jackson.  In  1837,  be  was 
elected  to  |  nate,  of  which  he  was  the 

youngest  member.  He  declined  tin-  office  of  Attor- 
ney-general, offered  him  by  President  Polk,  and 
refused  the  nomination  for  governor  of  New  Hamp- 
shire ;  and  at  the  commencement  of  the  Mexican 
war,  volunteered  as  a  private,  but  was  appointed 
brigadier-general,  and  led  his  brigade  in  the  battles 
of  Contreras  and  Churubusco.  In  1852,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  conflicting  claims  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Democratic  party  at  the  Baltimore  Convention,  he 
was  nominated  as  a  compromise  candidate  for  the 
presidency,  against  General  Scott,  the  Whig  nomi- 
nee, and  received  the  votes  of  all  but  four  states. 
He  appointed  an  able  cabinet,  including  Jefferson 
DaA  is  as  Secretary  of  War.  During  his  administra- 
tion, the  Missouri  Compromise  was  repealed  ;  the 
treaty  for  reciprocity  of  trade  with  the  British 
American  colonies  was  made,  and  a  treaty  with 
Japan ;  and  the  Kansas  difficulties  which  then  arose, 
with  the  growing  animosity  between  the  North 
and  South,  led  to  secession,  and  the  war  of  1861.  At 
the  close  of  his  term  of  office  in  1857,  he  travelled 
in  Europe,  and,  having  no  sympathy  with  the  party 
which  subsequently  came  into  power,  took  no  part  in 
politics.  His  biography  was  written  in  1852,  by  his 
friend  and  classmate,  Hawthorne,  whom  he  appointed 
U.  S.  consul  at  Liverpool.  Mr  P.  was  a  man  of 
moderate  ability,  and  owed  his  advancement  more  to 
amiable  personal  qualities  than  to  statesmanship.  He 
died  on  October  8,  1869. 

PIERCED,  in  Heraldry,  a  term  used  to  indicate 
that  a  charge  is  perforated  so  as  to  shew  the  field 
beneath  it.  The  aperture  is  presumed  to  be  circular, 
unless  some  other  form,  as  square-pierced  or  lozenge- 
pierced,  be  specified  in  the  blazon. 

PIERRE,  Jacques  Henri,  Bernardin  de  St,  a 
celebrated  French  writer,  was  born  at  Havre,  19th 
January  1737.  He  received  his  education  at  Caen 
and  Rouen,  and  afterwards  entered  the  government 
department  of  civil  engineers.  On  his  dismissal 
from  this  service  in  1761,  he  wandered  about  the 
continent  for  several  years,  endeavouring  to  realise 
his  dream  of  a  republican  colony.  His  adventures 
at  St  Petersburg,  Moscow,  Warsaw,  and  Dresden 
shew  what  an  utter  simpleton  and  sentimentalist 
P.  was  in  his  ideas  of  life.  He  returned  to  France 
in  1766,  and  soon  after  obtained  a  commission  as 
engineer  for  the  Mauritius,  but  parted  from  his  com- 
panions ;  and  after  a  residence  of  three  years  in  the 
island,  he  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  made  many 
literary  acquaintances.  At  this  time,  he  wrote  the 
story  of  Paul  et  Virginie,  while  his  remembrance  of 
tropical  scenery  was  still  fresh.  The  little  book,  with 
its  passion,  its  simplicity,  its  tenderness,  achieved 
an  immense  success,  and  has  been  translated  into 
almost  every  language.  St  P.  passed  through  the 
storms  of  the  Revolution  in  safety,  and  was  lucky 
enough  to  secure  the  patronage  of  Napoleon.  From 
the  Emperor,  he  received  the  legion  of  honour  and 
a  pension.  He  died  at  Erangy-sur-Oise,  21st  Jan- 
uary 1814.  Besides  Paul  et  Virginie,  he  wrote 
La  Chaumiere  Indienne  ('  The  Indian  Cottage '), 
essays,  a  narrative  of  his  journey  to  the  Mauritius, 
and  several  plays.  His  (Euvres  Completes,  preceded 
by  a  life  of  the  author,  have  been  edited  by  M. 
Aime-Martin  (12  vols.,  1818—1820). 

PIETA'  (an  Italian  word  signi  Eying  piety,  in  the 
sense  in  which  that  term  indicates  or  includes  affec- 
tion for  relatives),  the  name  given  in  the  language 
of    art    to    representations    of    the    Virgin    Mary 


PIETISTS-PIETRA-DTJRA. 


embracing  the  dead  body  of  her  son.  It  is  a  coun- 
terpart to  the  Madonna  with  the  infant  Jesus  in  her 
arms.  The  one  affords  an  opportunity  for  the  i-epre- 
sentation  of  the  purest  joy  and  highest  motherly 
love;  the  other,  of  the  utmost  pain  and  grief.  The 
pieta  has  long  been  a  favourite  subject,  not  only 
with  painters,  but  with  sculptors.  A  famous  one  by 
Michael  Angelo  is  in  the  Chui-ch  of  St  Peter  at 
Pome. 

PI'ETISTS,  a  designation  given  since  the  end  of 
the  17th  c.  to  a  religious  party  in  Germany,  which, 
without  forming  a   separate  sect,  is  distinguished 
not  only  by  certain  peculiarities  of  religious  opinion, 
but  also  by  the  manner  in  which  these  are  mani- 
fested.    The  peculiar  character  of  their  religion  is 
very  generally  denoted  by  the  term  pietism,  which 
is  frequently  employed  with  reference  to  the  same 
tendencies  of  opinion,  feeling  and  conduct,  where- 
soever and  whensoever  exhibited.     Pietism  may  be 
regarded  as  consisting  in  an  exaltation  of  the  im- 
portance of  religious  feeling,  and  of  the  practical 
part  of  religion,  with  a  corresponding  depreciation  of 
doctrinal  differences,  and  a  contempt  for  outward 
ecclesiastical  arrangements ;  and  has  been  more  or 
less   strongly  developed  from  time  to  time  in  all 
sections  of  the  church,  a  tendency  towards  it  always 
existing  in  a  large  class  of  earnestly  religious  minds. 
In  the  church  of  the  middle  ages,  this  tendency  was 
displayed  in  an  endeavour  to  attain  to  a  superior 
spirituality  and  purity  by  means  of  religious  con- 
templation and  asceticism,  and  many,  consequently, 
embraced  a  monastic  life.     The  Reformers,  adopting 
the   Augustinian  doctrines,  rejected  this  mode  of 
seeking  deliverance  from   indwelling  sin,  and  pro- 
claimed the  efficacy  of  faith  in  the  sacrifice  of  Christ. 
But  the  controversies  which  arose  among  them,  and 
increased    among  their  successors,  gradually  gave 
a   too   exclusively   doctrinal    and    polemical    char- 
acter  to  the   sermons    and   writings    both   of  the 
Lutheran   and   Calvinistic   divines,  particularly  in 
Germany,  and  a  reaction  ensued,  not  in  favour  of 
the  Church  of  Pome,  but  in  favour  of  a  religion  of 
feeling  and  good  works,  or  of  the  heart  and  life. 
Disgust  at  the  sectarian  bitterness  and  exclusive- 
ness  which  prevailed,  led  even  to  an  undervaluing 
of  disputed  points ;  and  thus  the  Pietism  of  Ger- 
many was  generated  and  developed.     The  origin  of 
it  is  referred  to  a  work  entitled  Vom  wahren  Chris-  I 
tenthume,  by  John  Arnd,  published  in  1605 ;  to  the 
Jnvitatio  Fraternitatis  Christi  of  John  Val.  Andreas, 
published  in  1617,  both  of  them  Lutherans  ;  and  to 
the  writings  of  Cocceius,  a  Calvin  ist.    But  its  f idler 
development   is  unquestionably  to  be   ascribed  to 
Spener  (q.  v.),  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  c,  and 
to  his  friends  and  disciples.     The  name  Pietists  was 
first  given  in  contempt  to  certain  young  docents  in 
Leipzig,  who  began  in  1689  to  give  prelections  on 
the  New  Testament  both  to  students  and  citizens,  and 
to  addict  themselves  much  to  a  meditative  mode 
of  life.     Spener  had  held  meetings  of  a  somewhat 
similar  kind  in  his  own  house   when  preacher  at 
Frankfurt-on-tke-Maine,   and  in   his  writings  had  \ 
urged  the  necessity  of  a  reform  in  the  Protestant 
church    and    theology.      He    and    his    followers  i 
dwelt  much  upon  the  importance  of  studying  the  | 
Scriptures  rather  than  the  symbolical  books,  upon  j 
the  unfitness  of  any  unconverted  or  unregenerate  | 
person    for  the   office   of    the    ministry,    upon   the 
right  and  duty  of  the  laity  to  take  part  in  the  exer- 
cises of  Christian  assemblies,  and  upon  the  necessity 
of  a  practical  rather  than  a  systematic  religion.   But 
many  of  the  more  extreme  Pietists  carried  their 
antipathy  to  the  doctrinalism  and  the  established 
services  of  the  church  to  a  degree  that  alarmed  the 
theologians  of    the  old  school,  the  high  and   dry 
Lutherans,  or  German  'moderates,'   who    accused 
532 


Spener  and  his  disciples,  not  without  reason,  of  a 
tendency  to  make  all  goodness  and  virtue  consist  in 
mere  religious  feeling,  or  pious  sentimentalism  ;  to 
represent  the  divine  grace  as  operating  in  too  sudden 
and  abrupt  a  manner ;  to  exaggerate  the  value  of 
:  good  works ;  to  depreciate  the  value  of  learning  and  it 
clear  intellectual  perception  in  the  study  of  Scripture ; 
and  to  indulge  in  a  strictness  of  judgment  upon  the 
i  religious  character  of  the  ordained  clergy,  tending  to 
sectarianism,  and  indeed  incompatible  with  eccle- 
siastical unity.    The  weapons  of  argument,  however, 
i  were  not  the  only  weapons  employed  against  them. 
!  The  doeents  were  compelled  to  give  up  their  pref.ee- 
I  tions,  and  finally  to  leave  Leipzig ;  the  meetings  for 
'  mutual  edification  were  suppressed  by  the  govern- 
ment as  disorderly  conventicles ;  and  Franeke  (q.  v.), 
the    most   distinguished    of    the    Leipzig    docents, 
j  having  gone  to  Erfurt,  was  prevented  from  lecturing, 
:  and  quickly  compelled  to  retire.    Spener's  influence, 
|  however,  procured  a  refuge  for  his  friends  in  the 
newly  founded   university  of   Halle,  and   Franeke  . 
obtained    a    professorship    there.      Halle    became 
thenceforth  the  source  of  new  religious  influences, 
and,    indeed,  of  a  new  religious  life  to  Germany. 
The   Pietists,   although    spiritually  exclusive— dis- 
posed to  regard  themselves  as  the  '  chosen  of  God,' 
and   to   look  down   on   all  others  as   'children   of 
the  world,'  or  even  of  the  devil — did  not  attempt 
to   form   a   separate   sect.      To    do    them    justice, 
they  were  as  far  as  possible  from  being  ecclesias- 
tically ambitious ;  all  their  desire  was  to  excel  in 
'labours    of    love,'    and    to    cultivate    feelings    of 
intensest    piety.      The    rise    of    the    Wolfian   or 
Rationalistic    theology,    the    spread    of    that    sort 
of  sceptical  anti-clerical  philosophy  which  flourished 
for  a  while  under  the  name  of  A  ufkldrung  (Enlighten- 
ment),    exercised    an     injurious     and     depressing 
influence   on    Pietism ;    yet   through  all  the  long 
obstinate  warfare  maintained  against  the  doctrines 
of  the  church  by  the  Rationalists  during  the  last 
half  of  the  18th,  and  the  most  part  of  the  19th  c, 
Pietism  continued  to  number  some  adherents ;  and 
it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  it  is  to  the  Pietists,  and 
not  to  the  Lutheran  dogmatists,  that  Germany  ia 
in  a  great  measure  indebted  for  that  revival  of  reli- 
gious faith  and  feeling  which,  begun  with  the  great 
Schleiermacher — himself  trained  up  under  pietistic 
influences — has  since  widely  diffused  itself  through 
her  biblical  scholars  and  theologians.     The  patriotic 
enthusiasm  called  forth  by  the  insolent  conquests  of 
the  French,  naturally  allied  itself  to  pietistic  tenden- 
cies, for  in  Germany,  the  triumphs  of  Napoleon  even 
as  emperor  were  looked  upon  as  the  triumphs  of 
revolutionary,    republican,   and  infidel    principles ; 
and   after  the   general    restoration   of    peace,    the 
statesmen  and  upper  classes,  especially  in  Prussia, 
believing    that    political    security    could    only    be 
obtained    by    a    return    of    the    populace    to   the 
simple,  obedient,  and  unquestioning  piety  of  earlier 
times,  countenanced    this   party   in    the    church ; 
and   amiable  tea-drinking  societies  of  devout  men 
and  women  were  formed  to  distribute  tracts,  and  to 
inoculate    the   radical   and    heathen    masses    with 
pietistic    sentiments.      But    this    attempt    to    use 
'  piety '  for  reactionary  political  purposes  sullied  its 
purity,  and  alienated  from  it  the  very  parties  whom 
it   wished    to    influence.     Still,    however,    Pietism 
exists  as  a  distinct  element  in  the  religious  life  of 
Germany,   and   now,   as  ever,   its   strongholds   are 
Prussia    (Berlin,  Sdesia,  Wupperthal),   Hesse,   and 
Wiirtemberg. 

PIE'TRA-DU'RA,  a  name  given  to  the  finest 
kinds  of  Florentine  mosaic-work,  in  which  the 
inlaid  materials  are  hard  stones,  such  as  jasper, 
carnelian,  amethyst,  agate,  &c.  The  real  pietra* 
dura   work   dates   as    far    back    as   the    16th   c. 


TIEZOMETER— PIGEON. 


•bout  1570  ;  and  from  that  time  to  the  present,  has 
been  almost  oonfined  to  Florence,  where  a  govern- 
ment atiUer  has  existed  ever  since  the  beginning 
of  the  17th  c,  which  was  originated  in  order  to 
supply  decorations  for  the  Capella  Medicea.  It  is 
sometimes  called  Pietre  Commeate,  and  Lavoro  di 
C'ommesso.  In  the  inferior  kinds,  which  are  sold  in 
Italy,  and  are  manufactured  now  pretty  extensively 
in  Derbyshire  and  other  parts  of  Britain,  pi 
coloured  sea-shells  are  used  instead  of  the  harder 
and  more  valuable  coloured  stones. 

PIEZO'METER  (Gr.  piezo,  I  press ;  metron,  a 
measure),  no  instrument  for  measuring  the  com- 
pressibility of  fluids.  Oersted's  fa.  v.)  instrument, 
the  first  by  which  the  compressibility  of  water  was 
satisfactorily  determined,  consisted  of  a  cylindrical 
glass  jar,  into  the  neck  of  which  a  narrower  cylin- 
drical tube  of  glass,  open  at  both  ends,  was  firmly 
fixed.  In  this  tube  worked  an  air-tight  piston  by 
means  of  a  screw.     In  the  interior  of  the  jar  was 

{ilaced  a  bottle,  whose  neck  was  drawn  out  into  a 
ong  capillary  graduated  tube,  and  alongside  this 
bottle  was  suspended  a  cylindrical  tube,  closed  at 
the  top,  but  open  at  the  bottom.  When  the  com- 
pressibility of  any  liquid  was  to  be  determined,  the 
instrument  was  adjusted  in  the  following  manner  : 
the  bottle  iuside  was  filled  almost  to  the  top  of  the 
capillary  tube  with  the  fluid,  and  being  replaced 
inside  the  jar,  the  latter  was  completely  tilled  with 
water  up  to  the  piston  in  the  neck.  The  liquid  in 
the  submerged  bottle,  then  under  pressure  of  the 
water  above  it,  fell  slightly  in  the  capillary  tube, 
being  kept  from  contact  with  the  water  by  an  air- 
bubble,  the  motion  of  which  up  or  down,  according 
as  the  pressure  was  less  or  greater,  served  as  an 
index  for  reading  off  the  graduation.  The  sus- 
pended tube  alongside  being  at  first  only  filled 
with  air,  the  water  rose  in  it  to  some  extent, 
and  by  graduations  on  the  tube  it  was  made  to 
indicate  the  pressure  in  atmospheres  or  parts  of 
atmospheres.  Pressure  was  now  applied  to  the 
water  in  the  jar  by  screwing  down  the  piston ;  the 
compressed  wrater  communicated  the  pressure  to 
the  liquid  in  the  bottle  and  to  the  air  in  the  sus- 
pended tube ;  the  descent  of  the  air-bubble  in  the 
former  indicating  the  amount  of  diminution  in 
bulk  the  liquid  had  undergone  (the  capillary  tube 
being  graduated  in  inches  and  parts  of  inches,  and 
each  inch  of  tube  being  known  to  contain  a  certain 
fraction  of  the  contents  of  the  bottle),  while  the 
ascent  of  the  wrater  in  the  suspended  tube  shewed 
the  amount  of  pressure  which  had  been  applied. 

PIG.    See  Hog. 

PIGEON  (Ital.  piglone,  piccione,  or  pipione,  from 
pipiare,  Lat  pipire,  to  peep  or  cheep),  a  name  some- 
times applied,  bike  Dove  (q.  v.),  to  all  the  species  of 
ColumbiUcB  (q.  v.),  and  sometimes  almost  restricted 
to  those  still  included  by  ornithologists  in  the  genus 
Columba;  having  a  bill  of  moderate  length,  hard, 
and  a  little  arched  at  the  point,  the  base  of  the 
upper  mandible  covered  with  a  soft  thick  skin,  in 
wnich  the  nostrils  are  pierced  ;  the  feet  with  toes 
divided  to  the  base,  and  formed  both  for  walking 
and  perching ;  the  wings  rather  large  and  pointed  ; 
the  tad  of  moderate  length,  and  generally  square  at 
the  end.  The  species  of  this  group  are  numerous, 
and  occur  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world.  Some 
of  them  build  their  nests  in  trees,  aud  some  in  holes 
of  rocks ;  they  lay  only  two  eggs  at  a  time,  but 
breed  twice  or  oftener  in  a  year,  and  both  the  male 
and  the  female  take  part  in  incubation.  The 
original  of  all  the  varieties  of  the  Domestic  P.  is 
now  almost  universally  believed  to  be  the  Bock  P. 
or  Rock  Dove  (C.  Uvia),  the  Blset  of  the  French,  a 
bird  of  extensive  geographical  range,  being  found  as 


far  north  u  the  Faroe  Islands,  and  on  many  parts 
of  the  coasts  of  Europe,  Aids  sa  far  a~  Japan,  and 
the  north  of  Africa,  breeding  in  crevices  of  rocks, 
and  often  within  caverns  which  open  on  tin-  w  !■• 
swarms  in  prodigious  numbers  in  some  of  th<-  rocket 
islands  of  the  Mediterranean:  and  even  on  the 
British  coasts,  great  numbers  are  found  in  some 
localities,  particularly  in  the  Orkneys  and  II 
Its  food  consists  partly  of  molluscs  and  other  small 
animals,  partly  of  grain  and  seeds  ;  and  it  often 
makes  unwelcome  visits  to  the  corn-fields  of  its 
vicinity.  In  a  wild  state,  this  bird  exhibits  great 
uniformity  both  of  size  and  plumage ;  being  not 
quite  twelve  inches  in  length  from  the  tip  of  the 
bill  to  the  end  of  the  tail ;  the  prevading  colour 
bluish-gray,  in  some  parts  with  green  and  purple 
reflections,  two  broad  and  distinct  bars  of  black 
across  the  closed  wings  ;  the  lower  part  of  the  back 
white ;  the  tail  deep  gray,  with  a  broad  black  bar 
at  the  end ;  the  bill  blackish-brown ;  the  legs  and 
toes  reddish-orange. — Until  recently,  naturalists 
very  generally  confounded  this  species  with  the 
Stock  Dove  or  Smaller  Wood  P.  (>'.  anas), 
a  species  which  inhabits  woods,  and  generally  builds 
in  trees,  preferring  the  hollows  of  old  decaying 
trees,  or  the  tops  of  such  as  have  been  pollarded 
and  have  become  bushy — whence  the  name  Stock 
Dove.  In  some  of  the  open  parts  of  England, 
however,  it  makes  its  nest  in  rabbits'  burrows  or 
other  holes  in  the  ground.  It  is  rather  larger  than 
the  Rock  P. ;  its  prevailing  colour  is  bluish  gray,  in 
some  parts  passing  into  pale  gray,  but  nowhere  into 
white ;  the  wings  destitute  of  bands  ;  the  sides  of 
the  neck  with  green  reflections  ;  the  breast  purplish 
red.  It  congregates  in  large  flocks  in  autumn  and 
winter.  It  is  partially  migratory  in  some  parts  of 
Europe  ;  a  summer  visitant  of  the  northern  regions. 
In  Britain,  it  is  found  only  in  the  southern  parts  of 


1    Ring  Dove,  Cushat,  or  Wood-pigeon ;   2,  Eiset,  or 
Wild  Rock  Pigeon ;  3,  Collared  Turtle. 

the  island.  Its  geographical  range  includes  great 
parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  the  north  of  Africa. 
It  feeds  on  beech-mast,  acorns,  grain,  pulse,  &c, 
aud  sometimes  resorts  to  turnip-fields  to  eat  the 
tender  tops.  Its  voice  is  very  different  both  from 
that  of  the  Rock  Dove  and  that  of  the  Ring  Dove, 

533 


PIGEON  PEA— PIKE. 


Its  flesh  is  of  very  fine  flavour. — The  Ring  Dove, 
Wood  P.,  or  Cushat  (C.  palumbus),  is  the  most 
common  British  species,  and  is  diffused  over  great 
part  of  Europe,  cither  as  a  permanent  resident  or  a 
Bummer  bird  of  passage,  although  it  is  not  found  at 
all  in  some  of  the  most  northern  regions ;  and  occurs 
also  in  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia,  and  the  north 
of  Africa.  Its  soft  lou*d  coo  is  one  of  the  pleasant 
intimations  of  approaching  spring.  It  inhabits 
woods,  and  builds  its  nest  among  the  branches  of 
trees.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  British  species, 
being  about  seventeen  inches  in  entire  length. 
It  feeds  on  green  corn,  young  clover,  turnip-tops, 
grain,  pulse,  acorns,  &c.  Where  it  abounds,  its 
voracity  is  often  very  injurious  to  the  farmer. 
It  is  gregarious  in  winter.  It  is  in  consider- 
able estimation  as  an  article  of  food ;  but  it  is 
very  shy  and  wary,  not  easily  approached  by  an 
inexperienced  sportsman.— These  are  all  the  British 
species  of  pigeon.  Our  limits  quite  preclude  us  from 
noticing  almost  any  other.  The  Ring-tail  P.  (C. 
Caribbea)  may  be  mentioned  as  a  West  Indian 
epecies,  much  valued  for  the  richness  and  delicacy 
of  its  flesh,  which  is  reckoned  one  of  the  greatest 
luxuries  of  that  part  of  the  world.  The  Bald-pate 
or  White-headed  P.  (C.  leucocephxla)  is  another 
large  and  fine  species,  plentiful  in  the  West  Indies. 
It  migrates  to  the  Keys  of  Florida  in  summer. — 
The  Double-crested  P.  (C.  dilopha)  is  a  large 
species,  inhabiting  the  north  of  Australia  and 
warmer  regions  to  the  northward,  remarkable  for  its 
crest,  which  consists  of  two  parts,  one  on  the  back 
of  the  head,  and  another  of  lax  recurved  feathers 
springing  from  the  forehead,  and  even  from  the  base 
of  the  bill. 

Only  one  species  of  P.  has  been  truly  domesti- 
cated, and  having  long  been  so,  it  has  undergone 
many  remarkable  changes,  and  there  are  numerous 
varieties  or  breeds ;  some  of  them,  exhibiting  very 
strange  peculiarities,  and  known  as  fancy  pigeons, 
being  carefully  preserved  and  tended  by  pigeon- 
fanciers.  Pigeon-fancying  is  nowhere  carried  further 
than  in  London,  where  there  are  many  persons  who 
give  great  part  of  their  time  to  it,  and  whose 
pigeons  are  their  chief  delight.  The  prices  of  such 
fancy  pigeons  as  are  deemed  most  perfect  of  their 
kind,  are  very  high.  The  ordinary  domestic  pigeons, 
kept  for  profit  as  a  kind  of  poultry,  differ  from  the 
wild  rock  dove  chiefly  in  colour,  in  which  they  are 
often  very  unlike  it,  although  a  tendency  always 
manifests  itself  to  return  to  the  original  colours, 
and  the  bars  on  the  wings  are  apt  to  reappear  in  the 
progeny  even  of  what  may  be  called  the  most 
artificial  varieties.  Of  these  may  be  mentioned,  as 
among  the  most  interesting,  the  Rough-footed  P., 
having  the  feet  feathered ;  the  Jacobin,  which  has 
a  range  of  feathers  inverted  over  the  head,  and 
extending  down  each  side  of  the  neck,  as  a  hood ; 
the  Fan-tail,  or  Fan-tailed  Shaker,  in  which  the 
number  of  the  tail-feathers  is  greatly  increased,  and 
the  bird  has  the  power  of  erecting  its  tail  like  that 
*>f  a  turkey-cock,  whilst  it  has  also  a  peculiar  vibra- 
tory motion  ;  the  Tumbler,  so  called  from  tumbling 
in  the  air  in  its  flight,  and  further  characterised  by 
a  very  short  bill ;  and  the  Pouter  or  Cropper,  which 
has  the  power  of  blowing  up  its  crop  to  an  extraor- 
dinary degree,  so  that  the  head  seems  fastened  on  the 
top  of  an  inflated  bladder.  The  Carrier  P.  (q.  v.) 
is  regarded  as  a  variety  of  the  Common  Pigeon. 

The  law  regarding  pigeons  is  stated  in  the  article 
Dovecot.  For  the  profitable  keeping  of  pigeons,  it 
is  necessary  to  have  a  properly-constructed  dovecot, 
divided  into  cells,  a  cell  for  each  pair,  each  cell 
sixteen  inches  broad,  by  twelve  from  front  to  back, 
and  the  door  towards  one  side,  so  that  the  nest  may 
not  be  seen  from  without ;  a  slip  of  wood  in  front 
531 


of  each  cell  for  the  birds  to  sit  and  coo  on.  The 
dovecot  must  be  placed  at  such  a  height  as  to  be  ont 
of  the  way  of  rats  and  other  depredators ;  and  must 
be  frequently  cleansed,  otherwise  it  may  probably 
be  deserted  by  its  occupants.  It  ought  to  be 
painted  white,  that  colour  being  very  attractive  to 
pigeons,  and  contributing  to  retain  them  when  a 
new  dovecot  is  established,  in  which  there  is  often 
found  to  be  not  a  little  difficulty.  Pigeons  begin  to 
breed  at  the  age  of  nine  months,  and  breed  every 
month  except  in  very  cold  weather.  The  male  and 
female  continue  faithful  to  each  other  from  year  to 
year,  a  circumstance  noted  by  Pliny  and  others  of 
the  aucients,  and  evidently,  as  well  as  their  some- 
what demonstratively  manifested  affection,  a  reason 
of  the  poetic  references  often  made  to  the  dove. 

PIGEON  PEA  (Cajanus),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Leguminosce,  suborder  Papilion- 
acecB,  of  which,  according  to  some  botanists,  there  is 
only  one  species  (C.  Jluviis),  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies,  but  much  cultivated  also  in  the  West  Indies 
and  in  Africa ;  according  to  others,  there  are  two 
species,  C.  flavus,  with  flowers  entirely  yellow,  the 
pod  marbled  with  dark  streaks,  and  two  or  three 
seeds  in  each  pod  ;  and  O.  bkolor,  called  Congo  Pea 
in  the  West  Indies,  the  pulse  of  which  is  much 
coarser,  and  is  used  chiefly  by  negroes.  The  finer 
kind  is  nearly  equal  to  the  Common  Pea.  This 
kind  of  pulse  ia  very  much  used  in  tropical  coun- 
tries. The  plant  is  a  shrub  (Cytisus  cajan  of 
Linnaeus)  about  eighteen  inches  high  It  is  half- 
hardy  in  the  south  of  England.  In  tropical 
countries,  the  plants  stand  and  are  productive  for 
several  years.  They  throw  off  their  leaves  annually, 
and  reproduce  them  along  with  their  flowers.  The 
P.  P.  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  tropical 
kinds  of  pulse.  It  grows  either  on  rich  or  poor  soils. 
It  is  called  Boll  and  Urhur  in  the  East  Indies.  The 
name  P.  P.  is  West  Indian. 

PI'GMENTS.     See  Paints. 

PIKE,  PIKEMAN.  Previously  to  the  use  of 
the  bayonet,  infantry  of  the  line  of  battle — that  is, 
the  heavy-armed  troops — were  from  the  earliest 
times  armed  with  pikes  or  spears.  The  Macedonians 
carried  pikes  24  feet  long ;  those  of  modern  warfare 
averaged  12  or  14  feet.  They  were  of  stout  wood, 
and  tipped  with  a  flat  iron  spearhead,  which  some- 
times had  cutting  edges.  As  a  defence  against 
cavalry,  the  pike,  from  its  length  and  rigidity,  was 
of  great  value ;  but  though  it  long  survived  the 
introduction  of  gunpowder,  that  event  was  really 
fatal  to  it.  For  success  with  the  pike,  especially  in 
offensive  war,  a  depth  of  several  men  was  essential, 
aud  this  depth  rendered  the  fire  of  artillery  pecu- 
liarly fatal.  The  pike  is  now  superseded  by  the 
bayonet  on  the  end  of  the  musket. 

PIKE  (E80x),  a  genus  of  malacopterous  fishes, 
including  all  the  species  of  the  family  Esocidce,  as 
restricted  by  Mttller,  and  characterised  by  an 
elongated  body,  covered  with  scales,  a  depressed 
head,  and  broad  blunt  muzzle,  with  very  large 
mouth,  abundantly  furnished  with  teeth  of  various 
sizes  on  the  jaws,  palatine  bones,  and  vomer ;  no 
adipose  fin ;  and  the  dorsal  fin  placed  very  far 
back  over  the  anal  fin.  The  species  are  not 
numerous;  they  are  all  inhabitants  of  fresh  waters. 
Several  are  found  in  N.  America.  The  Comuon  P. 
(E.  htcius)  is  a  native  both  of  Asia  and  N.  America. 
It  is  very  generally  diffused  over  Europe,  and  is 
abundant  even  in  its  most  northern  regions;  it  is 
now  common  in  lakes,  ponds,  and  slow  rivers  in  all 
parts  of  the  British  Islands,  although  it  is  supposed 
not  to  be  truly  indigenous  to  them.  The  statement 
has  often  been  made  that  it  was  introduced  during 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. ;  but  there  is  evidence  of 


PIKE-PIKE-PERCH. 


its  existence  in  England  at  ■  innch  earlier  date. 
It  was  certainly  known  as  early  as  the  reign  of 
Edward  L,  who,  graciously  regulating  the  price  of 
commodities   for    his    subjects,    fixed    tliat    of    the 

pike  higher  than  that  of  the  salmon,  and  ten  times 
higher    than   that   of    the   turbot  and    tlie    cod,    from 

which  we  may  perhaps  infer  its  comparative  rarity 
nt  tht.t  period.     Some  of  the  waters  in  the  fenny 

districts  of  England  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  pike, 
which  are  there  found  in  very  great  quantity,  and 
of  superior  quality. 

Tho  P.  is  of  a  dusky  olive-brown  colour  on  the 
uppei  parts,  becoming  lighter  and  mottled  with 
green  and  yellow  on  the  sides,  and  passing  into 
silvery  white  on  the  belly  ;  the  tins  brown ;  the 
larger  fins  mottled  with  white,  yellow,  and  dark 

Keen.  The  tail-tin  is  forked-  The  P.  grows  to  a 
rge  size,  occasionally  attaining  a  weight  of  sixty 
or  seventy  pounds,  although  the  stories  of  pikes 
much  larger  than  this  are  liable  to  suspicion. 
The  excessive  voracity  of  the  P.  has  long  been 
proverbial.  No  animal  substance  which  it  can 
swallow,  and  which  is  capable  of  being  digested^ 
seems  to  be  unpalatable  to  it ;  and  no  animal 
large  enough  to  attract  its  attention,  and  which 
it  can  master,  escapes  being  devoured.  Mr  Jesse 
mentions  an  instance  of  eight  pike,  of  about 
five  pounds'  weight  each,  consuming  nearly  800 
gudgeons  in  three  weeks  ;  and  one  of  them  devoured 
four  roach,  each  about  four  inches  in  length,  in  rapid 
succession,  and  seized  the  fifth,  but  kept  it  in  hia 
mouth    for    about  a  quarter  of    an    hour    before 


Pike,  or  Jack  (Esox  lucius). 

swallowing  it.  The  P.  readily  attacks  a  fish  of  its 
own  size,  and  preys  freely  on  the  smaller  of  its  own 
species.  Frogs  are  frequent  prey ;  water-rats  and 
ducklings  are  sometimes  devoured.  A  large  P. 
often  takes  possession  of  a  particular  hole  in  the 
bank  of  a  river,  from  which  it  issues  to  seize  any 
creature  that  may  pass. — The  P.  spawns  in  the 
beginning  of  spring,  for  that  purpose  ascending 
narrow  creeks  and  ditches,  in  which  it  is  very  easdy 
caught  by  nets.  Large  quantities  are  caught  at  the 
spawning  season  in  Lapland,  and  dried  for  future 
use.  The  P.  grows  very  rapidly  when  the  supply  of 
food  is  abundant,  reaching  a  length  of  8  to  10  inches 
in  its  first  year,  12  to  14  in  the  second,  18  to  20 
in  the  third,  and  afterwards  increasing  for  a  number 
of  years  at  the  rate  of  about  four  pounds  every 
year.  A  young  P.  is  sometimes  called  a  Jack  or 
PicJcerel.  The  name  Luce  (Lat.  lucius)  is  still  known 
as  an  English  name  of  the  pike.  The  Scotch  name 
is  Gedd,  a  name  similar  to  those  in  the  Scandinavian 
languages. 

The  flesh  of  the  P.  is  much  esteemed,  but  that 
of  pikes  of  moderate  size  is  reckoned  superior  to 
that  of  small,  or  of  very  large  ones. 

The  P.  is  not  only  caught  by  means  of  nets,  but 
by  the  rod,  by  set  lines,  and  by  trimmers  or  liggers, 
which  may  be  briefly  described  as  floats  with  lines 


attached  to  them,  the  line  being  so  fastened  that 
the  l>iit  swims  at  a  proper  depth,  and  th  . 
yards  of  line  run  out  when  the  hait  is  taken.  The 
Moats  are  sometimes  made  of  wood  or  fork,  some- 
times of  bundles  of  rushes,  sometimes  of  Lotties. 
In  angling  for  P.,  various  baita  are  used,  such  aa 
a  minnow,  par,  or  other  small  lish,  a  portion  of  a 
fish,  &c,  and  sometimes  an  artificial  ily  is  employed 
with  great  success,  made  of  two  large  hooks  tied 
together,  ami  adorned  with  two  mooru  from  a 
peacock's  tail  The  angler  unaccustomed  to  the 
P.  must  be  cautioned  as  to  the  manner  of  the 
taking  the  hook  from  its  mouth,  as  any  rashness 
may  lead  to  severe  laceration  of  his  hand  by  its 
teeth.  P.  may  be  fished  any  time  from  May  to 
February  inclusive,  except  when  it  is  actually 
freezing.      The   best   month    is    considered  to  be 


Pike  Spinner. 

November ;  the  P.  are  then  in  the  best  condition. 
One  of  the  most  approved  tackles  for  angling  for  the 
P.  is  the  Spinner,  baited  with  a  small  dace,  bleak, 
gudgeon,  or  par  of  about  two  ounces,  as  represented 
in  the  fig.  The  mode  of  using  it  is  thus  described 
in  Bailey's  Angler's  Instructor  (Longman  &  Co. 
1857) :  '  Having  cast  your  bait  as  far  as  possible, 
allow  it,  if  you  are  fishing  in  a  pond,  or  lake,  or 
deep  water,  to  sink  a  little,  say  two  feet,  then  wind 
away  at  a  brisk  rate,  holding  your  rod  on  one  side 
rather  low ;  if  no  run,  wind  out  and  throw  again 
but  this  time  wind  brisk  four  or  five  yards,  then  all 
of  a  sudden  stop  a  moment,  then  off  again,  doing  so 
three  or  four  times  in  one  cast.  I  have  often  found 
this  a  good  plan.  If  you  still  have  no  run  try  another 
throw  and  wind  brisk  as  before,  but  occasionally 
giving  your  rod  a  sharp  but  short  twitch.'  See  also 
Otter s  Modern  A  ngler  (Alfred  and  Son,  London). 

The  largest  species  of  Pike  is  the  Muskelongc, 
which  lives  in  the  waters  of  the  great  lakes  and  St 
Lawrence.  It  occasionally  reaches  60  lb.  weight,  and 
is  an  important  article  of  food.  The  E.  reticularis, 
which  is  marked  with  a  network  of  brownish  lines,  is 
the  common  Pike  of  the  middle  and  eastern  states. 

The  Gar-fish  (q.  v.)  is  sometimes  called  the  Sea  Pike 
The  same  name  is  also  given  to  certain  large  voracious 
fishes  of  warm  seas,  belonging  to  the  perch  family .- 
The  Saury  P.  is  noticed  in  a  separate  article. 

PIKE-PERCH  (Stizostedium),  a  genus  of  fishes  of 
the  perch  family,  having  two  dorsal  fins,  of  which 
the  first  has  strong  spiny  rays,  but  resembling  the 
pike  in  its  elongated  form,  large  mouth,  and  formid- 
able teeth.  The  muzzle  is  not,  however,  broad  and 
depressed,  as  in  the  pike.  Several  species  are  known, 
of  which  one  (S.  Americana),  of  a  greenish-yellow 
colour,  is  found  in  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  North 
America.  It  is  a  valuable  food-fish,  and  extends  as 
far  east  as  Pennsylvania.  Greatest  weight  35  lh.  The 
S.  salmoneum  is  a  handsome  fish,  of  smaller  size,  from 
the  Ohio.  The  S.  sandra  is  common  in  the  Danube, 
and  in  most  of  the  rivers  and  lakes  of  the  north-east 
of  Europe,  extending  westward  to  the  Oder  and  the 
Elbe,  although  not  found  in  Italy,  France,  or  Britain. 
It  is  highly  esteemed  for  the"  table.  Salted  and 
smoked,  it  is  a  considerable  article  of  trade  in  some 
parts  of  Europe.  It  is  a  fish  of  rapid  growth,  and 
attains  a  weight  of  25  or  30  pounds.  This  fish  read- 
ily takes  the  minnow  and  the  arti  ficial  flv. 

834 


PIKE'S  PEAK— PILCOMAYO. 


PIKE'S  PEAK,  a  peak  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
in  El  Paso  Co.,  Colorado,  lat.  39°  N.,  lon^.  105°  W., 
about  10  miles  W.  of  Colorado  Springs.  Its  elevation 
has  been  determined  to  be  14,147  feet.  It  commands 
a  view,  of  200  miles'  radius,  of  a  rugged,  mountain  - 
ous  country,  containing  many  lakes  and  the  sources 
of  four  great  rivers— the  Platte,  Arkansas,  Rio  Grande, 
and  Colorado  of  California.  In  1858  large  deposits 
of  gold  were  discovered  in  this  region ;  ami  during 
the"  first  four  years  after  the  discovery  there  were 
shipped  hence  more  than  $30,000,000.  It  abounds  in 
rich  gold-bearing  quartz.  The  mining  country  is  5000 
feet  above  the  sea,  with  a  dry  climate,  having  a  rainy 
season  of  only  seven  weeks.  The  top  of  Pike's  Peak 
is  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  It  was  named  in 
honor  of  Gen.  Z.  M.  Pike,  who  discovered  it  iu  1806 
PILA'STER,  in  Classical  Architecture,  a  square 
pillar,  sometimes  standing  free,  but  usually  attached 
to  a  wall,  from  which  it  projects 
■  £th,  \ih,  or  other  definite  proportion 

iiliiimmm'S  of  its  breadth.  Greek  pilasters,  or 
['•...ii||i»  antse,  were  of  the  same  breadth 
from  top  to  bottom,  and  had  differ- 
ent capitals  and  bases  from  those 
of  the  orders  with  which  they  were 
associated.  The  Romans  gave  them 
a  taper  like  the  columns,  and  the 
same  capitals  and  bases. 

PI'LAU,  or  PILAW,  a  dish  com- 
mon in  India,  Turkey,  Egypt,  and 
Syria,  consists  generally  of  rice,  but 
occasionally  some  animal  food  is 
added.  It  is  sometimes  seen  at 
tables  in  this  country,  prepared  for 
those  who  have  been  accustomed  to 
it  abroad.  The  correct  method  of 
preparing  it  is  to  boil  the  rice  for 
twenty  minutes,  with  sufficient  water 
to  soak  it  thoroughly,  and  swell 
Pilaster.  *ne  grains  to  their  utmost,  taking 
care  not  to  break  them  by  making 
them  too  soft ;  it  is  then  drained,  and  gently 
stirred,  with  butter,  pepper,  and  finely-chopped 
onions,  and  served  up.  This  is  the  way  in  which 
the  pilaus  of  the  poorer  classes  are  prepared ;  but 
for  the  tables  of  the  more  wealthy,  fowls,  lamb, 
mutton,  shreds  of  ham  or  bacon,  variously  cooked, 
but  always  much  boiled  or  roasted,  are  placed  on  the 
top  of  the  rice,  and  served  up  with  it.  In  India, 
very  numerous  and  elaborate  receipts  are  in  use. 

PI'LCHARD  (Clupea  pilchardus,  or  Alausa 
pilchardus),  an  important  fish  of  the  family  Clupeldm 
(q.  v.),  referred  by  some  naturalists  to  the  same 
genus  with  the  Herring  (Clupea),  and  by  others  to 
the  same  genus  with  the  Shad  (Alausa).    The  P.  is 


Pilchard  (Clupea  pilchardus). 

nearly  equal  in  size  to  the  herring,  but  rather 
thicker,  and  the  lines  of  the  back  and  belly  are 
straighter ;  the  scales  are  also  larger  and  fewer ; 
and  the  dorsal  fin  is  rather  further  forward.  The 
mouth  is  8iuall,  and  in  the  adult  fish  destitute  of 
536 


teeth  ;  the  under  jaw  longer  than  the  upper.  The 
upper  part  of  the  body  is  bluish-green  ;  the  sides 
and  belly  silvery  white  ;  the  cheeks  and  gill-covers 
tinged  with  golden  yellow,  and  marked  with  radiat- 
ing striae;  the  dorsal  fill  and  tail  dusky.  The  P. 
is  an  inhabitant  of  more  southern  seas  than  the 
herring,  being  nowhere  plentiful  on  the  British 
ci  asts,  except  in  the  extreme  south,  and  chiefly  on 
the  coasts  of  Devonshire  and  Cornwall ;  whilst  it 
occurs  on  many  parts  of  the  Atlantic  coasts  of 
France  and  Spain,  and  on  the  coasts  of  Portugal, 
and  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Like  the 
herring,  it  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  a  migratory 
fish,  annually  visiting  the  coasts  of  England  and 
other  countries  ;  but,  as  in  the  case  of  the  herring, 
this  opinion  has  now  been  relinquished  ;  and  the 
shoals  of  pilchards  which  are  seen  on  the  coasts  are 
believed  merely  to  issue  from  deeper  waters  near  at 
hand,  for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  The  spawning 
season  of  the  P.  begins  early  in  summer;  but  on 
the  coasts  of  Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  the  prin- 
cipal fishery  is  in  August  and  September.  Pilchards 
are  caught  either  with  drift-nets  or  sean-nets,  but 
principally  with  sean-nets.  By  means  of  one  or 
more  seans,  each  300  feet  long  and  36  feet  deep,  a 
shoal  is  enclosed ;  the  bottom  of  the  net  is  then 
drawn  together  by  a  peculiar  contrivance,  and  the 
pilchards  are  taken  out  at  low  water  by  small  bag- 
nets.  Prodigious  numbers  are  sometimes  enclosed 
in  a  single  seam  Twenty-four  millions  and  a  half 
are  said  to  have  been  taken  at  once  from  a  single 
shoal,  which,  however,  may  have  been  spread  over 
several  square  miles.  The  approach  of  a  shoal  of 
pilchards  is  known  by  the  rippling  of  the  water, 
and  the  sea-birds  hovering  above,  and  is  often 
watched  for  and  marked  from  the  shore.  The  P. 
fishery  on  the  English  coast  has  of  late  been  com- 
paratively unsuccessful,  probably  undergoing  one  of 
those  unaccountable  mutations  of  which  there  are 
so  many  examples  in  the  herring  fishery  in  different 
places;  but  in  some  years  the  quantity  taken  has 
been  very  great,  and  the  capital  invested  in  the 
P.  fishery  in  Devonshire  and  Cornwall  is  probably 
not  much  under  one  million  sterling.  The  English 
P.  fishery  is  regulated  by  several  acts  of  parlia- 
ment, the  first  of  which  are  of  the  days  of  Elizabeth. 
Great  quantities  of  pilchards  are  annually  exported 
to  the  West  Indies  and  elsewhere.  Those  iutended 
for  exportation  are  pickled,  and  packed  in  barrels 
by  means  of  great  pressure,  by  which  the  bulk  is 
reduced,  and  oil  is  expressed  to  the  amount  of  three 
or  four  gallons  from  a  hogshead  of  fish.  The  oil, 
with  the  blood  and  pickle  with  which  it  is  mingled, 
is  generally  used  for  manure.  A  favourite  Devon- 
shire dish  is  a  pie  made  of  pilchards,  with  their 
heads  protruding  from  the  crust. — A  great  number 
of  boats  are  employed  in  the  P.  fishery  in  and  near 
the  estuary  of  the  Tagus. — The  P.  is  known  on  the 
coasts  of  Scotland  as  the  Gipsy  Herring. 

PILCOMAY'O,  a  river  of  South  America,  whom* 
course  has  not  as  yet  been  thoroughly  explored,  draws 
its  waters  from  the  Bolivian  Andes,  and  is  formed 
by  the  confluence  of  two  rivers,  the  Suipacha  and 
the  Pilaya.  Of  these  head- waters,  the  south  one, 
the  Suipacha,  rises  in  the  mountains  immediately 
south  of  Potosi ;  while  the  northern  branch,  the 
Pilaya,  drains  the  valleys  around  Chuquisaca. 
These  streams  unite  in  lat.  about  21°  35'  S.,  to  form 
the  P.,  which  flows  in  a  general  direction  south- 
east, crosses  the  Bolivian  frontier,  waters  the  north- 
east region  of  the  Argentine  Confederation,  and 
falls  into  the  Paraguay  a  few  miles  below  Asuncion. 
It  is  at  least  1200  miles  in  length;  but  its  watera 
are  much  spent  in  lagunes  on  its  course,  so  that  it 
adds  no  great  volume  to  the  waters  of  the  Paraguay. 
It  is  navigable  for  about  500  miles;    but  numerous 


PILE— PILES. 


hordes  of  hostile  Indiana  render  navigation  perilous. 
Before  entering  the  Paraguay,  it  divides  into  two 
arras,  of  which  the  northern  is  called  Araguay- 
Guaso ;  and  the  southern,  which  is  again  divided 
into  two  brandies,  the  Araguay-Mino.  The  mouths 
of  the  1*.  are  narrow,  deep,  and  much  obstructed  by 
water-plants. 

PILE,  in  Heraldry  (from  Lat.  pilum,  a  javelin  ; 
or  from  the  pile  or  stake  used  in  the  construction 
of  a  bridge),   au   ordinary,  or,  according  to  some 
heralds,    a    subordi- 
nary,  in  the  form  of 
a       wedge,      issuing 
generally,  as  in  fig.  1, 
from      the      middle 
chief,  and  extending 
towards   the    middle 
base   of    the    shield. 
Pile.  It  is  said  that  a  pile 

should  occupy  one- 
third  of  the  breadth  of  the  chief,  or,  if  charged, 
double  that  breadth.  When  a  pile  is  borne  issuing, 
not  from  the  middle  chief,  but  from  some  other  part 
of  the  boundingdinc  of  the  shield,  this  must  be 
specified  in  the  blazon.  Three  piles  are  sometimes 
borne  conjoined  in  point,  as  in  fig.  2.  A  pile 
transposed  is  one  whose  point  is  upward. 

PILE-BRIDGE,  a  bridge  of  which  the  piers  are 
built  with  piles.  These  may  be  either  temporary 
wooden  structures,  in  which  wooden  piles,  driven 
into  the  ground,  serve  also  as  piers,  or  they  may  be 
permanent  bridges,  with  iron  cylinders  forming  the 
piles  below  the  surface,  and  piers  above.   See  Piles. 

PILES  are  usually  squared  logs  of  wood  used  in 
engineering  operations,  such  as  dams,  bridges,  roads, 
&c.  They  are  sharpened  at  the  point,  and,  if  neces- 
sary, protected  with  iron  points,  to  enable  them  to 
cut  through  the  strata  they  encounter  as  they  are 
driven  into  the  ground.  When  used  for  coffer- 
dams, or  such  temporary  purposes,  they  are  placed 
close  together,  and  driven  firmly  into  the  earth ; 
the  water  is  then  pumped  out,  and  the  piles  form 
a  dam,  to  enable  workmen  to  lay  foundations  of 
piers,  &c.  When  the  force  of  the  water  round  the 
dam  is  great,  two  rows  of  piles  are  driven  in  .all 
round,  and  the  space  between  the  rows  filled  with 
clay,  and  puddled  Piles  are  also  used  for  per- 
manent works,  when  they  are  driven  through  loose 
soil  till  they  reach  a  firm  bottom,  and  thus  form  a 
foundation  on  which  buddings,  roads,  &c,  may  be 
placed. 

Cast  iron  is  frecpiently  used  for  piles,  which  are 
cast  hollow.  Wharf-walls  are  sometimes  built  of 
pUes  ;  they  are  then  cast  with  grooves  on  the  sides, 
into  which  cast-iron  plates  (forming  the  walls)  are 
fitted. 

A  kind  of  pde  has  been  invented  by  Mr  Mitchell, 
which  is  of  great  use  in  very  loose  and  shifting 
substances.  It  is  called  the  screw-pde,  and  consists 
of  a  long  shaft  (of  wrought  iron),  with  a  broad  cast- 
iron  disc,  of  a  screw  form  at  the  lower  end.  These 
piles  are  especially  useful  for  light-houses,  beacons, 
&c,  which  have  to  be  placed  on  sands.  They  are 
fixed  by  means  of  capstans,  which  give  them  a 
rotatory  motion.  Common  piles  are  driven  in  by 
machines  called  pile-drivers.  In  these,  a  heavy 
weight  (or  nionkey)  is  raised  to  a  considerable  height 
between  two  guides,  and  then  let  fall  on  the  head 
of  the  pde.  The  application  of  steam  to  these 
drivers  has  made  them  very  powerful  engines — 
Nasmyth's  steam-hammer  being  a  well-known 
instance. 

In  1843,  Dr  L.  H.  Potts  obtained  a  patent  for  a 
new  kind  of  pile,  which  consists  of  hollow  tubes  of 
iron,  from  which  the  sand,  &c.,  within  them  is 


removed  l>y  means  of  an  air-pump,  and  the  pipes 
are  then  sunk. 

In  recent  railway  bridge*,  cylinders  have  been 
much  used  to  form  both  pdea  and  men.  Tiny  are 
of  cast  iron,  and  made  in  pieces  (of  about  6  feet  in 
height),  which  are  applied  one  on  the  top  of  another. 
The  sand  or  gravel  is  removed  from  tlie  inside  of  the 
first  laid,  which  thus  sinks  down  ;  another  cylinder 
is  placed  altove  it.  and  the  same  process  continued 
till  it  also  has  sunk  sufficiently  ;  and  so  on,  cylinder 
over  cylinder,  till  a  solid  foundation  is  reached, 
The  requisite  number  of  cylinders  is  then  piled  up 
to  form  the  pier  above  ground. 

TILES,  or  HEMORRHOIDS,  are  small  tnmocn 
situated  either  within  or  on  the  verge  of  the  nnns. 
They  consist  of  folds  of  mucous  and  sub-mucous 
membrane  in  an  inflamed,  infiltrated,  or  perma- 
nently thickened  condition,  and  usually  contain 
enlarged  veins.  There  are  several  varieties  of  these 
tumours.  Sometimes  the  pile  is  mainly  composed 
of  a  little  knot  of  varicose  veins  in  the  sub-mucous 
tissue ;  in  this  case,  it  is  readily  emptied,  by  pressure, 
of  the  fluid  blood  contained  in  it.  which,  however, 
returns  when  the  pressure  is  removed.  Sometimes 
the  blood  in  a  dilated  vein  coagulates,  forming  a 
solid  tumour  surrounded  by  tissues,  thickened  in 
consequence  of  inflammation  ;  or  the  tumour  may 
consist  of  a  kind  of  erectde  tissue  formed  by  an 
abnormal  condition  of  the  vessels  of  the  mucous 
membrane  ;  this  variety  is  especially  liable  to  bleed. 
These  tumours  are  divided  into  bleeding  and  blind 
piles,  according  as  they  are  or  are  not  accompanied 
with  haemorrhage ;  and  into  internal  and  external 
piles,  according  as  they  are  within  or  without  the 
sjihincter  muscle  of  the  anus. 

The  following  are  the  general  symptoms  of  this 
affection.  The  patient,  after  having  experienced 
for  a  varying  time  a  feeling  of  heat,  fulness,  and 
dull  pain  about  the  lower  part  of  the  bowel,  becomes 
conscious  of  a  sensation  as  if  there  were  a  foreign 
body  in  the  anus ;  and  on  examination  after  an 
evacuation,  discovers  a  small  tumour,  usually  about 
the  size  of  a  grape,  which  either  remains  outside,  or 
is  retracted,  according  as  it  originated  without  or 
within  the  sphincter.  This  tumour  gradually 
increases,  and  others  form  around  it,  until  a  mass 
at  length  results  as  large  as  a  pigeon's  egg,  or  larger. 
In  its  ordinary  indolent  state  the  tumour  has 
little  sensibility,  and  occasions  comparatively  little 
annoyance;  but  when  it  is  inflamed  (from  strangu- 
lation of  the  sphincter  muscle,  or  from  any  other 
cause),  it  is  exquisitely  tender  to  the  touch,  and  is 
the  seat  of  burning  and  stinging  sensations,  render- 
ing the  evacuation  of  the  bowels  (and  sometimes  of 
the  bladder  also)  difficult  and  painful.  In  women, 
an  inflamed  pde  may  cause  pain  in  the  back, 
irritation  of  the  womb,  with  mucous  discharge,  and 
many  other  anomalous  symptoms.  In  severe  cases, 
the  patient  can  neither  stand  nor  sit  with  comfort, 
and  only  finds  relief  in  the  horizontal  position. 

Piles  may  be  caused  by  any  circumstances  which 
cause  congestion  in  the  lower  bowel,  such  as  luxu- 
rious and  sedentary  habits  of  life,  pregnancy,  and 
such  diseases  of  the  liver  as  tend  to  check  the 
return  of  blood  from  the  veins  of  the  rectum. 
Moreover,  anything  that  causes  irritation  of  the 
rectum,  such  as  acrid  purgatives  and  especially  aloes, 
dysentery,  inflammation  of  the  prostate  gland,  &c, 
may  cause  pdes.  But  of  all  causes,  constipation 
is  probably  the  most  frequent ;  it  operates  in  pro- 
ducing them  partly  by  the  pressure  of  the  accumu- 
lated and  hardened  faeces  upon  the  veins  carrying 
the  blood  away  from  the  rectum,  and  partly  by  the 
straining  and  irritation  such  faeces  occasion  during 
their  evacuation. 

In  the  treatment  of  piles,  it  is  expedient  to  relieve 

M7 


PILEUS— PILLAR 


the  congested  state  of  the  lower  bowel  by  one  or 
two  doses  of  sulphate  of  magnesia,  and  a  cooling 
vegetable  diet,  after  which  the  continued  use  of 
mild  laxatives  should  be  resorted  to.  A  teaspoon- 
ful  of  an  electuary,  consisting  of  an  ounce  of  con- 
fection of  senna,  half  an  ounce  of  cream  of  tartar, 
and  half  an  ounce  of  sulphur,  if  taken  in  the  middle 
of  the  day,  usually  acts  gently  about  bedtime, 
which  is  far  the  best  time  for  the  bowels  of  patients 
of  this  kind  to  act,  as  the  parts  irritated  by  the 
passage  of  the  evacuation  become  quieted  during 
the  night.  In  long-standing  cases,  in  which  there 
is  general  relaxation  of  the  mucous  membrane,  the 
confection  of  pepper  in  doses  of  a  drachm  may  be 
given  thrice  daily  with  advantage,  or  a  scruple  of 
common  pitch  may  be  taken  at  bedtime  in  the 
form  of  pills  or  in  capsules.  Amongst  the  milder 
forms  of  local  treatment  must  be  mentioned  (1)  the 
injection  of  the  rectum  with  cold  water  both  before 
and  after  the  motion ;  (2)  washing  the  anus  with 
yellow  soap  and  water  after  each  evacuation ;  (3) 
the  application  of  gall  ointment  or  of  other  astrin- 
gents ;  and  (4)  the  injection  of  astringent  lotions,  as, 
for  instance,  of  sulphate  of  iron,  in  the  proportion 
of  a  grain  to  an  ounce  of  water.  If  these  fail, 
recourse  may  be  had  to  pressure  by  means  of  instru- 
ments specially  devised  for  the  purpose ;  to  the 
application  of  strong  nitric  acid,  which,  in  the  case 
of  internal  piles,  affords  the  most  speedy  and  effec- 
tive means  of  relief  (the  operation  must,  of  course, 
be  performed  by  a  surgeon,  and  if  the  parts  cannot 
be  protruded,  the  acid  must  be  applied  through  the 
speculum) ;  to  ligature ;  or,  in  the  case  of  external 

{)iles,  to  excision.  When  the  piles  are  inflamed, 
eeches  to  the  anus  (but  not  applied  directly  to  the 
tumours)  are  sometimes  required ;  but  the  inflam- 
mation generally  subsides  under  the  influence  of 
rest  in  the  horizontal  position,  fomentations,  poul- 
tices, and  low  diet. 

The  treatment  of  the  haemorrhage  that  frequently 
accompanies  piles  requires  a  few  words.  If  the 
bleeding  is  moderate  in  quantity,  and  has  continued 
for  some  time  without  inducing  weakness  or  any 
other  bad  symptom,  it  is  not  expedient  to  interfere 
with  it.  When,  however,  it  obviously  requires 
checking,  the  effect  of  cold  water  injected  into 
the  rectum,  as  already  recommended,  should  be 
tried,  and,  in  case  of  its  fading,  astringent  injections 
should  be  had  recourse  to.  At  the  same  time,  the 
patient  should  remain  in  the  horizontal  position, 
and  take  the  medicines  usually  prescribed  for 
internal  haemorrhage,  amongst  which  may  be  espe- 
cially mentioned  oil  of  turpentine,  in  doses  of 
twenty  drops  three  or  four  times  a  day,  or  ergot  of 
rye  in  divided  doses  to  the  extent  of  a  drachm 
daily.  In  rare  cases,  it  is  necessary  to  tie  a  vessel, 
or  to  touch  it  with  a  red-hot  wire  (through  the 
speculum),  or  to  plug  the  anus. 

PI'LEUS.    See  Fungi. 

PILEWORT.    See  Ranunculus. 

PI'LGRIM  (Ital.  pellegrino,  Lat.  peregrinvs,  'a 
foreigner,'  '  a  visitor  of  foreign  lands  ').  A  pilgrim 
is  a  person  who  has  undertaken,  especially  under 
Tow,  to  visit,  for  the  purpose  of  prayer  and  religious 
Worship,  some  shrine,  sanctuary,  or  other  place, 
reputed  to  possess  some  especial  holiness  or  religious 
interest.  That  the  early  Christians — as  had 
been  the  habit  of  the  Jews,  and  indeed  of  the 
pagan  Gentiles  also — regarded  certain  places  with 
some  sort  of  religious  interest,  seems  beyond  all 
question ;  aud  among  all  the  places  thus  reputed  as 
sacred,  or  at  least  venerable,  the  first  rank  was 
given  to  the  Holy  Land,  and  particularly  to  the 
Bcenes  of  the  Passion  of  our  Lord  at  Jerusalem. 
St  Jerome  (Ep.  xliv.)  speaks  of  the  practice  of 

638 


visiting  Jerusalem  as  established  ever  since  the 
discovery  of  the  Holy  Cross  by  St  Helena,  the 
mother  of  Constantine.  He  himself  was  a  zealous 
pilgrim,  and  was  followed  by  many  of  his  friends 
and  disciples ;  and  throughout  the  4th,  5th,  and  6th 
centuries,  pilgrims  habitually  undertook  the  long 
and  perilous  journey  to  the  Holy  Laud  from  almost 
every  part  of  the  West.  Other  sacred  places,  too, 
were  held  to  be  fit  objects  of  the  same  visits  of 
religious  veneration.  The  tombs  of  the  apostles 
Peter  and  Paul,  and  the  many  tombs  of  the  martyrs 
in  the  catacombs  at  Rome,  are  so  described  by 
St  Jerome  (Commentar.  in  Ezelciel).  St  Basil 
speaks  in  the  same  terms  of  the  tomb  of  the  Forty 
Martyrs ;  and  the  historian  Theodoret  tells  of  a 
practice  exactly  similar  to  that  still  seen  in  Catholic 
countries,  of  not  only  visiting  such  sanctuaries,  but 
of  hanging  up  therein  as  offerings,  gold  and  sdver 
ornaments,  and  even  models  of  hands,  feet,  eyes, 
&c,  in  commemoration  of  the  cures  of  diseases  of 
their  several  members,  believed  to  have  been 
supernaturally  obtained  as  the  fruit  of  these  pious 
visits.  The  Pilgeimage,  however,  pre-eminently  so 
called,  was  that  of  the  Holy  Land ;  and  even  after 
Jerusalem  had  been  permanently  occupied  by  the 
Saracens,  the  liberty  of  transit  for  pilgrimage,  on 
payment  of  a  stated  tax,  was  formally  secured  by 
treaty ;  and  it  was  from  the  frequent  violatiou  of  this 
immunity,  and  the  necessity  of  protecting  pilgrims 
from  outrage,  that  the  well-known  Military 
Orders  (q.  v.)  had  their  origin.  The  Crusades  (q.  v.) 
may  in  some  .sense  be  regarded  as  a  pilgrimage 
on  a  great  scale;  aud  the  direct  object  of  all  the 
expeditions  was  to  secure  for  the  Latin  Christians 
the  permanent  immunity  of  pilgrimage.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  closing  of  the  Holy  Land  against 
western  pilgrims,  consequent  on  the  final  abandon- 
ment of  the  Crusades,  led  to  a  great  extension  of 
what  may  be  called  domestic  pilgrimage,  aud  drew 
into  religious  notice  and  veneration  many  shrines 
in  Europe,  which,  after  the  lapse  of  time,  became 
celebrated  places  of  pious  resort.  The  chief  places 
of  pilgrimage  in  the  West  were  :  in  Italy — Pome, 
Loretto  (q.  v.),  Genetsano,  Assisi ;  in  Spain — Com- 
postella,  Guadalupe,  Montserrat ;  in  France — Four- 
vieres,  Puy,  St  Denis;  in  Germany—  Oetting,  Zell, 
Cologne,  Trier,  Einsiedeln ;  in  England — Walsing- 
ham,  Canterbury,  and  many  others  of  minor  note. 
The  pilgrim  commonly  bound  himself  only  by  a 
temporary  vow  (differing  in  this  from  the  palmer), 
which  terminated  with  the  actual  visit  to  the  place 
of  pilgrimage,  or  at  least  with  the  return  home,  and 
by  which  he  was  bouud  for  the  time  to  chastity 
and  to  certain  other  ascetic  observances.  The 
costume  consisted  of  a  black  or  gray  gabardine,  girt 
with  a  cincture,  from  which  a  shell  and  scrip  were 
suspended,  a  broad  hat,  ornamented  with  scallop- 
shells,  and  a  long  staff  Many  abuses  arose  out  of 
these  pilgrimages,  the  popular  notions  regarding 
which  may  be  gathered,  although,  probably,  with 
a  dash  of  caricature,  from  Chaucer's  Canterbury 
Tales. 

PILLAR,  a  detached  support  like  a  column ; 
but  its  section  may  be  of  any  shape,  whereas  the 
column  is  always  round.  Pillars  have  been  used 
in  all  styles  of  architecture,  and  their  forms  and 
ornaments  are  usually  amongst  the  most  charac- 
teristic features  of  the  style.  The  Greek  and 
Roman  pillars  (or  columns)  are  the  distinguishing 
elements  in  the  various  orders.  In  Gothic  archi- 
tecture, also,  the  pillars  are  of  different  forms 
at  the  various  epochs  of  that  style.  First,  in  the 
Norman  period,  we  have  plain  massive  pillars, 
square,  circular,  and  octagonal,  frequently  orna- 
mented with  zigzag  ornaments,  spiral  bands,  &c. 
on  the  surface  (fig.  1).     As  vaulting  progressed,  tn» 


PILLAR  SAINTS  -PILLORY. 


system  of  breaking  the  plain  surface,  and  giving 
to  each  portion  of  the  vaulting  a  separate  little 
column  or  shaft  to  sup- 
port it,  was  introduced. 
Tins  was  done  either  by 
attaching  shafts  to  the 
circular  pillars,  or  by 
cutting  nooks  in  the 
pillar  and  setting  little 
shafts  in  them,  thus : 
o,  ft,  tig.  2. 

In  the  Early  Pointed 
Style  a  plain  circular 
or  octagonal  pillar,  with 
a  number  of  small  shafts 
attached  around  it,  is 
a  favourite  arrangement, 
thus  :  c,  d,  fig.  2. 

In  this  style,  the 
attached  shafts  are  very 
frequently  banded  to 
the  main  pillar  at  dif- 
ferent heights,  and  they 
are  sometimes  made  of 
a  finer  material,  such  as 
Purbec  marble.  In  the 
Decorated  Style  the 
pillar  is  of  a  lozenge 
form,  and  not  so  much 
ornamented  with  de- 
tached shafts  as  with 
mouldings ;  plain,  circular,  or  octagonal  pillars, 
however,  are  used  in  this,  as  in  all  the  styles. 
The  mouldings  and  shafts  are  usually  filleted ;  and 


Fig.  1. — Norman  Clustered 
Pillar. 


c 


Fig.  2. 

Borne  of  the  mouldings  run  up  into  the  arch  with- 
out any  cap.  In  Perpendicular  the  same  idea  is 
further  carried  out ;  the  mouldings  become  thinner, 
and  are  more  frequently  run  up  into  the  arch 
without  caps.    See  Flamboyant. 

PILLAR  SAINTS— called  also  «  Stylites  '  (Gr. 
from  stylos,  a  column),  *  Pillarists,' '  Holy  Birds,'  •  Air 
Martyrs,'  and  several  similar  names — a  very  remark- 
able class  of  anchoretical  Ascetics  (see  Asceticism), 
chiefly  of  Syria,  who,  with  a  view  to  separating 
themselves  more  completely  from  earth  and  fellow- 
men,  took  up  their  abode  on  the  tops  of  pillars,  on 
which  they  remained  without  ever  descending  to 
earth,  and  exposed  to  all  the  variations  of  a  Syrian 
climate.  The  earliest  of  them,  and  the  most  cele- 
brated, Simeon  (called  also  Simon)  the  Stylite,  had 
been  a  monk,  and  had  lived,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
5th  c,  in  extreme  seclusion  in  his  monastery  for  nine 
years,  without  ever  moving  from  his  narrow  cell. 
Increasing  in  enthusiasm,  he  withdrew  to  a  place 
about  10  miles  from  Antioch,  where  he  built  a  pillar 


on  the  top  of  which,  only  a  yard  in  diameter,  he 
took  up  his  position.  From  this  pillar  he  removed 
to  several  others  in  succession,  each  higher  than  ita 
predecessor,  till  at  last  he  attained  to  40  cubits,  or 
about  60  feet,  in  height.  In  this  mode  of  life  he 
spent  37  years,  his  neck  loaded  with  an  iron  chain, 
and  his  lips  engaged  in  constant  prayers,  during 
the  recitation  of  which  he  bent  his  body  so  that 
his  forehead  touched  his  feet.  His  powers  of 
fasting  were  no  less  marvellous;  he  is  said  to 
have  frequently  limited  himself  to  a  single  meal 
in  the  week,  and  during  the  forty  days  of  Lent 
abstained  entirely  from  food.  The  fame  of  hia 
sanctity  brought  crowds  of  pilgrims  from  the  most 
distant  countries,  even  Britain  itself,  to  see  him ; 
and  the  admiration  of  his  austerities  is  said  to 
have  converted  many  pagans  and  Saracens  to  the 
church.  In  trial  of  his  virtue,  through  the  test  of 
humility,  some  neighbouring  monks  reproaching  him 
with  vanity,  and  the  love  of  novelty  in  this  extra- 
ordinary mode  of  life,  ordered  him  to  come  down 
from  his  pillar.  Simeon  prepared  without  hesitation 
to  comply,  and  the  compliance  was  accepted  as  an 
evidence  of  his  perfect  humility  and  holiness  of 
purpose.  It  is  said  that  in  consequence  of  an  ulcer 
which  was  formed  on  one  of  his  legs,  he  was  obliged 
for  the  last  year  of  his  life  to  remain  on  his  pillar 
upon  one  foot.  In  this  position  he  died  in  460,  aged 
72  years.  A  disciple  of  Simeon,  named  Daniel, 
succeeded  to  his  reputation  for  sanctity ;  and  to  his 
mode  of  life,  which  he  maintained  for  33  years, 
in  the  still  more  trying  climate  of  the  shores  of  the 
Bosporus,  about  4  miles  from  Constantinople.  The 
marvels  of  Daniel's  career  are  still  more  startling. 
He  was  sometimes  almost  blown  by  the  storms  of 
Thrace  from  the  top  of  his  pillar.  At  times  for 
days  together  he  was  covered  with  snow  and  ice. 
How  he  sustained  life,  what  nourishment  he  took, 
was  a  mystery  even  to  his  disciples.  The  emperor 
at  length  insisted  on  a  covering  being  placed  ovet 
the  top  of  the  pillar,  and  Daniel  survived  till  the 
year  494.  In  Syria  there  were  many  pillar  saints 
as  far  down  as  the  12th  c. ;  but  in  the  west,  Daniel 
is  all  but  a  solitary  example.  A  monk  named 
Wulfailich,  near  Trier,  attempted  the  pillar-life  in 
the  6th  c,  but  the  neighbouring  bishops  compelled 
him  to  desist,  and  destroyed  his  pillar. 

PI'LLNITZ,  a  palace  and  ordinary  summer  resi- 
dence of  the  royal  family  of  Saxony,  in  a  beautiful 
situation  seven  miles  south-east  of  Dresden.  The 
grounds  are  finely  diversified,  and  the  walks  ascend 
to  the  summits  of  hills,  of  which  one  is  nearly  1000 
feet  high.  P.  acquires  a  historic  interest  from  the 
meeting  of  princes  held  in  the  castle  in  August 
1791,  when  the  Declaration  of  Pillnitz  was  framed, 
according  to  which  Austria  and  Prussia  agreed  to 
declare  the  circumstances  of  the  king  of  France 
(then  a  prisoner  in  the  Tuileries,  after  his  ineffective 
flight  to  Varennes)  to  be  a  matter  of  common 
interest  to  the  sovereigns  of  Europe,  and  to  express 
the  hope  that  common  cause  would  be  made  for  hia 
restoration.  The  emperor  and  the  king  of  Prussia 
were  resolved  to  use  force  in  order  to  effect  this 
result ;  but  any  immediate  interference  on  their 
part  was  rendered  unnecessary  by  Louis's  acceptation 
of  the  constitution  as  modified  by  the  National 
Assembly,  after  which  he  was  again  placed  on  the 
throne. 

PI'LLORY,  an  engine  for  the  public  punishment 
of  criminals,  disused  in  Britain  since  1837 ;  but 
previous  to  that  time  commonly  employed,  as  it 
also  was  in  France  and  Germany.  It  consisted  of  a 
stout  plank  fixed  like  a  sign-board  on  the  top  of 
a  pole,  the  pole  being  supported  on  a  wooden 
platform  elevated  above  the  ground.  Above,  and 
r  639 


PILLS— PILOT. 


parallel  to  this  plank  another  of  similar  dimen- 
sions was  placed  in  a  similar  position  with  respect 
to  the  pole,  and  fixed  to  the  former  by  a  hinge, 
being  thus  capable  of  being  moved  upwards 
from  it,  or  closed  upon  it,  when  necessary.  A  large 
circular  hole  is  cut,  with  its  centre  in  the  line  of 
junction  of  the  two  planks,  and  two  corresponding 
holes  of  smaller  size  are  formed,  one  on  each  side 
of  it ;  the  larcje  hole  is  for  receiving  the  neck,  and 
the  two  smaller  the  wrists.  When  a  criminal  is 
to  be  placed  in  the  pillory,  he  is  made  to  mount 
and  stand  upon  the  platform ;  the  upper  of  the  two 
hinged  planks  is  raised  to  allow  the  culprit's  neck 
and  wrists  to  be  inserted  in  their  proper  grooves, 
and  then  brought  down  into  its  place,  and  fastened 
by  a  padlock,  or  in  some  other  way.  See  for 
illustration  the  wood-cut  to  the  article  Oates,  Titus. 
The  pillory  seems  to  have  existed  in  England  before 
the  Conquest,  in  the  form  of  the  stretch-neck  (an 
instrument  by  which  the  neck  only  was  confined), 
and  was  originally  intended,  according  to  the  '  Statute 
of  the  Pillory'  (51  Hen.  III.  c.  6),  for  ' forestallers, 
users  of  deceitful  weights,  perjury,  forgery,  &c.,' 
and  all  such  dishonourable  offences.  Its  use  was 
exclusively  confined  to  this  class  of  offenders  till 
1637,  when  restrictions  were  put  upon  the  press,  and 
all  who  printed  books  without  a  licence  were  put 
in  the  pillory.  From  this  time  it  became  the 
favourite  mode  of  punishing  libellers  (or  those  who 
were  considered  to  be  such  by  the  government), 
authors  and  publishers  of  seditious  pamphlets,  or  of 
strictures  on  the  government ;  and  many  eminent 
men  were  accordingly  from  this  time  put  '  in  and  on 
the  pillory,'  among  whom  may  be  mentioned 
Leighton,  Lilburn  and  Warton  the  printers,  Prynne, 
Dr  Bastwick,  Daniel  Defoe,  &c.  The  insufficiency 
of  the  pillory  as  a  means  of  inflicting  a  definite 
amount  of  punishment  was  now  apparent,  for  to 
those  who  were  popular  favourites  it  was  no  punish- 
ment at  all,  while  those  who  were  objects  of  popular 
dislike  were  ill-used  to  such  an  extent  as  occasionally 
to  cause  death.  The  sufferers  above  mentioned 
being  popular  favourites,  or  having  at  least  a 
numerous  class  of  supporters,  were  shaded  from  the 
sun,  fed,  and  otherwise  carefully  attended  to  ;  while 
the  encouragement,  applause,  and  sympathy  of  the 
crowd  around  converted  the  intended  punishment 
into  a  triumph  ;  but  such  men  as  Titus  Oates,  and 
the  class  of  offenders  including  perjurers,  swindlers, 

Eolygamists,  &c,  who  were  objects  of  popular 
atred  and  disgust,  were  pelted  with  rotten  eggs 
(the  favourite  missile),  garbage,  mud,  sometimes 
even  with  more  dangerous  missiles.  In  1814  the 
celebrated  naval  hero  Lord  Cochrane  (see  Dundon- 
ALD,  Eael  of)  was  sentenced  to  the  pillory,  but  the 
government  of  the  day  was  not  prepared  to  brave 
the  consequences  of  such  an  act,  and  the  sentence 
was  not  carried  into  effect.  In  France  the  pillory 
was  anciently  called  pilori,  and  in  recent  times 
earcan,  from  the  iron  collar  by  which  the  criminal's 
neck  was  attached  to  the  post ;  but  punishment  by 
this  mode  was  abolished  in  that  country  in  1832. 

PILLS  are  the  most  generally  convenient  and 
popular  of  all  forms  of  medicine.  They  are  formed 
from  masses  of  a  consistence  sufficient  to  preserve 
the  globular  shape,  and  yet  not  so  hard  as  to  be 
of  too  difficult  solution  in  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines. This  form  is  especially  suitable  for  (1)  all 
remedies  which  operate  in  small  doses,  as  metallic 
■alts  ;  (2)  those  which  are  designed  to  act  slowly 
and  gradually,  as  certain  alteratives;  (3)  those 
which  are  too  readily  soluble  when  exhibited  in 
other  forms ;  (4)  substances  whose  operation  it  is 
desirable  to  retard  until  they  have  reached  the 
lower  intestines,  as  in  certain  pills  for  habitual 
costivenesB ;  (5)  bodies  whose  specific  gravities  are 
610 


too  inconsiderable  to  allow  their  suspension  in 
aqueous  vehicles ;  and  (6)  fetid  substances :  while 
it  is  unsuitable  for  (1)  medicines  which  require 
to  be  given  in  large  doses ;  (2)  deliquescent 
salts  ;  (3)  fluid  or  semi-fluid  substances,  such 
as  oils,  balsams,  &c,  which  require  a  very  large 
proportion  of  some  dry  powder  to  render  them 
sufficiently  tenacious  to  form  into  a  mass ;  (4) 
substances  so  insoluble,  that  when  exhibited  in 
solid  form  they  pass  through  the  intestinal  canal 
unaltered,  as  extract  of  logwood  (Paris's  Pharma- 
coloyia,  9th  ed.  p.  550).  Many  substances,  such  as 
vegetable  extracts,  may  be  at  once  formed  into  pills 
without  any  addition  ;  but  most  substances  require 
the  addition  of  a  material  termed  an  excipient,  for 
converting  them  into  a  pill-mass.  The  excipients  in 
most  common  use  are  bread-crumbs,  hard  soap, 
extract  of  liquorice,  mucilage,  syrup,  treacle,  honey, 
castor  oil,  and  conserve  of  roses.  From  the  pro- 
perty of  preserving  pills  for  a  long  time  in  a 
properly  soft  state,  the  most  valuable  excipient  is 
the  conserve  of  red  roses  ;  and,  perhaps,  next  to  it 
treacle  is  the  most  valuable  excipient,  as  it  does 
not  undergo  any  change  by  time,  but  maintains  a 
proper  consistence,  and  preserves  the  properties  of 
vegetable  powders  unimpaired  for  years.  It  is 
common  to  place  pills  in  some  fine  powder,  to 
prevent  them  from  adhering  to  each  other,  and  to 
conceal  their  taste.  For  this  purpose,  liquorice 
powder,  wheat  flour,  starch,  and  magnesia  are 
generally  used  in  this  country,  and  lycopodium  on 
the  continent.  Pills  retain  their  moisture  and 
activity  far  longer  in  small  bottles  than  in  the 
ordinary  pasteboard  boxes.  The  ordinary  weight  of 
a  pill  is  five  grains ;  if  it  much  exceeds  that  weight, 
it  is  too  bulky  to  swallow  conveniently  if  it  consist 
of  vegetable  matter.  It  is  very  common  to  meet 
with  patients  who  express  their  inability  to  take 
this  form  of  medicine.  If,  however,  they  practise 
with  a  small  globular  mass,  towards  which  they 
feel  no  repugnance,  as  a  pellet  of  bread  or  a  currant, 
placing  it  on  the  back  of  the  tongue,  and  gulping 
it  down  with  water,  they  will  soon  get  over  the 
difficulty. 

PI'LOT  is  a  person  specially  deputed  to  take 
charge  of  a  ship  while  passing  through  a  particular 
sea,  reach,  or  dangerous  channel.  The  intricacy  oi 
almost  all  coast  navigation  renders  it  impossible 
that  any  navigator,  however  skilful,  can  be  master 
of  all  the  waters  to  which  he  may  have  to  sail  his 
ship ;  and  the  risk  of  failure,  through  ignorance  of 
local  dangers,  is  therefore  avoided  by  transferring 
the  direction  of  her  course  to  some  one  perfectly 
acquainted  with  the  spot.  The  man  to  whom  so 
much  is  intrusted  must  be  a  responsible  person, 
and  therefore  in  all  countries  qualified  sailors  are 
officially  licensed  to  act  as  pilots  in  their  districts, 
and  they  are  granted  the  monopoly.  The  origin  of 
the  word  pilot  is  uncertain ;  but  it  is  probably  taken 
from  or  nearly  identical  with  the  Dutch  pijlloott 
which  is  compounded  of  peileu,  to  sound  the  depth, 
and  the  root  which  appears  in  D.  lootsman,  O.  E. 
lodesma?i,  and  signifies  to  lead,  direct.  Pilot  thug 
means  one  who  conducts  a  vessel  by  sounding.  The 
laws  of  Wisby,  promulgated  at  least  as  early  as 
the  14th  c,  and  subsequently  incorporated  in  nearly 
every  maritime  code,  render  it  compulsory  on  the 
master  of  a  ship  to  employ  a  pilot  when  sailing  near 
a  coast. 

The  British  laws  relating  to  pilots  were  revised 
and  consolidated  by  the  act  16  and  17  Vict.  c.  129. 
Certain  fees  are  established  in  proportion  to  the 
distance  and  responsibility ;  and  the  master  of  every 
vessel,  above  50  tons,  passing  up  the  Channel  or 
the  Thames,  or  vice  versa,  is  lequired  to  accept  the 
services    of    the    first  pilot  tendering,  provided  he 


PILOT-FISH— PIMENTO. 


shews  his  licence  as  a  proof  of  qualification.  Except 
in  matters  of  discipline,  the  command  of  the  vessel 
is  then  vested  entirely  in  the  pilot,  who  can  have 
the  sails,  steering,  so.,  of  the  ship  carried  on 
entirely  at  his  discretion  until  the  limit  of  the 
pilot's  district  is  passed,  except  that  the  captain 
resumes  his  powers  when  the  question  of  taking  up 
ground  in  a  harbour  is  concerned.  The  fees  vary 
with  the  draught  of  the  ship  and  the  distance ;  as 
specimens,  may  he  cited  the  highest  and  lowest  in 
the  London  district :  a  ship  drawing  22  feet  of 
water  is  piloted  from  Orfordness  to  Blackwall  for 
4>27,  12s.  ;  a  ship  drawing  not  more  than  7  feet  is 
guided  from  Gravesend  Reach  to  Long  Reach  for 
9s.  3d. 

Pilots  are  associated  in  guilds  called  Brother- 
hoods, of  which  the  principal  are  the  Brotherhood  of 
the  Trinity  House  of  Deptford-Stroud,  situated  on 
Tower  Hill,  which  has  jurisdiction  over  the  Thames, 
Medway,  and  the  coast  from  Harwich  to  the  Isle  of 
Wight;  mid  the  Trinity  Houses  of  Kingston-upon- 
Hull  and  Ncwcastlc-on-Tyne.  There  are  also 
societies  of  pilots  at  the  larger  ports  out  of  these 
districts,  the  government  in  such  case  being  vested 
in  certain  officials  lawfully  appointed  as  '  pilotage 
authorities.'  Their  powers  over  the  members,  &c, 
are  defined  in  the  act  above  quoted,  and  in  the 
Merchant  Shipping  Act  of  1854,  17  and  18  Vict. 
c.  104,  sections  330— 3S8. 

Pilots  board  vessels  entering  their  districts  in 
boats  conspicuously  painted,  on  the  bows  and  sails 
of  which  must  be  the  man's  distinguishing  number 
as  shewn  by  his  licence.  The  boat  also  bears  a  flag 
of  comparatively  large  size,  of  red  and  white  divided 
horizontally.  A  ship  requiring  a  pilot  hoists  a 
square  blue  flag.  In  passing  up  or  down  the 
Thames,  every  ship  above  50  tons  or  6  feet  draught 
must  bear  a  pilot ;  but  her  master  or  first-mate 
may  act  by  Ucence  in  that  capacity,  if  he  have 
passed  the  necessary  examination.  A  master  ia 
subject  to  a  penalty  for  sailing  without  a  pilot ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  so  also  is  any  person,  without 
a  licence,  or  whose  licence  has  been  forfeited, 
presuming  to  act  or  offering  to  act  as  a  pilot. 

In  the  navies  of  some  countries  the  pilot  is  a 
permanent  officer  of  the  ship,  and  has  charge  of  her 
course ;  but  his  functions  in  that  case  approach 
nearer  to  those  of  the  British  Master  (q.  v.).  Large 
French  vessels  have  often  several  sailing  pilots 
called  pilotes  hauturiers,  and  a  pilote  cdtier  or 
lamaneur.  The  ancient  laws  of  France  contained 
provisions  for  the  education  and  regulation  of  both 
these  classes. 

The  general  rule  as  to  the  responsibility  of  the 
owners  of  the  ship  is,  that  no  owner  or  master  of  a 
ship  is  answerable  to  any  person  whatever  for  any 
loss  or  damage,  occasioned  by  the  fault  or  incapacity 
of  any  qualified  pilot,  acting  in  charge  of  such  ship 
within  any  district  where  the  employment  of  the 
pilot  is  compulsory. 

PILOT-FISH  (Naucrates  dnctor),  a  fish  of  the 
family  Scomberidce,  and  belonging  to  a  section  of 
that  family  in  which  the  first  dorsal  fin  is  repre- 
sented by  mere  spines,  and  there  are  no  finlets 
behind  the  second  dorsal  and  the  anal  fins  as  in  the 
mackerel,  &c.  The  shape  of  the  P.  is  very  similar 
to  that  of  the  mackerel.  It  is  usually  about  a  foot 
long ;  the  general  colour  silvery  grayish-blue, 
five  dark-blue  transverse  bands  passing  round 
the  whole  body.  Its  flesh  is  very  delicate,  and 
resembles  mackerel  in  flavour.  It  is  common 
in  the  Mediterranean,  and  appears  to  be  widely 
diffused  through  the  warmer  parts  of  the  ocean, 
often  following  ships  for  a  long  time  and  very  far, 
in  which  way  it  has  been  known  to  come  from 
Alexandria   to   Plymouth.     It  is,  however,  of  rare 


occurrence  even  on  the  southern  coasts  or  Britain, 
It  is  suppose, 1  to  be  tlie  Pompti&ua  of  tlie  ancients, 
which  was  believed  to  point  out  their  desired  course 
to  sailors.  It  is  often  seen  in  the  company  of  a 
shark,  and  is  therefore  very  commonly  supposed  to 
direct  tlie  shark  to  its  prey.  <  toncenung  this  many 
wonderful  stories  are  to  be  found  in  tw  writings 
both  of  voyagers  and  of  naturalists.     It  has  been 


Pilot-fish  [Naucrates  dv.ctor). 

contended,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  P.  merely 
follows  the  ship  along  with  the  shark  for  the  same 
object  that  gulls  follow  the  steam-boats  on  our 
coasts,  to  feed  on  anything  eatable  that  may  fall 
or  be  thrown  overboard;  or  that  it  attends  the 
shark  in  order  to  seize  small  morsels  of  its  large 
prey.  The  following  statements  of  Dr  Bennett  may 
be  received  with  confidence  :  '  I  have  observed  that 
if  several  sharks  swim  together,  the  pilot-fishes  are 
generally  absent ;  whereas,  on  a  solitary  shark  being 
seen,  it  is  equally  rare  to  find  it  unaccompanied  by 
one  or  more  of  these  reputed  guides.  .  .  .  The 
only  method  by  which  I  could  procure  this  fish  was, 
that  when  capturing  a  shark  I  was  aware  these 
faithful  little  fishes  would  not  forsake  him  until  he 
was  taken  on  board ;  therefore  by  keeping  the 
shark,  when  hooked,  in  the  water  until  he  was 
exhausted,  or,  as  the  sailors  term  it,  "  drowned,"  the 
pilot-fish  kept  close  to  the  surface  of  the  water  over 
the  shark,  and  by  the  aid  of  a  dipping-net  fixed  to 
the  end  of  a  long  stick  I  was  enabled  to  secure  it 
with  great  facility'  {Gatherings  of  a  Naturalist). — 
A  much  larger  species  of  Naucrates  is  found  on  the 
coasts  of  South  America. 

PILPAI.     See  Bidpai. 

PI'LSEN,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  in  a  fertile  and 
beautiful  valley  at  the  confluence  of  the  Mies 
and  the  Beraun,  52  miles  west-south-west  of  Prague. 
The  church  of  St  Bartholomew  (built  in  1292), 
the  town-hall,  and  the  house  of  the  Teutonic 
Knights  are  interesting  Gothic  edifices.  The  town 
also  contains  a  gymnasium  and  other  educational 
institutions,  an  arsenal,  theatre,  and  a  number  of 
churches  and  convents.  P.  has  leather  and  cloth- 
factories,  a  great  alum-work,  iron  and  coal  mines, 
and  an  important  brewery.     Pop.  about  25,000. 

PIMENTO,  PIMENTA,  ALLSPICE,  or  JAM- 
AICA PEPPER,  a  well-known  spice,  is  the  dried 
fruit  of  Eugenia  Pimento  (see  Eugenia),  a  small  West 
Indian  tree,  which  grows  to  the  height  of  twenty 
or  thirty  feet,  and  has  oblong  or  oval  leaves  about 
four  inches  long,  of  a  deep  shining  green,  and  num- 
erous axillary  and  terminal  trichotomous  panicles  of 
white  flowers,  followed  by  small  dark -purple  berries. 
The  P.  tree  is  much  cultivated  in  some  of  the  West 
Indian  Islands.  It  is  a  very  beautiful  tree,  with 
straight  trunk  and  much  branching  head ;  and 
about  the  month  of  July  is  covered  with  an  exuber- 
ance of  flowers,  which  diffuse  a  rich  aromatic  odoux 


PIMPERNEL— PIN. 


The  leaves  and  bark  partake  of  the  aromatic  pro- 
perty for  which  the  fruit  is  valued.  The  fruit, 
when  ripe,  is  filled  with  a  sweet  pulp,  and  the 
aromatic  property,  which  so  strongly  characterises 
it  in  an  unripe  state,  has  in  a  great  measure  dis- 
appeared. The  gathering  of  the  berries,  therefore, 
takes  place  as  soon  as  they  have  reached  their  full 


Pimento. 

*ize,  which  is  about  that  of  pepper-corns.  They  are 
gathered  by  the  hand,  and  dried  in  the  sun  on 
raised  wooden  floors,  during  which  process  great 
care  is  taken,  by  turning  and  winnowing,  to  prevent 
them  from  being  injured  by  moisture.  Their  colour 
changes  in  drying,  from  green  to  reddish-brown. 
When  dry  they  are  packed  in  bags  for  the  market. 
Some  planters  kiln-dry  them. — The  name  Allspice 
was  given  to  P.  from  a  supposed  resemblance  in 
flavour  to  a  mixture  of  cinnamon,  nutmeg,  and 
cloves.  P.  is  much  employed  in  cookery,  and  is 
also  used  in  medicine  as  a  carminative  and  stim- 
ulant, to  prevent  the  griping  of  purgatives,  and  to 
disguise  the  taste  of  nauseous  drugs.  It  depends 
for  its  properties  chiefly  on  a  volatile  oil,  Oil  of  P., 
which  is  obtained  from  it  by  distillation  with  water, 
and  is  sometimes  used  to  relieve  toothache,  and  for 
making  the  Spirit  of  P.  (or  of  Allspice)  and  P.  (or 
Allspice)  Water  of  the  shops. 

PI'MPERNEL  (Anagallis);  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Primulacece,  having  a  wheel- 
Bhaped  corolla,  and  the  capsule  opening  by  division 
round  the  middle.  The  species  are  elegant  little 
annual  and  perennial  plants,  natives  chiefly  of  tem- 
perate climates.  The  flowers  are  not  large,  but 
very  beautiful. — The  Scarlet  P.  (A.  arvensis)  is  a 
common  plant  in  Britain,  occurring  as  a  weed  in 
fields  and  gardens  ;  it  is  common  also  in  most  parts 
of  Europe,  and  in  many  parts  of  America.  The  flow- 
ers are  of  a  fine  scarlet  colour,  with  a  purple  circle 
at  the  eye.  There  is  a  common  belief  in  England, 
mentioned  by  Lord  Bacon,  that  when  this  plant 
opens  its  flowers  in  the  morning  a  fine  day  may  be 
expected ;  and  they  certainly  close  very  readily  on 
the  approach  of  rain.  They  usually  open  about 
eight  in  the  morning,  and  close  about  noon. — The 
Blue  P.  {A.  cozrulea)  is  far  less  common  in  Britain, 
643 


but  very  abundant  in  some  parts  of  Europe.— The 
Bog  P.  (A.  tenella),  frequent  in  bogs  in  England,  but 
rare  in  Scotland,  is  an  exquisitely  beautiful  plant. — 
Several  species  are  cultivated  in  our  flower-gardens, 
— Acrid  properties  prevail  in  this  genus,  and  A. 
arvensis  has  been  used  medicinally  in  epilepsy, 
dropsy,  and  mania. — The  name  Water  P.  is  given 
to  Samolus  Valerandi,  also  called  Brookweed,  another 
British  plant  of  the  same  order,  with  racemes  of 
small  white  flowers,  growing  in  watery  gravelly 
places.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  Samolus  which 
Pliny  says  the  Druids  gathered  fasting,  with  the 
left  hand,  and  without  looking  at  it,  ascribing  to  it 
magical  virtues  in  the  cure  and  prevention  of 
diseases  in  cattle.  Its  geographic  distribution 
extends  over  almost  all  the  world. 

PIN.  As  a  requisite  of  the  toilet,  &c,  pins  were 
first  used  in  Britain  in  the  latter  part  of  the  15th  c, ; 
they  were  at  first  made  of  iron  wire,  but  in  1540 
brass  ones  were  imported  from  France  by  Catharine 
Howard,  queen  of  Henry  VIII.  Several  inventions, 
however,  were  previously  in  use  for  holding  together 
parts  of  the  dress,  such  as  buckles,  brooches,  laces, 
clasps,  hooks,  &c.  At  first  pins  were  made  by  filing 
a  point  to  a  proper  length  of  wire,  and  then  twisting 
a  piece  of  fine  wire  around  the  other  extremity,  or 
fixing  it  after  twisting,  in  order  to  form  a  knob  or 
head;  and  ultimately  these  operations  were  so 
skilfully  conducted,  that  a  completely  round  head 
was  made  of  very  small  size,  and  scarcely  shewing  the 
nature  of  its  construction.  Some  pins  are  still  made 
in  this  way.  It  is  surprising  how  many  operations 
are  needed  to  complete  so  small  an  article.  They  are 
as  follows  :  1.  Straightening  and  Gutting  the  Wire.—' 
The  straightening  is  necessary,  because  the  wire- 
drawers  coil  the  wire  as  they  make  it  upon  a 
cylinder,  and  when  it  is  unrolled,  the  coils  remain. 
It  is  therefore  drawn  through  an  arrangement  of 
upright  iron  rods  which  completely  straighten  it, 
after  which  it  is  cut  into  lengths  of  30  feet,  and 
these  are  again  reduced  to  lengths  of  four  pins. 
2.  Pointing. — This  is  done  by  two  operations  and 
different  workmen,  each  standing  at  a  separate 
grindstone  ;  the  first  is  the  rough  grinder,  and  the 
second  the  finisher.  Each  holds  with  the  thumb  on 
the  palm  of  the  hand  a  number  of  the  wires  amount- 
ing to  30  or  40,  and  by  a  movement  of  his  thumb 
he  manages  to  make  the  wires  turn  round  so  as  to 
make  a  point  to  each  as  he  holds  them  to  the  grind- 
stones, the  second  of  which,  being  of  a  fine  material, 
gives  them  a  smooth  finish ;  they  are  then  reversed, 
and  the  other  end  pointed.  3.  Cutting. — The  length 
of  a  single  pin  is  cut  off  of  each  end  of  these  pieces ; 
the  intermediate  portions  are  then  handed  back  to 
the  pointers,  and  each  end  receives  a  point,  after 
which  they  are  divided  into  two,  and  thus  the  four 
pin  piece  is  reduced  into  single  pin  lengths,  each 
having  a  point.  4.  Twisting  tlie  Heads. — These  are 
made  of  very  thin  wire,  which  is  coiled  twice,  by 
means  of  a  lathe,  around  the  end  of  another  piece  of 
wire  the  same  thickness  as  the  pins.  5.  Cutting  th« 
Heads. — The  head  being  formed  on  the  thin  wire,  it 
is  handed  to  another  workman  who  cuts  it  off; 
these  two  operations  are  performed  with  great 
rapidity,  so  great,  indeed,  that  as  many  as  12,000 
have  been  made  in  an  hour.  6.  Annealing  the 
Heads. — This  is  softening  them  by  putting  some 
thousands  into  an  iron  ladle,  and  after  making  them 
red  hot,  plunging  them  into  cold  water.  7.  Stamp' 
ing  or  Shaping  the  Heads. — This  is  pressing  the 
heads  into  a  better  shape  by  means  of  a  small  lever 
press,  and  at  the  same  time  fixing  them  on  the  pins ; 
a  good  worker  will  do  as  many  as  12,000  to  15,000 
per  day.  8.  Yellowing  or  Cleaning  the  Pins. — This  is 
done  by  a  process  which  is  often  called  souring  ;  it 
consists  in  boiling  them  for  about  half  an  hour  in 


PIN. 


the  dregs  of  sour  beer,  or  a  solution  of  argol  or 
cream  of  tartar,  and  then  washing  them  in  oleaa 
water.  9.  Whitening  or  Tinning. — In  this  process  a 
large  copper  pan  is  used,  and  in  it  is  first  placed  a 
layer  of  about  six  pounds  of  the  cleaned  or  yellowed 
pins,  and  over  these  a  layer  of  grain-tin  to  the 
amount  of  about  eight  pounds.  Several  alternate 
layers  of  pins  and  tin  are  put  in  one  vessel,  and 
then  by  a  pipe  arranged  inside  the  copper  pan 
water   is  gently  poured   in,  and  goes  through   the 

Sipe  to  the  bottom,  first  rising  up  through  the 
ifferent  layers  so  gently  as  not  to  disturb  them. 
Fire  is  now  applied  to  the  bottom  of  the  pan,  and 
when  it  is  nearly  boiling  its  surface  is  sprinkled 
with  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  cream  of  tartar, 
and  the  whole  is  slowly  boiled  for  half  an  hour, 
then  poured  into  a  strainer  and  shaken,  to  separate 
the  pins  from  the  grain-tin  and  liquid  ;  by  this 
process  a  thin  deposit  of  tin  has  been  thrown  on  the 
pins,  which  now  are  white  instead  of  yellow  ;  with- 
out the  souring  this  would  not  take  place,  it  being 
essential  that  they  should  be  quite  free  from  any 
oxidation  or  soil.  10.  Washing. — The  pins  are  now 
thoroughly  washed  in  pure  water.  11.  Drying  and 
Polishing. — They  are  now  put  into  a  large  leathern 
bag  with  a  quantity  of  bran,  and  violently  shaken 
backwards  and  forwards  by  two  men.  12.  Winnow- 
ing.— The  bran  is  next  separated  by  fanning.  13. 
Pricking  the  Papers  to  receive  the  Pins.— This  is 
now  done  by  an  ingenious  machine,  through  which 
the  papers  are  passed,  and  which,  at  regular  inter- 
vals, arranged  according  to  the  size  of  the  pins, 
pinches  up  a  fold  of  the  paper,  and  at  the  same 
time  pricks  the  holes  to  receive  the  pins,  and  then 
places  the  pins  in  their  places.  Formerly  this 
required  a  separate  operation.  Thus  fourteen  per- 
sons were  required  to  make  and  put  up  for  sale  a 
Ein,  and  in  some  manufactories  this  is  still  the  case ; 
ut  in  all  the  large  establishments  machines  are 
now  employed,  and  an  immense  reduction  of  hand 
labour  is  effected  by  them. 

The  first  machine  was  invented  by  Lemuel 
Wellman  Wright,  of  the  United  States,  in  1824. 
This  did  very  little  more  than  make  solid  heads 
to  the  pins,  by  a  process  in  principle  like  that 
used  for  nail-making — viz.,  by  driving  a  portion 
of  the  pin  itself  into  a  counter-sunk  hole.  The 
action,  however,  was  automatic,  and  consisted  in 
an  arrangement  by  which  the  wire  was  seized  in 
two  small  grooved  cheeks,  as  in  figs.  1  and  2, 
which  represent  them  separated.  Fig.  1  has  the 
groove  empty,  but  in  fig.  2  is  seen  the  wire 
which    projects    at    a.     When    both    cheeks    are 


placed  face  to  face,  and  the  wire  is  held  tightly 
in  the  groove  with  the  small  portion  (a)  project- 
ing, a  small  ram  or  hammer  connected  with  the 
machine  strikes  on  a,  and  compresses  it  into  the 
small  cup-shaped  depression  b,  and  thus  the  head  is 
formed,  as  in  fig.  3.  The  pointing  and  dressing 
of  the  pins  was  afterwards  carried  on  as  described 


in  the  processes  for  hand -made  pins.  Since  Wright's 
invention  many  remarkable  improvements  have 
been  effected  in  these  machines,  which  have  con- 
sequently become  very  complicated  in  their  details, 
although  the  principles  upon  which  they  act  are 
very  simple.  No  description  would  convey  a  satis- 
factory idea  of  these  wonderful  pieces  of  mechanism, 
which  now,  without  the  aid  of  hands,  complete  the 
pin  in  all  respects  except  the  colouring  and  polish- 
ing; bat  a  slight  account  of  the  hading  features 
will  enable  the  reader  to  understand  their  mode  of 
working.  First,  then,  a  reel  of  wire  as  it  cornea 
from  the  wire-drawer  is  placed  in  the  rear  of  the 
machine,  and  the  end  of  the  wire  is  taken  hold  of 
by  a  pair  of  nippers,  which  pull  it  over  a  fixed 
straightening  board,  and  pass  it  on  completely 
straightened,  until  it  is  seized  by  two  cheeks  similar 
to  those  in  figs.  1  and  2,  when  a  cutter  descends 
and  cuts  it  oil,  leaving  the  projecting  part  for  the 
head ;  on  the  withdrawal  of  the  cutter,  the  hammer 
flies  forward,  and  makes  the  head  as  before 
described ;  the  cheeks  open,  and  the  pins  drop  on  to 
a  sloping  metal  plate  finely  grooved,  down  which 
they  slip  with  the  heads  upwards,  until  the  end 
which  is  to  be  pointed  comes  in  contact  with  a 
cylindrical  roller  with  a  grinding  surface,  which 
soon  grinds  points  upon  them,  owing  to  two  or  three 
ingenious  arrangements :  the  first  is,  that  the 
grooved  surface  of  the  plate  by  which  the  pins 
descend  terminates  a  little  above  the  grinding 
roller,  then  a  slight  depression  is  given  to  the 
sloping  plate  and  also  to  the  roller,  so  that  one  end 
is  an  inch  or  two  lower  than  the  other ;  therefore, 
as  the  pin  descends  the  groove  (a,  fig.  4),  and  is 
thus  brought  down  the  inclined  plate  until  it  lies 
on  the  smooth  part  (b,  fig.  4),  where  it  is  highest, 
and  with  its  end  in  contact  with  the  grinding 
roller  (c)  which  is  revolving,  the  pin  itself  is  com- 
pelled by  the  friction  of  the  roller  to  turn  round, 
and  gradually  descends  from  the  upper  to  the  lower 
part  of  the  inclined  plate  (d),  and  then  falls  off  into 


Fig.  4. 

a  box  placed  to  receive  it.  This  is  attempted  to  be 
shewn  in  fig.  4.  These  operations  are  performed  so 
rapidly  that  they  can  scarcely  be  followed  by  the 
eye,  and  the  pins  fall  into  the  box  beautifully 
pointed  in  a  complete  stream.  They  are  then 
yellowed,  tinned,  and  prepared  for  papering,  which 
is  a  remarkable  process.  The  machine  by  which  it 
is  done  is  worked  by  two  children ;  one  feeds  the 
machine  with  pins,  the  other  with  papers.  The 
first  part  of  the  machine  is  a  box,  about  12  inchea 

^  513 


PINA  CLOTH— PINDAR. 


long  by  6  inches  broad  and  4  inches  deep  ;  the 
bottom  is  made  of  small  square  steel  bars,  suffi- 
ciently wide  apart  to  let  the  shank  of  the  pin  fall 
through  but  not  the  head,  and  they  are  just  a3  thick 
as  the  space  between  papered  pins ;  the  bottom  of 
the  box,  with  the  row  of  pins  hanging  through  it,  are 
Been  m  fig.  5.     The  lower  part  of  the  bottom  of  the 


Kg.  5. 

box  at  a  is  made  to  detach  itself  as  soon  as  the  row 
of  pins  is  complete,  and  row  after  row  at  regular 
intervals  is  received  and  passed  down  a  corre- 
sponding set  of  grooves,  until  they  reach  the  paper 
which  is  pinched  and  pierced  for  their  reception.  There 
are  (1870)  eight  pin  factories  in  the  United  States, 
whose  annual  production  is  2,000,000  packs,  or 
6,720,000,000  pins.  One  lactory  alone  makes  eight 
tons  of  pins  per  week.  Fifty  tons  of  hair-pins  per 
month  are  made  at  the  only  American  factory.  Amer- 
ican pins  are  salable  throughout  the  world ;  the  pro- 
duction and  consumption  are  yearly  on  the  increase. 

PI'NA  CLOTH,  a  very  beautiful  fabric  made  of  the 
fibres  of  the  leaves  of  the  pine-apple  plant  (A  nanassa 
eativa),  and  other  allied  species.  This  cloth  is  only 
made  in  Manilla,  and  in  its  manufacture  resembles 
horse-hair  cloth,  because  the  threads  both  of  warp 
and  weft  are  each  single  uuspun  fibres,  consequently 
only  small  pieces  can  be  made  ;  the  workers  have, 
however,  a  plan  of  joining  the  fibres  of  the  coarser 
kinds  end  to  end,  so  as  to  make  warp  threads  of 
considerable  length.  Pina  cloth  is  very  strong,  and 
the  better  sorts  far  excel  the  finest  lawns  in  texture. 
It  is  chiefly  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  ladies' 
pocket-handkerchiefs,  which  often  have  their  cost- 
liness much  increased  by  beautifid  embroidery. 

PI'NCHBECK  is  an  alloy  of  zinc  and  copper,  in 
which  the  proportions  slightly  differ  from  those 
which  constitute  brass ;  3  parts  zinc  to  16  of 
copper  constitute  this  material,  instead  of  one  part 
of  the  former  to  two  of  the  latter  as  in  common 
brass.  Pinchbeck,  when  new,  has  a  colour  resem- 
bling red  gold,  and  it  was  at  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century  much  employed  in  making  watch- 
cases  and  other  small  articles  in  imitation  of  gold. 

PIND  DADU'N  KHAN,  a  town  in  the  Punjab, 
stands  on  a  narrow  verdant  plain  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Jhelum,  and  at  the  southern  base  of  the  Salt 
Range  or  Kalabagh  Mountains,  110  miles  north- 
west of  Lahore.  The  town  consists  of  three  groups 
of  houses,  four  miles  from  the  Jhelum.  The  houses 
are  built  of  mud,  but  the  framework  is  of  cedar- 
wood.  In  the  vicinity,  salt  is  extensively  raised  in 
the  Salt  Range.  See  Punjab.  Entire  population, 
13,588. 
644 


PI'NDAR  (Gr.  Pindaros),  the  great  lyric  poet  of 
Greece,  was  born,  about  522  B.C.,  of  a  noble  famity  of 
Thebes,  at  Oynoscephalse,  a  village  in  that  territory. 
His  genius  for  music  was  hereditary,  and  at  an 
early  age  he  was  sent  by  his  father,  himself  a  flute- 
player,  to  receive  instruction  in  the  same  art  from 
Scopelinus.  At  thi3  time  his  genius  for  poetry  too 
— foreshadowed,  according  to  later  writers,  by  a 
swarm  of  bees  miraculously  resting  on  his  lips  when 
asleep — began  to  develop  itself,  and  so  he  went  to 
Athens  to  be  placed  under  the  tuition  of  Lasus  of 
Hermione,  the  founder  of  the  Athenian  school  of 
dithyrambic  poetry.  Before  completing  his  20th 
year  he  returned  to  Thebes,  where  he  continued  to 
pursue  his  studies  under  Myrtis  and  Corinna,  of 
Tanagra,  two  poetesses  then  famous  in  Bceotia. 
With  both  of  his  instructresses  he  contested  the 
prize  for  music  at  Thebes,  but  was  five  times 
defeated  by  Corinna.  He  was  still  a  young  man 
when  he  entered  on  hi3  professional  career  as  a 
poet,  and  his  services  soon  came  to  be  in  great 
request  on  festive  occasions  throughout  all  the 
Hellenic  states.  He  composed  choral  songs  for 
Hiero,  tyrant  of  Syracuse ;  Alexander,  son  of 
Amyntas,  king  of  Macedonia  ;  Theron,  tyrant  of 
Agrigentum  ;  Arcesilaus,  king  of  Cyrene  ;  and  also 
for  many  free  states  and  private  individuals.  He 
won  not  only  the  admiration  of  his  employers  for 
his  lyrical  genius,  but  also  their  respect  for  his 
independent  character,  which,  amid  all  the  presents 
and  rewards  conferred  upon  him,  never  degenerated 
into  that  of  the  poet  who  merely  performed  for 
hire.  He  was  especially  the  favourite  of  Alexander, 
king  of  Macedonia,  and  of  Hiero,  tyrant  of  Syracuse ; 
and  it  is  said  that  to  the  praises  he  lavished  on  the 
former  of  these  monarchs  his  house  owed  its  pre- 
servation at  the  hands  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
when  he  reduced  the  rest  of  Thebes  to  ruins.  His 
life  was  for  the  most  part  spent  abroad  at  the  courts 
of  kings,  and  at  the  scenes  of  the  great  public 
games  ;  and  at  one  period,  473  B.C.,  he  resided  at 
Syracuse  at  the  court  of  Hiero  for  the  space  of  four 
years.  He  died  most  probably  in  442  B.C.,  in  his 
SOth  year.  Of  the  immense  number  of  his  poems, 
consisting  of  hymns  to  the  gods,  pagans,  dithyrambs, 
odes  for  processions  {prosodia),  maidens'  songs 
{partlteneia),  mimic  dancing  songs  (lujporchemata), 
convivial  songs  (scolia),  dirges  (threnoi),  and  encomia 
on  princes,  we  only  possess  fragments.  His  Epinikia, 
or  Triumphal  Odes,  however,  have  come  down  to 
us  entire;  and  it  is  from  these — divided  into 
four  books,  and  celebrating  the  victories  won  in 
the  Olympian,  Pythian,  Nemean,  and  Isthmian 
games  respectively — that  we  must  form  an  opinion 
of  P.  as  a  poet.  A  victory  at  these  games  conferred 
honour  not  upon  the  winner  and  his  family  only, 
but  also  on  the  city  to  which  he  belonged  ;  and  for 
its  celebration — which  began  with  a  procession  to 
the  temple,  where  sacrifice  was  offei'ed,  and  ended 
with  a  convivial  banquet — a  poem  was  specially 
composed,  and  was  sung  by  a  chorus  either  during 
the  procession,  or,  more  frequently,  at  the  banquet 
(comus).  P.'s  poetical  style  is  peculiar.  Full  of 
bold  conceptions  and  striking  metaphors,  his  manner 
is  so  rapid  and  so  subject  to  abrupt  transitions,  as 
to  render  him  not  only  a  difficult  but  an  obscure 
composer.  Typical  examples  of  his  strength,  as  well 
as  of  his  weakness,  will  be  found  in  the  Second 
Olympian  and  First  Pythian  Odes,  where  the 
description  of  the  Islands  of  the  Blest  in  the 
former,  and  of  an  eruption  of  Mount  JEtna  in 
the  latter,  are  brilliant  offsets  to  the  shadowy 
mythological  allusion  and  the  undeveloped  meta- 
phor which  also  characterise  them.  His  metres, 
in  spite  of  the  able  efforts  of  Bockh,  still  remain  to 
be  satisfactorily  elucidated;  and  all  that  we  can 


PINDAR- T  INK. 


here  say  of  them  is,  that  he  makes  chief  use  of  the 
Dorian  rhythm,  and  not  (infrequently  of  tin*  /Eolian 
ami  Lydian.  He  has  been  fortunate  neither  in  his 
numerous  imitators  nor  translators— Cray  being, 
perhaps,  the  most  successful  among  the  former, 
and  Carey  and  Abraham  Moore  among  the  latter. 
He  has  been  elaborately  explained  and  criticised 
in  Schmidt's  Pindar's  Leben  and  Diehtung  (Bonn, 
1852);  while  his  relation  to  lyric  poetry  in  general 
forms  the  subject  of  Villemain's  brilliant  EnsaU  Bur 
le  (Iriiie  dt  Pindare  et  sur  la  Poesie  Lyrique  (Paris, 
1859).  The  best  editions  are  those  of  Bockh;  of 
Dissen,  re-edited  by  Schneidewin ;  and  of  Hartuug. 

PINDAR,  Peter.     See  Wolcot,  1)k  John. 

PI'NDUS,  anciently  the  name  of  a  chain  of 
mountains  in  Greece  (q.  v.). 

PINE  {Pinus),  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Conifenv.  The  Linnsan  genua  includes  all 
kinds  of  Fir,  Larch,  and  Cedar  ;  but  as  now  limited, 
the  genus  Pinus  is  distinguished  by  monoecious 
flowers,  and  woody  cones  with  numerous  two-seeded 
scales,  the  scales  having  an  angular  truncated  apex. 
The  leaves  are  linear  and  very  narrow,  of  a  very 
dark-green  colour,  growing  in  clusters  or  in  pairs, 
and  surrounded  by  scarious  scales  at  the  base.  To 
this  genus  belong  many  noble  and  useful  trees. 
They  mostly  grow  in  mountainous  or  other  exposed 
situations,  and  their  narrow  leaves  are  admirably 
adapted  to  evade  the  force  of  winds,  which  produce 
in  the  tops  of  pines  a  peculiar  sound,  much  noticed 
by  the  ancient  poets,  more  soft  and  continuous  than 
in  trees  of  richer  foliage  Most  of  the  pines  are 
more  or  less  social,  one  kind  often  covering  a  consi- 
derable tract ;  some  of  them  clothing  the  sides  and 
even  the  summits  of  mountains  with  magnificent 
but  sombre  forests ;  some  growing  in  lower  situa- 
tions, on  otherwise  unproductive  sandy  grounds,  as 
the  Pine  Barrens  of  North  America.  The  pines 
growing  in  the  most  barren  soils,  or  in  the  coldest 
climates  and  most  exposed  situations,  are  often  very 
small ;  and  although  very  unlike  any  other  shrubs 
or  bushes,  are  scarcely  to  be  called  trees.  Pines 
are  widely  diffused  over  the  northern  hemisphere, 
being  found  on  mountains  within  and  near  the 
tropics,  and  in  the  colder  temperate  and  the  arctic 
regions  descending  to  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  Scotch  P.  or  Scotch  Fir  (P.  sylvestris)  is 
the  only  species  indigenous  to  Britain.  It  has 
leaves  in  pair3,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long ;  the 
cones  about  the  same  length,  obtuse,  and  with 
unarmed  scales.  On  very  poor  soils  and  at  great 
elevations  it  is  reduced  to  a  kind  of  shrub,  but  in 
favourable  situations  it  becomes  a  lofty  tree.  A 
plank  five  feet  and  a  half  in  diameter  has  been 
obtained  from  a  Scottish  forest.  The  Scotch  P.  is 
of  quick  growth,  but  has  been  known  to  attain 
the  age  of  400  years.  Its  head  is  somewhat 
conical  or  roimded,  and  the  lower  branches  die  off 
as  the  tree  grows,  leaving  the  older  trees  bare  of 
branches  for  the  greater  part  of  their  height ;  but 
it  is  more  apt  to  send  off  large  branches  than  most 
of  the  Coniferse.  There  are  still  native  forests 
of  Scotch  P.  at  Braemar  and  elsewhere  in  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland ;  and  even  in  the  south  of 
Scotland  noble  trees  are  to  be  seen  which,  probably, 
were  not  planted  by  man.  The  Scotch  P.  is  not 
indigenous  to  the  south  of  England,  but  having  been 
introduced,  is  spreading  rapidly  and  spontaneously, 
along  with  the  Pinaster,  in  some  of  the  heaths  and 
other  unfertile  tracts.  Immense  forests  of  it  exist 
in  some  countries  of  Europe,  in  some  of  which  it 
is  mingled  with  the  Spruce  Fir.  In  the  middle  and 
north  of  Europe  and  of  Asia,  it  is  found  even  in 
plains  near  the  level  of  the  sea,  especially  where 
the  soil  is  somewhat  sandy ;  in  the  south  of  Europe 
347 


it  grows  only  on  mountains.  Its  timber  is  nighl/ 
valuable,     being     very    resinOUfl     and    durable,    and 

is  the  Red  Deal  or  Red  Pine  used  in  house  and 
ship-carpentry.  There  is  very  great  difference, 
however,  in  the  timber  of  Scotch  P.  growing  in 
different  soils  and  situations,  rich  soils  and  sheltered 
situations  being  unfavourable  to  the  quality  of 
the  timber,  which  becomes  white,  soft,  and  compar- 
atively worthless ;  and  there  exist  several  varieties 
of  Scotch  P.,  some  of  which  yield  timber  very 
superior  to  others.  Many  plantations  in  Britain 
have,  unfortunately,  been  made  of  inferior  kinds. 
One  of  the  best  varieties  is  that  which  forms  the 
northern  Scottish  forests,  often  designated  liraemur 


Braemar  Pine. 

P.  by  nurserymen.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  verj 
horizontal  branches,  and  is  therefore  sometimes 
called  P.  korizontcdis. — The  Scotch  P.  is  not  only 
valuable  for  its  timber,  which  is  available  for  some 
purpose  at  every  stage  of  its  growth,  but  on  account 
of  other  products.  Common  Turpentine  is  in  great 
part  obtained  from  it,  and  much  Tar,  Pitch,  Piesin, 
and  Lamp-black.  See  these  heads.  Oil  of  Turpen- 
tine is  sometimes  distilled  from  the  cones,  and  even 
from  the  leaves ;  the  leaves  have  also  been  used 
in  Germany  for  the  manufacture  of  a  substance- 
resembling  tow,  and  called  Waldwolle  (Forest  Wool), 
suitable  for  stuffing  cushions,  &c.  The  resinous 
roots  are  dug  out  of  the  ground  in  many  parts  of 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  being  divided  into 
small  splinters,  are  used  to  give  light  in  cottages 
instead  of  caudles.  Fishermen,  in  some  places,  make 
ropes  of  the  inner  bark,  which  is  applied  to  a  very 
different  use,  when  most  soft  and  succulent  in 
spring,  by  the  Kamtchatdales  and  Laplanders,  being 
dried,  ground,  steeped  in  water  to  remove  tiie 
resinous  taste,  and  used  for  making  a  coarse  kind 
of  bread.— The  Dwarf  P.  (P.  Pumilio,  or  P.  Muyhus) 
is  found  on  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees,  its  trunk  often 
lying  on  the  ground,  although  sometimes  it  appears 
as  a  bush  or  low  tree.  The  recumbent  trunks  are 
called  Krummholz  (Crooked-wood)  and  Knit/iok 
(Knee-wood)  by  the  Germans.— The  leaves  are  in 
pairs,  very  like  those  of  the  Scotch  P.,  but  a  little 
longer;  the  cones  are  also  similar.  From  the  young 
shoots  an  od  resembling  od  of  turpentine  is  obtained 


PINE. 


by  distillation,  which  is  a  kind  of  universal  medicine 
among  the  peasantry  of  Hungary,  as  is  also  the 
resin  spontaneously  exuding  from  the  tree,  which 
is  known  as  Hungarian  Balsam. — The  Black  P., 
or  Black  Fir  (P.  nigricans,  or  P.  Austriaca),  is 
another  species  closely  .allied  to  the  Scotch  P.,  but 
remarkable  for  its  very  long  leaves.  It  is  a  native 
of  Austria.  It  abounds  in  resin  more  than  any 
other  E.iropean  tree. — To  the  same  group  of  pines 
belongs  the  Seaside  or  Taurian  P.  (P.  Pallaviana, 
maritime/,,  or  Taurica),  which  also  affords  resin  in 

?;reat  quantity,  and  of  a  very  pleasant  odour.  It  is 
ound  in  many  parts  of  the  south  of  Europe.  Its 
timber  is  of  little  value ;  but  great  part  of  the 
turpentine  of  the  Landes  and  other  maritime 
districts  of  France  is  obtained  from  it.  It  yields 
also  part  of  the  Burgundy  Pitch  of  the  apothecaries' 
shops. — The  Aleppo  P.  (P.  Halepensis),  a  native  of 
the  south  of  Europe,  Syria,  &c,  is  a  very  graceful 
tree  of  moderate  size,  with  leaves  in  pairs  and 
slender.  It  yields  a  liquid  resin  or  turpentine, 
which  is  extracted  from  it  in  Provence  and  else- 
where, and  sold  as  Venice  Turpentine.  The  wood 
is  extensively  used  in  the  Levant  for  shipbuilding. 
— The  Laricio  (P.  Laricio)  has  leaves  in  pairs,  lax, 
and  4 — 8  inches  long,  cones  2 — 4  inches  long,  with 
the  scales  slightly  pointed.  It  is  often  called  the 
Corsican  Pine.  It  grows  on  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  and  is  valuable  both  for  its 
timber  and  for  its  resinous  products.  In  the  island 
of  Corsica,  it  frequently  attains  the  height  of  140 
feet.  It  grows  well  in  sandy  soils,  and  has  been 
made  particularly  useful  for  preventing  the  drifting 
of  the  sand,  and  turning  to  account  the  otherwise 
useless  tracts  between  the  mouths  of  the  Garonne 
and  the  Adour  in  France,  thus  also  preserving 
valuable  lands  which  the  sand  threatened  to  over- 
whelm.— The  Pinaster  or  Cluster  Pine  (P.  Pin- 
aster) is  another  of  the  most  important  European 
•species.  It  has  cones  in  whorls  of  3,  4,  or  even  8 
together,  4—6  inches  long,  leaves  in  pairs,  and  very 
long.  It  is  found  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  also  in  the  Himalaya  and  in  China. 
It  has  been  used  in  France  to  a  great  extent,  in  the 
•same  way  as  the  Laricio,  for  covering  waste  sandy 
tracts.  The  timber  is  of  inferior  quality,  but  great 
quantities  of  resin  are  procured  from  it.  It  yields 
Bordeaux  Turpentine. — The  Pyrenean  P.  {P.  Pyre- 
naica)  is  a  majestic  tree,  a  native  of  the  Pyrenees, 
and  producing  very  fine  timber. — The  Calabrian  P. 
(P.  Bruttia)  somewhat  resembles  the  Pinaster. — The 
Stone  P.  (P.  pinea)  a  tree  with  a  broad  umbrella- 
shaped  head,  a  form  often  seen  also  in  the  Scotch 
fir,  forms  a  characteristic  feature  of  the  scenery  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and  is  very  often  introduced 
in  paintings.  It  is  the  Pinie  of  the  Germans,  the 
Pignon  of  the  French.  The  leaves  are  in  pairs, 
4 — 5  inches  long;  the  cones  very  targe,  ovate,  and 
obtuse.  The  seeds,  which  do  -not  ripen  till  the 
fourth  year,  are  large,  abound  in  a  fixed  oil,  and  when 
fresh,  have  a  sweet  taste  resembling  that  of  almonds. 
They  are  used  in  Italy  and  other  countries  in  the 
same  way  as  almonds  and  pistachio  nuts  for  the 
dessert,  in  various  dishes,  also  in  emulsions,  &c, 
under  the  names  of  pinies,  pinioles,  and  pignons. 
The  use  of  them,  however,  is  almost  entirely  con- 
fined to  the  countries  in  which  they  are  produced, 
as  they  very  soon  become  rancid.  They  are  some- 
times imported  into  London  in  the  cone,  in  which 
way  they  can  be  kept  longer,  but  the  cost  of  impor- 
tation is  much  increased.  The  wood  of  this  tree 
is  very  useful  and  beautiful.  It  yields  resinous 
products  only  in  small  quantity. — The  Cembra  P., 
or  Swiss  Stone  P.,  which  grows  in  the  central  parts 
of  Europe  and  the  south  of  Siberia — a  stately  tree, 
with  the  lower  branches  more  persistent  than  they 
546 


are  in  most  pines,  and  rigid  leaves  in  groups  of  three 
to  five— also  produces  eatable  seeds  (Cembra  Nuts), 
which,  although  they  are  extracted  with  difficulty, 


Stone  Pine  (P.  Pinea), 

are  much  used.  The  cuticle  contains  a  resinous 
juice ;  but  in  Siberia,  this  fruit  is  so  much  prized, 
that  noble  trees  are  often  cut  down  to  obtain  it. 
The  Cembra  P.  yields  a  pellucid,  whitish  oil,  resem- 
bling od  of  turpentine,  and  known  as  Carpathian 
Balsam. 

North  America  produces  many  species  of  P., 
some  of  them  very  beautiful  and  very  valuable. 
Besides  those  long  known,  and  which  are  found 
in  the  states  and  colonies  near  the  Atlantic,  a 
number  of  the  noblest  species  of  this  genus  have, 
since  the  commencement  of  the  present  century, 
been  discovered  in  California  and  the  north-western 
parts  of  America. — The  Red  or  Canadian  P.  (P. 
resinosa)  is  found  from  Canada  to  the  Pacific,  but 
does  not  reach  far  south  in  the  United  States.  It 
is  the  Yellow  P.  of  Canada  and  Nova  Scotia.  It 
delights  in  dry  and  sandy. soils,  and  attains  a  height 
of  70 — 80  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  two  feet  at  the 
base,  the  trunk  continuing  of  uniform  diameter  for 
two-thirds  of  its  length.  The  leaves  are  in  pairs, 
and  are  congregated  towards  the  extremities  of  the 
branches.  The  timber  is  highly  esteemed  for  strength 
and  durability,  and  furnishes  excellent  planks  for 
ship-building.  It  is  also  used  for  masts. — Some- 
what resembling  this  in  botanical  characters,  is  the 
Northern  Scruh  or  Gray  P.  (P  Bariksiana), 
generally  only  3 — 10  feet  high,  which  begins  to 
appear  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  United  States 
upon  high  mountains,  and  is  interesting  as  an  arc- 
tic species,  extending  further  north  than  any 
other.  —  The  Yellow  P.  (P.  variabilis,  or  P. 
rnitis)  abounds  from  New  Jersey  to  Virginia. 
It  is  a  tree  of  50 — 60  feet  high,  15 — 18  inches 
in  diameter  at  the  base,  with  leaves  4 — 5  inches 
long,  usually  in  pairs,  but  sometimes  in  threes 
upon  the  younger  shoots.  The  timber  is  very 
extensively  used  for  ship-building,  and  is  largely 
exported  to  Great  Britain.  At  Liverpool,  it  is 
known  as  New  York  Pine.  —  The  Jersey  P.,  or 
Scrub  P.  (P.  inops),  abounds  in  the  lower  parts  of 
New  Jersey,  and  thence  to  the  south-west.  The 
leaves  are  in  pairs,  1 — 2  inches  long,  the  cones 
armed  with  strong  spines.     The  tree  is  from  lf»  to 


PINE. 


«o  feet  high.  Great  qnnndties  of  tar  an'  made  from 
it  in  Kentucky. — The  Pitch  P.  (7*.  rtjkta)  i-  a  na- 
tive of  the  northern  and  middle  parts  of  the  I  nited 
States,  growing  on  uplands  more  or  less  dry,  and  at- 
t.i»i  11  in lt  a  height  of  To  —80  feet, and  a  diameter  of  two 
tret  at  i In-  base.  'II n'  haves  are  iii  threes,  varying 
mnch  iii  length,  ae  the  conea  do  in  size.     Immense 

quantities  of  it  are  used  for  fuel.  Tar  and  lanip- 
bliuk  are  Bometiinee  made  from  it. — The  LOBLOLLY 
or  old  Field  P.  (/»  trada)  grows  in  dry  and  Bandy 
soils  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  Southern  States,  often 
occupying  lands  exhausted  by  cultivation.  Vast  tracts 
never  cultivated,  in  the  Southern  Slates,  are  Pfna 
Barrmi,  in  great  part  covered  with  tins  species  of 

pine.      It  attains  a  height  of  BO  feel  and  upwards,  and 

has  a  wide-spreading  crown.  The  leaves  arc  6  inches 
long,  in  threes,  sometimes  in  fours  on  young  branches; 
the  cones  lour  inches  high,  with  strong  spines.  The 
timber  is  not  of  much  value. — The  Longleavrd  1'.. 
or  Southern  P.  (P.palustria,  or  P.  Australia),  is  one 
of  the  most  important  of  North  American  Forest  trees. 
It  furnishes  the  greater  part  of  the  tar,  resin,  pitch, 
and  turpentine   Used  in  the  United    States.      The   tim- 

ber  is  also  very  valuable,  and  is  much  used  for  ship- 
building. In  England  and  the  West  Indies,  it  is 
known  as  Georgia  Pitch  Pine.    The  tree  attains  a 

height  of  60 — TO  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  about  16 — 18 
inches;  the  leaves  are  in  threes,  and  ahout  a  foot 
long;  the  cones  7 — 8  inches  long,  and  4  inches  in 
diameter,  with  small  spines. — The  most  valuable  of 
the  American  forest  trees  is  the  White  P.  (/'.  .Stro- 
bve),  which  attains  a  height  of  150  feet,  and  a  diam- 
eter of  5  feet  and  upwards.  It  has  lax  Bub- triangular 
leaves  in  groups  of  five;  and  pendulous  cones  4 — 5 
inches  long,  with  thin  smooth  scales.  It  is  frequently 
planted  in  Britain,  &C,  where  it  is  known  as  the  YVey- 
mocth  PINK.  In  its  native  country,  it  abounds 
chiefly  from  lat.  47°  to  lat  43u,  and  southward  on  the 
Alleghunies.  The  timher  is  not  strong,  hut  easily 
wrought  and  durahle. — Of  the  species  belonging  to 
Western  America  the  most  magnificent  is  the  SUGAR 
Pine  (P.  Lambertiand),  found  on  the  Rocky  Moun- 


Lambert's  Pine  [P.  Lamber liana). 

tains,  at  an  elevation  of  3000  to  5000  feet,  between 
lat.  40°  and  lat.  43°,  and  chiefly  in  sandy  soils.  It 
attmns  a  height  of  200  —  300  feet,  and  a  diameter 
of  7  feet  anc"  upwards,  almost  to  20  feet.     The  trunk 


is  remarkably  straight,  and  destitute  of  branches  for 
two-thirds  of  its  height ;  the  leaves  in  lives,  the  conei 
upwards  of  a  loot  Ion-.  The  timber  is  white,  soft, 
and  light ;  and  the  tree  produces  greal  quantities  of  a 
pure  amber-coloured  resin,  which,  when  the  wood  is 

partly  burned,  is  changed  into  a  b ewhal  saccharine 

substance,  used  by  the  native-  as  a  substitute  for 
sugar.  The  seeds  are  eaten  either  rousted  <>r  pounded 
into  coarse  cakes. — The  Rocky  .Mr.  White  P.  i  P. 

Jtexilif)  is  found  on  the  Rocky  Mis.,  near  the  head -waters 
of  the  Arkansas,  and  occurs  almost  to  the  limits  of  per- 
petual -now.  it  has  a  dense  crown,  formed  of  numer- 
ous and  remarkably  flexile  branches.    The  leaves  are 

in  lives.  The  seeds  are  used  us  food  by  hunters  and  In- 
dians.— PITCH  P.  (/'.  ponderota),  native  of  the  Rocky 

Mts.,  is  a  magnificent  tree,  remarkable  for  tin-  heavi- 
ness of  its  timber,  which  almost  sinks  in  water.  The 
leaves  are  in  threes,  and  9 — 14  inches  long. —  /'.  8a- 
biana,  P.  Coulteri,  and  /'.  Insignis,  are  also  tiohle 
species  from  the  west  of  North  America.  The  Hima- 
laya Mountains  ahound  yi  pines,  some  of  which  rival 
in  magnificence  those  of  North-west  America.  The 
Bhotah  I'.  I /'.  exceUa),  much  resembling  the  Wey- 
mouth 1'.  in  its  botanical  characters,  and  attaining  a 
height  of  90— 120  feet,  ahounds  in  Bbotan,  although 
it  is  not  found  in  the  neighbouring  countries  of  Sik- 
kim  and  Nepaul.  The  wood  is  highly  valuable,  being 
durahle.  close-grained,  and  so  resinous  as  to  he  used 
for  flambeaux  and  candles. — The  CHEEK  I'.  (/'.  Ion- 
gifolia)  of  India  is  a  tree  of  remarkable  and  most 
graceful  appearance ;  with  leaves  in  threes,  very  long, 
very  slender,  and  generally  pendulous.  It  is  abundant 
on  the  crests  of  hills  in  the  lower  Himalaya,  growing 
in  districts  less  elevated  than  the  other  pines.  It  is  cul- 
tivated in  some  parts  of  India  as  an  ornamental  tree. 
It  is  much  valued  for  its  resin.  The  wood  is  used  in 
India  as  a  substitute  for  European  deal. — The  Kiiasia 
P.  (P.  Khasiana)  is  peculiar  to  the  Khasia  Mountains, 
and  has  very  much  the  general  appearance  of  the 
Scotch  pine. — P.  Qerardiana,  a  species  with  leaves 
in  threes,  is  a  large  tree,  a  native  of  Nepaul.  The 
seeds  are  eatable. — The  mountains  of  India  and  the 
north-western  parts  of  America  produce  numerous 
other  species ;  Mexico  has  a  numher  of  very  fine  ones 
peculiar  to  itself;  the  mountains  of  St  Domingo  have 
one;  the  Canary  Islands  have  one;  China  and  Japan 
also  have  some.  The  destruction  of  the  American 
pine-forests  is  proceeding  at  an  accelerated  rate.  The 
timber  trees  of  Maine  in  acceptable  positions  are  nearly 
exhausted,  and  the  present  generation  will  witness  the 
destruction  of  the  extensive  pineries  of  Michigan  and 
Wisconsin.  The  consumption  of  pine  timher  in  north- 
ern Pennsylvania  has  proceeded  for  a  longer  time,  and 
her  mountains  are  nearly  disrobed  of  their  giant  white 
pines  and  hemlocks.  The  products  of  the  lake  pineries 
are  distributed  over  nearly  half  the  valley  of  the 
Mississippi. 

The  lumlier  trade  of  Wisconsin,  in  1870,  amounted 
to  1,030,000,000  feet.  Chicago  alone  received  1,017,- 
900,000  feet,  partly  from  Michigan,  and  St  Louis.  240,- 
760,000  feet.  The  arrivals  at  Albany  by  canal,  partly 
from  Canada,  were  452.362,884  feet."  and  at  N.  York 
tide-water  768,007,81 9  feet.  The  mill  product  of  Puget 
Sound.  Washington  Ter.,  in  1870,  exceeded  190,000,000 
feet  The  production  of  white  pine  timber  by  the  mills 
of  Williamsport,  Pa.,  reaches  an  enormous  aggregate, 
supplying  a  vast  home  and  foreign  demand. 

l'lNE-TiMUEU. — This  term  is  in  general  use  for  the 
timlier  of  the  pine-tribe  (see  Conifer,*:),  and  is  not 
confined  to  that  of  the  genus  Finns,  but  embraces  t lie 
wood  of  species  of  Abies,  Larix,  Araucaria,  Dam- 
mara,  &c.  From  the  Baltic  ports  the  English  receive 
red  and  white  pine,  or  deal-timber.  The  former  is 
yielded  by  the  Scotch  Fir  (Pinus  sylveslrie),  and  the 
latter  by  the  Norway  Spruce  (Abies  excelsa).  These 
two,   with    the   Larch   (Larix   Europ(ta)     yield    the 

647 


PINEAL  BODY— PINE- APPLE. 


greatest  part  of  the  pine-timber  of  Europe.  Next 
in  importance  to  these  is  the  pine-timber  of  the  Brit- 
ish North  American  colonies,  which  is  chiefly  yielded 
by  the  White  Pine  (Pinus  Strobus),  of  which  the 
imports  into  Britain,  in  1869.  peached  112,000,000 
cubic  feet.  Canada,  in  1870,  exported  951,000,000 
feet  of  all  kinds  to  Europe  and  the  United  States.  The 
celel  rated  pitch-pine  of  Savannah,  in  the  Southern 
States,  is  the  produce  of  Pinus  rigida.  It  is  much  used 
for  ships'  masts  and  yards,  and  for  all  purposes  requir- 
ing great  strength  and  durability,  in  both  of  which 
qualities  it  excels  most  others  of  its  kind.  The  timber 
of  Washington  T.  has  carried  its  fame  to  all  parts  of  the 
world,  supplying  spars  for  the  French  navy,  railroad  ties 
in  India,  shipping  spars  in  Egypt,  and  wharves  in  China. 
In  1870  it  furnished  lading  for  113  ships,  491  barks, 
4.">  brigs,  and  87  schooners.  It  is  chiefly  the  product  of 
the  Douglas  Fir  (Abies  Douglnsii),  known  locally  as  the 
yellow  cedar.  In  France,  the  timber  of  the  Corsican 
Pine  (Pinus  Laricio)  and  the  Seaside  Pine  (Pinus 
pinaster)  are  greatly  used.  In  Italy,  the  pine- 
timber  is  chiefly  yielded  by  the  Stone  Pine  (P. 
pinea)  and  the  Calabrian  Pine  (P.  Bruttia)  ;  that 
of  Spain  is  from  the  Pyrenean  Pine  (P.  Pi/renaica). 
In  Germany,  and  especially  in  Austria,  the  Black 
Pine  (P.  Austriaca)  furnishes  the  greater  portion  ; 
but  the  fine-grained,  soft  white  pine,  or  deal,  so 
much  used  for  soundiug-boards  of  musical  instru- 
ments, is  the  wood  of  the  Silver  Fir.  See  Fir.  The 
trade  in  this  timber  is  very  great,  for  not  only  do 
the  Germans  use  it  almost  exclusively  in  their  vast 
toy-manufactories  and  for  lucifer-matches,  but  con- 
siderable quantities  are  exported.  The  finest  is  cut 
in  the  forests  of  Bohemia,  where  large  establish- 
ments are  formed  for  dressing  and  preparing  the 
wood  for  various  purposes. 

The  timber  of  the  Norfolk  Island  Pine  (Arau- 
enria  excelm)  is  sometimes  imported  for  making 
ships'  masts,  as  several  other  kinds  of  pine-timber 
are  imported  from  time  to  time,  but  those  men- 
tioned form  the  great  staples  of  the  timber- 
trade.  The  chief  value  of  this  class  of  timber- 
woods  is  in  the  combination  of  lightness  and 
strength  with  softness  of  texture  and  ease  in 
working  with  ordinary  tools ;  they  constitute,  in 
fact,  the  principal  materials  of  our  builders,  and 
axe  more  used  than  all  other  kinds  of  wood  together. 
Much  confusion  prevails  as  to  their  common  desig- 
nations, for  in  this  country  alone,  fir,  pine,  and 
deal  are  terms  applied  to  all  and  each  of  them, 
according  to  the  caprice  of  the  individual.  The 
two  first  names  are  used  because  the  material  is 
derived  from  one  or  other  of  those  genera ;  but  the 
last  is  a  misnomer  altogether,  as  the  term  deal 
belongs  only  to  pieces  of  fir  or  pine  timber  cut  to 
particular  sizes  :  they  are  three  inches  in  thickness, 
nine  inches  broad,  and  of  variable  length  ;  if  of  less 
width,  they  are  called  battens. 

PI'NEAL  BODY,  is  a  small  reddish-gray 
body,  of  a  conical  form,  and  deriving  its  name  from 
its  resemblance  to  the  fruit  of  the  pine.  It  rests 
upon  the  corpora  quadrigemina  of  the  brain,  in  front 
ot  the  cerebellum.  It  is  about  four  Hues  in  length, 
and  from  two  to  three  in  width  at  its  base.  It  is 
larger  in  the  child  than  in  the  adult,  and  in  the 
female  than  in  the  male.  It  consists  chiefly  of  gray 
matter,  and  in  its  base  is  a  small  cavity,  which 
contains  a  transparent  viscid  fluid,  in  which  are 
granules  composed  chiefly  of  phosphate  and  carbonate 
of  lime,  and  termed  acervulus  cerebri.  This  organ 
was  regarded  by  the  ancients  as  the  seat  of  the 
soul. 

PINE-APPLE,  or  ANANAS  (Ananassa  sativa) 
a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Bromeliac.em,  highly 
esteemed,  and  much  cultivated  for  its  fruit.     The 
MS 


fruit  is  a  sorosis,  formed  by  the  calyces  and 
bracts  of  a  close  spike  of  flowers,  becoming  succulent 
and  combined.  This  is  the  distinctive  character  of 
the  genus  Ananassa.  The  P.  has  a  number  of  long, 
serrated,  sharp-pointed,  rigid  leaves,  springing  from 
the  root,  in  the  midst  of  which  a  short  flower-stem 
is  tin-own  up,  bearing  a  single  spike  of  flowers,  and 
therefore  a  single  fruit.  From  the  summit  of  the 
fruit  springs  a  crown  or  tuft  of  small  leaves,  capable 
of  becoming  a  new  plant,  and  very  generally  used 
by  gardeners  for  planting  ;  the  P.,  in  cultivation, 
being  propagated  entirely  by  crowns  and  suckers, 
as,  in  a  state  of  high  cultivation,  perfect  seed  is 
almost  never  produced.  The  P.  is  a  native  of 
tropical  America  ;  it  is  found  wild  in  sandy  mari- 
time districts  in  the  north-east  of  South  America, 
but  it  has  been  very  much  changed  by  cultivation- 
It  has  also  been  gradually  diffused  over  tropical 
and  subtropical  countries,  and  not  only  as  a  culti- 
vated plant,  for  it  is  fully  naturalised  in  many  parts 
both  of  Asia  and  Africa.  It  delights  in  a  moist 
climate,  and  consequently  does  not  succeed  well  in 
the  dry  climate  of  the  south  of  Italy,  although  the 
warmth  is  sufficient.  The  first  particular  account 
of  the  P.  was  given  by  Oviedo  in  1535.  It  was  in 
Holland  that  it  first  began  to  be  cultivated  in  hot- 
houses ;  but  it  was  introduced  into  England  in  the 
end  of  the  17  th  c,  and  its  cultivation  rapidly 
became  general  in  the  gardens  of  the  wealthy.  It 
is  only  since  the  peace  of  1815  that  it  has  received 
similar  attention  in  continental  Europe.  Great  care 
is  requisite  in  the  cultivation  of  the  P.,  which, 
without  it,  is  generally  fibrous  and  coarse,  with 
little  sweetness  or  flavour  ;  and  with  it,  one  of  the 
most  delicate  and  richly  flavoured  of  fruits.  Its 
size  also  very  much  depends  on  cultivation.  The 
size  varies  from  1\  lbs.  to  12  lbs.  in  weight.  The 
pine-apples  grown  in  British  hot-houses  are  generally 
much  superior  to  those  of  the  West  Indies,  because 
the  latter  grow  almost  or  altogether  without 
cultivation  ;  but  the  importation  of  pine-apples  from 
the  West  Indies  having  now  been  carried  on  to  a 
considerable  extent,  and  promising  to  add  to  the 
sources  of  wealth  for  these  colonies,  has  led  to 
greater  care  in  cultivation  there,  and  consequent 
improvement  of  quality. 

In  the.  cultivation  of  the  P.  in  Britain,  a  tropical 
heat  must  always  be  maintained.  It  is  generally 
cultivated  in  hot-houses  specially  appropriated  to 
it,  called  Pineries  or  Pine-stoves ;  sometimes  also 
in  flued  pits  ;  and  sometimes  even  without  tire-heat, 
in  frames  coutinually  supplied  with  fresh  tanners' 
bark  and  dung.  The  universal  practice,  till  of  late, 
was  to  grow  the  plants  in  pots,  plunged  to  the 
requisite  depth  in  tanners'  bark  or  other  fermenting 
matter,  and  these  were  transferred  from  one  house 
or  one  compartment  to  another,  according  to  their 
stage  of  advancement ;  three  years'  culture  being 
deemed  requisite  from  the  planting  of  a  crown  or 
sucker  to  the  production  of  the  ripe  fruit  ;  but  the 
P.  is  now  often  planted  in  beds,  and  fruit  of  the 
best  quality  is  sometimes  obtained  in  fifteen  months. 
The  best  soil  is  a  rich  and  rather  sandy  loam.  It 
is  often  formed  from  the  turf  of  old  pastures,  with 
dung,  peat,  sand,  &c,  thoroughly  mixed.  Ventila- 
tion must  be  freely  allowed  from  time  to  time,  but 
care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  atmosphere  moist. 
A  P.  which  has  borne  fruit  is  thrown  away  as 
useless. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  the  P.  in  cultivation. 
Of  these,  some  are  referred  by  some  botanists  to 
distinct  species.  But  the  greater  number  of 
varieties  ar-e  universally  referred  to  A.  sativa,  and 
differ  in  the  more  or  less  spiny  serratures  of  the 
leaves,  the  globular,  cylindrical,  or  pyramidal  fruit, 
its  size,  &c. 


PINE-CHAFER— PIXK. 


A  spirituous  liquor  {Pineapple  Rum)  is  made 
from  the  P.  in  souk-  warm  countries. 

The  use  of  the  fibre  of  the  P.  is  noticed  in  the 

article  BROMELIACEiB. 

PINE-CHAFER,  or  PINE-BEETLE  [Hylurgus 

tnniperda),  a  small  coleopterous  insect  of  the  family 
Xylophagu  See  B.vnK-r.KKTi.K.  It  is  often  very 
destructive  to  Scotch  firs  in  rich  soils  and  low 
situations,  attacking  the  young  terminal  shoot  in 
summer,  and  soon  eating  its  way  into  the  heart, 
which  it  proceeds  to  excavate  so  as  to  convert  the 
shoot  into  a  tube.  Pines  growing  in  open  situations 
are  little  liable  to  the  attacks  of  this  insect ;  and 
trees  of  thirty  feet  in  height,  or  upwards,  are  very 
rarely  attacked.  The  insect  is  about  the  size  of  a 
seed  of  the  Scotch  iir,  and  of  a  black  or  dark-brown 
colour. 

PINE-FINCH,  or  PINE  GROSBEAK  (Corythus), 
a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family  FringUlidce,  nearly 
allied  to  Bullfinches  and  Crossbills,  the  bill  nearly 
resembling  that  of  the  former,  but  the  tongue  very 
similar  to  the  tongue  of  the  crossbills,  with  the 
6ame  peculiar  bone  articulated  to  the  hyoid  bone. 
See  Crossbill.  One  species,  the  Common  P. 
(C.  enuclealor),  is  a  very  rare  visitant  of  Britain, 
but  is  abundant  in  many  of  the  northern  parts  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America  It  is  larger  than  a 
bullfinch,  but  much  resembles  the  bullfinch  in  form, 
wings,  tail,  &c.  The  general  colour  of  the  male 
is  red.  This  bird  frequents  pine-forests,  and  asso- 
ciates in  flocks  in  winter.  It  is  easily  tamed.  Its 
song  is  rich  and  full. — There  are  other  species  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  world. — The  name  P.  is  given 
in  North  America  to  a  very  different  and  much 
Bmaller  bird  (Carduelis  pinus). 

PIXEL,  Philippe,  a  celebrated  French  physician, 
was  born  20th  April  1745,  at  Saint-Andre,  in  the 
department  of  Tarn,  France  ;  and  after  receiving 
a  good  classical  education  at  the  college  of  Lavaur, 
removed  to  Toulouse,  where  he  studied  medicine, 
and  took  his  degree  in  1773.  He  contiuued  his 
medical  studies  at  Montpellier,  maintaining  himself 
meantime  by  teaching  mathematics;  and  in  1778 
removed  to  Paris,  where  he  acquired  some  repu- 
tation by  a  translation  into  French  of  Cullen's 
Nosology  (17S5),  and  the  works  of  Baglivi  (17SS), 
olid  also  by  some  Memoirs  on  subjects  connected 
with  zoology  and  comparative  anatomy.  Having 
applied  himself  with  success  to  the  study  of  mental 
alienation,  he  was  charged,  in  1791,  to  make  a  report 
on  the  insane  inmates  of  the  Bicetre,  became  chief 
physician  of  this  institution  in  1793,  and  in  1795, 
was  chosen  to  the  same  office  at  the  Salpetriere 
(a  similar  asylum,  but  for  females).  In  the  latter 
institution,  P.  commenced  a  class  of  clinical  medicine, 
which  he  continued  after  his  appointment  to  the 
chair  of  Medical  Physics  and  Hygiene,  and  subse- 
quently that  of  Pathology,  at  the  School  of  Medicine 
in  Paris.  He  was  admitted  as  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1S03,  and  died  at  Paris,  26th  October 
1826.  His  most  valuable  works  were  his  Trade 
Medico-plulosophique  de  V Alienation  Mentale  (1791), 
and  La  Nosographie  Pkilosophique  (1798),  with  its 
commentary,  La  Midecine  Clinique  (1802).  P.  gained 
for  himself  undying  fame  by  his  reformation  of  the 
old  barbarous  methods  of  treating  the  insane.  The 
physicians  brought  up  under  the  old  system  were 
not  ashamed  to  offer  a  vigorous  opposition  to  P.'s 
philanthropic  opinions;  but  he  fortunately  suc- 
ceeded in  thoroughly  establishing  their  correctness, 
and  his  system  in  a  few  years  prevailed  over  the 
whole  of  Europe. 

PINERO'LO,  or  PIGNEROL,  a  town  in  the 
north  of  Italy,  on  the  Clusone,  at  the  entrance;  of  the 
♦alley  of  Perosa,  in  the  province  of  Turin,  and  23 


miles  by  railway  south-west  of  the  city  of  that 
name.     It  was  formerly  Btrongly  fortified,  and  was 

the  residence  of  the  rulers  of  Piedmont  It  con- 
tains a  new  cathedral,  a  bishop's  palace,  seminaries, 
barracks,  &c.  The  ruins  of  the  citadel,  for  some 
time  the  prison  of  the  Man  with  the  Iron  Mask 
(q.  v.),  are  still  to  be  seen  on  the  hill  of  St  Brigide. 
Broad-cloth,  paper,  leather,  iron,  and  silk,  are 
manufactured.     Pop.  14,260. 

PINE-WOOL  Several  attempts  have  been 
made  of  late  years  to  utilise  the  leaves  of  pine  and 
fir-trees,  which  are  cut  down  in  vast  numbers  for 
their  timber  only.  The  leaves  contain  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  fine  vegetable  fibre,  which,  when 
separated,  has  much  the  appearance  of  cotton.  In 
Germany,  several  works  have  been  established  for 
preparing  this  fibre,  and  fitting  it  for  various 
applications  ;  and  under  the  name  of  pine-wool,  it  is 
now  sold  for  stuffing  cushions,  making  wadding,  &c 
The  principal  manufacture  is  near  Breslau  in  Silesia, 
where  it  is  carried  on  by  the  inventor,  Herr 
Pannewitz. 

PIXEY  TREE.     See  Calophyllum. 

PINEY-VARNISH.     See  Dammar. 

PIXGUI'CULA.    See  Butterwort. 

PIXHOEX,  Oil  of.    See  Physic  Nut. 

PINK  {DUtnthus),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Caryophyllaceai,  of  which  there  are  many 
species,  annuals  and  perennials,  with  beautiful  and 
often  fragrant  flowers,  chiefly  natives  of  Europe  and 
the  temperate  parts  of  Asia.  The  calyx  is  tubular, 
5-toothed,  with  two  or  four  scales  at  the  base  ;  there 
are  five  petals  suddenly  contracted  at  the  throat 
of  the  corolla  into  a  linear  claw.  There  are  ten 
stamens,  and  one  germen  with  two  styles.  The 
capsule  is  cylindrical,  and  one-celled.  The  exquisite 
beauty  of  the  flowers  has  attracted  admiration  in 
all  ages ;  and  some  of  the  species  have  long  been 
much  cultivated  in  gardens,  particularly  the  Garden 
P.  and  Carnation  (q.  v.),  which  are  often  referred 
to  one  original,  the  Clove  P.  (D.  caryophyllus),  a 
native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  growing  wild  on 
rocks  and  old  walls,  and  naturalised  in  some  places 
in  the  south  of  England ;  whilst  some  botanists 
refer  the  garden  pinks  in  part  to  the  Maiden  P. 
{D.  deltoides),  a  pretty  common  British  species,  and 
those  called  Pheasant-eye  pinks  to  the  Feather  P. 
(D.  plumarius),  a  native  of  some  parts  of  continental 
Europe,  differing  from  the  Clove  P.  chiefly  in 
having  the  leaves  rough  on  the  margin,  and  the 
petals  bearded  and  much  cut.  Nearly  allied  to 
them  is  D.  superbus,  found  in  moist  places  in  some 
parts  of  Europe,  and  not  unfrequently  to  be  seen  in 
flower-borders.  It  has  very  fragrant  flowers.  All 
the  varieties  of  Garden  P.,  whatever  their  origin, 
have  been  much  changed  by  cultivation,  and  careful 
cidtivation  is  requisite  to  preserve  them  in  perfec- 
tion. Both  single  and  double  pinks  are  generally 
jiropagated  by  pipings,  which  are  short  cuttings  of 
the  younger  shoots.  They  are  also  sometimes  pro- 
pagated by  layers.  A  rich  loamy  soil  is  the  best 
tor  pinks.  The  Clove  P.,  in  a  wild  state,  has  flesh- 
coloured  flowers.  The  leaves  are  linear-awl-shaped, 
grooved,  and  glaucous.  The  Maiden  P.  is  a  small 
much  branched  plant,  growing  in  grassy  places,  on 
gravelly  and  sandy  soils ;  it  has  rose-coloured 
flowers  spotted  with  white,  and  a  white  eye  en- 
circled by  a  deep  purple  ring. — The  Deptford  P. 
(D.  Armeria)  and  the  Clustered  P.,  or  Childing 
P.  (2>.  prolifer),  also  natives  of  England,  differ  from 
these  in  being  annuals,  and  in  having  clustered 
flowers.— The  Bearded  P.,  or  Sweet  William 
(D.  barbatus),  a  native  of  the  middle  of  Europe  and 
the  south  of  France,  with  lanceolate  leaves,  flowers 

549 


PINK  COLOURS— PINSK. 


crowded  in  dense  clusters  at  the  top  of  the  stem, 
acuminated  bracts,  and  bearded  petals,  has  long 
beea  a  favourite  garden-flower,  still  retaining  its 
place  alike  in  palace  and  cottage  gardens.  Although 
perennial,  it  is  sown  annually  by  florists,  to  secure 
tine  llowers,  and  there  are  many  varieties,  single 
and  double,  exhibiting  much  diversity  of  colour. 
— The  Indian  P.  or  China  P.  (D.  Chinensis)  is  now 
also  common  in  flower-gardens. 

The  Clove  P.  was  formerly  regarded  as  possess- 
ing medicinal  properties,  and  was  used  in  nervous 
maladies. — Sea  P.  is  a  common  name  of  Thrift 
(q.  v.). 

PINK  COLOURS,  very  light  shades  of  rose- 
red  colour :  they  are  usually  produced  by  extreme 
dilution  of  cochineal  or  carmine,  Brazil  and  Braziletto 
wood  colours,  with  whiting.  Some  mineral  pinks 
for  oil  colours  are  obtained  from  preparations  of 
manganese,  &c.  See  Red  Colours.  The  term  pink 
is  also  applied  to  several  Yellow  Colours  (q.  v.). 

PINKERTON,  John,  an  industrious  and  learned 
litterateur,  was  born  at  Edinburgh,  17th  February 
1758,  and  educated  at  the  grammar-school  of 
Lanark,  where  he  was  noted  for  the  unusual 
excellence  of  his  classical  attainments,  and  for  his 
hypochondriacal  tendency.  He  was  afterwards 
apprenticed  to  a  Writer  to  the  Signet,  his  father 
refusing  to  let  him  proceed  to  the  university; 
and  while  engaged  in  the  irksome  and  distasteful 
practice  of  law,  he  published  an  Ode  to  Craig  miliar 
Castle  in  1776,  which  he  dedicated  to  Dr  Beattie. 
In  1780,  he  went  to  London,  where  he  settled  as  a 
man  of  letters.  Next  year,  he  gave  to  the  public  a 
volume  of  Rimes  (as  he  called  his  pieces),  and  a 
collection  of  Scottish  Tragic  Ballads,  followed  in  1783 
by  a  second  collection  of  Ballads  of  the  Comic  Kind  , 
— both  of  which  subsequently  appeared  under  the 
title,  of  Select  Scottish  Ballada.  They  professed  to 
be  ancient,  but  many  of  them  were  really  composi- 
tions—-forgeries,  some  might  say,  of  P.'s  own,  and 
■would  hardly  deceive  a  critical  archaeologist.  In 
17S4,  he  published  an  Essay  on  Medals,  which  went 
through  several  editions,  and  long  held  a  high  place 
among  books  on  numismatics  ;  and  in  1785,  Letttra 
on  Literature,  marked  chiefly  by  a  novel  system  of 
orthography  (e.  g.,  the  use  of  a  Instead  of  s  in  form- 
ing plurals),  intended  to  soften  the  harshness  of  the 
English  language,  and  which  was  abused  as  heartily 
as  it  deserved.  These  Letters  were,  however,  the 
means  of  introducing  him  to  Walpole,  through  whom 
he  became  acquainted  with  Gibbon  and  other 
literary  celebrities.  P.'s  next  publication  was  a 
most  valuable  one,  Ancient  Scottish  Poema  never 
before  in  Print,  from  the  MS.  Collections  of  Sir 
Ricluird  Maitland  of  Lethinglon,  Knight  (2  vols. 
Lond.  17S6).  It  was  followed  in  1787  by  his  once 
notable  Dissertation  on  the  Origin  and  Progress  of 
the  Scythians  or  Gotha,  in  which,  for  the  first  time, 
appears  that  grotesquely  virulent  hatred  of  the 
Britanno- Celtic  race — Scotch  Highlanders,  Welsh, 
and  Irish — that  reaches  its  climax  in  his  Inquiry 
into  the  History  of  Scotland  preceding  the  Reign  of 
Malcolm  III.  (2  vols.  Lond.  1790),  where  he  affirms 
again  and  again,  obviously  with  the  extremest  gusto, 
tiiat  the  Highlanders  are  '  mere  savages,  but  one 
degree  above  brutes ; '  that  they  are  just  as  they  were 
'  in  the  days  of  Julius  Csesar ; '  that  '  like  Indians 
and  Negroes,'  they  '  will  ever  continue  absolute 
savages,'  and  that  '  all  we  can  do  is  to  plant  colonies 
among  them,  and  by  this,  and  encouraging  their 
emigration,  try  to  get  rid  of  them.'  But  in  spite  of 
this  extravagant  traculence  of  speech,  the  Inquiry 
contains  a  great  deal  of  important  matter — rare 
and  curious  historical  documents,  some  of  which 
are  to  be  found  nowhere  else  in  print.  P.  left 
650 


England  in  1802,  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Paris, 
where  he  died  10th  March  1820,  after  a  life  of 
hard  literary  work.  His  principal  publications, 
besides  those  already  mentioned,  are,  The  Medidlic 
History  of  England  to  the  Revolution  (1700) ;  Scottish 
Poems  (3  vols.  1792),  reprinted  from  scarce  editions, 
Iconographia  Scotica,  or  Portraits  of  Illustrious  Per- 
sons of  Scotland,  with  Biographical  Notea  (2  vols. 
1795 — 1797) ;  The  History  of  Scotland  from  tlie 
Accesaion  of  the  Houae  of  Stuart  to  that  of  Mary 
(2  vols.  1797),  valuable  for  its  laborious  investiga- 
tion of  original  materials,  but  disfigured,  in  a  lite- 
rary point  of  view,  by  an  imitation  of  the  grandiose 
style  of  Gibbon ;  Walpoliana,  a  collection  of  his 
notes  of  his  friend  Horace  Walpole's  conversation, 
in  2  vols.  ;  The  Scotliah  Gallery,  or  Portraita  of 
Eminent  Persona  of  Scotland,  with  their  Characters 
(1799);  Modern  Geography  (3  vols.  1802—1807); 
General  Collection  of  Voyagea  and  Travels  (16  vols. 
1808—1813) ;  New  Modern  Atlas  (1809—1815) ;  and 
Petrology,  or  a  Treatise  on  Rocks  (2  vols.  1811). 

PINK  ROOT.     See  Spigelia. 

PI'NNA,  a  genus  of  lamellibranchiate  molluscs  of 
the  same  family  with  the  Pearl  Mussel  [Aviculidae), 
and  having  a  shell  of  two  equal  wedge-shaped  valves, 
closely  united  by  a  ligament  along  one  of  their 
sides.  The  mantle  is  closed  on  the  side  of  the  liga- 
ment ;  the  foot  is  small  and  conical.  The  byssus 
is  remarkably  long  and  silky  ;  and  by  it  the  species 
affix  themselves  to  submarine  rocks  aud  other 
bodies,  sometimes  even  to  sandy  or  muddy  bottoms. 
The  best  known  species  is  P.  nobilis,  a  native  of  the 
Mediterranean,  the  byssus  of  which  was  used  by  the 
ancients  for  fabrics,  but  chiefly  as  an  article  of 
curiosity,  to  which  a  great  value  was  attached.  It 
is  still  so  used  in  Sicily  and  elsewhere.  It  is  very 
strong  and  lustrous.  The  only  reason  against  its 
more  general  use  is  the  difficulty  of  procuring  it  in 
sufficient  quantity.  The  byssus  of  this  species  is 
sometimes  two  feet  long,  the  shell  is  about  the  same 
length.  Pinnae  are  often  found  in  large  beds,  with 
only  the  edges  of  their  shells  appearing  above  the 
mud  or  sand.     The  animal  is  eaten. 

PI'NNACE  (from  the  Ital.  pinaccia,  a  diminutive 
of  pino,  a  ship)  was  originally  a  small  vessel,  usually 
schooner-rigged,  employed  as  tender  to  a  large  ship, 
for  the  purpose  of  communicating  with  the  shore, 
&c.  At  present,  however,  the  signification  is  limited 
to  a  large  boat  carried  by  great  ships.  It  is  smaller 
than  the  launch,  but  larger  than  the  cutters ;  and 
is  generally  rowed  '  double-banked,'  by  from  ten  to 
sixteen  oars. 

PI'NNACLE,  an  ornamental  termination  much 
used  in  Gothic  architecture.  It  is  of  simple  form 
in  the  earlier  periods  of  the  style,  having  a  plain 
square  or  octagonal  shaft  and  sloping  roof  or  top, 
terminating  with  a  finial;  but  in  later  examples, 
the  pinnacle  is  greatly  developed,  and  becomes  one 
of  the  most  varied  and  beautiful  features  of  the 
style.  It  is  ornamented  with  shafts  bearing 
canopies,  and  niches  filled  with  statues.  Pinnacles 
are  most  frequently  used  on  buttresses  and  para- 
pets, and  when  placed  over  the  former,  serve  as  a 
deadweight  to  increase  their  power  of  resisting  a 
thrust. 

PI'NNULE,  in  Botany,  a  leaflet  of  a  pinnate 
leaf,  or  of  one  which  is  bipinnate,  tripinnate,  &c 
See  Leaves.  The  term  is  more  frequently  used, 
however,  to  designate  the  ultimate  divisions  of  tha 
fronds  of  ferns,  when  divided  in  the  same  manner. 

PINSK,  a  town  of  West  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Minsk,  surrounded  by  v»st  marshes  called 
the  Pinsk  Marshes,  stands  on  the  banks  of  the 
Pina,  a  branch  of  the  Pripet,  752  miles  south-south- 


pint— nozzi. 


west  of  St  Petersburg,  l:it.  52°  7'  N.,  long.  26'  G'  E. 
It  was  founded  in  the  12th  a,  was  conquered  by 

the  I'rince  of  Lithuania  in  1320,  was  annexed, 
together  with  Lithuania,  to  Poland  in  l">i>9,  ami 
same  at  last  into  the  possession  of  Russia  in  IT'.'"). 
Tin:  traile  of  P.,  ehiefly  transit,  has  increased, 
especially  since  tlie  opening  of  the  Oghinsky 
Canal,  which  connects  the  Dnieper  and  the 
Black  Sea  with  the  Nienicn  and  tlie  Baltic  Sea. 
A  very  considerable  number  of  ships  and  barges 
enter  and  clear  tlie  port*  They  are  laden  princi- 
pally with  salt  corn,  hemp-seed,  iron,  glass,  tar, 
tallow,  wool,  tobacco,  and  timber.  These  goods  are 
forwarded  to  the  west  and  north-west,  being  con- 
veyed by  land  to  Austria,  and  by  water  to  Kovno, 
KSnigsberg,  Danzig,  and  Warsaw.  The  manufac- 
turing activity  of  the  town  is  not  great.  Pop.  16,16U, 
three-fourths  of  whom  are  .Jews. 

PINT,  a  measure  of  capacity  used  both  for  liquids 
and  dry  goods,  and  equivalent  to  the  eighth  part  of 
a  Gallon  (q.  v.),  or  34G5925  cubic  inches.  The 
Scotch  pint,  still  in  use,  though  superseded  as  a 
legal  measure  by  the  imperial  pint,  is  equivalent  to 
S'UOGol  imperial  pints. 

PINTA'DO.    See  Guinea  Fowl. 

PI'NTAIL,  or  ITNTAIL  DUCK  (Dafi/a),  a 
genus  of  ducks,  of  the  section  with  the  hind-toe 
destitute  of  membrane.  The  bill  is  without  tubercle 
at  the  base,  narrow,  with  laminre  not  projecting 
beyond  the  margin.  The  tail  of  the  male  is  long, 
and  tapers  to  a  point. — The  Common  P.  (D.  acuta) 
is  a  handsome  bird,  rather  longer  in  shape  than  most 


Pintail  Duck  (Dafila  acuta). 

ot  the  ducks  ;  the  neck  also  longer  and  more  slender. 
It  is  about  equal  in  size  to  the  mallard.  The  head 
is  brown,  with  a  white  longitudinal  line  on  each 
side  extending  down  the  neck  ;  the  back  and  sides 
marked  with  waving  lines  of  black  and  grayish- 
white  ;  the  lower  parts  white ;  the  elongated  central 
tad-feathers  black.  It  is  a  native  of  all  the  northern 
parts  of  the  world,  migrating  southwards  in  winter, 
and  a  regular  visitant  of  many  parts  of  the  British 
coasts.  It  also  frequents  fresh-water  lakes  and 
ponds,  and  is  common  in  winter  in  the  valley  of  the 
Mississippi  Its  winter  range  extends  southwards 
to  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
even  to  Africa  and  the  West  Indian  Islands.  Its 
flight  is  very  rapid  and  noiseless.  It  is  very  much 
esteemed  for  the  table.  It  has  been  tamed,  and  has 
bred  in  confinement. 

PIOMBI'NO,  a  principality  now  incorporated  in 
the  kingdom  of  Italy,  lies  along  the  Italian  coast 
opposite  the  island  of  Elba,  the  greater  part  of 
which  belonged  to  it.  Its  extent  was  about  132 
English  square  miles ;  and  its  population,  previous 


to    its  incorporation   with    the    r>-st   of    Italy,  about 

20,000.     1'.  was  originally  a  fief  ot  the  empire,  and, 

at  the  end   of  the  14th   c,  came   into   tin  i 

of  the  family  ot'  Appiani,  which,  after  ruling  it  tor 
nearly  300  years,  made  way  for  a  new  dynasty,  the 
family  of  Buoncompagni.     This  latter  ■•.  < 

mostly  under  the  suzerainty  of  the  neighbouring 
states  of  Sardinia  and  Naples  alternately.  In  I  sol, 
the  Buoncompagni  family  were  expelled  by  Napoleon, 
and  the  principality  given  to  his  sister  Eh-a,  the 
wife  of  [felice,  i'rince  liacioechi  ;  but  the  latter  >v;u 
ejected,  and  the  old  dynasty  restored,  by  the  <  ion* 
gress  of  Vienna;  the  principality  being  then  put 
under  the  suzerainty  of  Tuscany,  whose  griind-dukfl 
indemnified  the  Buoncompagni  tor  then-  loss  of 
sovereignty.  It  is  now  a  part  of  the  province  of 
Grosseto,  in  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  The 
between  P.  and  Elba  is  called  the  '  Channel  of 
1'iombino.' 

PIONEE'R,  a  military  labourer  employed  to 
form  roads,  dig  trenches,  and  make  bridges  as 
an  army  advances;  and  to  preserve  cleanliue  n  in 
the  camp  when  it  halts.  Formerly,  the  pioneers 
were  ordinary  labourers  of  the  country  in  which 
the  army  was,  impressed  for  mditary  purposes; 
but  now  such  persons  are  only  brought  in  as 
auxiliaries,  a  few  men  being  attached  to  every  corps 
as  a  permanent  body  of  pioneers.  In  the  British 
army,  one  man  is  selected,  for  his  intelligence,  from 
every  company.  These  pioneers  march  at  the  head 
of  the  regiment,  and  the  senior  among  them  com- 
mands as  corporal.  Instead  of  a  musket,  each 
man  carries  a  saw-backed  sword,  which  is  at 
once  tool  and  weapon.  Each  bears  also  an  axe  and 
two  gun-spikes,  other  necessary  tools  being  dis- 
tributed among  them.  There  is  something  rather 
conflicting  between  the  functions  of  the  pioneers 
and  those  of  the  engineer  force. 

PIOTRKO'W,  a  town  of  Poland,  in  the  govern- 
ment  of  Warsaw,  and  91  mile.s  eouth-west  of  the 

city  of  that  name,  close  to  the  Warsaw  and  Vienna 
Railway.  It  is  known  to  have  existed  in  the 
loth  c.  ;  but  it  is  now  a  decaying  town,  carrying 
on  no  prominent  and  special  branches  of  trade  or 
manufacture.     Pop.  about  14. (too. 

PIOZZI,  Mrs  (me  Hester  Lynch  Sau:st;cry), 
who  cannot  be  forgotten  while  the  great  Dr  Samuel 
Johnson  continues  to  be  remembered,  was  the 
daughter  of  John  Salusbury,  Esq.,  of  Bodvel,  in  Caer- 
narvonshire, where  she  was  born  in  the  year  1739. 
Early  introduced  into  the  fashionable  world  of 
London,  she  charmed  by  her  beauty  an  i  her  lively 
manners;  and,  in  1763,  was  married  to  Mr  Henry 
Thrale,  a  rich  brewer,  with  a  recognised  position  in 
society,  and,  at  the  time,  one  of  the  members  for 
the  borough  of  Southwark.  Her  acquaintance 
with  Dr  Johnson,  which  speedily  became  an 
intimacy  of  the  closest  and  most  affectionate  kind, 
began  shortly  after.  Of  all  Johnson's  many  friend- 
ships, this  was  perhaps,  in  certain  essential  reape  ts, 
the  most  valuable  to  him.  To  Johnson,  widowed 
and  alone,  and  subject,  as  he  had  been  throughout, 
to  accesses  of  a  frightful  gloomy  hypochondria, 
which  made  life  at  times  to  him  an  almost  intoler- 
able burden,  the  society  of  Mrs  Thrale,  and  of  the 
circle  which  she  gathered  round  her,  was  a  source  of 
incalculable  solace.  Mrs  Thrale  in  particular,  with 
her  warm  heart,  and  bright  womanly  intelligence, 
was  always  a  comforting  presence ;  and  her  unfading 
cheerfulness  and  vivacity  enlivened  for  him  many  an 
otherwise  cloudy  hour.  Her  married  life,  though 
prosperous,  was  not  an  eminently  happy  one,  Mr 
Henry  Thrale,  though  always  a  pleasant  and 
kindly  gentleman,  being  no  miracle  of  conjugal 
virtue.     If  Johnson  owed  her   much,  it   may   be 

651 


PIPA— PIPE-FISH. 


surmised  that  the  benefit  was  in  some  sort  recip- 
rocal, and  that,  by  her  affectionate  reverence  and 
solicitude  for  her  sage,  she  a  little  consoled  herself 
for  the  gentlemanly  indifference  of  her  husband. 
On  the  death,  in  1781,  of  her  husband,  Mrs  Thrale 
retired  with  her  four  daughters  to  Bath,  where,  in 
1784,  she  married  Mr  Gabriel  Piozzi,  an  Italian 
teacher  of  music.  This  mesalliance — as  it  was  held 
— was  deeply  censured  by  all  her  friends  and  so 
unreasonably  excited  the  ire  of  Dr  Johnson  in  par- 
ticular, that  a  rupture  of  friendly  relations  was  the 
residt.  In  the  correspondence  between  them  on 
the  subject,  it  must  be  admitted  the  lady  has 
much  the  better  of  the  philosopher,  whose  tone  of 
unmannerly  rudeness  gives  some  countenance  to  the 
good-natured  suspicion  of  his  friends,  that  he  had  an 
eye  to  the  widow  himself.  Though  the  feud  was 
ostensibly  healed,  the  friends  never  again  met ; 
Mrs  P.  leaving  England  for  Italy  with  her  husband, 
and  Dr  JoLason  dying  soon  after.  Some  little  time 
subsequent  to  his  death,  she  published  an  octavo 
volume,  entitled  Anecdotes  of  Dr  Samuel  Johnson 
during  the  lust  Twenty  Years  of  his  Life,  in  which  it 
seemed  to  the  indignant  Boswell  and  others,  that 
her  main  intention  was  to  take  her  little  feminiue 
revenge  on  the  deceased  for  his  outrage  in  the 
matter  of  Piozzi.  This  work  she  supplemented  in 
17S8  by  a  collection  of  Letters  to  and  from  Dr 
Samuel  Johnson,  in  2  vols.  Svo.  Of  works  more 
properly  her  own,  may  be  mentioned,  Observations 
and  Reflect  ona  made  in  the  course  of  a  Journey 
through  France,  Italy,  and  Germany  (2  vols.  Svo, 
17S9)  ;  British  Synonymy,  or  an  Attempt  at  regu- 
lating  the  Choice  of  Words  in  Familiar  Conversation 
(2  vols.  Svo,  1794) ;  and  Retrospection,  or  a  Review 
of  the  most  striking  and  important  Events,  Cliar- 
acters,  Situations,  and  their  Consequences,  which  the 
last  Eighteen  Hundred  Years  have  presented  to  the 
View  of  Mankind  (2  vols.  4to,  1801) — books  long 
since  utterly  forgotten,  if  ever  they  were  at  all 
read  aud  remembered.  Having  survived  her  second 
husband,  her  own  celebrity,  and  almost  in  some 
sort  that  of  the  great  Dr  Johnson,  with  whom  her 
name  remains  indissolubly  connected,  Mrs  P.  died 
at  Clifton,  near  Bristol,  on  the  2d  May  1821. 

PIPA,  a  genus  of  hatracliians,  in  general  form 
resembling  toads,  and  characterised  by  the  very 
broad  and  triangular  head,  the  sides  of  which  are 
destitute  of  the  .glands  (parotoids)  so  large  in  the 
true  toads;  the  eyes  small,  and  situated  near  the 
margin  of  the  lower  jaw;  sternum  arciferous;  the 
ear  concealed ;  the  tongue  merely  rudimentary ; 
the  jaws  destitute  of  teeth  ;  the  fore- feet  not 
webbed,  but  divided  into  four  fingers,  each  of  which 
divides  at  the  extremity  into  four  small  points, 
these,  again,  being  minutely  divided  in  a  similar 
manner ;  the  hind-feet  live-toed  and  completely 
webbed  ;  the  larynx  of  the  male  extremely  large — 
a  triangular  bony  box,  within  which  are  two  small 
movable  bones  for  occasionally  closing  the  entrance 
of  the  bronchi ;  the  back  of  the  female  furnished 
with  numerous  cells  or  pouches,  in  which  the  eggs 
are  hatched,  and  the  young  undergo  all  their  trans- 
formations till  they  have  attained  a  form  similar 
to  that  of  their  parents.  These  characters  are  so 
remarkable  as  to  make  the  creatures  of  this  genus 
objects  of  peculiar  interest ,  but  particularly  the 
mode  of  rearing  the  young.  It  was  at  first  sup- 
posed that  the  young  were  produced  in  some  unusual 
way  in  the  cells  from  which  they  were  seen 
finally  to  emerge ;  but  this  is  not  the  case.  The 
eggs  are  deposited  by  the  female  in  the  ordinary 
manner,  and  are  carefully  placed  by  the  male  in  the 
cells  of  her  back,  which  close  over  them.  When 
the  young  are  ready  to  use  their  limbs,  they  struggle 
out  of  the  cells,  to  which  they  never  afterwards 
6oi 


return.  The  best-known  species  of  P.  is  that  com- 
monly called  the  Surinam  Toad  (P.  Surinamensis), 
a  native  of  Guiana  and  other  warm  parts  of  conti- 
nental America,  where  it  inhabits  swamps  and 
ditches,  and  is  occasionally  found  in  damp  and 
dirty  corners  of  houses.  It  is  sometimes  seven 
inches  long ;  its  colour  is  brownish-olive  above, 
whitish  below  ;  the  skin  covered  with  small  hard 
granules,  mingled  with  occasional  horny  tubercles. 
The  whole  aspect  of  the  creature  is  peculiarly 
hideous. 
PIP.    See  Supplement,  vol.  X.,  page  686. 

PIPE,  a  measure  of  quantity  commonly  employed 
in  Portugal,  Spain,  France,  and  in  some  other 
countries  which  trade  with  these.  It  is  used  almost 
exclusively  for  wine  and  oil,  and  has  a  particular 
value  for  almost  each  locality.  The  pipe  is  called 
in  England  a  butt,  and  is  equal  to  two  hogsheads,  or 
half  a  tun.  The  pipe  of  Oporto  is  larger  than  those 
of  Lisbon  and  of  Spain  in  the  proportion  of  93  to 
76.  There  are  three  different  measures  of  this  name 
in  France  ;  and  there  was  formerly  a  pipe,  a  measure 
of  capacity  for  dry  goods,  in  use  by  the  Bretons. 
But  the  pipe  in  England  varies  with  the  description 
of  wine  it  contains:  a  pipe  of  port  contains  114 
imperial  gallons ;  of  sherry,  10S  imperial  gallons ; 
and  of  madeira,  92  imperial  gallons ;  while  the 
common  English  pipe  contains  126  wine  gallons,  or 
105  imperial  gallons  nearly. 

PIPECLAY  is  a  fine  Clay  (q.  v.),  free  from  iron 
and  other  impurities,  having  a  grayish-  white  colour, 
a  greasy  feel,  and  an  earthy  fracture.  It  adheres 
strongly  to  the  tongue,  and  is  very  plastic,  tenacious, 
and  infusible.  It  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
tobacco-pipes  and  white  pottery.  The  localities 
where  it  is  chielly  obtained  are  Devonshire,  and  the 
Trough  of  Poole  in  Dorsetshire.  It  is  also  found 
in  various  places  in  France,  Belgium,  and  Germany. 

PIPE-FISH  (Syngnathus),  a  genus  of  osseous 
fishes  of  the  order  Lophobranchii  (q.  v.),  and  of  the 
family  Syngnathidce.  In  this  family  the  form  is 
elongated,  there  is  little  flesh,  and  the  body  is 
almost  covered  with  partially  ossified  plates ;  the 
head  is  long  ;  the  jaws  are  elongated  so  as  to  form  a 
tubular  snout — whence  the  names  P.  and  Syngnathus 
(Gr.  syn,  together ;  and  gnathos,  a  jaw) ;  aud  the 
males  have  pouches,  variously  situated,  in  which 
they  receive  the  eggs  of  their  mate,  and  carry  them 
till  they  are  hatched.  The  family  Syngnalhidos  is 
sometimes  restricted  to  those  in  which  the  egg-pouch 


Pipe-Fish  (Syngnathus  acus). 

of  the  males  is  on  the  tail,  and  is  open  throughout  its 
whole  length,  and  the  tail  is  not  prehensile.  Thus 
restricted,  it  contains  a  number  of  genera,  of  which 
one  only,  Syngnathus,  is  British.— One  of  the  most 
common  British  species  is  the  Great  P.  (Syngnathus 
acus),  which  is  sometimes  found  in  deep  water,  aad 
sometimes  at  low  tide  among  the- sea- weed  iD  rock- 
pools.  The  specimens  commonly  seen  are  from  I  foot 
to  16  inches  in  length  ;  but  this  fish  is  said  to  attain 


PIPERACE.E-PIPES. 


a  length  of  2  or  3  feet  Its  food,  and  that  of  the 
other  species,  is  believed  to  consist  of  small  marine 
animals  and  the  eggs  of  lishes  ;  and  it  may  be  Men 
slowly  moving  about,  with  curious  contortions, 
poking  its  long  snout  into  every  crevice  in  March 
of  food,  and  sometimes  assuming  a  vertical  position 
with  tbe  head  downwards,  poking  into  or  stirring 
the  sand.  This  and  the  other  pipe-fishet  shew 
great  affection  for  their  young,  which  are  believed 
to  return,  on  the  appearance  OX  danger,  to  the  pouch 
of  their  male  parent,  after  they  have  begun  to  leave 
it,  and  to  swim  about  in  the  sea. 

The  name  P.  is  sometimes  also  given  to  the  lishes 
forming  the  family  Fistularida  (q.  v.),  or  Flute- 
mouths,  sometimes  called  Pipe-mouuis, 

PIPERA'CE^E,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  natives  almost  exclusively  of  the  hottest 
parts  of  the  globe,  particularly  of  Asia  and  America. 
None  of  them  found  in  cold  regions.  About  600 
species  are  known,  to  most  of  which  the  name  Pepper 
is  sometimes  given,  although  some  are  also  known 
by  other  names,  particularly  those  of  which  the  fruit 
is  not  used  as  a  spice,  but  of  which  some  part  is 
employed  for  some  other  purpose,  as  Betel,  Cubebs, 
Matico,  and  Ava.  See  these  heads.  But  Pepper 
(q.  v.)  is  the  most  important  product  of  the  order. 
Of  the  P.,  a  few  are  almost  trees ;  but  they  are 
generally  shrubs  or  herbaceous  plants,  often  climb- 
ing. They  have  jointed  stems ;  opposite  whorled 
or  alternate  leaves,  with  or  without  stipules,  and 
insignificant  greenish  flowers  in  slender  spikes, 
unisexual  or  hermaphrodite,  the  different  kinds 
generally  mingled  in  the  same  spike;  the  flowers 
without  calyx  or  corolla,  but  each  with  a  bract,  the 
stamens  2 — 6,  the  ovary  with  one  cell  and  one  ovule, 
and  crowned  with  one  or  three  stigmas ;  the  fruit 
Bomewhat  succulent,  containing  one  seed. 

PI'PERINE  (GkHuNOs)  is  an  alkaloid  possess- 
ing very  weak  basic  properties,  which  is  found  in 
the  Pepper  tribe.  It  may  be  obtained  by  heating 
powdered  pepper  with  alcohol,  which  extracts  the 
piperine  and  some  r.sincrus  matter,  which  may  be 
removed  by  digestion  in  a  solution  of  potash.  It 
occurs  in  colourless  well-formed  prisms,  which  are 
insoluble  in  cold  water,  but  dissolve  readily  in- alco- 
hol and  ether.  According  to  Miller,  piperine  'has 
an  acrid  taste,  resembling  that  of  pepper ; '  while 
Gorup-Besanez  asserts  that  '  it  is  devoid  of  odour 
or  taste,  and  that,  consequently,   the  well-known 

Eroperties  of  pepper  are  not  dependent  on  it.'  On 
eating  piperine  with  sodadime,  a  remarkable  ody 
base,  Piptridine  (CoH^N),  is  obtained,  with  a 
pungent  odour,  resembling  both  that  of  ammonia 
and  pepper. 

PIPES,  or  TUBES,  are  made  of  various  materials 
and  for  various  purposes.  Thus,  we  have  draining- 
pipes  for  agricultural  and  sanitary  purposes,  made  of 
earthenware,  wood,  and  metal ;  pipes  of  various 
kinds  of  metals  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes,  and 
Tobacco-pipes  (q.v.)  of  various  materials.  Formerly, 
wooden  pipes  were  extensively  used  for  conveying 
water  and  for  draining  ;  but  so  great  an  improve- 
ment has  been  effected  of  late  years  in  the  manu- 
facture of  metal  and  earthenware  pipes,  that  they 
have  now  become  exceedingly  rare,  and  will  soon 
disappear.  For  agricultural  purposes,  drain-tiles 
are  made  of  ordinary  brick-clay  ;  and  owing  to 
the  use  of  machinery  in  their  manufacture,  they 
are  produced  very  rapidly  and  cheaply.  They 
are  of  various  sizes,  but  the  most  general  is  15 
inches  in  length  by  2 J-  inches  diameter.  The 
operation  of  the  drain-tde  machine  is  to  squeeze  a 
continuous  length  of  soft  plastic  clay  through  a  ring- 
shape  orifice,  the  centre  of  which  is  occupied  by  a 
core  or  mandrel  of  the  size  of  the  hollow  part  of  the 


pipe.  Another  arrangement  of  the  machine  is  ta 
cut  the  pipe  to  the  proper  lengths  as  it  passes 
through,  and  by  means  of  a  travelling-table,  fa 

them  forward  to  be  removed  to  the  sheds,  where 
they  are  dried,  previous  to  being  burned  in  tho 
kilns. 

Within  the  last  twenty  years,  earthenware  pipes 
have  been  made  of  almost  every  size-,  from  an  inch 
or  two  in  diameter  up  to  the  enoi  n  of  rifty- 

foir  inches.  They  are  usually  m-eh-  ol  fire-clay, and 
aie  glazed  like  common  pottery.  Bee  Pottery. 
They  are  wider  at  one  end,  so  as  to  form  a  socket,  as 
in  Hg.  1,  to  receive  the  end  of  another,  and  thus 
form  a  continuous  tube.  These  are  greatly  need  far 
the  drainage  of  houses,  and  for  sewering,  for  which 


Fig.  1. 

they  are  admirably  adapted :  the  inner  surface  being 
glazed  as  well  as  the  outer,  offers  no  resistance  to 
sedimentary  matters,  which  are  consequently  carried 
away  readily.  These  pipes  are  of  such  great 
strength,  that  many  small  towns  in  England  are 
now  sewered  with  them  almost  entirely.  Another 
kind  has  been  introduced  for  chimney  Hues.  They 
are  also  made  of  tire-clay,  but  unglazed  externally, 
and  so  thick,  that  there  is  little  fear  of  breaking. 
They  are  placed  one  on  another,  and  are  built  into 
the  walls  of  houses,  instead  of  the  ordinary  chimneys, 
and  in  this  way  save 
much  labour  in  building, 
and  afford  a  much  more 
effective,  and  easily 
cleaned  flue  (fig  2). 
Caoutclwuc  vulcanised 
and  gutla  perc/ui  are 
also  extensivel}-  used  for  Fig.  2. 

making      pipes      for      a 

variety  of  purposes,  their  flexibility  rendering  them 
very  useful.  Leat/ieru  pipes  are  used  chiefly  for  the 
conveyance  of  water  temporarily,  as  in  the  case  of 
fire-engines  :  they  are  generally  called  Itose.  Metal 
pipes  are  made  of  iron,  lead,  tin,  or  an  alloy  of  tin 
and  lead,  copper,  brass,  &c.  Iron  pipes  are  usually 
cast,  and  the  manufacture  of  such  pipes  has  become 
of  enormous  extent,  in  consequence  of  the  vast 
works,  by  which  almost  all  large  towns  in  this  king- 
dom and  in  many  foreign  states  are  now  supplied 
with  water  and  gas,  the  pipes  for  which  are  largely 
exported  from  Great  Britain.  A  great  proportion 
of  the  trade  in  cast-iron  pipes  is  carried  on  in  Scot- 
land. The  water-works  which  supply  the  great 
towns  of  Lancashire  have  nearly  all  been  f  urnished 
with  pipes  from  Scotland ;  and  the  magnitude  of  the 
supply  can  be  best  understood  when  it  is  known 
that  for  the  Rivington  Pike  Works,  which  supply 
Liverpool,  upwards  of  twenty  mdes  of  iron  pipes, 
nearly  four  feet  in  diameter,  are  required.  It  would 
be  impossible  to  make  a  correct  estimate,  but  it  has 
been  stated,  with  great  reason  for  belief,  that  in 
Great  Britain  the  gas  and  water-pipes  laid  and  in 
use  exceed  half  a  million  of  mdes  in  length. 

Pipes  made  from  the  ductile  metals,  such  as 
brass,  copper,  and  tin,  are  made  by  first  casting  an 
ingot  of  the  metal  into  the  shape  shewn  in  hg.  3, 
with  a  hole  through  its  length  of  the  same  diameter 
the  bore  of  the  pipe  is  inteuded  to  have.  Into 
this  is  placed  an  iron  rod,  called  the  mandrel 
(a,  fig.  4),  which  exactly  fits,  and  which  projects 
slightly  at  the  tapered  end  (6,  fig.  4).     It  is  then 

653 


PIPE-STICKS-  PIPPIN. 


brought  to  the  drawing-table,  and  here  the  small 
end  with  its  projecting  mandrel  is  put  into  a  funnel- 
shaped  hole,  drilled  through  a  steel  post  (a,  rig.  5), 


bo  as  to  allow  the  point  to  be  griped  on  the  other 
side  by  a  pair  of  pincers,  at  the  end  of  a  strong 
chain  ;  the  machine-power  is  then  applied  to  the 
other  end  of  the  chain,  and  the  soft  metal  and  its 
mandrel  are  drawn  through,  the  former  being 
extended  equally  over  the  surface  of  the  latter, 
which  is  then  removed,  and  the  length  of  pipe  is 
complete.  Some  metals  require  repeated  drawing 
through  holes,  getting  gradually  smaller,  and  have 
to  be  softened  or  annealed  at  intervals,  as  the 
metal  hardens  under  repeated  drawing.  In  this 
way,  brass,  copper,  tin,  and  pewter  pipes  are  made  ; 
and  a  patent  has  just  been  taken  out  for  making 
steel  ones  ;  but  lead  pipes  are  made  of  great  lengths 
by  squeezing  the  soft  metal  through  a  hole  in  a 
steel  plate  in  which  there  is  a  fixed  core  or  man- 
drel projecting,  which  forms  and  regulates  the  size 
of  the  bore  of  the  pipe.  Pipes  are  also  made  from 
copper,  brass,  and  malleable  iron  by  rolling  out 
narrow  strips  of  metal,  and  then  passing  them  suc- 
cessively through  rollers,  which  are  deeply  grooved, 
and  which  turn  up  the  edges  (fig.  6).  A  mandrel  is 
then  laid  in  it,  as  in  fig.  7,  and  it  is  next  passed 
through  double-grooved  rollers,  which  turn  the 
ed^es  in,  and  thus  form  a  complete  tube  round  the 


mandreL  The  edges,  however,  require  soldering  or 
welding,  if  of  iron.  All  boder  tubes  used  to  be 
made  in  this  way  ;  but  the  method  of  drawing  has 
lately  been  so  much  improved,  that  copper  and  brass 
pipes,  or  tubes,  as  they  are  frequently  called,  are 
now  drawn  of  considerable  thickness  and  diameter. 

PIPE-STICKS.  It  is  usual  to  call  the  wooden 
tubes  used  for  some  tobacco-pipes  by  this  name; 
and  unimportant  as  it  may  at  first  sight  appear 
what  the  tube  is  made  of,  there  is  great  difference 
of  taste  in  this  respect ;  and  great  care  is  taken  by 
some  smokers  to  get  what  they  consider  the  choicest 
material.  Perhaps  the  most  prized  are  the  Agriot 
or  Cherry  pipe-sticks  of  Austria.  These  are  the 
young  stems  of  the  Mahaleb  Cherry  (Prunus 
Mahaleb),  which  is  extensively  grown  for  the  purpose 
in  the  environs  of  Vienna.  An  astonishing  amount  of 
care  is  bestowed  on  the  cultivation  of  these  shrubs, 
which  are  all  raised  from  seed.  When  the  seedlings 
are  two  years  old,  they  are  each  planted  in  a  small 
pot,  and  as  they  continue  to  grow,  every  attempt  at 
branching  is  stopped  by  removing  the  bud.  As  they 
increase  in  size  from  year  to  year,  they  are  shifted  to 
larger  pots  or  boxes,  and  great  care  is  taken  to  turn 
them  round  almost  daily,  so  that  every  part  is 
654 


equally  exposed  to  the  sun.  When  they  hav« 
attained  a  sufficient  height,  they  are  allowed  to 
form  a  small  bushy  head,  and  continue  to  receive 
the  same  attention  in  daily  turning,  &c,  until  they 
are  thick  enough  in  the  stem.  They  are  then  taken 
up,  and  the  roots  and  branches  removed,  and  the 
stem  put  by  to  season.  Afterwards,  they  are  bored 
through,  and  are  ready  for  use.  These  pipe-sticks 
have  an  agreeable  odour,  and  are  covered  with  a 
reddish-brown  bark,  which  is  retained.  Sometimes 
they  are  five  feet  in  length,  and  as  smooth  and 
straight  as  if  turned.  When  of  such  a  length,  they 
command  high  prices.  In  Hungary,  pipe-sticks 
made  from  the  stems  of  the  Mock  Orange  (Phila- 
delphus  coronarius)  are  much  used ;  and  the  jessa- 
mine sticks  of  Turkey  are  in  great  esteem  in  all 
countries.  Orange  aud  lemon-trees  and  ebony  are 
also  used.  The  chief  recommendation  of  these 
materials  seems  to  be  in  the  power  of  the  wood  to 
absorb  the  oil  produced  in  smoking  tobacco,  and 
consequently  to  render  the  smoke  less  acrid.  See 
Tobacco-pipes. 

PIPI,  the  name  given  to  the  ripe  pods  of  Ccesal- 
pinia  Papal  (see  C^esalpinia),  which  are  used  in 
tanning,  and  are  not  unfrequently  imported  along 
with  Dividivi  (q.  v.),  and  sometimes  separately,  but 
not  to  any  considerable  extent,  being  very  inferior 
to  dividivi.  They  are  easily  distinguished  from  the 
pods  of  dividivi,  not  being  curved  as  they  are,  but 
straight. 

PIPING  CROW.    SeeBAKiTAH. 

PI'PIT,  TITLING,  or  TITLARK  {Antlius),  a 
genus  of  birds  included  by  Linnaeus  among  Larks 
(Alauda);  but  now  regarded  as  forming  even  a 
distinct  family,  Anthidce,  which  is  ranked  among 
the  Dentiroslres,  whilst  the  lark  family  {Alaudidce) 
is  ranked  among  the  Conirostres.  The  bill  is  more 
slender  than  in  larks  ;  the  tips  of  the  mandibles 
slightly  bent  downwards  and  notched.  The  hind- 
claw  is  long,  although  not  so  long  as  in  larks,  and 
more  or  less  curved.  The  plumage  resembles  that 
of  larks ;  in  habits  and  motion  of  the  tail,  there  is 
a  greater  resemblance  to  wagtails.  The  bill  is  not 
strong  enough  for  feeding  on  grain  or  hard  seeds, 
and  insects  and  worms  are  the  principal  food  of 
pipits.  The  most  common  British  species  is  the 
Meadow  P.,  Common  Titlark,  or  Titling  (A. 
pratemis),  familiarly  known  in  many  parts  of  Eng- 
land and  of  Scotland  as  the  Moss-cheeper.  It  is 
found  in  almost  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  the  north 
of  Asia,  in  Western  India,  in  Japan,  and  in  Iceland. 
It  is  a  small  bird,  its  colour  brown  of  various  shades. 
It  frequents  heaths,  mosses,  and  pastures ;  and 
usually  makes  its  nest  on  a  grassy  bank,  or  beside  a 
tuft  of  grass  or  heath.  Its  song  is  weak  and  plain- 
tive, and  it  generally  sings  in  the  air.  It  is  gre- 
garious in  winter.  The  cuckoo  is  said  to  deposit  its 
egg  more  frequently  in  the  nest  of  the  Meadow  P. 
than  in  that  of  any  other  British  bird. — A  rather 
larger  British  species  is  the  Tree  P.,  or  Field 
Titling,  which  has  a  shorter  claw,  and  perches  on 
trees,  frequenting  enclosed  and  wooded  districts.  It 
is  a  summer  visitant  of  Britain,  and  most  common 
in  the  south  of  England.  It  occurs  in  most  parts  of 
Europe,  in  Asia,  and  the  north  of  Africa. — The  Rock 
P.,  or  Sea  Titling  (A  petrosus),  is  to  be  found  on 
the  shores  of  all  parts  of  Britain  and  Ireland.  It  is 
rather  larger  than  the  Tree  P.,  and  has  a  long  curved 
hind-claw.  It  feeds  chiefly  on  small  marine  animals, 
seeking  its  food  close  to  the  edge  of  the  retiring 
tide. 

PI'PPI  N  (so  called  probably  because  raised  from 
the  pip,  or  seed),  a  name  given  to  many  varieties 
of  apple,  among  which  are  some  of  the  finest  in 
cultivation,  as  the  Golden  P.t  Bibito7t  P.,  &c     The 


PIQUE*  WORK— PIRAYA. 


Ribston  P.  was  long  supposed  to  be  an  originally 
English  variety,  produced  at  Elibaton  Hall  in  York- 
ibire,  Imt  it  is  proved  to  have  been  introduced  from 
Normandy  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century. 

PIQUE  WORK,  a  very  line  kind  of  inlaying 
with  gold,  silver,  and  other  costly  materials  ;  it  is, 
in  fact,  a  kind  of  Buhl-work  (q.  v.),  carried  out  on  a 
very  minute  scale  It  is  only  applied  to  articles  of 
email  size,  BUch  as  snull'-boxes,  card-cases,  and 
■imilar  articles. 

PIQUET  is  a  small  borly  of  men  posted  at  some 

!»int  beyond  the  general  line  of  the  army  or  corps, 
or  the  purpose  of  observing  the  motions  of  an 
enemy,  or  giving  tirr,3ly  notice  in  case  of  any  attack. 
Piquets  are  either  outlyiixj  or  inlying. 

PIQUET,  a  game  of  cards  played  between  two 

Eersous  with  thirty-two  cards — viz.,  the  four 
onours,  and  the  highest  four  plain  cards  of 
each  suit.  The  cards  are  shuffled  and  cut  as 
in  whist,  and  then  dealt,  two  by  two,  till  each 
player  has  twelve  ;  and  the  remaining  eight,  called 
the  talon,  or  stoek,  are  then  laid  on  the  table. 
The  first  player  must  then  discard  from  one  to 
live  of  his  cards,  replacing  them  with  a  similar 
number  from  the  talon;  and  alter  him,  the  younger 
hand  may  discard  if  he  pleases,  similarly  making 
up  his  proper  number  from  the  remaining  cards  of 
the  talon.  The  player  who  lirst  scores  10U  wins  the 
game,  and  the  score  is  made  up  by  reckoning  in 
the  following  order — carte- blanche,  the  point,  the 
sequence,  the  quatorze,  the  cards,  and  the  capot. 
Carte-blanche  is  a  hand  of  twelve  plain  cards,  and 
counts  ten  for  the  player  who  possesses  it.  The 
point  is  the  greatest  number  of  cards  in  any  suit, 
or,  if  the  players  are  equal  in  this  respect,  that 
which  is  highest  in  value  (the  ace  counting  eleven, 
each  court-card  ten,  and  the  plain  cards  according 
to  the  number  of  pips),  and  counts  a  number  equal 
to  the  number  of  cards  in  the  suit.  The  sequence  is 
a  regular  succession  of  three  or  more  cards  in  one 
suit,  and  the  highest  sequence  (i.  e.,the  one  containing 
the  greatest  number  of  cards,  or  if  the  players  have 
sequences  equal  in  this  respect,  the  one  of  the  two 
which  begins  with  the  highest  card),  if  of  three 
cards,  counts  three;  of  four  cards,  four ;  of  five 
cards,  fifteen ;  of  six  cards,  sixteen,  &c.  The  quatorze 
is  a  set  of  four  equal  cards  (not  lower  than  tens),  as 
four  aces,  four  queens,  &c,  and  the  highest  quatorze 
counts  fourteen  for  its  holder ;  but  should  neither 
player  have  a  quatorze,  then  the  highest  set  of  three 
is  cotmted  instead,  but  it  reckons  only  three.  The 
possessor  of  the  highest  sequence  or  the  highest 
quatorze  also  counts  all  inferior  sequences  and 
quatorzes  (including  sets  of  three)  ;  while  his  oppo- 
nent's sequences  and  quatorzes  go  for  nothing.  The 
first  player  reckons  his  points,  and  plays  a  card ; 
the  dealer  then  reckons  his  points,  and  follows  his 
opponent's  lead,  and  cards  are  laid  and  tricks 
are  taken  as  in  any  ordinary  card-game.  Each 
player  counts  one  for  every  card  he  leads,  and  the 
taker  of  the  trick  (if  second  player)  counts  one 
for  it ;  the  possessor  of  the  greater  number  of 
tricks  counting  ten  in  addition  (the  'cards'),  or  if 
he  takes  all  the  tricks,  he  counts  forty  in  addition 
(the  '  capot ').  If  one  player  counts  thirty — i.  e., 
29  by  his  various  points,  and  one  for  the  card  he 
leads,  before  his  adversary  has  counted  anything,  he 
at  once  doubles  his  score,  reckoning  sixty  instead  of 
thirty  (this  is  called  the  'pique');  and  should  his 
score  reach  thirty  before  he  plays  a  card,  or  his 
adversary  begins  to  count,  he  mounts  at  once  to 
ninety  (the  're-pique'). 

PIRACY  is  robbery  on  the  high  sea,  and  is 
an  ofl'ence  against  the  law  of  nations.  It  is  a  crime 
not  against  any  particular  state,  but  against   all 


mankind,  and  may  be  punished  in  the  competent 
tribunal  of  any  country  where  the  offender  may  be 
found,  or  into  which  he  may  be  carried,  although 
committed  on  board  a  foreign  vessel  on  the  high  sea*. 
If  is  of  the  essence  of  piracy  that  the  pirate  has  no 
commission  from  a  sovereign  state,  or  from  the 
belligerent  state  nt  war  with  another.  Pirates  being 
the  common  enemies  of  nil  mankind,  and  all  nations 
having  an  equal  interest  in  their  apprehension  and 
punishment,  they  may  be  lawfully  captured  on  the 
nigh  seas  by  the  armed  vessels  of  any  particular 
state,  and  brought  within  its  territorial  jurisdiction 
for  trial  in  its  tribunals.  The  African  slave-trade 
was  not  considered  piracy  by  the  law  of  nations; 
but  the  municipal  laws  of  the  United  Kingdom 
and  of  the  United  States  by  statute  declared  it  to 
be  so;  and  since  the  treaty  of  1841  with  Great 
Britain,  it  is  also  declared  to  be  so  by  Austria 
Prussia,  and  Russia. 

PIR/E'US  (Gr.  Peiruens),  the  principal  harbour 
both  of  ancient  and  modern  Athens  (q.  v.),  ami  situ- 
ated 5  miles  S.  W.  of  that  city.  Only  a  few  traces 
remain  of  the  long  walls  which  formerly  united  it  and 
Munychia  with  the  capital  city.  The  modern  P., 
which  has  sprung  up  since  1835,  is  a  regularly  laid- 
out  town,  with  some  good  houses  and  shops,  and  is 
connected  with  Athens  by  the  first  railway  of  Greece, 
which  was  opened  in  1869.  The  harbour,  called  also 
Porto  Leone  or  Drakoni,  is  both  safe  and  deep;  but 
the  entrance  is  narrow;  about  1000  foreign  vessels 
visit  it,  and  10,000  steamers  and  sailing-vessels,  en- 
gaged in  the  coasting-trade,  enter  and  clear  annually. 
lJop.  (1870),  11,047. 

PIRA'NO,  a  seaport  of  Austria,  in  the  mark' 
grafdom  of  Istria,  stands  on  a  peninsula  in  the 
bay  of  Largone,  15  miles  south-west  of  Trieste.  It 
contains  an  old  castle,  has  a  port  and  several  dock- 
yards, commodious  roads,  in  which  large  vessels  find 
safe  anchorage,  and  is  the  seat  of  considerable  trade 
and  commerce.  Among  its  more  important  edifices 
are  an  interesting  Gothic  church,  a  town-house, 
and  a  Minorite  convent,  with  a  number  of  good 
pictures.  Wine  and  oil  are  made  in  considerable 
quantities,  and  there  are  salt-works  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, which  produce  upwards  of  330,000  cwts. 
of  salt  annually.     Pop.  9200. 

PIRAYA,  or  P1RAI,  the  name  given  in  Guiana 
to  Serrasalmo  piraya,  and  other  species  of  Serra- 
salmo,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  family  Characinidce, 
regarded  by  many  as  a  section  of  Salmonklce  (q.  v.). 
The  fishes  of  this  genus,  of  which  numerous 
species  inhabit  the  rivers  and  other  fresh  waters 
of  tropical  South  America,  have  a  compressed  and 
deep  body,  the  belly  keeled  and  serrated  with  a 
double  row  of  hard  serratures.  They  are  extremely 
voracious  fishes,  and  not  only  consume  with 
great  rapidity  dead  carcases  thrown  into  the 
water,  but  attack  living  creatures  very  much 
larger  than  themselves,  biting  off  the  fius  of  large 
fishes,  and  then  devouring  them  at  leisure,  often 
mutilating  ducks  and  geese  by  depriving  them  of 
their  feet,  and  venturing  to  attack  even  oxen  and 
human  beings.  The  latter,  however,  make  reprisals 
on  them,  and  find  them  very  good  food.  Serrasalmo 
piraya  seldom  exceeds  10  or  12  inches  in  length, 
but  some  of  the  species  attain  a  considerably  larger 
size.  Some  of  them  are  very  brdliantly  coloured. 
The  Indians  use  the  teeth  for  sharpening  the  arrows, 
made  of  the  very  hard  ribs  of  palm-leaves,  which 
they  use  for  their  blow-pipes,  and  which  they 
sharpen  to  a  very  fine  point  by  drawing  them 
across  a  piraya's  jaw,  an  article  with  which  the 
Indian  of  Guiana  is  always  provided  ;  nor  does  the 
edge  of  the  teeth  soon  begin  to  be  worn.  Pirayas 
are  readily  taken  bv  a  baited  hook,  and  almost  any 
3  555 


PIRMASENS-PISA. 


kind  of  bait  will  do  ;  but  they  at  once  cut  through 
any  line,  and  the  line  must  therefoi-e  be  cased  above 
the  hook  in  tin-plate.  The  Indiana  often  shoot 
them  with  arrows. 

PI'RMASENS,  a  small  town  of  the  Bavarian 
Palatinate,  and  formerly  the  chief  town  of  the 
county  of  Hanau-Lichtenberg,  22  miles  west  of 
Landau.  It  has  8675  inhabitants,  who  manufacture 
shoes  and  musical  instruments. 

PI'RNA,  a  small  town  of  Saxony,  stands  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  11  miles  by  railway  south- 
east of  Dresden.  It  is  surmounted  by  a  hill,  crowned 
by  a  castle,  now  used  as  a  lunatic  asylum,  contains  a 
beautiful  parish  church,  and  a  number  of  important 
benevolent  institutions.  The  manufacture  of  stone- 
ware employs  many  hands.     Pop.  8410. 

PI'S  A,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  beautiful  cities 
of  Italy,  and,  till  lately,  the  capital  of  the  now 
extinct  grand-duchy  of  Tuscany,  is  situated  in  a 
fruitful  valley,  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Arno, 
which  intersects  the  city  and  is  spanned  by  three 
noble  bridges.  P.  is  situated  in  43°  43'  N.  lat., 
and  11°  24  E.  long.  The  population  was,  in  1872, 
50,341.  It  has  broad,  straight,  well-paved  streets, 
and  several  fine  squares.  Among  its  80  churches, 
the  most  worthy  of  notice  is  the  cathedral,  or 
Duomo,  begun  in  10G8,  and  completed  in  1118, 
with  its  noble  dome,  supported  by  74  pillars, 
and  its  fine  paintings,  variegated  marbles,  and 
painted  windows.  Near  the  cathedral  stands  the 
round  marble  belfry  known  as  the  Leaning  Tower 
of  Pisa,  from  the  circumstance  that  it  deviates 
about  14  feet  from  the  perpendicular.  This  cele- 
brated building,  which  is  ISO  feet  in  height,  and 
consists  of  seven  stories  divided  by  rows  of  columns, 
and  surmounted  by  a  flat  roof  and  an  open  gallery 
commanding  a  splendid  view  of  the  surrounding 
country,  was  erected  in  the  12th  c.  by  the  German 
architect  Wilhelm  of  Innsbruck.  The  Baptistery, 
or  Church  of  St  John,  opposite  the  cathedral,  an 
almost  equally  remarkable  structure,  was  completed 
in  1162  by  Diotisalvi.  The  main  building,  which 
is  circular,  and  raised  on  several  steps,  supports  a 
leaden -roofed  dome,  having  a  second  dome  above 
it,  surmounted  by  a  statue  of  St  John.  The  beau- 
tifully proportioned  interior,  noted  for  its  wonderful 
echo,  contains  a  pulpit,  which  ranks  as  the  greatest 
masterpiece  of  Nicola  Pisano,  various  pieces  of 
sculpture,  and  a  large  octagonal  marble  font.  The 
Campo-Santo,  or  ancient  national  cemetery,  dates 
from  the  year  1228,  when  the  Pisans  caused  earth 
to  be  brought  from  Jerusalem  for  the  graves  of  the 
most  distinguished  citizens  of  the  republic.  In 
1283,  the  ground  was  surrounded  by  cloisters,  the 
walls  of  which  were  adorned  by  fresco-paintings,  now 
nearly  obliterated,  although  some  of  these  works  of 
art,  which  are  chiefly  by  Giotto,  Veneziano,  Orcagni, 
and  Memmi,  still  retain  traces  of  their  original 
beauty.  Among  the  other  public  buildings  of  P., 
special  notice  is  due  to  the  churches  of  La  Madonna 
del)  a  Spina  and  San  Stefano,  both  rich  in  paintings 
and  sculptures,  and  the  latter  famous  for  its  organ, 
the  largest  in  Italy  ;  the  grand  ducal  and  Lanfranchi 
palaces ;  the  Torre  della  Fame,  so  called  from  its 
being  supposed  to  have  been  the  spot  in  which 
Ugolino  Gherardesca  and  his  children  were  starved 
to  death  in  1288 ;  the  university,  founded  in  1330, 
and  restored  by  Cosmo  I.  de'  Medici,  which  enjoyed 
a  high  reputation  in  the  middle  ages,  and  still 
possesses  claims  to  consideration  in  its  library, 
botanical  garden,  observatory,  and  affiliated  schools 
and  art  collections,  &c.  The  population  of  P., 
which,  in  the  13th  c,  amounted  to  150,000,  had 
fallen,  in  the  present  century,  to  less  than  one-sixth 
of  that  number;  but  of  late  years,  trade  and 
656 


industrial  arts  have  made  a  rapid  advance,  and  the 
population  has  increased  in  proportion.  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  P.,  at  the  foot  of  San  Giuliano, 
lie  the  mineral  baths,  whose  fame  was  known  to 
Pliny,  and  which  continued  through  the  middle 
ages  to  attract  sufferers  from  every  part  of  Italy. 
The  waters,  which  are  rich  in  carbonic  acid  and 
chloride  of  sodium,  are  found  efficacious  in  various 
arthritic  and  rheumatic  affections. 

History. — Ancient  P.,  like  other  Etruscan  cities 
subject  to  Rome,  retained  its  municipal  government, 
and  enjoyed  an  almost  unlimited  freedom  while 
nominally  under  Roman  protection ;  but,  on  the 
decline  of  the  imperial  power,  it  was  compelled  to 
submit  in  turn  to  the  various  transalpine  nations 
who  successively  overran  Northern  Italy.  Early  in 
the  11th  c,  P.  had  risen  to  the  rank  of  a  powerful 
republic,  whose  sway  included  the  then  fertile  dis- 
trict known  as  the  Maremma  di  Lerici,  and  which 
yielded  little  more  than  nominal  homage  to  its 
suzerain  lords,  the  emperors  of  Germany.  Through- 
out the  11th  c,  P.  was  at  the  height  of  its  pros- 
perity, and  to  this  period  belong  most  of  the 
splendid  monuments  of  art  that  still  adorn  the 
city.  Its  troops  took  part  in  all  the  great  events 
of  the  Holy  Land ;  and  its  fleet  in  turn  gave  aid 
to  the  pope  in  Southern  Italy,  to  the  emperor  in 
Northern  France,  chastised  the  Moors,  and  exacted 
its  own  terms  from  the  Eastern  emperors.  In  their 
wars  with  the  Saracens  of  Sardinia,  the  Pisans  had 
conquered  Sardinia,  Corsica,  and  the  Balearic  Islands, 
and  for  a  time  maintained  their  ground  against 
their  hereditary  enemies,  the  Genoese  ;  but  having 
sided  with  the  Ghibellines  in  the  long  wars  wdrich 
desolated  the  empire,  P.  suffered  severely  at  the 
hands  of  the  victorious  Guelphic  party.  Indeed,  the 
rivalry  of  the  Guelphic  cities  of  Florence,  Lucca, 
and  Siena,  nearly  brought  P.  to  the  brink  of  ruin 
at  the  close  of  the  13th  c.  ;  and  after  struggling  for 
more  than  a  hundred  years  against  external  foes 
and  the  internal  dissensions  between  the  demo- 
cratic mob  and  the  Ghibelline  nobles,  without  losing 
their  character  for  indomitable  valour,  the  Pisans 
finally  threw  themselves  under  the  protection  of 
Galeazzo  Visconti  of  Milan.  The  son  of  the  latter 
sold  the  Pisan  territory  to  their  greatest  enemies,  the 
Florentines,  from  whose  tyrannical  ride  it  was  for  a 
time  relieved  by  Charles  VIII.  of  France,  who,  in 
1491,  accepted  the  protectorate  of  the  city.  When 
the  French  left  Italy,  the  old  struggle  was  renewed ; 
and  after  offering  a  desperate  resistance,  the  Pisans, 
in  1509,  were  compelled  by  hunger  to  surrender  the 
city  to  the  Florentine  army  besieging  the  walls. 
The  most  influential  families,  as  formerly  in  1406, 
when  P.  first  lost  her  independence,  emigrated.  P., 
with  the  rest  of  Tuscany,  became  part  of  the  kingdom 
of  Italy  in  1860.  Since  1868  P.  has  given  its  name  to 
one  of  the  69  Italian  provinces.     Pop.  (1871)  265,959. 

PISA,  Council  of,  one  of  the  councils  commonly 
reputed  by  Roman  Catholics  as  oecunienical  or 
general,  although  some,  especially  of  the  Ultra- 
montane (q.  v.)  school,  do  not  look  upon  it  as  such. 
It  was  assembled  in  the  time  of  the  great  Western 
Schism,  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  the  peace  of 
the  church,  and  the  unity  which  had  been  inter- 
rupted by  the  rival  claims  of  two  competitors  for 
the  papacy.  The  history  of  this  rival  claim  will  b«> 
found  uuder  the  head  Western  Schism.  For  our 
present  purpose,  it  is  enough  to  state  that  the 
adherents  of  both  the  claimants  of  the  see  of  Rome — 
those  of  Gregory  XII.,  as  well  as  those  of  Benedict — 
agreed  on  the  necessity  of  a  general  council,  as  the 
only  means  of  putting  an  end  to  the  schism ;  and 
the  rival  popes  having  themselves  either  evaded  or 
declined  the  demand,  the  cardinals  of  both  united 
in  issuing  letters  of  convocation,  and  in  summoning 


PISCATAQUA— PISCICULTURE 


both  the  claimants  to  the  council  so  convened. 
Neither  of  them  complied  with  the  citation  ;  but 
the  council  proceeded,  nevertheless,  to  examine  and 
deliberate  upon  the  cause.  It  was  opened  at  Pisa, 
March  25,  1409,  there  being  present  22  cardinals, 
4  patriarchs,  12  archbishops,  80  bishops,  together 
with  representatives  of  12  archbishops  and  102 
bishops,  and  a  vast  body  of  abbots,  doctors  in 
theology,  and  other  eminent  ecclesiastics.     Of  the 

J)roceedings,  it  will  be  enough  to  say,  that  after  a 
ormal  citation  of  the  rival  popes  to  appear  within  a 
stated  period,  the  council,  on  the  expiration  of  that 
period,  proceeded  to  declare  them  contumacious,  and 
to  examine  their  respective  claims  as  though  they  had 
appeared.  The  result,  after  a  protracted  inquiry, 
was  a  decree  in  the  13th  session  by  winch  they 
were  both  declared  schismatics,  and  their  conduct 
heretical,  and  calculated  to  lead  the  people  from 
the  faith ;  wherefore,  since  they  had  violated  the 
solemn  engagements  made  at  their  respective  elec- 
tions, they  were  deposed  from  the  papal  dignity,  and 
their  followers  released  from  obedience.  In  the 
17th  session,  the  cardinals  having  first  pledged 
themselves  by  oath,  each,  that,  if  elected,  he  would 
continue  the  sittings  of  the  council,  entered  into 
conclave  to  the  number  of  24,  and  unanimously 
elected  Peter  Philargi,  one  of  the  cardinal  priests, 
and  a  member  of  the  Franciscan  order.  He  took 
the  name  of  Alexander  V.  The  council  proceeded 
after  his  election  to  pass  a  number  of  decrees,  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  validity  to  the  acts  done  on 
either  side  during  the  schism.  A  vain  attempt  was 
made  to  obtain  the  submission  of  the  still  recusant 
rivals,  and  it  was  resolved  that  a  new  couucil  should 
be  held  within  three  years.  The  authority  of  this 
council,  like  that  of  the  Council  of  Constance,  is 
alleged,  on  the  Gallican  side,  as  establishing  the 
superiority  of  a  general  council  over  the  pope.  But 
the  Ultramontanes  reply  that  both  these  couneds, 
and  also  that  of  Basel,  must  be  regarded  as  abnormal 
assemblies,  called  to  meet  the  special  emergency  of 
a  disputed  succession  and  of  a  doubtful  pope,  and 
that  these  principles  cannot  by  any  means  be  applied 
to  the  ordinary  circumstances  of  the  church,  or 
form  a  precedent  by  which  to  estimate  the  normal 
relations  between  a  pope  whose  title  is  certain 
and  undisputed,  and  a  general  council  regularly 
assembled  at  a  time  of  peace,  and  in  the  ordinary 
circumstances  of  the  church.  It  cannot  be  doubted, 
nevertheless,  that  the  spirit  of  the  fathers  of  Pisa 
was  the  same  which  ran  through  the  succeeding 
assemblies  of  Constance  and  Basel,  and  found  its 
permanent  representation  in  the  Gallicanism  (see 
Gallican  Church)  of  later  centuries. 

PISCA'TAQUA,  a  river  about  80  miles  in  length, 
which  forms  the  southern  part  of  the  boundary 
between  Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  U.S.,  and 
empties  itself  into  the  Atlantic,  forming  at  its 
mouth  the  excellent  harbour  of  Portsmouth. 

PI'SCICULTURE,  or  FISH-CULTURE,  the 
breeding  and  rearing  of  fishes,  in  order  to  the 
increase  of  the  supply  for  food.  Hitherto,  it  has 
been  almost  entirely  limited  to  fresh-water  fishes  ; 
nothing  having  been  done  as  to  sea-fishes  but  by 
legislation — chiefly  in  the  case  of  the  herring— to 
prevent  the  destruction  of  the  very  young  fish,  and 
that  not,  apparently,  to  much  advantage.  Ponds 
for  sea-fishes  have,  indeed,  been  sometimes  con- 
structed, advantage  being  taken  of  natural  circum- 
stances favourable  for  the  purpose;  the  ancient 
Romans  had  such  ponds,  and  some  have  been  made 
on  different  parts  of  the  British  coast ;  fishes  being 
caught  in  the  open  sea  and  placed  in  them  to 
oe  fed  and  fattened  for  the  table.  Such  ponds, 
however,  are  of  little  real  utility.     That  the  Romans 


succeeded  in  keeping  s^a-fishes  in  fresh-water  ponds, 
as  has  been  asserted,  must  be  regarded  as  mere 
fable,  or  as  an  exaggeration,  founded  on  the  power 
which  a  few  fishea  have  of  adapting  then 
both  to  fresh  and  salt  water.  But  it  may  be  doubted 
if  in  modern  times  sufficient  advantage  has  been 
taken  of  this  power. 

Ponds  for  fresh-water  fishes  have  been  common 
from  a  very  remote  antiquity.  It  appears  from 
Isaiah,  xix.  10,  that  they  were  used  in  ancient 
Egypt.  In  the  times  of  Roman  luxury,  almost 
every  wealthy  citizen  had  fish-ponds.  The  Chinese 
have  long  bestowed  more  attention  on  pisciculture 
than  any  other  nation,  and  with  them  it  is  truly  a 
branch  of  economy,  tending  to  the  increase  of  the 
supply  of  food  and  of  the  national  wealth  ;  not 
merely,  as  it  seems  to  have  been  among  the  Romans, 
an  appliance  of  the  luxury  of  the  great.  In  some 
countries  of  modern  Europe,  this  branch  of  pisci- 
culture is  also  prosecuted  to  a  very  considerable 
extent,  particularly  in  Germany  and  Sweden,  and  of 
late  years  in  France,  in  order  to  the  supply  of  fish 
for  the  market.  In  Britain,  it  has  never  been 
systematically  prosecuted,  or  for  any  important 
purpose ;  the  country-seats  of  the  nobility  and 
gentry  being,  indeed,  generally  provided  with  fish- 
ponds, but  in  most  cases  rather  as  ornamental 
waters  than  for  use.  In  the  northern  parts  of 
Britain,  trout,  perch,  and  pike  are  almost  the  only 
fish  kept  in  ponds ;  in  England,  they  are  often 
stocked  with  carp  and  tench,  and  are  turned  to 
much  better  account  than  in  Scotland.  In  Germany, 
ponds  carefully  attended  to  are  found  very  pro- 
ductive and  remunerative.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  in  Britain,  also,  many  a  piece  of  land  at  present 
very  worthless,  might  easily  be  converted  into  a 
pond,  and  made  to  yield  large  quantities  of  excellent 
fish  ;  but  such  a  thing  seems  almost  never  to  be 
thought  of. 

In  the  construction  of  ponds,  or  stews,  for  fish,  it  is 
recommended  to  have,  if  possible,  a  succession  of 
three  ponds  on  the  same  rivulet,  with  sluices,  by 
which  they  can  be  dried,  so  that  the  fish  may  be 
easily  taken  when  required,  the  different  ponds 
being  in  part  intended  for  fish  of  different  ages. 
But  all  this  must  be  very  much  regulated  by  local 
circumstances.  It  is  of  more  importance  to  note 
that  the  margins  should  be  shallow,  so  that  there 
may  be  abundance  of  reeds  and  other  water-plants, 
and  that  only  a  small  part  of  the  pond  should  be  too 
deep  for  the  growth  of  pond-weeds  (Potamogeton). 
Much  depends  on  the  soil  of  the  neighbourhood  as 
to  the  supply  of  food,  and  consequently  the  growth 
of  fish  and  productiveness  of  the  pond.  Trees  over- 
hanging the  pond  are  not  desirable  ;  the  decomposi- 
tion of  their  fallen  leaves  being  injurious  to  fish. 
The  growth  of  weeds  is  more  to  be  encouraged  in 
ponds  for  carp  and  tench  than  in  those  for  perch 
or  trout.  A  stony  bottom  is  very  advantageous 
to  perch  and  trout  ponds.  Ponds  for  pike  must  be 
larger  than  is  necessary  for  any  other  fish  known  to 
British  pisciculture :  an  extent  of  at  least  six  acres 
is  desirable.  A  nursery  for  minnows  may  be  estab- 
lished with  great  advantage  in  connection  with  a 
fish-pond,  as  they  afford  most  acceptable  food  to 
perch,  pike,  and  trout.  But  in  a  pond  where  carp 
and  tench  are  expected  to  spawn,  the  presence  of 
minnows  is  very  undesirable.  It  is  often  impossible 
to  provide  a  pond  with  a  place  suitable  for  the 
spawning  of  trout,  for  which  a  gravelly  stream  with 
a  quick  current  is  necessary ;  but  for  perch,  pike, 
carp,  or  tench,  the  pond  itself  is  sufficient,  and  the 
stock  once  introduced  is  kept  up  without  replenish- 
ing. Indeed,  it  is  recommended  that  a  pond  stocked 
with  carp  should  also  be  stocked  with  pike,  that  the 
excessive  multiplication  of  the  carp  may  be  checked, 

657 


PISCICULTURE. 


which  would  otherwise  prevent  the  fish  from  grow- 
ing rapidly  or  to  a  good  size. 

The  greatest  improvement  in  pisciculture,  and  a 
most  important  branch  of  it,  to  which  the  term  is 
often  restricted,  is  the  breeding  of  fi3h  in  artificial 
breeding-places,  from  which  not  o>;iy  ponds  but 
rivers  may  be  stocked  ;  or  the  art  of  fecundating  and 
hatching  fish-eggs,  and  feeding  and  protecting  the 
young  animals  till  they  are  of  an  age  to  secure  their 
own  food,  and  protect  themselves  from  their 
numerous  enemies.  As  at  present  conducted,  pisci- 
culture has  become  in  many  instances  a  profitable 
branch  of  industry;  and  the  art  has  been  employed 
in  France  with  great  success  for  replenishing  with 
fishes  many  of  the  most  important  streams  that  had 
become  barren  through  over-fishing ;  in  Britain, 
also,  this  artificial  system  has  become  a  profitable 
adjunct  of  one  or  two  of  our  larger  salmon-fisheries. 

Modern  pisciculture  is  the  revival  of  an  old  art 
well  known  to  the  ancient  Italians,  but  which  had 
fallen  into  abeyance  for  a  number  of  centuries. 
The  art  of  breeding  and  fattening  fish  was  well 
known  to  the  luxurious  Romans,  and  many  stories 
are  told  about  the  fanciful  flavours  which  were 
imparted  to  such  pet  fishes  as  were  chosen  for  the 
sumptuous  banquets  of  Lucullus,  Sergius  Orata,  and 
others.  The  art  had  doubtless  been  borrowed  from 
the  ingenious  Chinese,  who  are  understood  to  have 
practised  the  art  of  collecting  fish-eggs  and  nursing 
young  fish  from  a  very  early  period.  Fish  forms 
to  the  Chinese  a  most  important  article  of  diet ; 
and  from  the  extent  of  the  water-territory  of 
China,  and  the  quantities  that  can  be  cultivated, 
it  is  very  cheap.  The  plan  adopted  for  procuring 
fish-eggs  in  China  is  to  skim  off  the  impregnated  ova 
from  the  surface  of  the  great  rivers  at  the  spawn- 
ing season,  which  are  sold  for  the  purpose  of  being 
hatched  in  canals,  paddy-fields,  &c. ;  and  all  that 
is  necessary  to  insure  a  large  growth  of  fish  is 
simply  to  throw  into  the  water  a  few  yolks  of  eggs, 
by  which  means  an  incredible  quantity  of  the  young 
fry  is  saved  from  destruction.  Although  all  kinds 
of  fish  are  enormously  fecund,  it  is  well  known  to 
naturalists  that  only  a  small  percentage  of  the  eggs 
ever  come  to  life,  and  of  the  young  fish,  very  few 
ever  reach  the  table  as  food.  So  many  of  the  eggs 
are  destroyed  by  various  influences,  and  so  many 
likewise  escape  impregnation,  that  if  we  are  to 
keep  up  our  fish  supplies,  pisciculture,  or  protected 
breeding  becomes  absolutely  necessary. 

Commercial  pisciculture,  as  at  present  carried  on, 
owes  its  origiu  to  the  French,  the  art  having  been 
first  put  in  practice  by  M.  Remy,  a  poor  fisherman, 
who  gained  a  living  by  catching  fish  in  the  streams  of 
La  Bresse  in  the  Vosges.  This  re-discovery  of  the 
lost  art  of  fish-breeding  is  understood  to  have  been 
quite  accidental  on  the  part  of  Remy,  although  it  is 
thought  by  some  zealous  Scotchmen  that  the  French- 
man must  have  heard  of  the  experiments  of  Mr 
Shaw  of  Drumlanrig,  who,  for  a  few  years  previous 
to  Remy's  discovery,  had  been  trying  to  solve  some 
problems  in  the  natural  history  of  the  salmon  by 
means  of  the  artificial  system.  The  art  had  also 
been  partially  revived  in  Germany  about  the  middle 
of  last  century  by  a  gentleman  of  the  name  of 
Jacobi,  who  practised  the  artificial  breeding  of  trout. 
Whether  or  not  Remy  had  heard  of  either  of  these 
experimenters,  it  is  certain  that  to  him  we  owe  the 
revival  of  the  art  in  its  larger  or  commercial  sense ; 
the  others  only  used  it  as  an  adjunct  to  their  study 
of  the  natural  history  of  fishes.  In  one  sense, 
fish-culture  was  largely  practised  in  this  country 
long  before  the  discovery  by  Remy  of  the  system  of 
artificial  fecundation — we  allude  to  the  fact  of 
there  being  large  numbers  of  private  ponds  and 
stews  in  which  country  gentlemen  bred  fish  fox  the 
668 


use  of  their  own  tables,  as  well  as  similar  placet 
attached  to  monasteries  and  other  religious  edifices, 
in  which  fish  were  grown  for  fast-day  uses.  The 
range  of  fish  suited  for  pond-breeding  was  very 
limited;  and  to  render  them  at  all  good  in  flavour, 
expensive  food  had  to  be  obtained  for  them,  and 
they  had  to  be  served  up  accompanied  by  expen- 
sive sauces.  It  is  probable  that  some  of  our  rarest 
fishes  were  introduced  into  this  country  during 
these  old  monastic  times,  such  as  the  Lochleven 
trout,  the  vendace,  &c. 

It  was  the  great  waste  of  ecrgs  incidental  to  the 
natural  system  of  fish-breeding  that  led  Remy, 
about  1842,  in  conjunction  with  Gehin,  a. coadjutor 
whom  he  assumed  as  a  partner,  to  try  what  he 
could  do  in  the  way  of  repeopling  the  fish- streams 
of  his  native  district.  His  plan  being  at  once  suc- 
cessful, attracted  the  favourable  notice  of  many  of 
the  French  savans,  and  led  to  rewards  and  prefer- 
ment for  Remy ;  the  new  art  was  taken  under  the 
protection  of  the  government ;  and  now,  after  the 
experience  of  twenty  years,  artificial  fish-culture 
has  been  so  perfected  in  France  that  there  has 
arisen  at  Huningue,  near  Basel,  on  the  Rhine,  a 
gigantic  fish-nursery  and  egg-depot  for  the  supply 
of  eggs,  and  the  dissemination  of  the  art  both  in 
France  and  other  countries.  The  place  is  fitted 
up  specially  for  this  purpose  with  egg-boxes  and 
reservoirs ;  and  millions  of  eggs  are  annually 
received,  and  sent  to  German y,  Spain,  England,  and 
other  places.  A  drawing  is  given  on  the  next  page 
of  one  of  the  halls  of  this  interesting  establishment. 

The  course  of  business  at  Huningue  is  as  follows  : 
the  eggs  are  chiefly  brought  from  the  streams  of 
Switzerland  and  Germany,  and  embrace  those  of 
the  common  trout,  as  well  as  the  Rhine  and  Danube 
salmon,  and  the  tender  charr  or  ombre  chevalier. 
People  are  appointed  to  capture  gravid  fish  of 
these  various  kinds,  and,  haviug  done  so,  to  com- 
municate the  fact  to  Huningue.  An  expert  is  at 
once  sent  to  deprive  these  fishes  of  their  spawn, 
and  bring  it  to  the  breeding  or  resting  boxes,  where 
it  is  carefully  tended  till  it  is  ready  to  be  des- 
patched to  some  district  in  want  of  it.  It  is,  of 
course,  much  more  convenient  to  send  the  eggs  than 
the  young  fish,  as  the  former,  nicely  packed  among 
wet  moss  in  little  boxes,  can  be  carried  to  a  distance 
with  greater  facility.  The  mode  of  artificially 
spawning  a  salmon  is  as  follows.  It  should,  of 
course,  be  ascertained  that  the  spawn  is  in  a 
perfectly  matured  state,  and  that  being  the  case, 
the  salmon  is  held  under  water  in  a  large  tub, 
while  the  hand  is  gently  passed  along  its  abdomen, 
when,  if  the  ova  be  ripe,  the  eggs  will  flow  out 
like  so  many  pease.  The  eggs  are  then  carefully 
washed,  and  the  water  is  poured  off.  The  male 
salmon  is  then  handled  in  a  similar  way,  when  the 
contact  of  the  milt  immediately  changes  the  eggs 
into  a  brilliant  pink  colour.  After  being  again 
washed,  they  may  be  ladled  out  into  the  breeding- 
boxes,  and  left  to  come  to  life  in  due  season. 
The  period  occupied  in  hatching  is  different  in 
different  climates.  At  Stormontfield,  where  the 
eggs  have  no  shelter,  the  usual  period  is  about  135 
days  ;  but  salmon  ova  have  been  known  to  burst  in 
about  half  that  period,  and  to  yield  very  healthy 
fish.  Great  care  is  of  course  necessary  in  handling 
the  ova.  The  eggs  manipulated  at  Huningue  are 
all  carefully  examined  on  their  arrival,  when  the 
bad  ones  are  thrown  out,  and  those  that  are  good 
are  counted  and  entered  in  a  record  The  ova  are 
watched  with  great  care,  and  from  day  to  day  all 
that  become  addled  are  removed.  The  applications 
for  eggs,  both  from  individuals  and  associations,  are 
always  a  great  deal  more  numerous  than  can  be 
supplied;  and  before   second  applications    -aa  be 


PISCICULTURE. 


entertained,  it  is  necessary  for  the  parties  to  give  a  the  cost  of  pisciculture  at  Huningue,  that  the  most 
detailed  account  of  how  their  former  efforts  sue-  I  expensive  fish  is  the  ombre  chevalier.  Of  some 
seeded.     It  may  be  interesting  to  note,  as  regards  I  species,  as  many  as  sixty  or  seventy  per  cent,  of  the 


Reoeption-hall  for  Fish-eggs  at  Huningue. 


eggs  are  lost.  The  general  calculation,  however,  is 
twelve  living  fish  for  a  penny. 

The  total  number  of  all  kinds  of  fishes  distrib- 
uted from  Huningue,  during  the  first  ten  years 
was  upwards  of  110  millions !     See  Huningue. 

A  very  successful  effort  in  pisciculture  has  been 
carried  out  in  counection  with  the  salmon-fisheries 
of  the  river  Tay.  At  Stormontfield,  near  Perth,  a 
Beries  of  ponds  have  been  constructed,  and  a  range 
of  breeding-boxes  laid  down  capable  of  receiving 
300,000  eggs  ;  and  in  a  large  addition  to  their  rental, 
the  proprietors  of  the  Tay  fisheries  are  reaping  the 
reward  of  their  enterprise.  The  operations  at 
Stormontfield  were  begun  in  1853,  and  from  the 
end  of  November  till  the  end  of  December,  300,000 
ova  were  deposited,  and  these  coming  to  life  in 
April  1854,  remained  in  the  boxes  and  ponds  one 
half  for  one  year,  and  the  other  moiety  for  two 
years  before  they  assumed  the  scales  of  the  smolt, 
and  were  seized  with  the  migratory  instinct.  See 
Salmon.  Every  two  years  since  the  completion 
of  the  ponds,  a  brood  has  been  obtained,  and 
upwards  of  one  million  of  salmon  have  by  means  of 
these  ponds  been  added  to  the  fish-stock  of  the 
river  Tay,  so  as  considerably  to  enhance  the  value 
of  the  fisheries.  Another  pond  (there  was  only 
one  originally)  has  now  been  added  to  the  suite, 
for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  second-year  parrs, 
eo  that  a  brood  of  300,000  will  now  be  obtained 
annually.  At  several  other  places  in  Scotland,  the 
artificial  system  is  being  introduced  as  an  adjunct 
to  the  natural  breeding  resource*  of  different  rivers. 


The  art  of  pisciculture  has  also  been  introduced  into 
Ireland,  at  the  fisheries  of  Loughs  Mask  and  Carra, 
by  the  Messrs  Ashworth,  who  have  obtained  excel- 
lent  practical  results  from  their  enteqmse.  These 
lochs  contain  an  area  of  water  equal  to  thirty-five 
acres ;  and  a  communication  with  the  sea  having 
been  opened,  they  now  teem  with  salmon  ;  and  the 
proprietors  are  confident  that  it  is  as  easy  and  as 
profitable  to  ctiltivate  salmon  as  sheep.  The  latest 
experiment  in  fish-culture  with  the  salmon  consists 
in  the  introduction  of  that  fish  into  Australia  and 
Tasmania.  Impregnated  eggs  carefully  packed  in 
ice  were  sent  out  in  a  fast-sailing  ship,  and  Mrere  at 
once  transferred  to  a  suitable  river,  where  (1864) 
they  burst  into  life,  with  every  prospect  of  becoming 
naturalised  in  that  vast  continent. 

A  series  of  piscicultural  experiments  have  been 
very  successfully  carried  on  in  the  upper  waters  of 
the  Thames,  and  the  salmon  has  been  bred  along 
with  various  other  fishes,  upwards  of  120,000  fishes 
having  been  added  to  the  stock  of  the  river;  but  the 
success  of  this  experiment  yet  remains  to  be  deter- 
mined, as  it  is  not  certain  whether  the  salmon  will  be 
able  to  penetrate  to  the  sea,  in  consequence  of  the 
lower  Thames  being  used  as  the  sewer  of  London. 

This  branch  of  pisciculture  has  begun  to  be 
prosecuted  to  some  extent  in  several  countries  of 
Europe,  and  has  been  deemed  of  sufficient  import- 
ance to  demand  the  attention  of  governments.  It 
is  probable  that  the  attention  turned  to  the  whole 
subject  of  pisciculture,  and  the  example  of  the 
transportation  of  salmon  to  Australia,  may  lead  to 


PISCINA— PISTIL. 


Piscina,  "Warmington. 


the  introduction  of  valuable  kinds  of  fishes  into 
waters  where  they  are  now  unknown.  The  grayling 
has  thus  already  been  introduced  into  the  Clyde 
and  Tweed.  There  is  no  apparent  reason  why  every 
valuable  fresh-water  fish  of  Europe  should  not  be 
plentiful  in  Britain. 

The  French  government  are  row  extending  the 
system  of  artificial  culture  to  some  kinds  of  sea-fish 
and  to  many  of  the  larger  crustaceans.  See 
Oyster.  At  Comacchio  (q.  v.),  on  the  Adriatic,  a 
curious  industry  is  carried  on  in  the  cultivation  of 
eels  ;  and  in  the  Bay  of  Aiguillon,  there  is  an  ancient 
mussel-farm  in  which  large  quantities  of  that  shell- 
fish are  annually  grown  from  the  seed,  and  turned  to 
very  profitable  account. 
There  is  no  practical 
difficulty,  it  is  said,  in 
rendering  an  acre  of 
water  as  productive  as 
an  acre  of  land. 

PISCI'NA,  the  large 
basin  (or  pond)  in  the 
Roman  thermae,  contain- 
ing tepid  water,  in  which 
the  bather  might  swim. 

PISCINA,  a  shallow 
stone  basin  with  a  drain 
(usually  leading  directly 
to  the  earth),  in  Roman 
Catholic  churches,  in 
which  the  priest  washes 
his  hands,  and  for  rins- 
ing the  chalice  at  the 
celebration  of  the  mass. 
In  England,  it  is  almost 
invariably  jilaced  on  the 
south  side  of  the  choir,  at  a  convenient  height. 

PI'SE,  a  kind  of  work  used  instead  of  brick,  &c, 
for  the  walls  of  cottages.  It  consists  of  loam  or 
earth  hard  rammed  into  framing,  which,  when  dry, 
forms  a  walL 

PI'SEK  (Boh.  Piscek,  sand),  a  small  town  of 
Bohemia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Wottawa,  an 
affluent  of  the  Moldau,  stands  on  a  sandy  plain 
(from  which  circumstance  it  probably  received  its 
name)  55  miles  south-south-west  of  Prague.  The 
town  is  old,  and  contains  the  remains  of  a  royal 
castle.  Among  other  institutions  are  a  school  of 
arts  and  a  high  school.  The  manufactures  are 
woollen  and  cotton  fabrics,  iron  wire,  and  musical 
instruments.  Pop.  8178. 
PISHAMIN.  See  Date  Plum. 
PI'SOLITE  (Gr.  pea-stone),  a  concretionary  lime- 
stone, differing  from  oolite  in  the  particles  being  as 
large  as  pease. 

PISTA'CIA,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Anacardiacea?,  having  dioecious  flowers  without 
petals,  and  a  dry  drupe  with  a  bony  stone. — The 
Pistacta  or  Pistachio  Tree  (P.  vera)  is  a  small 
tree  of  about  20  feet  high,  a  native  of  Persia  and 
Syria,  but  now  cultivated  in  all  parts  of  the  south 
of  Europe  and  North  of  Africa,  and  in  many  places 
naturalised.  It  has  pinnate  leaves,  with  about  two 
pair  of  ovate  leaflets,  and  an  odd  one  ;  flowers  in 
racemes  ;  fruit  ovate,  and  about  the  size  of  an  olive. 
The  stone  or  nut  splits  into  two  valves  when  ripe  ; 
the  kernel,  which  is  of  a  bright  green  colour,  is  very 
oleaginous,  of  a  delicate  flavour,  and  in  its  properties 
very  much  resembles  the  sweet  almond.  In  the 
south  of  Europe  and  in  the  East,  Pistachio  nuts  are 
much  esteemed;  but  as  they  very  readily  become 
rancid,  they  are  little  exported  to  other  countries. 
They  are  sometimes  ealled  Green  Almonds.  Oil 
is  expressed  from  them  for  culinary  and  other 
uses.  In  cultivation,  one  male  tree  is  allowed  to 
660 


five  or  six  fertile  ones.  The  tree  produces  flower* 
and  even  fruit  readily  enough  in  the  south  of 
England,  but  the  summers  are  not  warm  enough  to 
ripen  the  fruit,  and  the  tree  is  apt  to  be  destroyed 
by  a  severe  frost. -^The  Mastic  Tree,  or  Lentisk 
(P.  lentiscus),  yields  the  gum-resin  called  Mastic 
(q.  v.).  It  is  a  native  of  the  countries  around  the 
Mediterranean. — The  Turpentine  Tree  {P.  terebin* 
thus)  yields  the  Turpentine  (q.  v.)  known  in  com- 
merce as  Cyprus  Turpentine,  Chian  Turpentine,  or 
Scio  Turpentine,  which  is  of  a  consistency  some- 
what like  that  of  honey,  a  greenish-yellow  colour, 
an  agreeable  odour,  and  a  mild  taste,  and  in  its 
properties  resembles  the  turpeutine  of  the  Coniferae, 
but  is  free  from  acridity.  It  is  obtained  by  making 
incisions  in  the  trees,  and  placing  stones  for  the 
turpentine  to  flow  upon,  from  which  it  is  scraped 
in  the  morning,  before  it  is  liquefied  again  by  the 
heat  of  the  sun.  The  tree  is  about  30  or  35  feet  in 
height ;  and  has  pinnate  leaves,  of  about  three  pair 
of  leaflets  and  an  odd  one  ;  the  flowers  in  compound 
racemes,  the  fruit  nearly  globular.  The  kernel  of 
the  fruit  is  oleaginous  and  pleasant. — The  Batoum 
Tree  (P.  Atlantica),  a  round-headed  tree  of  about 
40  feet  in  height,  a  native  of  the  north  of  Africa, 
produces  a  fruit  much  used  by  the  Arabs;  and  a 
gum-resin  of  pleasant  aromatic  smell  and  agreeable 
taste,  which  exudes  from  its  stem  and  branches,  is 
chewed  to  clean  the  teeth  and  impart  a  pleasant  smell 
to  the  breath. — The  fragrant  oil  of  the  kernels  of  P. 
oleosa,  a  native  of  Cochin  China,  is  used  by  the  people 
of  that  country  to  impart  a  perfume  to  ointments. 

PI'STIL,  in  Botany,  the  female  organ  of  fructifi- 
cation in  phanerogamous  plants  ;  that  part  of  the 
Flower  (q.  v.)  which,  after  flowering  is  over,  is 
developed  into  the  fruit.  There  is  sometimes  one 
pistil  in  a  flower,  sometimes  more  ;  in  some  flowers, 
which  have  numerous  pistils,  they  form  a  number 
of  whorls,  one  within  another,  sometimes  on  an 
elevated  receptacle  or  elongated  axis,  or,  more  rarely, 
they  are  spirally  arranged.  In  every  case,  the 
centre  of  the  flower  is  occupied  by  the  pistil  or 
pistils,  if  present.  See  Flower.  A  pistil  is  either 
formed  of  a  single  Carpel  (q.  v.),  as  is  the  case 
when  there  are  numerous  pistils,  or  of  several 
carpels  combined ;  and  the  number  of  carpels  of 
which  the  pistil  is  formed  is  often  indicated  by  the 
number  of  the  cells  of  the  germen,  or  by  its  lobes 
or  angles.  The  pistil  usually  consists  of  a  Germen 
(q.  v.)  or  ovary,  in  which  the  Ovules  (q.  v.)  are 
contained,  and  which  is  surmounted  by  a  stigma, 
either  immediately  or  through  the  intervention  of 
a  style;  but  in  Gymnogens  (q.  v.),  there  is  neither 
germen,  style,  nor  stigma,  the  female  organs  of 
fructification  being  mere  naked  ovules.  The 
germen  is  always  the  lowest  part  of  the  pistil.  The 
stigma  exhibits  an  endless  variety  of  forms,  and 
is  adapted  to  the  reception  and  retention  of  the 
pollen  grains  requisite  for  fecundation,  partly  by 
the  roughness  of  its  surface — which  is  of  a  some- 
what lax  cellular  tissue,  covered  with  projecting 
cells,  often  in  the  form  of  minute  warts,  and 
often  elongated  into  hairs — and  partly  by  the 
secretion  of  a  viscous  fluid.  The  stigma  when  not 
sessile — or  seated  immediately  on  the  germen- -is 
supported  by  the  style,  which  rises  from  the  germ°n, 
and  on  the  top  of  which  the  stigma  is  generally 
placed.  The  style  is  sometimes  very  long  and 
slender,  sometimes  very  short ;  the  germen  some- 
times passes  imperceptibly  into  the  style,  and  some- 
times the  style  rises  from  it  abruptly  ;  and  similar 
differences  appear  in  the  relations  of  the  style  and 
stigma;  the  stigma,  however,  may  be  regarded  as 
always  an  expansion  of  the  top  of  the  style,  although 
it  is  sometimes,  but  rarely,  situated  on  one  or  both 
sides  of  the  style,  beneath  its  summit,     lu  like 


PISTILUDIUM-PISTOLE. 


manner,  by  peculiar  modifications  taking  place  in 
the  growth  of  the  germen,  the  style  sometimes 
seems  to  arise  from  beneath  its  apex,  or  even  from 


Pistils : 

1,  8ectlon  of  flower  of  a  species  df  Primrose,  shewing  the  pistil 
laid  open;  numerous  ovules  attached  to  a  free  central  pla- 
centa. 2,  Section  of  flower  of  Comfrey,  with  corolla  lemoved, 
shewing  two  of  the  four  ovaries,  and  the  st>le.  3,  Pistil  of 
the  Barherry,  consisting  of  several  carpels  combined  ;  the 
style  very  short  and  thick,  the  stigma  shield-like.  4,  Section 
of  the  ovary  of  a  lily.  5,  Section  of  fliwer  of  Cherry,  shew- 
ing pistil  uf  two  separate  carpels,  only  one  of  which  dimes  to 
perfection  in  fruit.  6,  Pistil  of  I'ta,  onened;  a,  ovule;  A, 
placenta  ;  /,  umbilical  cord. — From  Balfour's  Class-buok  of 
Botany. 

its  base  ;  but  it  always  rises  from  what  is,  structur- 
ally considered,  the  real  apex  of  the  germen.  When 
several  carpels  are  united  to  form  one  germen,  they 
are  sometimes  again  separated  in  their  styles,  and 
more  frequently  in  their  stigmas,  so  that  one 
germen  bears  several  styles,  or  the  style  divides  at 
some  point  above  the  germen,  or  one  style  is 
crowned  by  a  number  of  stigmas.  The  style  is 
usually  cylindrical ;  and  when  this  is  not  the  case, 
it  is  often  owing  to  the  combination  of  several 
styles  into  one,  although  sometimes  the  style  is  flat 
and  even  petal-  like.  It  is  traversed  throughout  its 
whole  length  by  a  canal,  which,  however,  is  in 
general  partly  filled  up  by  cells  projecting  from  its 
sides,  and  often  also  by  very  slender  tubes  extend- 
ing in  the  direction  of  its  length ;  the  function  of 
the  canal,  to  which  in  some  way  or  other  the 
enclosed  slender  tubes  are  subservient,  being  to 
bring  about  the  connection  between  the  pollen  and 
the  ovules  for  Fecundation  (q.  v.).  The  length 
of  the  style  is  adapted  to  the  ready  fecundation  of 
the  ovules,  being  such  that  the  pollen  may  most 
easily  reach  the  stigma ;  and  in  erect  flowers,  the 
styles  are  usually  shorter  than  the  stamens  ;  in 
drooping  flowers,  they  are  longer  than  the  stamens. 
After  flowering  is  over,  when  fecundation  has  taken 
place,  the  foramen  of  the  ovules  closes,  the  germen 
enlarges  and  ripens  into  the  fruit,  whilst  each  ovule 
is  developed  into  a  seed.  The  style  and  stigma 
meanwhile  either  fall  off,  or  remain  and  dry  up,  or 
they  increase  in  size,  and  are  changed  into  various 
kinds  of  appendages  of  the  fruit,  as  feathery  awns, 
beaks,  &c. 

PISTILLI'DIUM,  in  Botany,  a  term  which, 
along  with  Antheridlum  (q.  v.),  must  be  regarded  as 
provisional,  and  as  expressive  of  an  opinion,  prob- 
able, but  not  yet  ascertained  to  be  true.  The 
evidence  in  favour  of  it,  however,  seems  continually 
to  increase,  and  its  great  probability  is  more  and 
3*8 


more  generally  acknowledged.  The  pistillidium  is 
an  organ  of  cryptogamoua  plants,  supposed  to 
perform  functions  in  fructification  analogous  to 
those  of  the  pi. .til  in  phanerogamous  plants.  It 
consists  of  a  germen-like  body — the  sporangium, 
theca,  or  upore-cuse — hollow,  and  containing  Spores 
(q.  v.),  by  which  the  species  is  propagated.  These 
spore-cases  are  very  various  in  their  forms  and  in 
the  situations  which  they  occupy  in  different  orders 
and  genera ;  being  sometimes  immersed  in  the 
substance  of  the  plant,  sometimes  distinct  frcm  it, 
sometimes  sessile,  sometimes  stalked,  &c.  .See  tlv» 
articles  on  the  different  cryptogamous  orders. 

PISTO'JA  (anc.  Pistorium),  a  manufacturing 
town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Florence,  and  21 
miles  by  railway  north-west  of  the  city  of  that 
name,  stands  on  a  gentle  rising  ground  at  the  foot 
of  the  Apennines.  It  is  well  built ;  its  streets  are 
thoroughly  Tuscan,  and  it  is  surrounded  by  lofty 
and  well-preserved  walls.  The  chief  buildings  are 
the  cathedral,  built  at  various  times,  and  containing  a 
number  of  good  pictures;  several  old  and  interesting 
palaces,  and  a  number  of  churches,  some  of  which 
are  of  importance  in  the  history  of  medieval  architec- 
ture and  sculpture.  The  principal  manufactures  are 
iron  and  steel  wares,  and  paper.    Pop.  about  12,000. 

PISTOL  is  the  smallest  description  of  fire-arm,  and 
is  intended  to  be  used  with  one  hand  only.  Pistols 
vary  in  size  from  the  delicate  saloon-pistol,  often 


Ancient  Pistols : 

1,  Long  Wheel-lock  Pistol ;  2,  Pocket  '  Wheel-lock  Dag'— temp, 

Elizabeth. — rrom  Fairholt's  Costume  in  Englaud. 

not  six  inches  long,  to  the  horse-pistol,  which  may 
measure  18  inches,  and  sometimes  even  two  feet. 
They  are  carried  in  holsters  at  the  saddle-bow,  in 
the  belt,  or  in  the  pocket.     Every  cavalry  soldier 


Modern  Pistol. 


should  have  pistols,  for  a  fire-arm  is  often  of  great 
service  for  personal  defence,  and  almost  indispen- 
sable in  giving  an  alarm  or  signal.  Sailors,  when 
boarding  an  enemy's  ship,  carry  each  two  in  their 
waistbelts. 

As  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  the  Eng- 
lish cavalry  carried  clumsy  pistols  called  'dags.' 
The  latest  improvement  on  the  pistol  is  the 
Revolver  (q.  v.). 

PISTO'LE,  the  name  given  to  certain  geld 
coins  current  in  Spain,  Italy,  and  several  parts  of 
Germany.  The  pistole  was  first  used  in  Spain, 
and  was  originally  equivalent  to  about  11  old 
French  livres,  but  till  172S  it  was  merely  an 
irregular  piece  of  gold.  From  this  time  till  1772,  its 
value  was  17s.  Id.  sterling ;  but  it  was  after  this 
date  decreased  till  it  reached  its  present  value  of 
80  reals,  or  16s.  2d.  sterling.  Gold  coins  of  4,  2, 
4,  and  \  pistoles  are  at  the  present  day  current  in 
Spain.  The  Italian  pistoles  are  also  gold  coins,  and 
vary   considerably    in    value :     that    of    Rome  => 

661 


PISUM  -PITCH. 


13s.  9d. ;  of  Venice  =  16».  2^1. ;  of  Florence  and 
Parma  =  16*.  \0\d.  ;  and  the  old  coin  of  Piedmont  = 
£1,  2s.  I'^d.,  or  24  old  liras.  These  will,  however, 
in  all  probability,  be  soon  superseded  by  the  new 

fistole  of  2D  liras,  or  francs,  which  is  equivalent  to 
6s.  sterling.  Gold  coins  of  this  name  are  cur- 
rent in  Hesse-Cassel,  Switzerland,  P^Dswick,  and 
Hamburg,  but  are  in  most  cases  merely  convenient 
multiples  of  the  ordinary  thaler  and  gulden. 

PI  SUM.     See  Pea. 

PIT,  in  Gardening,  is  an  excavation  in  the 
ground,  intended  to  be  covered  by  a  Frame  (q.  v.), 
and  to  afford  protection  to  tender  plants  in  winter, 
or  for  the  forcing  of  vegetables,  fruits,  &c.  Pits  are 
often  walled  on  all  sides,  although,  in  many  cottage 
gardens,  excellent  use  is  made  of  pits  which  are 
mere  excavations.  The  walls  are  often  raised  above 
the  ground,  particularly  the  back  wall,  the  more 
readily  to  give  slope  to  the  glazed  frame.  A  pit  in 
which  no  artificial  heat  is  supplied,  is  called  a  cold 
pit ;  but  when  forcing  is  intended,  fined  pits  are 
often  used.  Artificial  heat  is  sometimes  also  given 
by  means  of  fermenting  matter.  The  ventilation  of 
pits,  as  much  as  the  wreather  will  permit,  is  of  the 
greatest  importance. 

PI'TA-HEMP,  one  of  the  names  of  the  Agave  or 
Aloe  fibre.     See  Agave. 

PIT'AKA  (literally,  'basket')  is,  with  the 
Buddhists,  a  term  denoting  a  division  of  their 
sacred  literature,  and  occurs  especially  in  combina- 
tion wdth  tri,  'three;'  tripit'aka  meaning  the  three 
great  divisions  of  their  canonical  works,  the  Vinaya 
(discipline),  Abhidharma  (metaphysics),  and  Siltra 
(aphorisms  in  prose),  and  collectively,  therefore,  the 
■whole  Buddhistic  code.  The  term  '  basket '  was 
applied  to  these  divisions,  because  the  palm-leaves 
on  which  these  works  were  written  were  kept  in 
baskets,  which  thus  became  a  part  of  the  profes- 
sional utensils  of  a  Bhikshu,  or  religious  mendicant. 

PITCAI'RN  ISLAND,  a  solitary  island  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  lying  at  the  south-eastern  corner  of 
the  great  Polynesian  Archipelago,  in  lat.  25°  3'  6"  S., 
and  long.  130°  6'  W.  Its  length  (2 \  miles)  is  about 
twice  its  breadth,  and  the  total  content  is  approxi- 
mately 1^  square  miles;  so  that,  except  from  its 
being  the  only  station  (with  the  exception  of  the 
Gambier  Islands)  between  the  South  American 
coast  and  Otaheite  at  which  fresh  water  can  be 
procured,  it  would  be  too  insignificant  to  deserve 
notice,  were  it  not  for  the  manner  in  which  it  was 
-  colonised.  The  island  is  wholly  surrounded  by  rocks ; 
it  has  no  harbour,  and  its  soil  is  not  very  fertile. 
It  was  occupied  in  1790  by  the  mutineers  of  the 
Bounty  (see  Bligh,  William),  who,  after  touching  at 
Toobonai,  sailed  for  Tahiti,  where  they  remained  for 
some  time.  Christian,  the  leader  of  the  mutineers, 
however,  fearing  pursuit,  hastened  their  departure ; 
and  after  leaving  a  number  of  their  comrades  who 
preferred  to  stay  on  the  island,  they  brought  off 
with  them  18  natives,  and  sailed  eastward,  reaching 
P.  I.,  where  they  took  up  their  residence,  and 
burned  the  Bounty.  They  numbered  then  9  British 
sailors — for  16  of  the  sailors  had  preferred  to  remain 
at  Tahiti,  and  of  these,  14  were  subsequently 
captured,  and  (September  1792)  three  of  them 
executed — and  6  Tahitian  men,  with  12  women.  It 
was  impossible  for  concord  to  subsist  in  a  band 
of  such  desperate  character;  and,  in  the  course  of 
the  next  ten  years,  all  the  Tahitian  men,  all  the 
sailors,  with  the  exception  of  Alexander  Smith 
(who  subsequently  changed  his  name  to  John 
Adams),  and  several  of  the  women,  had  died  by 
violence  or  disease.  From  the  time  of  their  leaving 
Tahiti,  nothing  had  been  heard  of  them,  and  their 
fate  was  only  known  when  an  American,  Captain 
662 


Folger,  touched  at  P.  I.  in  1808,  and  on  his  return, 
reported  his  discovery  to  the  British  government; 
but  no  steps  appear  to  have  been  taken  by  the 
latter.  On  September  17,  1814,  a  British  vessel, 
the  Britain,  called  at  the  island,  and  found  old 
Adams  still  alive,  commanding  the  respect  and 
admiration  of  the  whole  little  colony,  by  his 
exemplary  conduct  and  fatherly  care  o^  them. 
Solitude  had  wrought  a  powerful  change  in  Adams; 
and  his  endeavours  to  instil  into  the  young  minds 
of  his  old  companions'  descendants  a  correct 
sense  of  religion,  had  been  crowned  with  complete 
success,  for  a  more  virtuous,  amiable,  and  religious 
community  than  these  islanders,  had  never  been 
seen.  They  were  visited  by  British  vessels  in  1825 
and  1S30,  and  the  reports  transmitted  concerning 
them  were  fully  corroborative  of  the  previous 
accounts ;  but,  in  1831,  their  numbers  (87)  had 
become  too  great  for  the  island,  and  at  their 
own  request,  they  were  transported  to  Tahiti,  in 
the  Lucy  Ann,  by  the  British  government.  But, 
disgusted  at  the  immorality  of  their  Tahitian 
friends  and  relatives,  they  chartered  a  vessel, 
defraying  the  cost  of  it  in  great  part  with  the 
copper  bolts  of  the  Bounty,  and  most  of  them 
returned  to  P.  I.  at  the  end  of  nine  months.  In 
1839,  being  visited  by  Captain  Elliot  of  H.M.S. 
Fly,  they  besought  to  be  taken  under  the  protection 
of  Britain,  on  account  of  the  annoyances  to  which 
they  had  been  subjected  by  the  lawless  crews  of 
some  whale-ships  which  had  called  at  the  island; 
and,  accordingly,  Captain  Elliot  took  possession  of 
it  in  the  name  of  Her  Majesty,  gave  them  a  Union 
Jack,  and  recognised  their  self-elected  magistrate  as 
the  responsible  governor.  He  also  drew  up  for 
them  a  code  of  laws,  some  of  which  are  amusing 
from  the  subjects  of  which  they  treat,  but  the  code 
was  of  great  use  to  the  simple  islanders.  From 
this  time,  they  were  frequently  visited  by  European 
ships ;  and,  in  1855,  finding  their  numbers  again  too 
great  for  the  island,  they  petitioned  government  to 
grant  them  the  much  more  productive  Norfolk 
Island,  to  which  they  were  accordingly  removed  in 
1856.  In  1859,  however,  two  families,  numbering 
in  all  17,  returned  to  P.  I.,  reducing  the  number  of 
those  left  on  Norfolk  Island  to  202.  From  their 
frequent  intercourse  with  Europeans,  the  Pitcairn 
Islanders  have,  while  still  retaining  their  virtuous 
simplicity  of  character  and  cheerful  hospitable 
disposition,  acquired  the  manners  and  polish  of 
civdised  life,  with  its  education  and  taste.  They  are 
passionately  fond  of  music  and  dancing,  the  latter 
evidently  a  legacy  from  their  maternal  ancestry. 
The  men  are  engaged  in  whaling  and  herding  cattle, 
or  in  cultivating  their  gardens  and  plantations ;  whUe 
the  women  (who  seem  to  be  the  more  industrious 
class)  attend  to  their  families,  manage  the  dairies, 
and  take  an  occasional  part  in  field-labour. 

P.  I.  was  first  discovered  by  Carteret  in  1767,  and 
was  named  by  him  after  one  of  his  officers;  but  it 
was  never  visited  by  Europeans  till  taken  possession 
of  by  the  mutineers,  though  the  latter  found  satis- 
factory indications  of  its  having  previously  been 
occupied  for  a  considerable  period  by  savages, 
probably  from  the  neighbouring  islands. 

PITCH.  The  common  kind  of  pitch  is  the  black 
residue  which  remains  after  distdling  wood-tar. 
See  Tar.  It  is  made  extensively  in  Russia,  Nor- 
way, and  North  America.  It  is  a  most  useful 
material  for  protecting  wood  from  the  action  of 
water,  hence  it  is  used  for  calking  the  seams,  and 
coating  the  outsides  of  ships  and  boats ;  it  is  also 
applied  to  the  inside  cf  water-casks,  and  many 
similar  uses.  A  variety  of  pitch?  is  now  obtained 
from  the  distillation  of  coal-tar,  and  another  from 
bone-tar:  the  latter  is  said  to  be  nearly  equal  in 


PITCH— PITR'L 


value  to  that  from  wood,  but  coal-pitch  wants  the 
toughness  which  is  one  of  tlie  more  valuable  quali- 
ties of  wood-pitch.  It  is,  however,  much  used  in 
making  artificial  asphalt  for  building  and  paving 
purposes ;  and  for  the  blaok  varnish  used  for 
ooating  iron-work  to  keep  it  from  rusting.  Pitch  is 
solid  iit  the  ordinary  temperature  of  our  climate,  but 
softens  and  melts  with  a  small  accession  of  heat, 

PITCH,  Burg  Cindy.    See  Burgundy  Pitch. 

PITCH,  the  degree  of  acuteness  of  musical 
sounds.  A  musical  sound  is  produced  by  a  series 
of  vibrations  recurring  on  the  ear  at  precisely 
equal  intervals ;  the  greater  the  number  of  vibra- 
tions in  a  given  time,  the  more  acute  or  higher 
is  the  pitch.  In  stringed  instruments,  the  pitch 
is  dependent  on  the  length,  the  thickness,  and 
the  degree  of  tension  of  the  strings  ;  the  shorter 
and  thinner  a  string  is,  and  the  greater  its  tension, 
the  higher  is  the  pitch  of  the  note.  In  wind 
instruments,  where  the  notes  are  produced  by  the 
vibration  of  a  column  of  air,  as  in  the  mouth-pipes 
of  an  organ,  the  pitch  is  dependent  on  the  length  of 
the  column  set  in  motion  ;  the  shorter  the  column 
of  air,  the  higher  the  pitch  becomes. 

The  pitch  of  musical  instruments  is  adjusted  by 
means  of  a  tuning-fork,  consisting  of  two  prongs 
springing  out  of  a  handle,  so  adjusted  as  to  length 
that,  when  struck,  a  particular  note  is  produced,  that 


note  being  C 


in  Britain,  and  A  f4r— < 


in  Germany.  It  is  obviously  important  to  have  a 
recognised  standard  of  pitch,  by  which  instruments 
and  voices  are  to  be  regulated :  but  there  is,  unfor- 
tunately, not  the  uniformity  that  might  be  desired 
in  the  pitch  in  actual  use.  For  a  long  time  prior  to 
1859,  concert-pitch  had  been  gradually  rising,  to 
the  detriment  of  the  voices  of  public  singers.  The 
C  tuning-fork,  in  use  in  1699,  made  4S9  vibrations 

Eer  second,  while  in  1S59,  the  number  of  vibrations 
ad  increased  to  538.  Mr  Hullah,  in  1S42,  in  the 
numerous  classes  instituted  by  him  under  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  Committee  of  Council  on  Education,  found 
it  necessary  to  secure  a  uniform  standard  of  pitch, 
and  adopted  512,  which  has  an  especial  convenience 
as  being  a  power  of  2.  The  French  Imperial 
government,  in  1S58,  fixed  on  522.  In  1859,  a 
Committee  of  the  Society  of  Arts  was  appointed  to 
consider  the  subject  of  a  uniform  musical  pitch. 
Their  deliberations  lasted  12  months.  Sir  John 
Herschel,  in  a  letter  to  the  Committee,  strongly- 
recommended  the  number  512.  It  was  agreed  on 
all  hands  that  the  then  existing  opera-pitch  of  546 
was  too  high  and  painful  to  the  singers  of  soprano 
music.  The  instrumental  performers  stated  that 
they  could  lower  the  pitch  to  528,  but  if  they  had 
to  lower  it  to  512,  some  of  them  would  have  to 
purchase  new  instruments ;  and,  in  consequence 
apparently  of  their  representation,  the  Committee 
reported  in  favour  of  528. 

PITCHBLENDE,  a  mineral  which  is  essentially 
Oxide  of  Urauium  (q.  v.),  with  slight  mixtures  of 
othfr  substances.  Its  colour  is  grayish-black  or 
brownish-black.  It  is  infusible  before  the  blowpipe, 
without  the  addition  of  borax,  with  which  it  fuses 
into  a  dull  yellow  glass. 

PITCHER  PLANT.    See  Nepenthes. 

PITCHSTONE,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  a 
variety  of  common  Opal  (q.  v.),  brown,  black,  gray, 
red,  or  of  mixed  colours ;  the  lustre  more  resinous 
than  in  opal,  and  the  fracture  less  perfectly  con- 
choidaL  It  occurs  in  several  localities  in  the 
British  Inlands,  in  Saxony,  &c. — The  same  name  is 
(given  to  another  mineral  (Ger.  Pechstein),  a  variety 


of  Felspar  (q.  v.),  occurring  as  a  rock  in  dikes  which 
traverse  strata  or  in  overlying  masses;  compact, 
slaty,  or  ill   concentric   slaty  concretions.      It  exhibits 

great  variety  of  colour,  and  has  a  - iwhal  resinous 

appearance.  It  often  contains  numerous  imbedded 
crystals  of  felspar,  and  is  then  called  P.porphyry. 

PTTCHURIM  BEANS,  or  SASSAFRAS  NUTS, 
an  occasional  article  of  importation  from  South 
America,  are  the  seed-lobes  of  Nectandra  PucJmry, 
a  tree  of  the  same  genus  with  the  Greenheart  (q.  v.), 
growing  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Negro  and  else- 
where in  the  rich  alluvial  parts  of  the  basin  of  the 
Amazon.  They  are  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long, 
and  half  an  inch  broad.  They  are  much  in  request 
among  chocolate  manufacturers  for  flavouring 
chocolate,  as  a  substitute  for  vanilla.  They  are 
sometimes  called  Wild  Nutmegs,  because  of  a 
resemblance  to  nutmeg  in  flavour.  The  name 
Sassafras  Nuts  is  also  due  to  the  flavour,  which 
approaches  that  of  Sassafras  bark ;  and  the  tree 
belongs  to  the  same  natural  order  with  the  Sassa- 
fras tree. 

PITH  (Medulla),  the  light  cellular  substance 
which  occupies  the  centre  of  the  stem  and  branches 
in  Exogenous  Plants  (q.  v.).  In  the  earliest  stage  of 
a  young  stein  or  branch,  it  is  entirely  composed  of 
pith  and  bark,  by  which  alone,  therefore,  young 
buds  are  nourished  ;  the  vascular  bundles  or  woody 
fibre  appearing  afterwards,  and  in  trees  and  shrubs, 
generally  increasing,  so  as  to  constitute  the  greater 
part  of  the  substance  of  the  stem  and  branches, 
whilst  the  pith  is  ultimately  reduced  to  a  very 
small  column  in  the  centre.  The  pith,  however, 
exists  even  in  the  most  mature  woody  stem,  and 
maintains  its  connection  with  the  bark  by  means 
of  Medullary  Rays,  analogous  in  their  character  to 
the  pith  itself,  and  which  exist  even  in  the  most 
compact  wood,  although  much  compressed  by  the 
woody  layers,  and  in  a  transverse  section  appearing 
as  mere  lines.  The  medullary  rays  convey  to  the 
central  parts  of  the  stem  the  secretions  of  the  bark 
necessary  for  their  nourishment.  P.  is  in  general 
entirely  composed  of  cellular  tissue  ;  vessels  occur- 
ring in  it  only  in  a  few  plants.  Its  cells  diminish  in 
size  from  the  centre  towards  the  circumference.  Jn 
a  few  plants,  it  exhibits  cavities  which  have  a 
regular  arrangement ;  in  many  herbaceous  plants  of 
rank  growth,  large  irregular  cavities  occur  in  it. 
The  pith  is  immediately  surrounded  by  a  thin 
vascular  layer  called  the  Medullary  Sheath,  consist- 
big  chiefly  of  spiral  vessels,  which  continue  to 
exercise  their  functions  during  the  life  of  the  plant. 

PITHE'CIA.     See  Saki. 

PITHE'CUS.     See  Orang. 

PI  TON  BARK.     See  Caribbee  Bark. 

PI'TR'I  (a  Sanscrit  word  literally  meaning  father 
s=  Latin  pater,  in  the  plural  Pitaras,  but  in  Eng- 
lish translations  from  the  Sanscrit  usually  Angli- 
cised to  Pitr'is),  a  name  which,  in  a  general  sense, 
means  the  deceased  ancestors  of  a  man,  but  in  the 
special  sense  in  which  it  occurs  in  Hindu  mythology 
denotes  an  order  of  divine  beings  inhabiting  celes- 
tial regions  of  their  own,  and  receiving  into  their 
society  the  spirits  of  those  mortals  for  whom  the 
funeral  rites  (see  S'raddha)  have  been  duly  per- 
formed. They  include,  therefore,  collectively  the 
manes  of  the  deceased  ancestors  ;  but  the  principal 
members  of  this  order  are  beings  of  a  different 
nature  and  origin.  According  to  Mann,  they  were 
the  sons  of  Mai-ichi,  Atri,  Angiras,  and  the 
other  E/ishis  or  saints  produced  by  Maim,  the  son 
of  Brahma;  and  from  them  issued  the  gods,  demons, 
and  men.  According  to  several  Puranas  (q.  v.), 
however,  the  first  Pitr'is  were  the  sons  of  the  gods ; 
and  to  reconcile  this  discrepancy,  a  legend  relates 

663 


PITR'I— PITT. 


that  the  gods  having  offended  Brahma  by  neglecting 
to  worship  him,  were  cursed  by  him  to  become 
fo~ls ;  but  upon  their  repentance,  he  directed  them 
to  apply  to  their  sons  for  instruction.  Being  taught 
accordingly  the  rites  of  expiation  and  penance  by 
their  sons,  they  addressed  the  latter  as  fathers, 
whence  the  sons  cf  the  gods  were  the  first  Pitr'is 
(fathers).  See  Wilson's  Vinhn'  u-Purun'a.  Manu 
enumerates  various  classes  of  Pitr'is  in  defining  those 
who  were  the  ancestors  of  the  gods,  those  who  were 
the  ancestors  of  the  demons,  and  those  from  whom 
proceeded  the  four  castes  severally ;  but  he  adds, 
Ot  tl  3  same  time,  that  these  are  merely  the  prin- 
cipal classes,  as  their  sons  and  grandsons  indefinitely 
must  likewise  be  considered  as  Pitr'is.  The 
Puran'as  divide  them  generally  into  seven  classes, 
three  of  which  are  without  form,  or  composed  of 
intellectual,  not  elementary  substance,  and  assuming 
what  forms  they  please,  while  the  four  other  classes 
are  corporeal.  In  the  enumeration,  however,  of 
these  classes  the  Puran'as  differ.  The  Pitr'is  reside 
in  a  world  of  their  own,  called  Pitr'i-loka,  which  is 
sometimes  supposed  to  be  the  moon ;  according  to 
the  Puran'as,  it  is  below  the  paradise  of  Indra,  and 
is  also  the  abode  of  the  souls  of  devout  Brahmans. 
The  time  at  which  the  Pitr'is  are  to  be  worshipped, 
the  libations  which  they  are  to  receive,  the  benefit 
which  they  derive  from  them,  and  the  boons  which 
they  confer  on  the  worshipper,  are  all  minutely 
described  in  the  Puran'as.  See  S'raddha.  A  song 
of  the  Pitr'is,  as  given  by  the  Vishnu- Purdn'a,  may 
convey  an  idea  of  the  importance  attributed  to  this 
worship,  and  of  the  manner  in  which  the  Brahmans 
turned  it  to  their  profit.  It  runs  as  follows  :  '  That 
enlightened  individual  who  begrudges  not  his 
wealth,  but  presents  us  with  cakes,  shall  be  born  iu 
a  distinguished  family.  Prosperous  and  affluent 
shall  that  man  ever  be  who,  in  honour  of  us,  gives 
to  the  Brahmans,  if  he  is  wealthy,  jewels,  clothes, 
lands,  conveyances,  wealth,  or  any  valuable  presents; 
or  who,  with  faith  and  humility,  entertains  them 
with  food,  according  to  his  means,  at  proper 
seasons.  If  he  cannot  afford  to  give  them  dressed 
food,  he  must,  in  proportion  to  his  ability,  present 
them  with  unboiled  grain,  or  such  gifts,  however 
trifling,  as  he  can  bestow.  Should  he  be  iitterly 
unable  even  to  do  this,  he  must  give  to  some 
eminent  Brahman,  bowing  at  the  same  time  before 
him,  sesamum  seeds,  adhering  to  the  tips  of  his 
fingers,  and  sprinkle  water  to  us,  from  the  i>alms 
of  his  hands,  upon  the  ground  ;  or  he  must  gather, 
as  he  may,  fodder  for  a  day,  and  give  it  to  a  cow  ; 
by  which  he  will,  if  firm  in  faith,  yield  us  satisfac- 
tion. If  nothing  of  this  kind  is  practicable,  he 
must  go  to  a  forest,  and  lift  up  his  arms  to  the  sun 
and  other  regents  of  the  spheres,  and  say  aloud  :  "  I 
have  no  money,  nor  property,  nor  grain,  nor  any 
thing  whatever  tit  for  an  ancestral  offering ;  bowing 
therefore  to  my  ancestors,  I  hope  the  progenitors 
will  be  satisfied  with  these  arms  tossed  up  in  the 
air  in  devotion." '     See  Wilson's  Vishn'u- Purdn'a. 

PITT,  William,  the  second  son  of  the  Earl  of 
Chatham  and  of  Lady  Hester  Grenville,  daughter 
of  the  Countess  Temple,  was  born  on  the  28th  May 
1759.  His  genius  and  ambition  displayed  them- 
selves with  an  almost  unexampled  precocity.  '  The 
fineness  of  William's  mind,'  his  mother  writes  of 
him,  when  he  was  but  twelve  years  old,  'makes 
him  enjoy  with  the  greatest  pleasure  what  would 
be  above,  the  reach  of  any  other  creature  of  his 
email  age.'  Owing  to  the  excessive  delicacy  of  his 
constitution,  it  was  found  impossible  to  educate 
him  at  a  public  school.  His  studies  were,  however, 
prosecuted  at  home  with  vigour  and  success.  In 
1773,  he  was  Bent  to  the  university  of  Cambridge, 
where  his  knowledge  of  th°  classics  seems  to  have 
66* 


astonished  veteran  critics.  To  modern  literature, 
he  appears  to  have  been  utterly  indifferent — he 
knew  no  continental  language  except  French,  and 
that  very  imperfectly.  Among  English  poets,  he 
liked  Milfon  best ;  the  debate  in  Pandemonium 
being  his  favourite  passage.  In  1780,  P.  was 
called  to  the  bar.  He  took  chambers  in  Lincoln's 
Inn,  and  joined  the  western  circuit.  A  general 
election  having  taken  place  in  the  autumn  of  the 
same  year,  he  stood  for  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge;  but  he  was  at  the  bottom  of  the  polL 
Through  the  influence,  however,  of  the  Duke  of 
Rutland,  he  obtained  a  seat  in  parliament  as 
member  for  Appleby.  Lord  North  was  now  prime- 
minister.  The  Opposition  consisted  of  two  parties ; 
one  being  led  by  Rockingham  and  Fox,  the  other 
by  Lord  Shelburne.  The  latter  consisted  chiefly  of 
the  old  followers  of  Chatham ;  and  to  this  party 
Pitt  naturally  became  attached.  On  26th  February 
1781,  he  made  his  first  speech  in  parliament  It 
was  in  favour  of  Burke's  plan  of  economical  reform, 
and  was  a  splendid  success.  ■  It  is  not  a  chip  of  the 
old  block,'  said  Burke  ;  '  it  is  the  old  block  himself.' 
Shortly  before  the  meeting  of  parliament,  in  the 
autumn  of  1781,  the  news  arrived  of  the  surrender 
of  Cornwallis  and  his  army.  In  the  debate  on  the 
address,  P.  spoke  with  even  more  energy  and 
brilliancy  than  on  any  former  occasion.  No  one  was 
so  loud  in  eulogy  as  Henry  Dundas,  Lord  Advocate 
for  Scotland ;  and  from  this  night  dates  a  con- 
nection between  him  and  P.,  which  was  only  broken 
by  death.  After  several  defeats,  the  ministry 
resigned,  and  Rockingham  was  called  on  to  construct 
a  cabinet.  P.  was  offered  the  vice-treasurership  of 
Ireland  ;  but  he  decliued  to  accept  a  position  which 
did  not  c*ufer  a  seat  in  the  cabinet.  On  7th  May 
17S2,  he  made  his  first  motion  for  a  reform  in  the 
representation  of  the  people  ;  which  motion  was  lost 
by  only  20  votes  in  a  house  of  more  than  300 
members.  The  reformers  never  again  had  so  good 
a  division  till  1831.  At  the  end  of  three  months 
after  his  accession  to  office,  Rockingham  died  ;  Lord 
Shelburne  succeeded  to  the  head  of  the  treasury ; 
and  P.,  at  the  age  of  23,  became  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer.  In  opposition  to  the  government,  there 
was  then  formed  a  coalition  emphatically  known  as 
'The  Coalition.'  On  Lord  Shelburne's  resignation 
in  17S3,  the  king  himself,  who  hated  the  Coalition, 
tried  to  persuade  P.  to  take  the  helm  of  affairs; 
but  he  resolutely  declined.  The  Duke  of  Portland 
succeeded,  with  Fox  and  North  as  Secretaries  of 
State.  P.,  from  the  Opposition  benches,  brought  for 
a  second  time  the  question  of  parliamentary  reform 
before  the  House.  His  motion  was  lost  by  293  votes 
to  149.  On  the  prorogation,  he  visited  the  continent 
for  the  first  and  last  time.  In  1783,  the  ministry 
having  been  defeated  on  a  motion  for  transferring 
the  government  of  India  to  parliament,  P.  became 
First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  and  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer.  But  parliament  was  dead  against  him  : 
between  17th  December  17S3  and  8th  March  1784, 
he  was  beaten  in  sixteen  divisions.  The.  nation, 
however,  was  in  his  favour ;  both  on  account  of  his 
policy,  and  from  admiration  of  his  private  char- 
acter. Pecuniary  disinterestedness  is  what  all  can 
comprehend ;  and  even  when  known  to  be  over- 
whelmed with  debt,  when  millions  were  passing 
through  his  hands,  when  the  greatest  men  in  the 
land  were  soliciting  him  for  honours,  no  one  ever 
dared  to  accuse  him  of  touching  unlawful  gain.  At 
the  general  election  in  1784,  160  supporters  of  the 
Coalition  lost  their  seats,  P.  himself  heading  the 
poll  for  the  university  of  Cambridge.  He  was  now, 
at  25  years  old,  the  most  powerful  subject  that 
England  had  seen  for  many  gene-ations.  He  ruled 
absolutely   over   the   cabinet,  and    was  at   once    *he 


PITTA  CUS -PITTSBURG. 


favourite  of  the  sovereign,  of  the  parliament,  and  of 
the  nation  ;  and  from  this  date,  the  life  of  P. 
becomes  the  history  of  England  and  of  the  world. 
For  seventeen  eventful  years,  lie  held  his  gnat 
position  without  a  break.  In  1784,  he  established  a 
new  constitution  for  the  East  India  Company.  In 
17S6,  he  carried  through  a  commercial  treaty  with 
France  on  liberal  principles.  In  the  same  year,  in- 
established  a  new  sinking  fund  ;  a  scheme  which 
experience  has  shewn  to  be  wrong  in  principle, 
though  it  was  long  viewed  with  favour  by  the 
nation.  To  exertions  which  were  now  begun 
for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  he  pave  the 
help  of  his  eloquence  and  power.  In  1788— 1789, 
he  maintained  against  Fox  the  right  of  parliament 
to  supply  the  temporary  defect  of  royal  authority 
occasioned  by  the  incapacity  of  the  king.  The 
year  1793  saw  the  beginning  of  the  great  war 
with  France,  Authorities  differ  as  to  the  cause. 
It  is,  however,  certain  that  P.'s  military  admini- 
stration was  eminently  unsuccessful.  But  no 
disaster  could  daunt  his  spirit.  When  a  new  French 
victory,  a  rebellion  in  Ireland,  a  mutiny  in  the  fleet, 
and  a  panic  in  the  city  had  spread  dismay  through 
the  nation,  P.  from  his  place  in  parliament  poured 
forth  the  language  of  inextinguishable  hope  and 
inflexible  resolution.  Disaster  abroad  was  regu- 
larly followed  by  triumph  at  home,  until  at  last 
he  had.no  longer  an  opposition  to  encounter.  In 
1799,  he  effected  the  union  with  Ireland.     It  was 

{>art  of  his  scheme  to  relieve  the  Roman  Catholic 
aity  from  civil  disabilities,  and  to  grant  a  public 
maintenance  to  their  clergy ;  but  the  obstinacy  of 
the  king  frustrated  this  design.  Chagrined  by  this 
failure,  P.  resigned  office  in  1S01.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Mr  Addington,  to  whom  for  a  while  he 
gave  his  support.  In  1804,  he  returned  again  to 
the  head  of  the  treasury,  which  position  he  con- 
tinued to  hold  till  his  death  on  23d  January  1S06. 
This  event  was  doubtless  hastened  by  the  stupend- 
ous success  of  Napoleon.  The  peculiar  look  which 
he  wore  during  the  last  days  of  his  life  was  patheti- 
cally termed  by  Wilberforce  'the  Austerlitz  look.' 
The  impeachment  also  of  his  friend,  Lord  Melville,  is 
supposed  greatly  to  have  hastened  his  end.  It  gave 
him,  he  said  in  parliament,  a  deep  Jiang.  His-  voice 
quivered  as  he  uttered  the  word  ;  and  it  seemed  as 
u  the  man  of  iron  were  about  to  shed  tears.  '  He 
was,'  says  Macaiday,  'a  minister  of  great  talents, 
honest  intentions,  and  liberal  opinions,  ....  but 
unequal  to  surprising  and  terrible  emergencies,  and 
liable  in  such  emergencies  to  err  grievously,  both  on 
the  side  of  weakness  and  on  the  side  of  violence.' 
But  what  man  ever  lived,  we  may  ask,  who,  placed 
in  such  circumstances  as  P.,  would  not  often  have 
greatly  erred  ?  His  policy  was  liberal  beyond  his 
age,  at  least  he  wished  it  to  be  so,  although  he  was 
often  obliged  to  yield  to  the  prejudices  of  his  sove- 
reign. He  resigned  office  because  he  could  not 
carry  Catholic  emancipation.  He  laid  before  the 
king  unanswerable  reasons  for  abolishing  the  Test 
Act.  He  was  more  deeply  imbued  with  the  doctrines 
of  free-trade  than  either  Fox  or  Grey.  It  cannot 
indeed  lie  denied  that  he  was  addicted  to  port-wine, 
and  that  he  died  overwhelmed  with  debts;  parlia- 
ment voting  £40,000  to  his  creditors.  High  as  his 
character  stands,  it  would  have  stood  even  higher 
had  he  united  the  virtue  of  frugality  to  that  of 
disinterestedness.  See  Life  of  Pitt  by  Lord  Stan- 
hope (Lond.  1861) ;  also  Lord  Macaulay's  Biographies 
(Edin.  1860).  In  the  former  work,  vol.  ii.,  p.  185, 
will  be  found  a  valuable  criticism  on  Macaulay's 
memoir. 

PI'TTACUS,  one  of  the  'Seven  Wise  Men'  of 
ancient  Greece,  was  liorn  at  Mitylene,  in  the  island 
of  Les/os,  about  the  middle  of  the  7th  c.  B.C.    The 


incidents  of  bis  life  do  not  perhaps  rest,  on  a  vorv 
secure  historical  basis,  bnl  he  is  by  no  means  to  be 
regarded  as  a  merely  traditionary  personage.  We 
may  feel  quite  certain  Hint,  his  career  and  character 
were  substantially  what  later  history  represents 
them.  About  612  B.C.,  in  conjunction  with  the 
brothers  of  Alcseus  the  pod,  he  overthrew  the 
'tyrant'  Melanchrus,  and  put  him  to  death.  He 
next  figures  in  the  contest  between  the  Lesbians 
and  the  Athenians  for  the  pos  ession  of  Sigeum  in 
the  Troad,  and  displayed  as  much  valour  on  the 
battle-field  as  Alcaeus  did  cowardice.  His  towns- 
men, the  Mitylenaaans,  were  so  pleased  with  his 
deeds  of  prowess,  that  they  gave  him  a  portion  of 
the  city-territory,  which  he  dedicated  to  sabred 
uses,  and  which  was  known  long  after  as  the  '  Pit- 
taceian  land.'  Meanwhile,  the  civic  struggles  did 
not  cease  ;  the  democratic  party,  however,  roughly 
represented  by  a  series  of  popular  '  tyrants,'  were  in 
the  ascendant,  and  the  oligarchic  aristocrats,  at  the 
head  of  whom  was  Alcceus,  were  finally  banished. 
P.  was  subsequently  chosen  dictator,  5S9  B.  c,  to 
prevent  the  turbulent  exiles  from  returning  to 
Mitylene,  and  ruled  absolutely  with  great  success 
for  ten  years,  after  which  he  voluntarily  resigned 
his  power,  and  withdrew  into  honoured  retirement. 
He  died  in  569  B.  c.  Many  of  the  anecdotes  pre- 
served by  tradition  concerning  P.  are  probably 
apocryphal ;  but  they  all  attribute  to  him  the 
same  characteristics — great  moral  sagacity,  a  con- 
tempt of  outward  pomp,  and  a  plain  practical  under- 
standing. His  favourite  maxim,  Gnothi  Kairdn 
( '  Know  the  fitting  moment ' ),  may  be  recommended 
to  all  statesmen  and  politicians.  To  P.  is  also 
ascribed  the  saying  which  has  so  often  been  verified 
in  actual  history,  Ohulepon  eatldon  emmenai  ( '  It  is 
a  misfortune  to  be  eminent ' ).  Of  his  600  didactic 
verses,  only  four  are  extaut,  and  these  prove  that 
he  was  strongly  impressed  with  the  falsehood  and 
insincerity  of  men.  See  Schneidewin's  Delectus 
Poesis  Grcecorum  Elegiacoz,  &c.  (Gott.  1839.) 

PITTSBURG,  including  several  boroughs  adjoin- 
ing, is  the  second  city  of  Pennsylvania,  situated  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Alleghany  and  Monongahela  rivers, 
and  the  head  of  the  Ohio,  kit,  40°  26'  34"  K,  long. 
80°  2'  38"  W.  It  is  750  feet  above  the  sea,  and  in 
the  midst  of  some  of  the  richest  deposits  of  coal  and 
iron  in  America,  which  have  given  direction  to  its  in- 
dustries. From  the  mines  upwards  of  140,000,000 
bushels  of  coal  were  raised  in  1870,  some  of  which  was 
exported,  while  an  immense  amount  was  used  in  her 
60  iron  foundries,  which  consumed  400,000  tons  of 
iron,  60,000  tons  of  which  were  made  in  the  furnaces 
of  Pittsburg.  The  city  has  42  iron  and  steel  mills, 
582  puddling  furnaces,  7  large  steel  works,  60  glass 
factories,  employing  5000  hands,  20  brass  foundries,  Z 
copper  smelting  and  rolling  mills,  58  petroleum  refine- 
ries, 8  white  lead  factories,  6  cotton  mills,  6  flour  mills, 
with  a  total  of  1500  manufacturing  establishments  of 
all  kinds,  and  a  manufacturing  and  commercial  busi- 
ness estimated,  in  1870,  at  $170,000,000.  The  man- 
ufacturing industries  of  P.  are  on  a  vast  scale;  475  of 
her  factories  in  daily  operation  would  extend  35  miles 
in  a  direct  line.  At  one  of  the  establishments  for  the 
manufacture  of  axes,  saws,  &c.  (that  of  Lippincott  and 
Bakewell),  250  men  are  employed,  and  axes  produced  at 
the  rate  of  1000  daily  throughout  the  year.  The  city  con- 
tains 165  churches,  191  public  school-houses,  with  7129 
children  in  attendance;  1  university,  3  theological  sem- 
inaries, a  penitentiary,  and  house  of  refuge;  54  banks, 
and  2500  commission  houses  which  are  not  manufacto- 
ries. P.  is  very  healthy,  but  the  imperfect  combustion 
of  her  bituminous  coal  filling  the  air  with  smoke,  &c, 
renders  it  disagreeable,  and  entitled  to  the  sobriquet  ot 
the  '  Smoky  City.'  It  is  also  frequently  termed  the 
'Iron  City'  and  the  'Birmingham  of  America.' 

66fi 


PITTSFIELD— PIUS. 


riie  several  sections  of  this  busy  hive  are  connected 
»y  bridges  and  continuous  lines  of  street  railroads, 
thus  practically  rendering  the  suburbs — Alleghany 
City,  Birmingham,  Monongahelaboro,  South  J'itts- 
burg,  West  Pittsburg,  Mount  Washington,  &c. — 
almost  one  compact  city  of  nearly  250,000  people. 

Nine  railroads  centre  at  P.,  while  a  vast  navigation 
is  conducted  upon  30  rivers,  embracing  an  extent  of 
12,000  miles,  and  into  15  states.  There  is  a  United 
States  arsenal  at  Alleghany  City. 

The  first  settlement  of  1*.  was  in  the  stockade  erected 
in  1754,  which  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French,  who 
gave  it  the  name  of  Fort  Duqucsnc.  To  capture  this 
fort  the  expedition  of  Braddock  was  undertaken, 
which  was  defeated  by  the  French  and  Indians  in 
175").  In  1758  it  was  abandoned  by  the  French  and 
occupied  by  the  English,  \>ho,  in  1759,  erected  the 
first  Fort  Pitt,  whence  the  city  took  its  name.  P. 
was  chartered  in  1816.  Fop  in  1*840,21,115;  in  1860, 
49,220;   in  1870,  86,235;   in  1880,  156,381. 

PI'TTSFIELD,  a  flourishing  city  in  Berkshire  co., 
Muss.,  on  the  Western  Railway,  53  miles  W.  N.W.  of 
Springfield  and  49  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Albany.  The 
Ilousatonic  Railway  connects  it  with  Bridgeport, 
Conn.  It  has  cotton  and  woollen  manufactories,  11 
churches,  2  national  banks,  a  yonng  ladies'  institute, 
a  court-house,  &C     Pop.  (1880)  13,367. 

PITYRI'ASIS  (from  the  Greek  word  piti/ron, 
bran)  is  the  term  given  to  one  of  the  squamous  or 
scaly  diseases  of  the  skin,  in  which  there  is  a  con- 
tinual throwing  off  of  bran-like  scales  of  epidermis, 
which  are  renewed  as  fast  as  they  are  lost.  It  may 
occur  upon  any  part  of  the  body,  giving  rise  to 
brown  patches,  in  which  there  are  sensations  of 
itching,  tingling,  or  pricking.  It  is  more  easily 
cured  than  the  other  scaly  diseases,  and  its  removal 
can  generally  be  effected  by  the  frequent  use  of  the 
warm  bath ;  or,  if  it  fails,  recourse  may  be  had  to 
alkaline  or  sulphur  baths ;  due  attention  being  at 
the  same  time  paid  to  the  general  health.  It  some- 
times occurs  on  the  scalp,  when  it  is  known  as  dan- 
drijf,  and  must  be  treated  with  weak  alkaline 
lotions,  or,  if  these  fail,  with  tar  ointment,  provided 
there  is  no  inflammation.  There  is  a  variety  known 
as  Pityriasis  versicolor,  which  is  probably  due  to  the 
presence  of  a  parasitic  fungus,  the  Microsporon  fur/a- 
vans;  but  whether  the  fungus  is  the  positive  cause 
of  the  disease,  or  only  an  attendant  on  it,  finding  a 
suitable  nidus  in  the  diseased  epidermis,  is  not  cer- 
tain. This  variety  may  be  detected  by  a  microscopic 
examination  of  the  exfoliated  scales,  when  the  spores 
and  filaments  of  the  fungus  will  be  detected.  The 
treatment  of  this  affection  must  be  solely  local.  Dr 
Watson  mentions  a  case  which  yielded  at  once  to  a 
couple  of  sulphur  baths.  Probably  the  best  remedy 
is  the  application  of  a  saturated  watery  solution  of 
sulphurous  acid  gas,  or  of  one  of  the  sulphites 
dissolved  in  diluted  vinegar. 

PIU  (in  Ital.  more),  as  a  musical  term,  when  pre- 
fixed to  another  word,  intensifies  its  meaning — e.  g., 
piu  mosso,  with  more  movement. 

PI'USV  the  name  of  nine  among  the  Roman 
pontiffs,  of  whom  the  following  only  appear  to  call 
for  particular  notice. — Pius  II.,  originally  known  as 
iEneas  Sylvius,  was  a  member  of  the  noble  family 
of  Piccolomini,  and  was  born  (1405)  at  Corsignano, 
in  the  duchy  of  Siena.  His  early  life  was  not  free 
from  serious  irregularities,  but  he  made  amends  by 
his  subsecpuent  decorous  conduct;  and  his  eminent 
abilities  as  a  canonist  led  to  his  being  employed, 
when  but  26  years  of  age,  as  secretary  of  the 
Cardinal  of  Fermo,  in  a  post  of  the  highest  con- 
fidence at  the  council  of  Basel  (q.  v.).  He  was 
intrusted  by  that  council — the  views  of  which, 
in  its  conflict  with  the  pope,  he  fully  shared — 
566 


in  several  commissions  of  great  importance  ;  and 
on  the  election  of  the  antipope,  Felix  V.,  ^Eneas 
Sylvius  was  chosen  as  his  secretary.  But  having 
been  sent  by  him  as  ambassador  to  the  Emperor 
Frederick  III.,  he  was  induced  to  accept  office  in 
the  imperial  court,  and  served  on  several  embassies 
and  other  missions  of  importance  on  behalf  of  the 
emperor.  In  the  difficulties  between  Frederick 
and  the  Pope  Eugenius  IV.,  which  arose  after 
the  council  of  Florence,  iEneas  conducted  so  skil- 
fully a  negotiation  with  which  he  was  intrusted, 
that  the  pope  was  induced  to  retain  him  in  his 
own  court,  in  the  capacity  of  secretary.  His 
views  of  church  matters  having  undergone  a  con- 
siderable change,  he  continued  in  equal  favour 
under  the  successor  of  Eugenius,  Nicholas  V.,  1 147; 
and  under  Callistus  III.,  he  was  elevated  to  tha 
cardinalate.  On  the  death  of  Callistus  in  145S,  he 
was  elected  pope,  and  took  the  name  of  Pius  II. 
His  pontificate  was  embarrassed  by  some  contests 
on  German  affairs,  but  it  is  chiefly  rendered 
memorable  by  the  sustained  efforts  which  P.  — the 
first  in  this  policy  of  a  long  line  of  pontiffs,  to  whom 
the  public  security  of  Europe  owes  a  deep  obligation — 
made  to  organise  an  armed  confederation  of  Christian 
princes  to  resist  the  progress  of  the  Turkish  arms. 
This  organisation,  however,  for  a  long  time  did  not 
lead  to  any  considerable  results.  P.  died,,  August 
14,  1464.  The  literary  reputation  of  the  scholar, 
.<Eneas  Sylvius,  has  partially  eclipsed  the  historical 
fame  of  the  Pope  Pius.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
eminent  scholars  of  his  age.  His  works  were  pub- 
lished at  Basel  (1  vol.  fob,  1551),  but  mauy  of  his 
works  are  not  included  in  that  edition.  They 
consist  chiefly  of  histories,  or  historical  dissertations 
and  materials  of  history;  but  the  most  interesting 
portion  of  his  collected  works  are  his  letters,  which, 
are  very  numerous,  and  full  of  details,  characteristic 
as  well  of  the  writer  as  of  the  age.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  a  biographical  commentary,  which  is  in 
truth  an  autobiography,  being  chiefly  written  from 
his  own  dictation,  by  his  secretary,  John  Gobellinus, 
published  at  Frankfort  in  1614.  See  Voight's  Life 
of  Pius  (BerL  1856). — Pius  IV.,  Giovanni  Angelo 
Medici,  uncle  of  Saint  Carlo  Borromeo,  deserves 
to  be  noticed  from  his  connection  with  the  cele 
brated  creed  known  under  his  name.  He  was 
elected  in  1560 ;  and  his  pontificate  is  chiefly 
memorable  as  that  in  which  the  protracted 
deliberations  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (q.  v.)  were 
brought  to  a  close.  P.  had  the  duty,  in  December 
1563,  of  issuing  the  bull  confirmatory  of  its  decrees. 
The  well-known  creed  called  the  Creed  of  Pius  IV., 
and  sometimes  the  Tridentine  Creed,  was  issued  by 
P.  IV.  as  an  embodiment  of  all  the  doctrines 
defined  in  that  council.  P.  died,  December  8,  1565, 
in  the  arms  of  his  nephew,  Carlo  Borromeo. 
—  Pius  V.,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
originally  named  Michele  Ghisleri,  was  born  of  poor 
parents,  in  the  village  of  Bosco,  near  Alessandria,  in 
1504,  and  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  entered  the 
Dominican  order.  His  eminent  merits  were  recog- 
nised by  Paul  IV.,  who  named  him  Bishop  of  Satri, 
in  1556,  and  cardinal  m  the  following  year.  Of 
austere  and  mortified  habits,  he  carried  into  his 
administration  the  same  rigour  which  distinguished 
his  personal  conduct ;  and  when  appointed  inquisitor- 
general  for  Lombardy,  he  employed  the  mo3i  rigor- 
ous measures  in  repressing  the  progress  of  the 
Reformation,  which  had  begun  to  effect  an  entrance. 
He  was  afterwards  translated  to  the  see  of  Mondovi ; 
and  immediately  after  the  death  of  Pius  IV.,  he  was 
chosen  unanimously  as  his  successor,  January  8, 15G6. 
P.  carried  into  his  pontifical  life  the  same  personal 
austerity  and  administrative  rigour  which  he  had 
evinced  as  a  bishop.     Applying  to  others  the  same 


PIUS. 


rules  ■which  he  enforced  upon  himself,  lie  enacted 
a  number  of  severe  laws  for  the  regulation  of  public 
morals,  prohibiting  bull-fights,  suppressing  prosti- 
tution, and  proscribing  a  variety  of  popular  but 
demoralising  exhibitions.  The  Roman  Inquisition, 
too,  uinler  his  government,  exercised  a  severity  of 
which  i ther  pontificate  Has  shewn  any  example. 

He  endeavoured  to  enforce  everywhere  the  discip- 
linary decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent;  and  the 
whole  spirit  of  his  pontificate  is  most  strikingly 
exhibited  in  the  decree  by  which  lie  ordered  the 
yearly  publication  of  the  celebrated  bull,  In  ('una 
Domini  (q.  v.).  It  was  an  application  to  the  1 6  th  c 
of  the  principles  and  the  legislation  of  the  Hilde- 
brandine  epoch.  But  the  most  momentous  event 
of  the  pontificate  of  P.  was  the  expedition  which 
he  organised,  with  Spain  and  Venice,  against  the 
Turks,  and  which   resulted  in  the  great  naval  en- 

fagement  of  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto,  on  7th  October 
571.  P.  died  in  the  following  May,  1572.  lie  was 
canonised  by  Clement  XI.  in  1712. — Pius  VI.,  origin- 
ally named  Angelo  Braschi,  was  born  .at  Cesena, 
December  27,  1717.  He  was  selected  by  Benedict 
XIV.  as  his  secretary;  and  under  Clement  XIII.,  he 
was  named  to  several  important  appointments,  which 
led  finally,  under  Clement  XIV.,  to  his  elevation  to 
the  cardinalate.  On  the  death  of  Clement  XIV., 
Cardinal  Braschi  was  chosen  to  succeed  him,  February 
15,  1775.  The  conflict  with  the  civil  power  in  the 
various  states  of  Europe,  in  which,  from  the  days  of 
Innocent  XL,  the  Roman  see  had  been  almost 
unceasingly  involved  to  a  greater  or  less  degree, 
assumed  under  P.  what  may  be  called  its  complete 
and  scientific  development.  His  relations  to  the 
Emperor  Joseph  of  Austria  and  the  Grand  Duke 
Leopold  of  Tuscany,  who  persisted  in  the  reformation 
of  the  religious  orders,  &c,  were  far  from  amicable. 
The  internal  administration  of  P.,  however,  was 
enlightened  and  judicious.  To  him,  Pome  owes  the 
drainage  of  the  Pontine  Marsh,  the  improvement 
of  the  port  of  Ancona,  the  completion  of  the  church 
of  St  Peter's,  the  foundation  of  the  new  Museum  of 
the  Vatican,  and  the  general  improvement  and 
embellishment  of  the  city.  These  and  other  similar 
projects  were  interrupted  by  the  outbreak  of  the 
French  Revolution,  In  1793,  a  popular  tumult  at 
Rome,  which  was  caused  by  the  imprudence  of  a 
French  political  agent  named  De  Basseville,  and 
which  resulted  in  his  death,  gave  the  French  Direc- 
tory an  opportunity  of  hostile  demonstrations  against 
the  pope.  In  1796,  Bonaparte  took  possession  of  the 
Legations,  and  afterwards  of  the  March  of  Ancona, 
and  by  a  threatened  advance  upon  Rome,  extorted 
from  P.,  in  the  Treaty  of  Tolentino,  the  surrender  of 
these  provinces  to  the  Cisalpine  Republic,  together 
with  a  heavy  war  contribution.  The  year  1797  was 
marked  by  a  continuance  of  the  same  vexatious 
measures ;  and  at  length  the  Directory  ordered 
the  invasion  of  Rome  ;  Berthier  entered  the  city, 
February  10,  1798,  and  took  possession  of  the  castle 
of  St  Angelo.  P.  was  called  on  to  renounce  his 
temporal  sovereignty,  and  on  his  refusal,  was  seized, 
February  20,  and  carried  away  to  Siena,  and  after- 
wards to  the  celebrated  Certosa,  or  Carthusian 
monaster}*,  of  Florence.  On  the  threatened  advance 
of  the  Anstro-Russian  army  in  the  following  year, 
he  was  transferred  to  Grenoble,  and  finally  to 
Valence  on  the  Rhone,  where,  worn  out  by  age 
and  by  the  rigour  of  confinement,  he  died  in  August 
1799,  in  the  82d  year  of  his  age  and  the  24th  of 
his  pontificate. — Pius  VII.,  originally  Gregory 
Barnabas  Chiaramonte,  was  born  at  Cesena  in  17-42. 
He  entered  the  Benedictine  order  at  an  early  age, 
and  was  employed  in  teaching  philosophy  and  theo- 
logy at  Parma,  and  afterwards  at  Rome.  He  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Tivoli;  and  afterwards,  being 


created  cardinal,  was  translated  to  the  see  of  imola. 
After  the  death  of  Pius  VL,  Cardinal  Chiaramonte 
was  chosen  his  successor  (March  11.  18001.  Home, 
which,  up  to  this  time,  had  been  in  the  occupation 
of  the  French,  was  now  restored  to  the  papal 
authority,  and  in  the  July  of  tiiat  year,  P.  VI 1. 
entered  into  his  capital ;  and  in  the  following  year, 
the  French  troops  were  definitively  withdrawn  from 
the  papal  territory,  with  the  exception  of  th 
tions.  From  this  time  forward,  P.,  ably  s< 
by  his  secretary  of  state,  Cardinal  Consalvi,  was 
destined  to  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  the  poli- 
tical as  well  as  thi  tical  affairs  of  Europe. 
Bonaparte  had  resolved  to  restore  religion  in  France 
on  the  ancient  basis  of  connection  with  Rome.  With 
this  view,  lie  entered  into  negotiations  with  I'.  VII. 
for  the  establishment  of  a  concordat  suited  to  the 
new  order  of  things  which  had  arisen,  These 
negotiations  were  conducted  at  Paris,  and  were 
attended  with  many  difficulties  and  delays,  until 
at  length  Cardinal  Consalvi  repaired  in  person 
to  the  conference,  and,  by  his  energy  and  decision, 
disentangled  the  complicated  embarrassments  in 
which  it  was  involved.  It  was  agreed  to  at  Paris, 
July  15,  1801;  ratified  in  Koine,  August  14; 
and  published  in  Notre-Dame  on  Easter  Sunday 
1S02.  But  simultaneously  with  the  concordat, 
and  as  if  forming  part  of  the  same  arrange- 
ment, was"  published  a  code  of  what  were  called 
'Organic  Laws,'  seriously  affecting  the  discipline  of 
the  church  on  marriage,  on  the  clergy,  and  on  publio 
worship,  which  had  never  been  submitted  to  P.,  and 
to  which  he  not  only  had  not  consented,  but  to 
which  he  found  himself  compelled  to  offer  every 
opposition.  For  the  first  year  which  succeeded  the 
publication  of  the  concordat,  no  occasion  of  difficulty 
arose ;  but  conflict  of  principles  was  in  the  end 
inevitable.  In  1804,  Bonaparte  having  resolved  on 
assuming  the  imperial  crown,  invited  P.  to  come  to 
Paris  for  the  purpose  of  crowning  him,  and  the 
pope,  although  with  much  hesitation,  consented. 
He  took  advantage  of  his  visit  to  demand  the  recall 
or  modification  of  the  articles,  but  without  success  ; 
and  although,  during  his  visit  to  Paris,  he  was 
treated  with  great  distinction  and  reverence,  his 
relations  with  Napoleon  from  that  date  began  to 
assume  a  less  friendly  character.  The  French 
emperor  now  proceeded  from  one  petty  outrage  to 
another,  until  finally,  in  February  1808,  the  French 
troops,  under  General  Miollis,  entered  Rome,  and 
took  possession  of  the  castle  of  St  Angelo ;  and  on 
the  2d  of  April,  a  decree  was  issued  annexing  the 
provinces  of  Ancona,  Fermo,  Urbino,  and  Macerata 
to  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  P.,  besides  protesting 
against  the  usurpation,  declared  himself  a  prisoner 
in  the  French  hands,  and  confined  himself  to  hia 
palace.  The  papers  of  the  cardinal  secretary  were 
violently  seized,  and  the  pope  was  compelled  to 
appoint  a  pro-secretary  ;  and  finally  (May  17,  1809), 
the  usurpation  was  consummated  by  a  decree  annex- 
ing Rome  and  all  the  remaining  papal  territory  to 
the  French  empire.  This  was  the  signal  for  the 
pope  abandoning  his  lengthened  policy  of  forbear- 
ance. On  June  10,  P.  issued  a  bull  of  excommu- 
nication, directed  (without  naming  Napoleor.J  against 
the  perpetrators  and  abettors  of  the  invasion  of  the 
rights  and  the  territory  of  the  holy  see.  Soon 
afterwards,  the  French  general  ordered  the  remova] 
of  the  pope  from  Rome;  and  P.,  without  offering 
any  resistance  beyond  the  declaration  that  h-3 
yielded  to  force,  was  removed,  first  to  Florence, 
then  to  Grenoble,  thence  for  a  longer  time  to 
Savona,  whence,  in  June  1812,  he  was  finally  trans- 
ferred to  Fontainebleau.  During  this  prolonged 
captivity,  P.  firmly  but  quietly  resisted  every  eflort 
to  compel   or   seduce  him  from  his    policy.      At 

66} 


PIUS-PIUS  IX. 


Fontainebleau,  he  was  treated  with  much  external 
respect ;  and  on  Napoleon's  return  from  the  Russian 
campaign,  in  December  1812,  orders  were  given 
that  the  cardinals,  with  certain  exceptions,  should 
be  admitted  to  the  presence  of  the  pope.  Under 
much  pressure,  both  from  the  emperor  himself — who 
is  alleged  by  some  to  have  acted  with  great  rude- 
ness, and  even  with  personal  violence — and  from 
the  ecclesiastics  to  whom  the  emperor  confided  his 
plans,  P.  was  induced  to  sign  a  new  concordat,  an 
important  provision  of  which  was  the  recognition  of 
the  annexation  of  the  Roman  states  to  the  empire. 
Having  obtained  the  concession,  Napoleon  at  once 
permitted  the  absent  cardinals  to  return,  and  of 
these  many  remonstrated  so  earnestly  against  the 
concordat,  that,  on  March  24,  P.  wrote  to  revoke 
his  consent.  Napoleon  took  no  notice  of  the  revo- 
cation ;  nor  was  it  till  after  the  disasters  of  1813 
that  he  began  to  seek  an  accommodation.  P.  refused 
to  treat  until  he  shoidd  be  restored  to  Rome  ;  and 
on  January  22,  1814,  orders  were  sent  for  his  imme- 
diate return  to  his  capital.  Unattended  by  his 
cardinals,  he  was  escorted  to  Italy,  and  remained 
at  Cesena  until  the  fatal  campaign  of  the  spring 
of  1S14  placed  Paris  in  the  hands  of  the  allies,  when 
P.  re-entered  Rome  amidst  the  gratulations  of  the 
people  on  May  24,  1814 — a  clay  since  that  time 
held  sacred  in  the  Roman  calendar.  During  the 
Hundred  Days,  he  was  again  compelled  to  leave 
Rome  ;  but  after  the  campaign  of  Waterloo,  he 
finally  resumed  possession,  which  was  undisturbed 
for  the  rest  of  his  life,  and  which  extended  to 
the  whole  of  the  ancient  territory,  including  the 
Legations. 

The  last  years  of  his  pontificate  were  devoted  to 
measures  of  internal  administration  ;  and  under  the 
enlightened  government  of  Cardinal  Consalvi,  were 
marked  by  much  wisdom  and  moderation.  But 
the  administration  chiefly  by  ecclesiastics  and  the 
secrecy  of  law  procedure  were  resumed.  P. 
repressed,  too,  with  great  vigour  the  disorder  and 
brigandage  which  the  long  wars  had  introduced, 
apd  a  whole  village  of  notorious  and  incorrigible 
criminality,  that  of  Somma,  was  razed  to  the  ground 
in  1819.  He  was  equally  vigorous  in  repressing 
secret  societies,  especially  that  of  the  Carbonari 
(q.  v.).  The  ecclesiastical  measures  of  his  later  period 
were  also  of  much  importance.  In  1814,  he  formally 
restored  the  suppressed  order  of  the  Jesuits  (q.  v.). 
In  1817  and  the  following  years,  he  concluded  con- 
cordats with  Naples,  with  Prussia,  Wiirtemberg, 
and  other  courts  of  Germany.  In  this  and  every 
other  period  of  his  life,  P.  was  a  model  of  gentle- 
ness, simplicity,  benevolence,  and  Christian  charity. 
In  July  1823,  having  reached  the  patriarchal  age 
of  81,  he  fell  accidentally  in  his  own  apartments, 
and  broke  his  thigh.  Under  the  inflammation 
which  ensued,  he  sunk  gradually,  and  died  August 
20,  1S23. 

PIUS  IX.,  Giovannni  Maria  Mastai  Fer- 
RETTI,  the  257th  Roman  pontiff,  was  horn  at  Sini- 
gaglia.  Mny  13,  1792.  He  was  originally  destined 
for  a  military  career,  and  was  sent,  to  Rome  to  enter 
the  Noble  Guard  ;  but  symptoms  of  an  epileptic 
tendency  led  to  his  abandoning  his  intended  profes- 
sion, and  entering  an  ecclesiastical  seminary.  He 
received  holy  orders,  and  for  a  time  exercised  his 
ministry  in  connection  with  several  works  of  charity 
and  benevolence  in  Rome  ;  but  was  sent  to  South 
America  as  '  auditor '  of  Monsignor  Mug8,  the  vicar- 
apostolic  of  Chili.  On  his  return,  he  became  domestic 
prelate  of  Leo  XII.,  and  President  of  the  Ospizio  of 
San  Miehele;  and  in  1829  he  was  named  Archbishop 
of  Spoleto,  whence  he  was  translated  to  Imola. 
He  was  soon  afterwards  sent  to  Naples  as  nuncio  ; 
and  in  1840  was  named  cardinal,  from  which  date 
568 


he  continued  to  reside  in  his  see.  On  the  death  of 
Gregory  XVI.  in  1846,  Cardinal  Mastai  Ferretti 
was  elected  by  acclamation  to  succeed  him  ;  and 
having  learned,  by  long  intercourse  with  the  people 
of  ths  Legations,  the  prevalence  and  the  causes  of 
discontent — which  had  been  concealed  under  the 
repressive  system  of  Gregory,  following  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Austrians,  by  whom  a  protectorate  was 
exercised — he  entered  at  once  on  a  course  of  reforms, 
by  which  he  hoped  to  establish  the  papal  govern- 
ment on  a  popular,  but  yet  on  a  firm  basis.  He 
resolved  to  extirpate  all  abuses  of  administration, 
financial  as  well  as  political,  to  withdraw  as  far  a* 
possible  the  restrictions  of  personal  liberty,  to 
secularise  in  many  details  the  local  administration, 
and  to  extend  the  rights  of  self-government  as  far 
as  was  compatible  with  the  essential  institutions  of 
the  Roman  states.  His  first  step  to  this  end  was 
to  grant  an  amnesty ;  and  this  measure,  however 
humane  and  necessary,  had  the  unfortunate  result 
of  drawing  together  into  the  Roman  states  a  body 
of  men  whom  an  unhappy  experience  of  foreign 
exile  had  embittered  against  the  existing  order 
of  things,  and  who  had  served  in  foreign  revolu- 
tions, aud,  in  the  secret  councils  which  their  position 
had  necessitated,  an  apprenticeship  to  the  arts  of 
political  intrigue.  For  a  time,  the  reforming  policy 
of  P.  carried  with  it  the  affections  of  the  people ; 
but  he  soon  began  to  fall  short  of  the  expecta- 
tions wdiich  he  had  created.  The  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  of  February  1848  precipitated  the  crisis 
of  popular  excitement  and  of  popular  discontent. 
Reform  assumed  the  shape  of  revolution.  In 
November  of  that  year,  Count  Rossi,  whom  the  pope 
had  appointed  as  his  minister,  was  assassinated ;  and 
violent  demonstrations  were  daily  employed  to 
compel  the  pope's  assent  to  measures  which  he  re- 
pudiated. He  was  driven  to  confine  himself  a  close 
prisoner  in  the  Quirinal ;  and  at  length,  in  December, 
he  fled  secretly  from  Rome  and  established  himself 
at  Gaeta,  a  Neapolitan  seaport,  not  far  beyond  the 
Roman  frontier.  A  republic  was  proclaimed  in 
Rome,  the  provisional  heads  of  which  proceeded  to 
a  complete  and  radical  remodelling  of  the  civil 
government  of  the  state.  P.  from  his  exile  addressed 
a  remonstrauce  to  the  various  sovereigns.  In  AprU 
1849,  a  French  expedition  was  sent  to  Civita 
Vecchia,  which  eventually  advanced  upon  Rome, 
and  after  a  siege  of  about  30  days  took  possession 
of  that  city,  and  established  a  French  army  of 
occupation  within  the  Roman  state.  The  pope's 
government  was  re-established,  but  he  himself  did 
not  return  till  1S50,  when,  once  again,  he  entered 
npon  the  administration,  but  in  consequence  of  the 
unsettled  condition  of  Italy  and  the  failure  of  many 
of  his  early  measures  of  improvement,  he  declared 
himself  unable  to  proceed  with  the  reformations 
which  he  had  contemplated.  By  the  help  of  the 
French  army  his  authority  was  maintained  without 
much  interruption ;  but  the  discontent  with  the 
government  continued,  until  in  I860  a  rebellion  broke 
out  in  the  Legations,  and  nearly  all  the  papal  territory 
occupied  by  the  Sardinian  troops.  Rome,  Civita  Vec- 
chia, and  a  few  outlying  districts  were,  however,  held  by 
the  Pontifical  and  French  armies  until  the  breaking  out 
of  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  when,  the  French  troops 
being  withdrawn,  the  remainder  of  the  territory,  was 
annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  P.'s  ecclesiastical  ad- 
ministration was  very  active,  and  he  proceeded  upon  the 
strongest  assumption  of  the  right  of  independent  ac- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  church.  In  this  view  he  re- 
established the  hierarchy  in  England,  he  sanctioned 
the  establishment  in  Ireland  of  a  Catholic  university, 
and  condemned  the  principles  upon  which  the  Queen's 
Colleges  in  that  country  were  constituted.  He  con- 
cluded with  Austria  a  concordat,  afterward  abrogated 


1'IZAKKO. 


much  more  Favourable  to  church  authority  than  the 
existing  ecclesiastical  laws  bad  permitted.  In  1854, 
he  issued  a  decree  propounding  di  ■  doctrine  of  the 
church  the  faith  <>i  the  Immaculate  Conception  <>r  the 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary  (q.  v.). 

In  1868,  he  convoked  an  CEcnmenicaJ  Council  to 
meet  at  Rome  on  Dec.  8,  1869,  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
fining the  infallibility  of  the  pope  as  regards  '  what- 
ever belongs  to  faith  and  morals,  or  the  primacy  and 
teaching  authority  of  Peter,'  and  the  relations  of  the 
church  to  the  state  governments.  <  >n  July  18,  1870, 
the  council  pronounced  in  favour  of  the  dogma  of  in- 
fallibility by  a  vote  of  538  to  2.  The  opposing  pre- 
lates were  Mgr.  Riccio,  Bishop  of  Csjazzo,  in  Italy, 
and  Mgr.  Fitzgerald,  Bishop  of  Little  Rock,  in  the 
('.  Stnic--;  but  they  formally  withdrew  their  negative 
immediately  upon  the  pronunciation  of  the  dogma  by 
the  Pope.  The  only  noted  theologian  \\h<>  opposed  the 
decree  after  its  official  promulgation  was  Dr.  DSllinger 
of  Munich,  who  was  excommunicated  April  17,  1871. 
On  August  7.  1878,  Ins  Holiness  addressed  a  letter  to 
the  Emperor  of  Germany  complaining  in  very  atrong 
terms  of  the  harsh  measures  which  had  been  adopted 
against  the  church  in  Prussia.  This  letter  with  the 
emperor's  reply  was  published  at  Berlin  Oct.  14  of 
the  same  year,  and  in  1875  was  followed  by  a  condem- 
nation by  the  pope  of  the  German  laws,  as  being 
wholly  null  and  void.  P.  died  at  Rome  Feb.  7,  1878. 
PIZARRO,  Francisco,  the  conqueror  of  Peru, 
was  an  illegitimate  son  of  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  a 
colonel  of  infantry,  and  a  soldier  of  some  distinction. 
He  was  horn  at  Truxillo,  in  Estremadura,  Spain, 
about  1471.  Of  liis  youth,  little  is  known,  but  it 
appears  that  he  was  wholly  neglected  by  his  parents, 
was  taught  neither  to  read  nor  write,  and  that  in 
his  youth  his  principal  occupation  was  that  of  a 
swineherd.  Abandoning  this  uncongenial  employ- 
ment, he  sought  the  port  of  Seville,  and  there 
embarked,  to  seek  fortune  in  the  New  World.  He 
was  in  Hispaniola  in  1510  ;  later,  he  joined  Balboa, 
and  was  with  that  cavalier  when  he  crossed  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  discovered  the  Pacific  In 
1515,  he  was  engaged  in  traffic  with  the  natives  on 
the  shores  of  the  newly-discovered  ocean,  but  was 
afterwards  chiefly  employed  in  military  service,  in 
which  he  shewed  great  bravery,  resource,  and  power 
of  endurance.  About  this  time,  when  a  fresh  and 
powerful  impulse  was  given  to  adventure  by  the 
splendid  achievement  of  Cortes,  rumours  of  a 
country  far  south,  in  which  gold  and  silver  were 
said  to  be  as  abundant  as  iron  in  Spain,  reached 
Panama,  and  kindled  P.'s  ambition.  He  formed 
a  sort  of  copartnery  with  Diego  de  Almagro,  an 
adventurer  and  a  foundling  like  himself,  and 
Hernando  Luque,  an  ecclesiastic ;  and  with  the 
funds  which  the  three  friends  amassed,  they  were 
enabled  to  tit  out  a  small  expedition,  of  which  P. 
took  command.  In  November  1524,  he  set  sail 
southward,  but  went  no  further  than  Quemada 
Point.  Making  an  agreement  (dated  March  10, 1526), 
that  all  lands,  treasures,  vassals,  &c,  that  should  be 
discovered,  were  to  be  equally  divided  between  them, 
the  three  friends,  P.,  Almagro,  and  Luque,  organised 
u  second  expedition,  consisting  of  two  ships,  which 
sot  sail  for  the  South  Seas.  Having  reached  the 
port  of  Santa,  in  lat.  about  9°  S.,  and  having  really 
discovered  Peru,  P.  returned  to  Panama,  carrying 
with  him,  however,  many  beautiful  and  valuable 
ornaments  in  gold  and  silver,  which  he  had  obtained 
from  the  friendly  and  generous  natives,  as  well  as 
specimens  of  woollen  cloths  of  silky  texture  and 
brilliant  hue,  and  some  lamas  or  alpacas.  Unable 
to  find  in  Panama  a  sufficient  number  of  volun- 
teers for  the  invasion  of  the  newly-discovered 
country,  the  indomitable  adventurer  returned  to 
Spain  in  152S,  narrated  the  story  of  his  discoveries 


before  Charles  V.  and  his  ministers,  described  Qm 
wealth  of  the  territories,  and  shewed,  M  proof,  the 
gold  ornaments  and  atenails,  the  manufactures,  &c 

which  he  had  brought  with  him.  The  result  of  his 
representations  Wee,  that  the  right  of  the  discovery 
and    conquest    of    Peru    was    seemed    to    him,   and 

honourable  titles— -among  othera,  those  of  Governoi 
and  ( bptain-geners]  of  Peru — were  conferred  on  him. 
On  his  side,  he  agreed  to  raise  a  certain  number  "f 

followers,  and  to  send  to  the  crown  of  Spain  a  tifth 
of  all  the  treasures  he  should  obtain.  Returning 
to  Panama,  he  set  sail  for  Pern  fox  the  third  and 
last  time,  with  a  well-equipped  but  small  force,  the 
number  being  not  more  than  180  men,  of  whom  27 
were  cavalry.  The  chief  events  of  the  conquest  of 
Peru  are  detailed  at  sufficient  length  in  the  article 
Peru,  and  also  the  articles  Almagro  and  Ataiiu- 
ai.i-.v.  Within  ten  years,  the  great  conquistador 
made  the  empire  of  Peru  his  own ;  but  he  who 
had  surmounted  so  many  stupendous  difficulties, 
who  had  broken  through  the  lofty  barrier  of  the 
Andes,  and,  with  his  group  of  followers,  been  a 
victor  in  so  many  fields,  fell  a  victim  to  a  conspi- 
racy, June  26,  1541. 

P.  was  a  soldier  of  the  most  undoubted  courage, 
inflexible  constancy  of  purpose,  and  infinite  resource ; 
yet  his  success  in  Peru  appears  to  have  been  more 
the  result  of  chance  than  of  calculation.  His  boldest 
stroke  was  the  seizure  of  the  Inca  Atahualpa  (q.  v.), 
when  surrounded  by  thousands  of  his  followers  ; 
but  in  doing  so,  he  deserved  credit  neither  for  ori- 
ginality nor  policy,  because  the  idea  was  borrowed 
from  Cortes,  and  the  step  itself  was  so  foolhardy 
and  desperate,  that  its  success  can  be  regarded  only 
as  luck.  Although  on  many  occasions  he  appears 
to  have  been  guided  by  noble  and  generous  impulses, 
he  was  eminently  selfish,  perfidious,  and  relentless. 
His  conquest  of  Peru  is  a  drama  in  every  act  of 
which  there  is  bloodshed  ;  but  the  drama  is  at  least 
consistent  to  the  end.  P.  lived  a  fife  of  violence, 
and  died  a  violent  and  bloody  death. 

PIZARRO,  Goxzalo,  threw  in  his  fortunes  with 
those  of  his  brother  Francisco,  on  the  occasion  when 
that  leader  returned  to  Spain  in  1528.  He  was, 
like  the  great  conqueror,  illegitimate.  He  became 
a  soldier  at  an  early  age,  distinguished  himself, 
before  he  joined  his  brother's  expedition,  by  his 
skill  in  martial  exercises,  and  when  he  reached 
Peru,  was  esteemed  the  best  lance  in  the  Spanish 
troop.  The  territory  of  Quito  was  assigned  to  him 
by  Francisco,  and  he  was  enjoined  to  undertake 
an  exploring  expedition  to  the  east,  where  a  land, 
reputed  to  be  extremely  rich  in  spices,  was  said  to 
lie.  At  the  head  of  350  Spaniards  and  a  great 
concourse  of  Indians,  P.  set  out  on  his  famous 
journey  in  the  beginning  of  1540.  Marching  east, 
they  reached  a  country  traversed  by  lofty  branches 
of  the  Andes.  Here  the  icy  winds  benumbed  the 
limbs  of  the  adventurers  as  they  rose  to  the  higher 
plateaux,  and,  rendered  helpless  by  the  cold,  many 
of  them  sank  and  died.  Descending  the  eastern 
slopes  of  the  Andes,  they  reached  the  '  Land  of 
Cinnamon  ;'  but  as  they  could  not  transport  the 
trees  across  the  mountains,  their  discovery  was 
almost  valueless.  Hearing  of  a  land  abounding 
in  gold  at  the  distance  of  ten  days'  journey,  the 
leader  resolved  to  reach  it.  Pushing  forward,  the 
Spaniards  entered  great  forests,  where  often  they 
had  to  hew  a  passage  with  their  axes.  Their 
clothes  were  now  torn  to  shreds,  and  their  pro- 
visions had  been  long  exhausted.  They  killed  and 
ate  the  dogs  they  had  brought  with  them,  after 
which  they  lived  on  the  herbs  and  dangerous  roots 
of  the  forest.  At  length  they  struck  the  broad  but 
desolate  waters  of  the  Napo,  an  important  affluent 
of  the  Amazon.    On  the  surface  of  this  broad  river, 

669 


PIZZICATO— PLACENTA. 


no  vessel  floated,  and  it  ran  amid  gloomy  woods, 
the  silence  of  which  was  undisturbed  save  by  the 
sound  of  the  rushing  waters.  Here  P.  caused  a 
rude  bark  to  be  constructed  for  the  transport  of 
the  baggage  and  of  the  weaker  travellers.  Francisco 
de  Orellana  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of  the 
vessel.  P.,  hearing  of  a  populous  nation  at  the 
distance  of  a  few  days'  journey,  who  dwelt  near 
the  confluence  of  the  Nano  with  a  large  river,  sent 
forward  Orellana  to  obtain  and  bring  back  supplies 
for  the  starving  travellers,  who  had  eaten  the  last 
of  their  horses,  and  were  now  reduced  to  the  leather 
of  their  saddles  and  belts.  Orellana  reached  the 
Amazon;  but,  unable  either  to  obtain  supplies,  or 
to  return  against  the  current  of  the  river,  abandoned 
the  expedition,  and  with  his  fifty  followers  resolved 
to  sail  down  the  Amazon,  reach  the  Atlantic,  and 
make  for  Spain.  This  wonderful  design  was  success- 
fully carried  out.  P.,  after  waiting  in  vain  for  the 
return  of  the  barque,  resolved  to  return  to  Quito, 
which,  after  enduring  terrible  sufferings,  and  seeking 
fruitlessly  for  the  rich  regions  of  which  he  had 
heard  so  much,  he  reached  in  June  1542,  after  an 
absence  of  more  than  two  years.  The  fatal  char- 
acter of  this  expedition  may  be  inferred  from  the 
appearance  the  travellers  presented  on  their  return. 
Half  of  the  4000  Indians  had  perished,  and  of  the 
Spaniards,  only  eighty  remained  ;  and  these,  clad 
in  skins,  blackened  by  the  sun,  and  wasted  by 
hunger  and  fatigue,  with  long  matted  locks,  seemed 
like  a  troop  of  spectral  savages.  This  expedition 
stands  unmatched  in  the  annals  of  American  dis- 
covery for  its  dangers  and  sufferings,  for  the  length 
of  their  duration,  and  for  the  heroic  fortitude 
with  which  they  were  endured.  For  the  fate  of 
Gonzalo  P.,  see  article  Peru. 

PIZZICATO  (Ital.  twitched),  abbreviated  pizz., 
a  phrase  used  in  Music  for  the  violin  or  violoncello, 
to  denote  that  the  strings,  instead  of  being  played 
as  usual  by  the  bow,  are  to  be  twitched  with  the 
fingers  in  the  manner  of  a  harp  or  guitar.  The 
pizzicato  is  much  used  in  accompaniments,  as 
sounds  thus  produced  do  not  cover  the  voice  ;  it  is 
also  used  in  symphonic  effects.  The  ordinary  mode 
of  playing  is  restored  by  the  letters  c.  a.  (col  arco, 
with  the  bow). 

PLACE'NTA,  or  AFTER-BIRTH,  a  tem- 
porary organ  that  is  developed  within  the  uterus 
during  pregnancy,  and  is,  as  its  popular  name 
implies,  expelled  from  the  maternal  organism 
shortly  after  the  birth  of  the  child  or  young  animal. 
It  is  a  spongy  vascular  mass,  existing  in  some  form 
or  other  in  all  mammals,  excepting  the  Marsupialia 
and  Monotremafa,  as  an  appendage  to  the  foetal 
membrane  called  the  chorion.  In  the  human  sub- 
ject (fig.  1).  it  is  of  considerable  size  at  the  period  of 
delivery,  being  of  a  rounded  or  oval  form,  with  a 
diameter  of  6  or  8  inches,  and  a-  thickness  of  some- 
what more  than  an  inch.  Its  outer  surface,  which, 
till  the  period  of  its  detachment  and  expulsion,  is 
attached  to  the  walls  of  the  uterus,  is  uniform  and 
level  (unless  it  has  been  morbidly  adherent),  being 
covered  by  a  membrane,  shortly  to  be  noticed, 
called  the  decidua  serotina  ;  and  on  peeling  off  this 
membrane,  the  various  lobes  of  which  the  placenta 
is  composed  are  apparent.  The  internal  or  free 
surface  is  smooth  and  shining,  and  gives  attach- 
ment to  the  umbilical  cord  or  navel-string,  which 
connects  it  with  the  fcetus.  To  render  the  mode  of 
formation  of  the  placenta  clear,  we  must  premise 
that  the  impregnated  ovum,  when  it  reaches  the 
uterus,  is  invested  with  an  outer  membrane,  the 
chorion,  which  forms  a  shut  sac,  externally  covered 
with  short  villi.  As  the  ovum  advances  in  age, 
these  villi  diminish  in  number,  untd  few  remain, 
670 


except  at  that  part  of  the  chorion  which  is  i)  con- 
tact with  the  uterus  ;  and  here,  about  the  second 
month  (in  the  human  subject),  they  divide  into 
branches,  as  shewn  in  tig.  2.  While  these  changes 
are  going  on  in  the  membrane  of  the  ovum,  the 
uterus  is  also  undergoing  modification  ;  and  it  is 
on  the  nature  and  extent  of  these  uterine  changes 
that  the  character  or  type  of  the  placenta  depend* 


Fig.  1. — Human  Placenta  (half  of  it  being  split  in  tvra) 
and  Umbilical  Cord. 

There  are  two  such  types,  the  first  of  which  is  be*t 
represented  by  the  human  placenta,  and  the  latter 
by  that  of  the  pig. 

In  animals  exhibiting  the  first  type  of  placent  vl 
structure,  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  uteris 


Fig.  2.— Diagrammatic  Section  of  a  Human  Pregnant 
Uterus,  with  the  contained  Ovum  : 

u,  uterus:  I,  ovi  uct.  Kir  Fallopian  tube);  c,  cerv'x  uteri  'or 
neck  of  the  womb) ;  dv,  decidua  uteri ;  dr,  decidua  refiVxa  , 
ds,  decidua  serotina  :  ch,  chorion  ;  am,  amnion  ;  at,  allantois; 
rib,  umbilical  vesicle ;  z,  villi,  which  form  the  total  part  of 
the  jilacenta;  z',  villi  over  the  rest  of  the  chorion,  which,  in 
the  human  subject,  take  no  part  in  the  placental  function. 

undergoes  a  rapid  growth  and  modification  of 
texture,  becoming  connected  with  the  membrana 
decidua,  which  is  so  called  from  its  being  thrown  off 
at  each  parturition.  For  brevity,  it  is  usually 
termed  the  decidua.  This  decidua  is  from  an  early 
period  separable  into  three  portions— the  dtddua 


PLACENTA. 


vera,  or  decidua  uteri,  which  lines  the  general  cavity 
of  the  uterus;  the  decidua  rejlexa,  which   imme- 

tli.it tly  invests  the  ovum  ;  and  the  decidua  terotina, 
whioh  is  merely  a  special  development  <>f  a  part  of 
the  decidua  vera  at  the  part  when  the  villi  of 
the  chorion  arc  becoming  converted  in t< >  the  foetal 
portion  of  the  placenta.  The  arrangement  of  these 
layers  is  distinctly  seen  in  fig.  2.  At  first,  the  villi 
ot  the  chorion  lie  loosely  in  the  corresponding 
depressions  of  the  decidua;  hut  subsequently,  the 
foetal  and  maternal  structures  (the  villi  and  the 
deeidua  vera)  become  closely  united,  so  as  to  form 
one  inseparable  mass,  by  the  following  means:  the 
deeper  substance  of  the  uterine  mucous  membrane  in 
the  region  of  the  placenta  is  traversed  by  vessels 
which  enlarge  into  what,  in  the  case  of  the  veins,  are 
termed  sinuses,  dip  down  between  the  villi,  'and  at 
last  swell  round  and  between  them,  so  that  finally 
the  villi  are  completely  bound  up  or  covered  l>y  the 
membrane  which  constitutes  the  walls  of  the 
vessels,  this  membrane  following  the  contour  of  all 
the  villi,  and  even  passing,  to  a  certain  extent,  over 
the  branches  and  stems  of  the  tufts.' — Goodsu'a 
Anatomical  and  Pathological  Observations,  p.  60. 

The  pure  maternal  blood  is  conveyed  to  the 
placenta  by  what  are  termed,  from  their  tortuous 
course,  'the  curling  arteries'  of  the  uterus,  and  is 
returned  by  the  large  veins  termed  sinuses.  '  The 
foetal  vessels,'  says  Dr  Carpenter,  '  being  bathed  m 
this  blood,  as  the  branchiae  of  aquatic  animals  are 
in  the  water  that  surrounds  them,  not  only  enable 
the  foetal  blood  to  exchange  its  venous  character 
for  the  arterial,  by  parting  with  its  carbonic  acid 
to  the  maternal  blood,  and  receiving  oxygen  from  it, 
but  they  also  serve  as  rootlets,  by  which  certain 
nutritious  elements  of  the  maternal  blood  (probably 
those  composing  the  liquor  sanguinis)  are  taken  into 
the  system  of  the  foetus.  It  is  probable,  too,  that 
the  placenta  is  to  be  regarded  as  an  excretory 
organ,  serving  for  the  removal,  through  the  mater- 
nal blood,  of  excrementitious  matter,  whose  con- 
tinued circulation  through  the  blood  of  the  foetus 
would  be  prejudicial  to  the  latter.' — Human  Physio- 
logy, 3d  ed.  pp.  1013,  1014  Moreover,  the  recent 
investigations  of  Bernard  shew  that  the  placenta 
secretes,  like  the  liver,  the  saccharine  matter  known 
as  Glycogen  (q.  v.),  which  probably  takes  part  in 
keeping  up  the  animal  heat.  The  vascular  connection 
between  the  foetus  and  the  placenta  is  effected  by 
the  umbilical  vein  (containing  arterial  blood)  and 
the  two  umbilical  arteries  (containing  venous  blood), 
all  of  which  lie  in  the  umbilical  cord  which  connects 
the  Foetus  (q.  v.)  with  the  placenta.  The  placenta 
may  be  formed  at  any  point  of  the  uterus,  but  is 
most  commonly  on  the  left  side.  Occasionally  (in 
11  cases  out  of  600,  according  to  Naegele),  it  is 
situated  partially  or  entirely  over  the  mouth  of  the 
womb  (os  uteri),  in  which  case  dangerous  flooding 
takes  place  previous  to  or  at  the  period  of  labour. 
This  condition  is  known  as  placenta  prosvia,  and 
under  ordinary  management,  '  one  in  three  of  the 
mothers  are  lost,  and  more  than  65  per  cent,  of 
the  children.' — Churchill,  Theory  and  Practice  of 
Midwifery,  3d  ed.  p.  473.  By  substituting  the 
detachment  and  extraction  of  the  placenta  for  the 
old  method  of  turning  the  child  in  utero,  Professor 
Simpson  finds  that  the  mortality  sinks  to  one  in 
fourteen  of  the  mothers,  but  slightly  rises  (to  69  per 
cent.)  in  the  case  of  the  children. 

Another  difficulty  in  midwifery  practice,  but  far 
less  serious  than  the  preceding,  is  undue  retention 
of  the  placenta.  In  ordinary  cases,  the  average 
interval  between  the  birth  of  the  child  and  the 
expulsion  of  the  after- birth  is  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 
When  the  expulsion  does  not  take  place  within  an 
hour  or  an  hour  and  a  half,  the  case  is  regarded  as 


coming  under  the  head   of  'retained   placenta'     It 
occurs  in  about  1  CAM  in  400,  and  in  these  I 
;  fatal    to    about   one   mother   in   five  J    tin-   cai 
death  being  haemorrhage.    The  principal  causes  of 
retention  are  either  imperfect  and   insufficient,  or 
irregular  contraction  of  the  womb,  alter  the  birth  »t 

the  ehilil.  In  the  lirst  of  these  cases,  if  the  uterus 
cannot  be  excited  to  sufficient  action,  the  placenta 
must  be  withdrawn  by  steady  traction  ot  the 
umbilical  cord,  and  if  it  fail,  extraction  by  the 
introduction  of  the  hand  (an  operation  always  to  be 
avoided  if  possible)  must  be  resorted  to;  in  the 
latter  case,  manual  extraction  is  commonly  neces- 
sary. Sometimes,  in  consequence  of  inllammatory 
or  other  affections  of  the  placenta,  there  may  be 
adhesion  between  its  outer  surface  and  the  inner 
surface  of  the  womb.  This  is  the  most  dangerous 
form  of  retention,  there  being  usually  e.v 
flooding,  and  additionally  the  peril  arising  from  the 
decomposition  of  any  portion  that  cannot  be 
removed  without  undue  violence. 

The  placenta  acquires  its  proper  character,  in  the 
human  subject,  during  the  third  month,  and  it  sub- 
sequently goes  on  increasing  to  the  full  period  of 
gestation.  At  about  the  fourth  month,  the  blood, 
moving  through  the  enlarged  uterine  vessels,  pro- 
duces a  peculiar  murmur,  which  is  known  as  the 
placental  bruit,  resembling  the  sound  made  by 
blowing  gently  over  the  lip  of  a  wide-mouthed 
phial,  and  increasing  in  intensity  and  strength  as 
pregnancy  (of  which  it  is  one  of  the  characteristic 
signs)  advances. 

In  animals  exhibiting  the  second  tj'pe  of  placental 
structure— as,  for  example,  the  pig— the  placenta  is 
Comparatively  simple  in  its  structure.  'No  decidua 
is  developed  ;  the  elevations  and  depressions  of  the 
unimpregnated  uterus  simply  acquire  a  greater  size 
and  vascularity  during  pregnancy,  and  cohere  closely 
with  the  chorionic  villi,  which  do  not  become 
restricted  to  one  spot,  but  are  developed  from  ali 
f>arts  of  the  chorion,  except  its  poles,  and  remain 
persistent  in  the  broad  zone  thus  formed  throughout 
foetal  life.  The  cohesion  of  the  foetal  and  maternal 
placentae,  however,  is  overcome  by  slight  maceration 
or  post-mortem  change  ;  and  at  parturition,  the  feetal 
villi  are  simply  drawn  out  like  lingers  from  a  glove, 
no  vascular  substance  of  the  mother  being  thrown 
off.'  Professor  Huxley,  from  whose  Elements  oj 
Comparative  Anatomy  (1S64,  p.  103)  the  preceding 
extract  is  borrowed,  follows  the  opinion  adopted 
by  De  Blainville,  Von  Baer,  Eschricht,  Milne- 
Edwards,  Gervais,  and  Vogt  in  regarding  'the 
features  of  the  placenta  as  affording  the  best 
characters  which  have  yet  been  proposed  for 
classifying  the  monodelphous  [or  placental]  mam- 
mals.' He  proposes  to  apply  the  term  deciduate  to 
those  animals  whose  placenta  presents  the  human 
type,  and  which  throw  off  a  decidua  ;  and  to  term 
those  animals  non-deciduate  in  which  the  placenta 
is  constructed  on  the  same  plan  as  that  of  the  pig. 
'  Thus,'  he  observes,  '  man  ;  the  apes,  or  so-called 
Quadiumana ;  the Insectivora ;  the  Cheiroptera  ;  the 
Rodmtia,  to  which  the  lowrest  apes  present  so  many 
remarkable  approximations  ;  and  the  Carnivora,  are 
all  as  closely  connected  by  their  placental  structure 
as  they  are  by  their  general  affinities.  With  the 
pig,  on  the  other  hand,  the  ungtdate  quadrupeds, 
and  the  Cetacea  which  have  been  studied,  agree 
in  developing  no  decidua,  or,  in  other  words,  in 
the  fact,  that  no  vascular  maternal  parts  are 
thrown  off  during  parturition.  But  considerable 
differences  are  observed  in  the .  details  of  the 
disposition  of  the  feetal  villi,  and  of  the  parts  of 
the  uterus  which  receive  them.  Thus,  in  the  horse, 
camel,  and  Cetacea,  the  villi  are  scattered  as  in  tb^ 
pig,  and  the  placenta  is  said  to  be  diffuse;  whil* 

671 


PLACENTA— PLACETUM  REGIUM. 


in  almost  all  true  Ruminants,  the  foetal  villi  are 
gathered  into  bundles  or  cotyledons  (fig.  3),  which 
in  the  sheep  are  convex,  and  are  received  into  cups 


Fig.  3.— Uterus  of  a  Cow  in  the  middle  of  Pregnancy,  laid 

open  : 

v,  vagina ;  u,  uterus  ;   ck,  chorion ;    c',  uterine  cotyledons ; 

c2,  foetal  cotyledons. 


of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  uterus ;  while  in 
the  cow,  on  the  contrary,  they  are  concave,  and  fit 
upon  corresponding  convexities  of  the  uterus.' 

The  remarks  which  have  been  made  on  the  func- 
tions of  the  human  placenta,  are  equally  applicable 
to  ail  placental  mammals  generally. 

The  diseases  of  the  human  placenta  had  not  been 
Btudied  with  any  accuracy,  until  the  subject  was 
taken  up  by  Professor  Simpson.  This  distinguished 
physician  and  subsequent  observers  have  ascer- 
tained that  the  placenta  is  liable  to  (1)  congestion, 
ending  in  the  effusion  of  blood  into  the  substance 
of  the  organ  upon  its  surfaces,  or  between  the 
membranes ;  (2)  Inflammation,  giving  rise  to  adhe- 
sions, or  terminating  in  suppuration,  which  may 
occasion  very  serious  constitutional  disturbances ; 
(3)  Partial  or  entire  hypertrophy  or  atrophy ;  and 
(4),  Fatty  degeneration,  affecting  its  small  vessels. 
Whatever  be  the  form  of  disease  by  which  the 
placenta  is  attacked,  the  result  is  usually  fatal  to 
the  foetus. 

PLACENTA,  in  Botany,  a  membrane  of  the 
interior  of  the  Germen  (q.  v.)  or  ovary,  to  which  the 
ovules  are  attached  either  immediately  or  by  Umbi- 
lical Cords  (q.  v.).  The  placenta  sometimes  appears 
as  a  mere  thickening  of  the  walls  of  the  germen. 
In  many  cases,  it  is  a  more  decided  projection  from 
the  walls  of  the  germen.  When  thus  connected 
with  the  walls  of  the  germen,  the  placentae  are 
described  as  parietal  (Lat.  paries,  a  wall).  But  in 
some  plants,  the  placentae  of  the  different  cells  of 
the  germen  are  united  together  in  a  column  in  its 
axis,  and  they  are  then  described  as  axile.  This 
distinction  is  of  great  impoi-tance  as  character- 
ising different  natural  orders.  Parietal  placentas 
are  formed  where  the  edges  of  carpellary  leaves 
unite  ;  but  great  difficulty  has  been  experienced  by 
vegetable  physiologists  in  explaining  the  formation 
of  axile  placentas ;  some  regarding  them  as  also 
originally  formed  in  this  manner,  and  others  as 
formed  in  a  quite  different  manner  from  the  axis 
itself  ;  no  l  is  it  impossible  that  both  theories  may 


be  correct  as  to  different  orders  of  plants.  It  ia 
certain  that  in  many  cases  in  which  the  placentae 
appear  as  axile,  they  are  formed  from  the  edges 
of  the  carpellary  leaves  which  fold  in  to  meet 
in  the  axis,  and  form  Dissepiments  (q.  v.) 
between  the  cells  of  the  germen.  The  num- 
ber of  placentae  corresponds  with  the  number 
of  carpels  in  the  germen,  or  appears  to  be 
the  double  of  it,  each  carpel  producing  two 
rows  of  ovules  instead  of  one.  (See  figures  in 
article  Pistil. 

PLACE'NZA.     See  Piacenza. 

PLACETUM    REGIUM,  called  also 

Placet,  Exequatur,  Lettres  Patentes,  is 
an  act  or  instrument  executed  in  virtue  of 
the  privilege  claimed  by  the  government  in 
certain   kingdoms  to  exercise  a   supervision 
over    the    communications    of    the    Roman 
pontiff  with  the  clergy  and  people  of  those 
kingdoms,  and   to   suspend   or    prevent  the 
publication  of  any  brief,  bull,  or  other  papal 
instrument  which  may  appear  to  contravene 
the  laws  of  the  kingdom,  or  to  compromise 
the   public    interest.      The    early    Christian 
emperors,  it  is  well  known,  freely  stretched 
their  legislation  into  the  affairs  of  the  church; 
and  one  constant  cause  of   conflict  between 
church  and  state,  in  the  medieval  period,  was 
the  attempt,  on  the  part  of  the  sovereigns, 
to  control  the  free  intercourse  of   the  pope 
with  the  several  churches.     In  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction  in  France,  and  in  the  similar  legis- 
lation of  Spain,  Portugal,  Sicily,  and  the  Low 
Countries  during  the  15th  c,  the  claims  of  the  state 
on  the  same  head  are  more  than  once  asserted ;  and 
among  the  so-called  '  liberties '  of  the  later  Gallican 
Church  was  a  certain,  though  not  a  complete  subjec- 
tion to  the  state  in  this  particular;  but  it  was  in  the 
German  states  that  this  claim  was  most  distinctly 
asserted,  and  most  formally  embodied  in  the  con- 
stitutional   law.      The    principle    upon   which   the 
Peace  of  Westphalia,  so  far  as  regards  its  religious 
provisions,  is  based,  is  that  the  will  of  the  sovereign 
of  the  state  is  supreme  and  final  in  all  the  concerns 
of  religion.     Cujus  regio  illius  et  rel'njio  ('  Whose  the 
territory,  his  also  the  religion'),  became  the  maxim 
of  church  government ;  and,  of  course,  within  certain 
limits,  the  Catholic  sovereigns  acted  as  freely  upon 
it  as  the   Protestant.     This    intermixture   of    the 
spiritual  and  the  temporal  prevailed   especially  in 
the  mixed  governments  of  the  ecclesiastical  sove- 
reigns of  Germany,  the  prince-bishops  of  the  Rhine ; 
but  without  the  same  foundation,  the  system  was 
carried  to  its  height  in  Austria  under  Joseph  II.  (see 
Febronianism,  Pius  VI.),  the  excessive  minuteness 
of  whose  ecclesiastical  ordinances  procured  for  him 
the  sobriquet  of  'The  Sacristan.'     Under  him.  all 
pontifical  bulls,  briefs,  and  constitutions,  and  all  the 
ordinances  of  the  local  bishops,  were  made  subject 
to  the  imperial  censorship,  and  it  was  forbidden  to 
publish  any  of  them  without  its  receiving  the  placet 
of  the  emperor.     The  only  exception,  in  the  case  of 
pontifical  decrees,  regarded  those  emanating  from 
the  Roman  Penitentiary  (q.  v.),  which,  as  being  of 
their  nature  secret,  were  not  held  subject  to  revi- 
sion.     In   Prussia,   the    same    law   was    enforced, 
as   also   in   Baden   and  Saxony,  no    less    than    in 
the  Protestant  governments  of  Wurtemberg,  Saxe- 
Gotha,  Saxe- Weimar,  &c.    These  claims  of  the  state 
had  always  been  the  subject  of  protest  on  the  part 
of  the  Roman  see,  but  the  church,  nevertheless,  had 
been  compelled  to  acquiesce  silently  in  the  enforce- 
ment.     In    many  cases,   however,   they  have   led 
to  serious    disputes,  of  which  the  mixed -marriage 
question  in  Prussia  furnished  a  recent  »nd  very 


PLACOID  FISHES -PL  AGUE. 


remarkable  example.  On  the  whole,  nevertheless, 
the  results  have  involved  less  of  conflict  than  might 
have  been  expected.  The  general  relaxation  of 
absolutist  principles  in  the  government,  whether  of 
state  or  of  chorea,  which  followed  the  revolution  of 
1848,  has  led  to  very  considerable  modifications  of 
these  regulations  in  almost  all  tlie  German  states  ; 
and  in  Austria  especially,  the  concordat  has  involved 
many  important  changes  in  every  department  of 
ecclesiastical  ordinance. 

PLA'COID  FISHES,  an  order  of  fishes,  in  the 
classification  proposed  by  Agassiz,  characterised  by 
having  placoid  (Or.  plax,  a  broad  plate)  scales, 
irregular  plates  of  hard  bone,  not  imbricated,  but 
placed  near  together  in  the  skin.  These  scales  or 
plates  are  of  considerable  size  in  some  fishes,  but 
in  others  they  are  very  small  tubercles,  as  in  the 
dogfish,    of    which    the    skin    forms    fine-grained 


'Cm 


Placoid  Scales : 
4  <jthJ  b,  placoid  scales  of  Aleuteres  trosBulas,  one  of  the  Balis- 
tid£e.  from  Australia;  c,  rf,  e,  scales  from  different  parts  of 
tlic  body  of  Aleuteres  variabilis, 

shagreen.  Agassiz  includes  among  the  P.  F.  those 
cartilaginous  fishes  which  have  no  scales.  The 
order  is  exclusively  composed  of  Cartilaginous  fishes 
(q.  v.).  The  existing  P.  F.  are  few  in  comparison 
with  the  fossil  genera  and  species.  Placoid  scales 
are  often  elevated  in  th»  middle,  the  centre  some- 
times rising  into  a  strongly  projecting  point  or 
spine.  They  exhibit  great  variety  of  forms,  some- 
times even  in  different  parts  of  the  same  fish. 

PLA'GAL,  a  musical  term,  principally  applicable 
to  Canto  Fermo  and  signifying  collateral.  Gregory 
the  Great,  in  revising  the  labours  of  Ambrose,  and 
remodelling  the  Plainsong  (q.  v.)  of  the  church, 
added  to  the  scales  of  Ambrose,  which  he  distin- 
guished as  authentic,  certain  other  collateral  scales, 
which  he  called  plagal,  possessing  the  peculiarity  of 
having  the  octave  so  divided  that  the  fourth  was 
above  the  fifth.  Melodies  are  now  known  as  plagal 
which  have  their  principal  notes  contained  between 
the  fifth  of  the  key  and  its  octave  or  twelfth.  The 
cadence,  consisting  of  the  subdominant  harmony 
followed  by  the  tonic,  is  called  the  plagal  cadence — 


# 


-zr- 


PLAGIO'STOMI  (Gr.  transverse-mouthed),  an 
order  of  fishes,  in  the  system  of  Mliller,  containing 
the  cartilaginous  fishes  with  Placoid  (q.  v.)  scales, 
and  divided  into  two  sub-orders,  one  containing 
6harks,  and  the  other  rays.  The  P.  have  five  or 
more  gill-openings.  They  have  no  air-bladder. 
Impregnation  takes  place  before  the  eggs  are 
deposited,  and  the  males  are  furnished  with 
claspers. 

PLAGUE,  a  very  malignant  kind  of  conta- 
gious fever  prevailing  at  certain  times  and  places 


epidemically,  characterised  by  buboes,  or  swel- 
lings of  the  lymphatic  glands,  by  carbuncles  and 
petechia),  and  not  apparently  furnishing  any  security 
against  its  recurrence  in  the  same  individual     For 

a  history  of  the  origin  of  the  plague  in  the  far  Bait 

(China),   and   its    gradual    spread,    under    the   name 

of  the  Black  Death  (q.  v.),  through  Asia  and  Europe, 
in  the  14th  c,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Becker! 
Epidemics  of  die  Middle  Ayes  (1844,  published  by 
the  Sydenham  Society).  Its  true  and  permanent 
home  seems  to  be  in  the  regions  bordering  upon 
the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Mediterranean.  At 
different  periods  of  the  16th,  lGth,  and  17th  cen- 
turies, it  visited  Western  Europe.  It  last  attacked 
London  and  England  almost  generally  in  the  years 
1G63 — 1GG">;  while  so  late  as  1720,  it  destroyed 
nearly  half  the  population  of  Marseille;  and  seventy 
years  afterwards,  prevailed  in  liussia  and  Poland, 
since  which  time  it  has  been  almost  unknown  in 
Western  Europe.  It  is  now  limited  chiefly  to 
Egypt,  Syria,  Anatolia,  Greece,  and  Turkey,  occa- 
sionally extending  northward  towards  Russia,  and 
westward  as  far  as  Malta. 

The  disease  usually  commences  with  a  sensation 
of  intense  weariness  and  fatigue,  slight  shivering, 
nausea  and  sickness,  confusion  of  ideas,  giddiness, 
and  pain  in  the  loins.  These  symptoms  are  rapidly 
followed  by  increased  mental  disturbance,  with 
occasional  stupor  and  delirium,  by  alternate  pallor 
and  Hushing  of  the  face,  by  suffusion  of  the  eyes, 
and  a  feeling  of  intense  constriction  in  the  region 
of  the  heart.  Darting  pains  are  felt  in  the  groins, 
armpits,  and  other  parts  of  the  body,  which  are  soon 
followed  by  enlargements  of  the  lymphatic  glands, 
or  buboes  (which  sometimes  appear  on  the  first  and 
second  day,  sometimes  not  till  near  the  close  of  the 
disease,  and  sometimes  are  altogether  absent),  and 
by  the  formation  of  carbuncles  on  various  parts  of 
the  body.  As  the  disease  advances,  the  tongue 
becomes  dry  and  brown,  while  the  gums,  teeth,  and 
lips  are  covered  with  a  dark  fur ;  the  bowels,  at 
first  constipated,  become  relaxed,  the  stools  being 
dark,  offensive,  and  sometimes  bloody.  The  power 
of  the  will  on  the  muscles  is  much  impaired; 
and  altogether  the  patient  resembles  a  person  under 
the  influence  of  intoxication.  Throughout  the 
disease,  there  is  more  or  less  tendency  to  faint- 
ness ;  and  usually  about  the  second  or  third  day, 
petechial  spots,  livid  patches  like  bruises,  and  dark 
stripes  (called  vibices),  appear  upon  the  skin, 
especially  in  severe  cases.  These  discolorations  are 
owing  to  the  extravasation  of  blood,  and  are  often 
accompanied  with  hsemorrhagic  discharges  from  the 
mucous  membranes.  In  fatal  cases,  the  pulse  grad- 
ually sinks,  the  surface  becomes  cold  and  clammy, 
blood  oozes  from  the  mucous  surfaces,  there  is 
coma,  or  low  delirium  ;  and  death  occurs  usually  in 
five  or  six  days,  either  without  a  struggle,  or  pre- 
ceded by  convulsions. 

Great  difference  of  opinion  exists  a?  to  the 
cause  of  plague.  Some  maintain  that  it  is  propa- 
gated exclusively  by  a  peculiar  contagion ;  others, 
while  admitting  its  contagious  nature,  maintain 
that  it  may  also  be  spontaneously  engendered  by 
endemic  or  epidemic  influences  ;  while  others,  again, 
reject  the  contagion  view  altogether,  and  assert  that 
it  originates  exclusively  in  local  causes  or  epidemic 
influences.  Of  these  three  views,  the  great  mass 
of  evidence  goes  to  shew  that  the  second  is  the 
correct  one.  Whatever  may  be  the  cause  of  the 
disease,  temperature  appears  to  exert  a  considerable 
influence  over  it.  In  tropical  climates,  the  disease  is 
unknown,  and  the  cold  weather  of  northern  climates 
has  been  observed  to  check  its  ravages.  In  Europe, 
it  has  always  been  most  fatal  in  the  summer  and 
autumn,   especially   in   September.      Thus,  in   th« 

573 


PLAICE— PLANARIA. 


great  plague  of  London  in  16G5,  the  deaths  from 
the  plague  were,  in  June,  590 ;  in  July,  4129 ;  in 
August,  20,046  ;  in  September,  26,2.30  ;  in  October, 
14,373 ;  in  November,  3449 ;  while  in  December, 
they  were  less  than  1000. 

The  exact  nature  of  the  disease  is  unknown.  A 
poison  whose  characters  evade  all  chemical  and 
microscopical  examination,  is  absorbed,  and  alters 
at  once,  or  after  a  short  stage  of  incubation,  the 
composition  of  the  blood  and  the  condition  of  the 
tissues. 

With  respect  to  treatment,  little  can  be  done  to 
arrest  the  progress  of  the  disease  in  any  individual 
case.  The  patient  should,  if  possible,  be  removed 
at  once  from  the  source  of  the  disease ;  he  should 
be  exposed  freely  to  fresh  air ;  his  secretions  should 
be  duly  regulated,  and  his  strength  supported  as 
far  as  possible.  Friction  with  olive  oil  has  beeu 
strongly  recommended,  but  subserpient  experience 
has  not  confirmed  the  first  reports  in  its  favour. 
But  although  treatment  is  comparatively  valueless, 
much  may  be  done  towards  guarding  against  the 
attacks  of  the  disease.  There  can  be  little  doubt 
that  it  is  in  consequence  of  the  free  external  use  of 
cold  water,  perfect  cleanliness,  moderate  habits  of 
life,  and  superior  ventilation,  that  European  (espe- 
cially English)  residents  in  the  infected  cities  of 
the  Levant  are  comparatively  exempt  from  this 
disease.  It  is  very  possible  that  inunction  of  the 
body  with  olive  oil  may  be  (as  has  been  asserted) 
a  useful  prophylactic  agent,  although  it  fails  to  cure 
the  disease.  It  is  almost  needless  to  add,  that  all 
unnecessary  communication  with  the  sick,  or  con- 
tact with  clothes  or  other  matter  that  may  have 
been  infected  with  the  poison,  should  be  as  much 
as  possible  avoided. 

PLAICE  (Platessa  vulgaris),  a  species  of  Flounder 
(q.  v.),  much  resembling  the  common  flounder,  but 
rather  broader  in  proportion  to  its  length ;  the 
upper  surface  of  the  body  and  the  fins  olive-brown, 
marked  with  large  bright  orange  spots;  a  row  of 
similar  spots  on  the  dorsal  fin  and  on  the  anal  fin  ; 
no  tubercular  asperities  on  any  part  of  the  body, 
but  a  curved  row  of  bony  tubercles  on  the  eye-side 
of  the  head.  The  P.  inhabits  sandy  and  muddy 
banks,  not  in  very  deep  water,  and  is  very  abund- 
ant on  most  parts  of  the  British  coasts,  as  well  as 
on  those  of  continental  Europe.  Like  the  common 
flounder,  it  often  ascends  slow  rivers  to  some 
distance  from  the  sea,  and  it  has  even  been  found 
to  thrive  well  when  transferred  to  fresh-water 
ponds.  It  feeds  on  worms,  molluscs,  small  crus- 
taceans, and  young  fishes.  It  has  been  known  to 
attain  the  weight  of  fifteen  pounds,  but  a  P.  of 
seven  or  eight  pounds  is  accounted  large.  It  is 
taken  both  by  lines  and  trawl-nets.  It  is  in  con- 
siderable esteem  for  the  table,  although  so  plentiful 
in  the  British  markets,  that  it  is  in  general  very 
cheap. 

PLAID,  a  woollen  garment,  in  the  form  of  a  large 
scarf,  to  wrap  round  the  body,  and  used  chiefly 
among  the  rural  population  of  Scotland.  See 
Tartan. 

PLAIN,  in  Geography,  is  an  extensive  tract  of 
country  which,  on  the  whole,  preserves  a  nearly 
uniform  elevation.  When  referred  to  the  level  of 
the  sea,  plains  may  be  distinguished  into  low  plains 
or  lowlands,  and  elevated  plains  called  plateaux  or 
Table-lands  (q.  v.).  Plains  differ  much  in  appear- 
ance, according  to  the  nature  of  their  soil  and 
climate,  from  the  frightful  sandy  wastes  of  Africa, 
to  the  luxuriant  fertility  of  the  South  American 
silvas.  They  are  occasionally  crossed  by  hills 
of  moderate  altitude,  which,  however,  are  gener- 
ally detached,  and  exhibit  no  connection  with 
674 


any  neighbouring  mountain  system.  These  hills 
often,  as  in  the  North  American  plains,  degen- 
erate into  mere  undulations,  perfectly  uniform 
in  structure.  The  term  'plains'  is,  in  a  limited 
sense,  confined  to  the  plains  of  Western  Europe  ; 
those  of  other  parts  of  the  world  receiving  special 
designations,  and  differing  from  each  other  in  many 
important  points;  thus,  we  have  the  Steppes  (q.  v.)  of 
Eastern  Europe  and  Asia  ;  the  Deserts  (q.  v.)  of 
Arabia  and  Africa;  the  Savannalis  (q.v.)  and  Prairie* 
(q.  v.)  of  North  America;  and  the  Llanos  (q.  v.). 
Pampas  (q.  v.),  and  Silvas  (q.  v.)  of  South  America, 
The  chief  plains  of  Europe  are,  the  country  stretch* 
ing  from  the  foot  of  the  Carpathians  in  Galicia  to 
the  Ural  Mountains  (including  Poland  and  Russia), 
the  drainage-area  of  the  Danube  in  Hungary,  and 
the  portion  of  Europe  which  is  bounded  by  the 
Elbe,  the  Harz  Mountains,  France,  and  the  sea. 
Plains  of  comparatively  small  extent,  but  presenting 
the  necessary  characteristics  in  perfection,  are  found 
in  almost  all  countries. 

PLAI'NSONG,  or  CANTO  FERMO  (Ital.),  a 
name  given  by  the  Church  of  Rome  to  the  eccle- 
siastical chant.  It  is  an  extremely  simple  melody, 
admitting  only  notes  of  equal  value,  rarely  extend- 
ing beyond  the  compass  of  an  octave,  and  never 
exceeding  nine  notes,  the  staff  on  which  the  notes 
are  placed  consisting  of  only  four  fines.  The  clefs 
are  C  and  F.  St  Ambrose  is  considered  to  have 
been  the  inventor  or  systematiser  of  P.lainsong. 
His  labours  consisted  in  selecting  from  the  extremely 
complicated  system  of  the  Greeks  a  set  of  scales 
sufficiently  few  and  simple  for  a  very  rude  people. 
During  the  two  centuries  succeeding  the  death  of 
Ambrose,  his  institutions  fell  into  utter  confusion. 
Gregory  the  Great  revived  and  perfected  them, 
recasting  them  into  an  Antiphony,  or  authorised 
body  of  ecclesiastical  music,  and  brought  Plainsong 
into  the  state  in  which  it  is  yet  used  in  the  Roman 
church.  See  Ambrosian  Chant  and  Gregorian 
Chant. 

PLAI'NTIFF,  in  English  and  Irish  Law,  is  the 
name  given  to  the  person  who  institutes  and  main- 
tains a  civil  action  or  suit  against  another,  who  is 
called  the  Defendant.  In  Scotland,  a  plaintiff  is 
called  a  Pursuer.  But  in  both  countries,  many 
proceedings  and  applications  of  a  civil  nature  are 
commenced  by  petition  ;  and  hence  the  party  taking 
the  initiative  is  called  the  Petitioner. 

PLAN,  a  word  frequently  applied  to  all  kinds 
of  architectural  drawings,  but  which  ought  to  be 
limited  to  those  which  represent  the  horizontal 
sections  of  the  various  floors  of  buildings.  Plans 
shew  the  disposition  of  the  apartments  and  walls, 
with  the  situation  of  the  fireplaces,  cupboards, 
doors,  &c. ;  they,  in  fact,  represent  the  different 
stories  as  they  actually  appear  as  seen  from  above, 
when  the  walls  are  built  two  or  three  feet  above 
the  level  of  each  floor. 

PLAN  ATRIA,  a  genus  of  worms  placed  by  Cuviei 
among  Eutozoa,  although  not  parasites,  but  inha- 
bitants of  stagnant  waters,  because  of  their  great 
resemblance  to  some  of  the  entozoic  parasites,  and 
particularly  to  flukes.  The  species  are  numerous. 
Some  inhabit  fresh,  and  others  salt  water  ;  they 
feed  on  small  annelids,  molluscs,  &c.  They  are 
generally  found  creeping  among  conferva?,  or  on 
the  stems  of  plants.  Many  of  the  larger  marine 
species  are  able  to  swim  freely  by  flappings  of  the 
broad  margins  of  their  bodies.  The  body  of  a 
planaria  seems  to  be  entirely  gelatinous  ;  but  M. 
de  Quatrefages  has  detected  under  the  skin  an 
arrangement  of  muscular  fibres.  Two  red  specks 
in  the  fore-part  of  the  body  of  many  species  have 
been  supposed  to  be  eyes ;  but  there  is  no  proof  of 


PLANE. 


it  Planarins  are  hermaphrodite,  hut  copulate  for 
mutual  impregnation.  Their  power  of  multipli- 
cation by  division   is  very  great  ;  if  an  individual 

be  cut  iii  pieces,  each  pieee  < tinues  to  live  and 

feel,  and  'even  if  it  be  the  end  of  the  tail,  as  soon 
as  til"  first  moment  of  pain  and  irritation  lias  □ 
begins  to  move  in  the  same  direction  m  that  in 

whic.li  the  entire  animal  was  advancing,  as  it  the 
body  was  actuated  throughout  by  the  same  impulse  ; 
and,  moreover,  every  division,  even  if  it  is  not  more 
than  the  eighth  or  tenth  part  of  the  creature,  will 
become  complete  and  perfect  in  all  its  organs.' — 
Ryinrr  Junes. 

PLANE,  in  Geometry,  is  a  surface  without  cur- 
vature, and  the  test  of  it  is,  that  any  two  points 
whatever  being  taken  in  the  surface,  the  straight 
^jne  which  joins  them  lies  wholly  in  the  surface. 
When  two  planes  cross  or  intersect  one  another, 
their  common  section  is  a  straight  line  ;  and  the 
inclination  of  the  planes  to  each  other  is  measured 
by  taking  any  point  in  their  common  section,  and 
drawing  from  it  two  straight  lines,  one  in  each 
plane,  perpendicular  to  the  common  section  ;  the 
angle  contained  by  these  lines  is  the  an<;le  of  inclin- 
ation of  the  planes.  When  the  angle  is  a  right 
angle,  the  planes  are  perpendicular  to  each  other. 

PLANE  (Pin tonus),  a  genus  of  trees,  the  sole 
genus  of  the  natural  order  Platanacece,  regarded  by 
many  as  a  sub-order  of  Amentnceoz  (q.  v.).  The 
flowers  are  in  globose  stalked  catkins  ;  the  ovary  is 
one-celled,    and    contains    one    or    two    pendulous 


Plane  Tree  (Platanus  orientalis). 

ovules.  The  species  of  P.  are  few;  natives  of 
temperate  climates  in  the  northern  hemisphere  ; 
tall  trees,  with  smooth  whitish  bark,  which  annu- 
ally scales  off  in  lar^e  pieces,  aud  large  palmate 
deciduous  leaves.  The  catkins  are  small,  and 
curiously  placed  one  above  another  on  the  same 
stalk ;  they  are  pendulous,  with  long  stalks,  and 
give  plane  trees  a  very  peculiar  appearance,  especi- 
ally in  winter,  when  they  remain  after  the  leaves 
have  fallen. — The  Oriental  P.  (P.  orientalis),  a 
native  of  Greece  and  the  East,  was  much  admired 
and  planted,  both  by  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans, 
as  an  ornamental  tree ;  no  other  tree,  indeed,  com- 
manding equal  admiration ;  and,  for  centuries,  the 
youth  of  Greece  assembled  under  the  shade  of 
planes,  in  the  groves  of  Academus  and  elsewhere, 
to  receive  lessons  in  philosophy.  To  this  day,  the 
P.  is  generally  planted  for  shade  and  ornament  in 


nth  of  Kurope.  Many  fine  trees  exist  in 
England,  but  they  were  at  one  time  much  more 
numerous,  great  part  having  died  in  the  end  of  last 
century,  probably  from  some  disease  similar  to  the 

potato    disease.       The    injury    often    dune    to    the 

young  leaves  by  late  frosts,  and  the  insufficient 
duration  of  the  summer  for  the  proper  ripening  of 

the  w I.  render  the  j*.  ten  suitable  for  Scotland; 

yet  there  is  a  tree  at  Gordon  Castle  06  feet 
high.  No  tree  better  endures  the  atmosphere  of  a 
lar  e  city,  ami  there  are  no  liner  trees  within  the 
precincts  <>f  London  than  the  P.  trees  which  are 
to  be  seen  in  some  places  there.  In  its  native 
regions  the  P.  attains  an  immense  size.  One  tree, 
which  grows  in  the  meadow  of  Buyukdere  on  the 
banks  of  the  Bosporus,  is  141  feet  in  circum- 
ference at  the  base — its  trunk  being  apparently 
formed  of  several  which  have  grown  together — 
extends  its  branches  45  feet  from  the  trunk, 
and  is  believed  to  be  more  than  2000  years  old. 
The  wood  of  the  P.,  when  young,  is  yellowish- 
white  ;  when  old,  it  is  brownish,  fine  grained,  takes 
a  high  polish,  and  is  esteemed  for  cabinet-making. 
A  rich  alluvial  soil  and  the  vicinity  of  water  are 
most  suitable  to  this  tree. — The  North  A.mkimi  a\ 
P.,  or  Buttonwood  (P.  occulentalis),  is  a  very  similar 
tree.  It  is  the  largest  deciduous  tree  of  the  United 
States,  and  abounds  on  the  banks  of  the  great 
rivers  of  the  middle  states.  Its  timber  is  not  very 
valuable,  and  is  very  liable  to  decay.  It  is  some- 
times called  the  Cotton  Tree,  from  the  wool  which, 
as  in  the  former  species,  covers  the  under  side  of 
the  young  leaves,  and  which,  heing  cast  off,  floats 
about  on  the  wind.  A  tree  of  this  species  on  the 
bank  of  the  Thames,  in  Chelsea  Hospital  gardens, 
is  115  feet  high,  with  a  trunk  rive  feet  in  diameter. 
— The  name  P. -tree  b  commonly  given  in  Scotland 
to  the  Sycamore  (Acer  pseudo-platanus),  which 
resembles  the  true  planes  in  its  foliage. 

PLANE,  a  tool  used  for  rendering  the  surface  of 
wood  smooth  and  level.  It  consists  of  an  oblong 
block  of  wood  or  metal  (the  latter  is  only  just 
coming  into  use),  with  an  opening  through  the 
centre ;  this  opening  is  square  on  the  upper  side, 
and  is  always  large  enough  to  admit  the  cutting 
instrument ;  it  diminishes  down  to  a  mere  slit  on 
the  under  side,  merely  wide  enough  to  allow  the 
cutting  edge  of  the  plane-iron  and  the  shaving  of 
wood  which  it  cuts  off  to  pass  through.     The  form 


Fig.  1. 

of  this  opening  will  be  seen  at  a,  fig.  1.  which  repre- 
sents the  section  of  a  common  jack-plane.  The 
essential  part  of  the  tool  is  the  plane-iron,  a  piece 
of  steel  with  a  chisel-shaped  edge,  and  a  slot  in  its 
centre  for  a  large  headed  screw  to  work  and  to 
attach  to  it  a  strengthening  plate.  Fig.  2  shews 
the  plane-iron,  and  fig.  3  the  same  with  the 
strengthening  plate  attached ;  these  are  shewn  in 
their  proper  position  at  bd  in  the  section  fig.  1,  and 
they  are  held  in  place  by  the  hard- wood  wedge 
(rig.  4),  seen  also  in  the  section  at  c.  By  driving  in 
the  wedge,  the  irons  are  held  very  firmly  in  their 
place,  and  they  are  so  adjusted  that  only  the  fine 

676 


PLANETA— PLANETOIDS. 


sharp  chisel-edge  of  the  cutting-tool  projects  through 
the  slit  in  the  bottom  of  the  body  of  the  plane,  so 
that  when  the  tool  is  pushed  forward  by  the  force 
of  the  hand,  the  cutting  edge  pares  off  all  irregu- 
larities, until  the  wood  is   as   smooth  as   the  under 


surface  of  the  plane.  There  are  many  modifications 
in  this  tool,  which  can  have  its  cutting  edge  and 
under  surface  made  to  almost  any  ;ontour,  so  that 
mouldings  of  all  kinds  may  be  made.  The  two 
commonest  are  the  jack-plane  for  rough  work,  and 
the  smoothing-plane  for  finishing  off  plane  surfaces. 

Planino-machines  have  lately  been  much  in 
use,  by  which  both  wood  and  metal  are  planed.  In 
the  case  of  those  intended  for  wood,  the  cutting 
instruments  are  moved  forward  over  the  wood  by 
machinery  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  hand- 
plane.  The  precision  and  rapidity  with  which 
these  machines  work  have  given  great  facilities  for 
building,  as  one  machine  wdl  do  aa  much  work  as 
sixty  men.  The  planing-machines  used  for  metal 
are  different  in  principle.  A  well-tempered,  chisel- 
edged  steel  cutter  is  held  in  a  fixed  position,  press- 
ing downwards  upon  the  metal  plate,  which  is 
moved  forward  by  powerful  machinery.  The  action 
of  this  movement  is,  that  a  groove  is  ploughed  into 
the  metal  of  the  size  of  the  steel  cutter;  when 
the  metal  has  travelled  its  full  length,  and  has 
made  the  groove  complete,  the  downward  pressure 
of  the  tool  is  removed,  and  by  the  action  of  the 
double  screw  which  has  carried  it  forward,  it  is 
returned,  and  readjusted  for  another  groove  to  be 
formed  by  the  side  of  the  first ;  and  this  is  repeated 
until  the  whole  surface  of  the  plate  is  reduced  to 
the  required  leveL  However  tedious  this  process 
may  appear,  it  offers  such  facilities  for  metal 
working  as  were  previously  unknown, 

PLAN  ETA,  the  Greek  name  of  the  vestment 
called  by  the  Latins  Casula,  and  in  English  '  Cha- 
suble,' which  is  worn  by  priests  in  the  celebration 
of  mass.  The  form  of  this  vestment  in  the  modern 
Roman  church,  differs  both  from  the  ancient  form 
and  from  that  in  use  in  the  Greek  church.  The 
change  appears  to  date  from  the  9th  c,  but  has 
been  gradual.  A  certain  modification  of  the  Roman 
planeta  was  recently  introduced  in  England  under 
the  inspiration  of  the  late  Mr  Pugin,  the  great 
reviver  of  Gothic  architecture  and  ecclesiastical 
costume  and  decoration.  But  its  use  has  been  only 
partial  even  in  England. 

PLANETA'RIUM,  a  machine  much  employed 
by  astronomers  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries,  and 
first  constructed  by  Huyghens  and  Romer,  for  the 
purpose  of  exhibiting  clearly  the  motion  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  in  conformity  with  the  Copernican 
doctrine.  The  P.  exhibited  only  the  orbital  motions 
of  the  planets  about  the  sun,  either  in  circles  or 
ellipses,  and  with  constant  or  varying  motions, 
according  to  the  perfection  of  the  machine.  It 
was  subsequently  supplemented  by  the  combined 
tellurian  and  lunarian,  which  exhibited  at  one  and 
the  same  time  the  motion  of  the  moon  about  the 
earth  and  that  of  the  latter  round  the  sun,  with  the 
principal  phenomena  (such  as  the  succession  of  day 
and  night,  the  varying  length  of  each,  eclipses,  and 
676 


the  motion  of  the  moon's  apogee  and  nodes)  whicb 
accompany  these  motions.  A  satellite  miichine  was 
also  invented  to  illustrate  the  motions  of  Jupiter's 
satellites.  All  these  machines,  ai-e  now  combined 
in  the  Orrery  (q.  v.),  which  exhibits  in  the  best 
manner  possible  the  varied  motions  and  phenomena 
of  the  bodies  in  the  solar  system. 

PLA'NETOIDS,  cv  ASTEROIDS,  the  name 
given  to  that  numerous  group  of  very  small  planets 
which  are  situated  in  the  solar  system  between 
Mars  and  Jupiter.  Till  the  present  century  they 
remained  undiscovered ;  but  for  some  years  before, 
their  existence  had  been  suspected,  mainly  owing  to 
the  remarkable  hiatus  in  the  series  of  the  planetary 
distances  when  compared  with  the  law  of  Bode 
(q.  v.).  On  the  first  day  of  the  present  century 
the  first  of  them  was  detected  by  Piazzi  of  Palermo, 
and  his  success  roused  his  brother  astronomers  to 
search  for  more  pl^-iets.  Their  search  was  suc- 
cessful, for  Olbers  (q.  v.)  discovered  two  in  1802 
and  1807,  and  Harding  one  in  1804 ;  but  as  all 
researches  for  some  time  subsequent  to  1807  were 
unavailing,  astronomers  gradually  allowed  them- 
selves to  settle  down  into  the  belief  that  no  more 
planetoids  remained  to  be  discovered,  when  the 
detection  of  a  fifth  by  Hencke  in  1845,  revived  the 
hope  of  fresh  discoveries,  and  from  this  period  no 
year  (excepting  1846)  has  passed  without  adding  to 
the  list.  The  number  at  present  (1871)  known  is 
1 12.  This  remarkable  success  of  the  astronomers  of 
our  time  is  due  to  the  systematic  manner  in  which 
the  zodiacal  belt  has  been  explored,  and  the  place 
and  apparent  size  of  every  star  of  this  region  dis- 
tinctly determined ;  so  that  the  presence  oi  a 
wandering  body  can  at  once  be  detected. 

The  magnitudes  of  these  celestial  bodies  have 
not  been  accurately  ascertained,  but  it  is  certain  that 
they  are  exceedingly  small  as  compared  even  with 
Mercury,  the  least  of  the  other  planets ;  the  diameter 
of  the  largest  among  them  being  generally  believed 
not  to  exceed  450  miles,  while  most  of  the  others 
are  very  much  smaller  than  this.  They  also  differ, 
generally  speaking,  from  the  rest  of  the  planets  in 
other  respects;  their  orbits  are  of  greater  excen- 
tricity,  are  inclined  to  the  ecliptic  at  a  greater 
angle,  and  are  interlaced  in  a  most  intricate  manner, 
crossing  each  other  so  frequently  as  to  form,  when 
viewed  perpendicularly,  a  kind  of  network.  The 
consequence  of  this  is,  that  a  planetoid  which  is 
nearest  the  sun  at  one  part  of  its  orbit,  is,  when 
at  another  part  of  its  orbit,  further  from  it  than 
are  several  of  the  others,  and  a  mutual  eclipsing  of 
the  sun  at  different  periods  by  two  planetoids 
must  be  of  very  frequent  occurrence.  From 
the  generally  large  size  of  their  angle  of  inclina- 
tion to  the  ecliptic,  many  of  them  occasionally 
travel  far  beyond  the  limits  of  the  zodiac,  and  are 
thence  termed  ultra-zodiacal  planets.  Of  81  plane- 
toids, Flora  has  the  shortest  period  of  revolution 
(1193  days),  and  consequently,  by  Kepler's  third 
law,  its  mean  distance  from  the  sun  is  a  little 
over  209  millions  of  miles;  Maximdiana  has  the 
longest  period  (2343  days),  and  its  mean  distance 
from  the  sun  is  about  330  millions  of  miles.  Con- 
cordia's orbit  has  least  excentncity,  that  element 
amounting  to  little  more  than  ^  of  the  major  axis, 
while  in  Polyhymnia  it  amounts  to  more  than  ^. 
Massalia's  orbit  makes  a  smaller  angle — only  41'  7" 
— with  the  ecliptic  than  that  of  any  other  planet 
in  the  solar  system,  whde  the  inclination  of  the 
orbit  of  Pallas  is  no  less  than  34°  42'  41".  After 
the  first  two  or  three  of  these  bodies  had  been 
discovered,  the  opinion  was  propounded  by  Olbera 
that  they  were  but  the  fragments  of  some  large 
planet;  which  received  corroboration  from  the  inti- 
mate connection  shewn  to  subsist  among  theni.     In 


FLANET0ID8--PI.ANETS. 


1863,  14  new  planetoids  wow  discovered  (8  by  Prof. 
Watson,  of  Ami  Arbor,  Mich.), and  on  Sept  20,  1870, 

tli  j  position  of  thfl  112tli  had  been  determined. 


'1  In'  names  <>t  the  discoverers,  the  dates  of  di« 
nml  periods  of  revolution  of  tlie  81  known  in  1864  are 
us  follows  [sue  1'lanetoids  iu  SCPP.,  Vol.  X.]; 


1.  Ceres, 
3.  P.dlas,  . 

3.  J  . 

4.  Vesta,  . 

5.  Astraea,    . 

6.  Hebe,    . 

7.  Iris,  . 

8.  Flora,  . 
».  Metis, 

10.  Uygieia, 

11.  I'aitiieiiope, 

12.  Victoria, 

13.  Kgeri  a, 

14.  Irene,    . 

15.  hunoinia, 

16.  P-yche, 

17.  Thetis,       . 

18.  Melpomene, 

19.  F.irtuna,   . 
2u.  Missalia, 

21.  Lutetia,    . 

22.  Calliope, 

23.  Thalia, 

24.  Themis, 

25.  Pliocea,     . 
28.  Proserpine, 

27.  Euterpe,    . 

28.  Bellona, 

29.  Amphitrite, 

30.  Urania, 

31.  Euphmsyne, 

32.  Pomona, 

33.  Polyhymnia 

34.  Circe,    . 

35.  Leucothea, 

36.  Atalanta, 

37.  Fides, 

38.  Leda,     . 

39.  Laetitia,     . 

40.  ilarmonia, 

41.  Dapnne,    . 

42.  l.-is,       . 

43.  Ariadne,   . 

44.  Nysa,     . 

45.  Eugenia,  . 

46.  Hestia, 

47.  Melete,      . 

48.  Aglaia, 

49.  Doris, 

50.  Pales,    . 

51.  Virginia,  . 

52.  Nemausa, 

53.  Eiropa,     . 

54.  Calypso, 

55.  Alexandra, 

56.  Pandora, 

57.  Mnemosyne, 

58.  Concoidi'a, 

59.  Olympia,  . 

60.  Echo,    . 

61.  Dan&e,      . 

62.  Erato,  . 

63.  Ausonia,   . 

64.  Angelina, 

65.  Maximilian*, 

66.  Maia,     . 

67.  Asia, 

68.  Hesperia, 

69.  Let  >, 

70.  Panopea, 

71.  Niobe, 

72.  Feronia, 

73.  Clytie, 
74    Galatea, 

75.  Eurydice, 

76.  Freya,   . 

77.  Frigga, 

78.  Diana,   . 

79.  Eurynome, 

80.  Sapp'io, 

81.  Terpsichore, 


Diu  of  Diico»«y. 


Period  of  SUIt 

H'.-.iui.ei 
In  Lujt 


1801, 

1804. 
1807, 
184>, 
1847, 
1847, 
1847, 
1848. 
1849, 
1850, 
18)0, 
1851), 
1851, 
1801, 
1852, 
1862, 
1852, 
1852, 
1852, 
1852, 
1852, 
1852, 
1853, 
1S53, 
1853, 
1853, 
1854, 
1854, 
1854, 
1854, 
1854, 
1854, 
1855, 
1855, 
185). 
185o, 
1856, 
1856, 
1856, 
1856. 
1856, 
1857, 
1857, 
1857, 
1857, 
1857, 
1857, 
1857. 
1857, 
1857, 
1858, 
1858, 
1858, 
1858, 
185-, 
1859, 
1860, 
1860, 
1860, 
1860, 
1860, 
1861, 
1861, 
1861, 
1861, 
18-J1, 
1861, 
1861, 
1861, 
1861, 
1862, 
1862, 
1862, 
1862, 
1862, 
1862, 
1863, 
1863, 
1864, 
1864, 


January  1,      • 
Maun  i6,    . 
September  1, 
March  29,       . 
December  8, 
July  1,    . 
August  13, 
October  18,    . 
April  25,     . 
April  12,         . 
M.yll,       . 
September  13, 
November  2, 
May  19,  . 
July  29,       . 
March  17,       , 
April  17,     . 
June  24,  . 

Au.'ust  22, 
September  19, 
November  15, 
.November  16, 
December  15, 
April  5,  . 
April  7,       . 
May  5,    . 
November  8, 
March  1, 
March  1,     . 
July  22, . 
September  1, 
O.  tober26,     . 
October  28, 
A  p  Til  6,  .        . 
April  19,      . 
October  5,      . 
October  5,  . 
January  12,    . 
February  8, 
Blarch  31,   . 
May  22, 
Mav  23,        . 
April  15, 
May  27,        . 
June  27,  . 

August  16,  . 
September  9, 
September  15, 
September  19, 
September  19, 
October  4,      . 
January  22, 
February  6,    . 
April  4, 
September  10, 
September  10, 
September  22, 
March  24, 
September  12, 
September  15, 
September  19, 
September  14, 
February  10, 
.March  4,         . 
March  8,     . 
April  9,  .        , 
April  17,     . 
April  29,         . 
April  29,     . 
May  5,    . 
August  13, 
February  12, 
April  7,  .        . 
August  29, 
September  22, 
October  21,     . 
Nuvember  12, 
March  15, 
September  19, 
May  3,    . 
September  30, 


Piazzi,  Palermo,    .        .        . 

Olbers,  Bremen, 

Harding,  l.ilienthal  (Bremen), 

O.lxr-,  Bremen, 

liencke,  Diiesen  (Prussia),  . 

Hencke,  Driesen  (Prussia), 

Hind,  London,        .        •        . 

Hind,  London,   •        •       • 

Graham,  Sligo,       .         .        . 

De  Gasparis,  Naples,  .        . 

De  Gasparis,  Naples,      .         , 

Hind,  London,    .        ,        • 

De  Gasparis,  Naples,      .        . 

Hind,  London,    .         .         • 

De  Gaspans,  Naples,      .        • 

De  Gasparl*,  Naples,  . 

Luther,  Bilk  (busseldorf),    . 

Hind,  London,     . 

Hinii,  London,        .        .        . 

L>e  Gasparis,  Naples,  . 

Goldschmidt,  Paris,        .         . 

Hind,  London,    .        •        • 

Hind,  London,        .        •        • 

De  Gasparis,  Naples,  . 

Chacornac.  Marseille,    .        • 

Luther,  B-.lk,      . 

Hind,  L  ndon,        .        •        • 

Luther,  B  Ik,      .        . 

Marth,  London,      .        •        • 

Hind.  Lord  >n,    .        .        . 

Feiguson,  Washington,         . 

Goldschmidt,  Paris,   .        • 

Chacornac,  Paris,  .        .        . 

Chacornac,  Paris,        .        • 

Luther,  Bilk,  .        .        . 

Gol.ischn  nit,  Paris,   . 

Luther,  Bilk,  .        . 

Chacornac,  Paris,       ■        . 

Chacornac,  Paris,  .        •         • 

Goldscliu.ifit,  Paris,  .         . 

Goldschmidt,  Paris,       .        . 

Pogson,  Oxford,  .         • 

Pogson,  Oxford,     .        .        . 

Goldschmidt,  Paris,   .        . 

Goldscl.u.idt,  Pari-*,        .        . 

Pogson,  Oxf  nd. 

Goldschmidt(Parii\,* Schubert  (St Petersburg ) 

Luther,  Bilk,      .        . 

Goldschmidt,  Paris,        .        . 

Goldschmidt,  Paris,   . 

Ferguson,  Washington,  . 

Laurent,  Nimes  (France), 

Goldschmidt,  Paris,        .        . 

Luther,  Bilk,       .        .        . 

Goldschmidt,  Paris,        .         , 

Seaile,  Albany,  New  York, 

Luther,  Bilk,  .        .        . 

Luther,  Bilk,      .        .        . 

Cnacornac,  Paris,  .        .        . 

Ferguson,  Washington,       . 

Goldschmidt,  Paris,       . 

Forster,  Berlin,  .        . 

De  Gasparis,  Naples,      .        . 

Tempel,  Marseille,      .        . 

Tern  pel,  Marseille,         .        . 

Tuttle,  Camb  idge,  Massachusetts 

Pogson,  Madras,    .        .        . 

Schiaparelli,  Milan,    .        . 

Luther,  Bilk, 

Goldschmidt,  Chatillon  (Paris), 

Luther,  Bilk, 

Peters  (CEnton.Nw.Tork  ,*  Safford  fWajhlngtn) 

Tuttle,  Cambridge,  Massachu  etts 

Tempel,  Marseille,      . 

Peters,  Clint  'n.  New  York,  . 

D'Arrest,  Copenhagen, 

Peters,  Clinton,  New  York,  . 

Luther,  Bilk,      .        . 

Watson,  Ann  Arbor,  America, 

Pogson,  Madras,         .        • 

Tempel,  Marseille,         •       • 


I6SL 

I  J5. 
1511. 

1346. 

II  3. 
1347. 
2043. 
1409, 
:  l. 
ion. 
151a. 

Io70. 

1420. 
1270, 

13-3. 

13^6. 
1333. 
1-1.'. 
1056. 
2034. 
1309. 
1581. 
1314. 
1689. 
1409. 
1  >2t. 
2048. 
15.0. 
177s. 
1609. 
190ft, 
1666. 
150  '. 
16  7. 
16-4. 
1247. 
1779. 
1392. 
1195. 
1379. 
16  iO. 
1470. 
1529. 
1783. 
1903. 
1980. 
1077. 
13J0. 
1993. 
1543. 
1629. 
1>74. 
2019. 
1619. 
16  3. 
1352. 

2023. 
1356. 
1601. 
2J43. 
1588. 
1  -70. 
1893. 
1688. 
1557. 
16TL 
1148. 
1590. 
1509. 
1590. 
.  ■  . 
136.J. 

Hot  dt:erm!"«4 

Not  determined. 

Mot  determined 

Not  d  termined* 


PLA'NETS    (Gr.   planetes,   '  a  wanderer '),   are  I  orbits  round  the  sun.     They  are  often  denominated 
those  heavenly  bodies  (including  the  Earth)  which    primary  planets,  to   distinguish   them   trum    tneir 
belong  to  our  solar  system,  and  revolve  in  elliptic  I  moons  or  satellites,    which    are    called  secondary 
349 


PLANETS. 


plannt.  The  name  planet  is  of  considerable  anti- 
quity, and  was  applied  to  these  dependents  of  the 
Bun  to  distinguish  them  from  the  myriads  of  luminous 
bodies  which  stud  the  sky,  and  which  present 
to  the  naked  eye  no  indication  of  change  of  place 
(see  Stars).  The  planets  at  present  known  are,  in 
the  order  of  their  distance  from  the  sun,  Mercury, 
Venus,  the  Earth,  Mars,  the  Planetoids  (q.  v.), 
Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune.  Six  of 
these,  Mercury,  Venus,  the  Earth  (which  was  not, 
however,  then  reckoned  a  planet),  Mars,  Jupiter,  and 
Saturn,  were  known  to  the  ancients;  Uranus  was 
discovered  by  Sir  William  Herschel  (q.  v.)  in  1781  ; 
and  Neptune,  after  having  its  position  and  elements 
determined  theoretically  by  Leverrier  and  Adams, 
was  discovered  by  M.  Challis,  and  afterwards  by  Dr 
Galle,  in  1846.  The  Planetoids,  which  now  number 
81,  have  all  been  discovered  during  the  present 
century.  Five  of  the  planets,  the  Earth,  Jupiter, 
Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune,  are  attended  by  one  or 
more  satellites ;  Uranus  (generally),  Neptune,  almost 
the  whole  of  the  Planetoids,  and  all  the  satellites 
except  the  Moon,  are  invisible  to  the  naked  e3Te. 
The  visible  planets  can  be  at  once  distinguished 
from  the  fixed  stars  by  their  clear  steady  light, 
while  the  latter  have  a  sparkling  or  twinkling 
appearance.  The  comparative  proximity  of  the 
planets  may  be  proved  by  examining  them  through 
a  telescope  of  moderate  power,  when  they  appear 
as  round  luminous  disks,  while  the  fixed  stars 
exhibit  no  increase  of  magnitude.  The  planets,  as 
observed  from  the  Earth,  move  sometimes  from 
west  to  east,  sometimes  from  east  to  west,  and 
for  some  time  remain  stationary  at  the  point  where 
progression  ends  and  retrogression  commences. 
This  irregularity  in  their  movements  was  very 
puzzling  to  the  ancient  astronomers,  who  invented 
various  hypotheses  to  account  for  it.  See  Ptolemaic 
System  and  Epicycle.  The  system  of  Copernicus, 
by  assuming  the  sun,  and  not  the  earth,  as  the 
centre  cf  the  system,  explained  with  admirable 
simplicity  what  seemed  before  a  maze  of  confusion. 

The  planetary  orbits  differ  considerably  in  their 
degrees  of  excentricity,  the  Planetoids,  Mars,  and 
Mercury  being  most,  and  the  larger  planets  least 
excentric.  No  two  planets  move  exactly  in  the 
same  plane,  though,  as  a  general  rule,  the  planes 
of  the  larger  planets  most  nearly  coincide  with  that 
of  the  ecliptic.  The  latter  are  consequently  always 
to  be  found  within  a  small  strip  of  the  heavens 
extending  on  both  sides  of  the  ecliptic ;  while  the 
others  have  a  far  wider  range,  Pallas,  one  of  them, 
having  the  angular  elevation  of  its  orbit  no  less  than 
34°  35'  above  the  ecliptic.  According  to  Kepler's 
Laws  (q.  v.),  the  nearer  a  planet  is  to  the  sun  the 
shorter  is  the  time  of  its  revolution.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  planets  in  the  solar  system  bears  no 
known  relation  to  their  relative  size  or  weight,  for 
though  Mercury,  Venus,  and  the  Earth  follow  the 
same  order  in  size  and  distance  from  the  sun,  yet 
Mars,  which  is  further  from  the  sun,  is  much  less 
than  either  the  Earth  or  Venus,  and  the  Planetoids, 
which  are  still  further  off,  are  the  least  of  all. 
Jupiter,  which  is  next  in  order,  is  by  far  the  largest, 
being  about  1^  times  as  large  as  all  the  others 
together ;  and  as  we  proceed  further  outwards,  the 

f)lanets  become  smaller  and  smaller,  Saturn  being 
ess  than  Jupiter,  Uranus  than  Saturn,  and  Neptune 
than  Uranus. 

With  reference  to  their  distance  from  the  sun,  as 
compared  with  that  of  the  Earth,  the  planets  are 
divided  into  superior  and  inferior;  Mercury  and 
Venus  are  consequently  the  only  '  inferior  '  planets, 
all  the  others  being  '  superior.'  The  inferior  planets 
mu3t  always  be  on  the  same  side  of  the  Earth  as 
the  sun  is,  and  can  never  be  above  the  horizon  of 
M8 


any  place  (not  in  a  very  high  latitude)  at  mid- 
night ;  they  are  always  invisible  at  their  superior 
and  inferior  conjunctions,  except  when,  at  the  latter, 
a  Transit  (q.  v.)  takes  place.  The  superior  planets 
are  likewise  invisible  at  conjunction,  but  when  in 
opposition  they  are  seen  with  the  greatest  distinct- 
ness, being  then  due  south  at  midnight.  The  time 
which  elapses  from  one  conjunction  to  its  corre- 
sponding conjunction  is  called  the  synodic  period 
of  a  planet,  and  in  the  case  of  the  inferior  planets 
must  always  be  greater  than  the  true  period  of 
revolution. 

Mercury,  the  planet  which  is  nearest  the  sun,  is 
also,  with  the  exception  of  the  Planetoids,  the 
smallest  (being  only  3  times  the  size  of  the 
moon),  and  performs  its  revolution  round  the  sun 
in  the  shortest  time.  Its  greatest  elongation  is 
never  more  than  28°  45',  and  consequently  it  is 
never  above  the  horizon  more  than  two  hours  after 
sunset,  or  the  same  time  before  sunrise ;  on  this 
account,  and  from  its  small  apparent  size  (5"  to 
12"),  it  is  seldom  distinctly  observable  by  the 
naked  eye.  It  shines  with  a  peculiarly  vivid  white 
or  rose-coloured  light,  and  exhibits  no  spots. — 
Venus,  the  next  in  order  of  distance  and  period,  is 
to  us  the  most  brilliant  of  all  the  planets.  Its 
orbit  is  more  nearly  a  circle  than  any  of  the 
others,  and  when  at  its  inferior  conjunction,  it 
approaches  nearer  the  Earth  than  any  other  planet. 
Its  apparent  angular  dimensions  thence  vary  from 
10"  at  the  superior,  to  70"  at  the  iuferior  conjunc- 
tion. Its  greatest  elongation  varies  from  45°  to 
47°  12',  and  therefore  it  can  never  be  above  the 
horizon  for  much  more  than  three  hours  after  sun- 
set, or  the  same  time  before  sunrise.  While  moving 
from  the  inferior  to  the  superior  conjunction,  Venus 
is  a  morning  star,  and  during  the  other  half  of  its 
synodic  period  an  evening  star.  When  this  planet 
is  at  an  elongation  of  40°,  its  brilliancy  is  greatest, 
far  surpassing  that  of  the  other  planets,  and  render- 
ing a  minute  examination  through  the  telescope 
impossible.  At  this  period  it  sometimes  becomes 
visible  in  the  daytime,  and  after  sunset  is  so  bright 
as  to  throw  a  distinct  shadow.  Astronomers  have 
repeatedly  attempted  to  ascertain  the  nature  and 
characteristics  of  its  surface,  but  its  brightness  so 
dazzles  the  eyes*  as  to  render  the  correctness  of  their 
observations  at  best  doubtful.  From  the  changes 
in  the  position  of  dusky  patches  on  its  surface, 
which  have  been  frequently  noticed,  it  is  concluded 
that  it  revolves  on  its  axis,  and  that  its  equator 
is  inclined  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit  at  an  angle  of 
75°,  but  many  astronomers  (Sir  John  Herschel 
included)  profess  to  doubt  these  conclusions.  Both 
Venus  and  Mercury  necessarily  exhibit  phases  like 
the  moon. — The  Earth,  the  next  planet  in  order, 
will  be  found  under  its  own  name ;  it  has  a  single 
satellite,  the  Moon  (q.  v.). — Mars,  the  first  of  the 
superior  planets,  is  much  inferior  in  size  to  the 
two  previous,  its  volume  being  about  fth  of 
the  Earth's,  and,  after  Mercury,  its  O'-bit  is  much 
more  excentric  than  those  of  the  other  planets. 
When  it  is  nearest  to  the  Earth  (i.  e.,  in  opposition), 
its  apparent  angular  diameter  is  30" ;  but  when 
furthest  from  it  (i.  e.,  in  conjunction),  its  diameter  is 
not  more  than  4".  Mars  is  less  known  than  tho 
rest  of  the  superior  planets,  owing  to  its  not  possess- 
ing a  satellite,  by  the  motions  of  which  its  attractive 
force  (and  hence  its  mass  and  density)  could  be 
estimated.  It  shines  with  a  fiery  red  light,  and  is 
a  brilliant  object  in  the  heavens  at  midnight  when 
near  opposition ;  when  seen  through  the  telescope 
its  surface  appears  to  be  covered  with  irregular 
blotches,  some  of  them  of  a  reddish,  others  of  a 
greenish  colour,  while  at  each  pole  is  a  spot  of 
dazzling  white.     The  red  spots  are  surmised  to  be 


PLANETS— PLANT. 


fand ;  the  green,  water ;  while  the  white  spots 
at  the  poles  ore  with  some  reason  supposed  to  he 
Bnow,  since  they  decrease  when  most  exposed  to  the 
mm,  and  increase  under  the  contrary  circumstances. 
The  Phases  (q,  v.)  of  .Mars  range  between  full,  half, 

full  (in  conjunction,  if  visible),  ami  half.  —  After  Mars 
in   order  come  the    Planetoids   fa.  v.),   formerly  but 

improperly  called  Asteroids.  JvpUer,  the  next  in 
order,  is  the  largest  of  all  the  planets,  its  hulk  being 
more  than  1400  times  that  of  the  Earth,  tl 
from  its  small  density,  its  mass  is  only  338  times 
more.  After  Venus  it  is  the  brightest  of  the 
planets  and  the  largest  in  apparent  size,  its 
angular  diameter  varying  from  off '  to  46*.  When 
looked  at  through  a  telescope,  it  is  seen  to  be  con- 
siderably flattened  at  the  poles,  owing  to  its  rapid 
revolution  on  its  own  axis ;  and  its  surface  is 
crossed  in  a  direction  parallel  to  its  equator  by 
three  or  four  distinct  and  strongly-marked  belts, 
and  a  few  others  of  a  varying  nature.  Spots  also 
appear  and  remain  for  some  time  on  its  surface,  by 
means  of  which  its  revolution  on  its  axis  has  been 
ascertained.  This  planet  is  attended  by  four  satel- 
lites, which  are  easily  observable  through  an  ordinary 
telescope,  and  which  have  rendered  immense  ser- 
vice in  the  determination  of  longitudes  at  sea,  and 
of  the  motion  and  velocity  of  light.  The  satellites, 
which  were  discovered  by  Galileo,  were  proved  by 
Sir  William  Herschel  to  revolve  on  their  own  axes 
in  the  same  time  that  they  revolve  round  their 
primary.  The  smallest  is  about  the  same  size  as  our 
Moon,  the  others  are  considerably  larger. — Saturn, 
the  next  in  position,  is  about  735  times  larger  in 
volume,  though  only  about  100  times  greater  in  mass 
than  the  earth.  Its  apparent  diameter  when  in 
opposition  is  IS",  and  there  is  a  considerable  flatten- 
ing towards  the  poles.  Its  surface  is  traversed  by 
dusky  belts  much  less  distinctly  marked  than  those 
of  Jupiter,  owing  doubtless  in  great  part  to  its 
inferior  brightness  ;  its  general  colour  is  a  dull 
white  or  yellowish,  but  the  shaded  portions,  when 
seen  distinctly,  are  of  a  glaucous  colour.  The  most 
remarkable  peculiarity  of  Saturn  is  its  ring,  or  series 
of  concentric  rings,  each  one  parallel  and  in  the 
same  plane  with  the  others,  and  with  the  planet's 
equator;  the  rings  are  at  present  supposed  to  be 
three  in  number,  the  two  outermost  are  bright 
like  the  planet  itself,  while  the  innermost  is  of  a 
purplish  colour,  and  is  only  discernible  through  a 
powerful  telescope.  The  rings  are  not  always 
visible  when  Saturn  is  in  the  '  opposite '  half  of  its 
orbit,  for  when  the  plane  of  the  rings  is  intermediate 
between  that  of  the  earth's  orbit  and  of  the  ecliptic, 
their  dark  surface  is  turned  towards  us,  and  when 
the  sun  is  in  their  plane  only  the  narrow  edge  is 
illumined ;  in  both  of  these  cases  the  ring  is  invis- 
ible from  the  Earth.  Its  plane  being  inclined  at  an 
angle  of  28°  to  the  ecliptic,  we  see  the  two  surfaces 
of  the  ring  alternately  for  periods  of  15  years  at  a 
time ;  and  at  the  middle  of  each  period,  the  rings 
attain  their  maximum  obliquity  to  the  ecliptic,  and 
are  then  best  seen  from  the  Earth.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  remark  that  at  the  end  of  each  period 
they  become  invisible.  Saturn  has  also  no  less  than 
eight*  satellites,  seven  of  which  revolve  round  it  in 
orbits  little  removed  from  the  plane  of  the  ring, 
while  the  eighth,  which  is  the  second  in  size,  is  con- 
siderably inclined  to  it.  Two  of  the  satellites  were 
discovered  by  Herschel  in  1787  and  1789,  four  by 
Cassitr'  in  1672  and  1684,  one  by  Huyghens  in  1655, 
one  b}  Mr  Lassell  in  England  and  Professor  Bond 
in  America  in  1848.     The  satellites  are  all  situated 


*  The  existence  of  a  ninth  satellite  was  suspected  by 
M.  Goldschmidt  in  April  1861,  but  his  observation  has 
not  been  verified. 


outside  of  the  rim;,  and  the  largest  of  them 
is  nearly  equal  to  the  planet  Mars  in  sue.       UrCLMU, 

the  next  plane!  in  position,  was  discovered  acciden- 
tally by  the  elder  Eerschel  on  13th  March  1781, 

and  was  named  'the  Qeorgium  Sidus'  and  'Her- 
schel,' hut  these  names  soon  f . -1 1  into  disuse.     It  is 

about  96  (s aetronomei  i  say  82)  times  greater 

than  the  Earth  in  volume,  and  20  (according  to 
others,  15)  times  in  mass;  but  though  so  large,  ita 
distance   is  so   m?ch   greater  in    proportion   that 

astronomers  have  beta  unable  to  L'am  much  infor- 
mation concerning  it.  No  spots  or  belts  have 
hitherto  been  discovered  on  its  surface,  and  conse- 
quently its  time  of  rotation  and  the  position  of  its 
axis  are  unknown.  It  is  attended  by  a  number  of 
satellites,  but  so  minute  do  these  bodies  appear,  that 
astronomers  hitherto  have  been  unable  to  agree 
as  to  their  exact  number;  Sir  William  H> a 
reckoned  six,  while  other  astronomers  believe  in 
the  existence  of  four,  five,  and  eight  respectively. 
That  there  are  at  least  four  is  without  doubt. — The 
next  and  outermost  member  of  the  solar  system  is 
Neptune,  which,  at  a  distance  of  nearly  3000  millions 
of  miles  from  the  centre  of  the  system,  slowly  per- 
forms its  revolution  round  the  sun,  accomplishing 
the  complete  circuit  in  about  165  solar  years.  It  is 
about  S4  times  larger  than  the  Earth,  but  from  ita 
extreme  remoteness  is  of  almost  inappreciable  mag- 
nitude when  seen  through  an  ordinary  telescope. 
It  was  the  disturbance  in  the  motion  of  Uranus 
caused  by  the  attractive  force  of  this  planet  which 
led  Leverrier  and  Adams  to  a  calculation  of  its  size 
and  position,  on  the  supposition  of  its  existence,  and 
the  directions  which  were  given  by  the  former  to 
Dr  Galle  of  Berlin,  specifying  its  exact  position  in 
the  heavens,  led  that  astronomer  to  its  discovery 
on  23d  September  1846.  Mr  Lassell  of  Liverpool 
has  discovered  that  Neptune  is  attended  by  one 
satellite.  The  satellites  of  Uranus  and  Neptune 
differ  from  the  other  planets,  primary  and  secondary, 
in  the  direction  of  their  motion,  which  is  from  east 
to  west,  and  in  the  case  of  the  former,  in  planes 
nearly  perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic.  Both  Uranus 
and  Neptune  were  observed  long  before  the  times 
of  Herschel  and  Leverrier,  but  they  were  always 
supposed  to  be  stars.  Uranus  is  known  to  have 
been  observed  by  Flamsteed  between  1690  and 
1715,  and  Neptune  by  Lalande  in  1795.  For  the 
periods,  distances,  size,  density,  &c,  of  the  planets, 
see  Solar  System.  In  astronomical  tables,  al- 
manacs, &c,  the  planets  are  for  convenience  denoted 
by  symbols  instead  of  their  names,  as  follows : 
Mercury,  §  ;  Venus,  $ ;  Earth,  © ;  Mars,  <5  ;  the 
Planetoids,  in  the  order  of  their  discovery,  ®,  ©, 
©,  &c.  ;  Jupiter,  2£;  Saturn,  \i  or  t)  ;  Uranus, 
]J  ;  Neptune,  •#*  ;  the  Sun,  Q  ;  the  Moon,  ([. 

PLANT,  a  living  organic  being,  destitute  of  any 
indication  of  mind  or  feeling,  and  sometimes  defined 
as  essentially  differing  from  an  animal  in  the  want 
of  voluntary  motion.  Plants  are  the  organisms 
which  form  the  Vegetable  Kingdom.  The  science 
which  treats  of  plants  is  called  Botany  (q.  v.),  of 
which  there  are  several  important  branches. 

The  difference  between  plants  and  animals  is 
sometimes  difficult  to  discern,  but  only  in  some  of 
the  groups,  which  must  of  necessity  be  referred  to 
the  lowest  place  whether  in  the  animal  or  vegetable 
kingdom.  Plants  of  higher  organisation  can  never 
be  mistaken  for  animals,  nor  animals  of  higher 
organisation  for  plants.  Instead  of  a  regular  ascend- 
in^  and  descending  scale  of  organisms,  from  the 
highest  animal  to  the  lowest  plant,  we  find  a  widely- 
extended  base  from  which  the  ascent  seems  to  begin 
at  once  in  both  the  organic  kingdoms,  with  many 
ramifications  in  each  ;  and  perhaps  that  we  do  not 
at  once  recognise  the  difference  even  in  the  lowest 

579 


PLANT. 


organisms,  may  be  owing  to  our  ignorance  and  inca- 
pacity of  proper  observation. 

Something  which  resembles  the  voluntary  motion 
of  animals  is  to  be  seen  in  some  plants,  in  various 
phenomena  of  Irritability  (q.  v.) ;  and  there  is  even 
locomotion  in  the  vegetable  kbigdom  wonderfully 
simulating  voluntary  locomotion,  a  provision  of 
nature  for  the  diffusion  of  some  of  the  lower  veget- 
able organisms  ;  the  Gonidla  (q.  v.)  of  Alga?  and  the 
Spermatozoidia  (q.  v.)  of  some  other  cryptogamous 
orders  moving  in  a  surrounding  fluid  by  means  of 
cilia,  so  that  they  have  often  been  mistaken  for 
animalcules.  But  no  motion  which  can  really  be 
deemed  voluntary  takes  place  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom  ;  and  no  animal,  certainly  to  be  pronounced 
such,  fails  to  exhibit  it — even  when  there  is  no 
power  whatever  of  locomotion— in  the  prehension  of 
food,  or  for  some  of  the  purposes  of  life. 

The  general  laws  which  govern  life  prevail  in 
plants  as  in  animals.  There  are  organs  of  nutrition 
and  organs  of  reproduction  ;  the  whole  being  made 
up  of  organs,  and  every  organ  destined  to  maintain 
the  existence  either  of  the  individual  or  of  the  race. 
But  there  is  nothing  in  plants  corresponding  to  the 
mouth,  stomach,  and  alimentary  canal  of  animals. 
Nutrition  takes  place  in  a  different  manner  ;  assimi- 
lation being  effected  by  a  process  very  unlike  that 
of  digestion  in  animals.  There  are,  however,  animals 
destitute  of  a  mouth,  stomach,  and  alimentary 
canal ;  so  that  the  distinction  between  plants  and 
animals  cannot  be  stated  so  absolutely  in  this 
respect  as  in  respect  to  voluntary  motion  ;  and  as 
there  are  many  plants  which  have  no  roots,  nutrition 
by  means  of  roots,  although  peculiar  to  the  veget- 
able kingdom,  is  not  its  distinguishing  characteristic. 
The  nutriment  of  plants  is  derived  either  by  their 
roots  from  the  soil  (see  Root),  or  through  the  integu- 
ments of  their  other  parts  from  the  air  or  water  in 
which  they  live ;  and  all  their  nutriment  is  either 
liquid  or  gaseous,  being  taken  up  in  the  former  case 
by  Endosmose  (q.  v.),  and  in  the  latter  case  through 
Stomata  (q.  v.).  Many  plants,  and  among  them  the 
greater  number  of  phanerogamous  plants,  owe  their 
nourishment  both  to  the  soil  and  to  the  atmosphere, 
their  roots  deriving  it  from  the  former,  and  the 
Leaves  (q.  v.)  of  plants  that  have  leaves  being  the 
principal  organs  by  which  they  derive  it  from  the 
latter.  When  leaves  are  wanting,  the  integument 
of  the  parts  exposed  to  the  air  performs  the  functions 
ordinarily  assigned  to  them.  Solid  matter  cannot 
be  appropriated  by  plants  until  it  has  been  dissolved 
in  water,  or  decomposed.  See  Manure  and  Soil. — 
The  nutriment  appropriated  by  the  plant  is  not 
assimilated  until  it  has  undergone  chemical  changes, 
which  sometimes  take  place  entirely  within  the 
very  cell  through  the  integument  of  which  it  has 
entered,  some  of  the  lowest  kinds  of  plants  con- 
sisting altogether  only  of  a  single  cell ;  but  which, 
in  other  plants  of  higher  and  more  complex  organi- 
sation, depend  upon  a  Circulation  of  the  Sap  (q.  v.), 
and  a  very  various  action  of  many  different  organs, 
each  formed  of  a  multitude  of  cells.  These  processes 
are  still  very  imperfectly  understood.  By  them, 
not  only  is  the  plant  nourished,  but  vegetable 
products  of  every  kind  are  elaborated,  in  which, 
throughout  the  wide  domains  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, there  is  such  wonderful  variety,  and  often 
great  diversity  in  different  parts  of  the  same  plant. 

Whatever  the  source  from  which  plants  derive 
their  nutriment,  no  organic  substance  is  appropriated 
by  them ;  but  in  order  to  their  use,  it  must  first 
undergo  decomposition.  Their  food  consists  wholly 
of  inorganic  matter,  and  the  value  of  organic 
eubstances  as  manures  depends  not  only  on  the 
abundance  which  they  contain  of  the  proper  ele- 
ments, but  of  the  readiness  with  which  they  undergo 
680 


decomposition  so  as  to  present  these  elements  iiw 
the  most  suitable  form  ;  which  is  not,  however,  as 
elements  uncombined,  but  in  various  combinations 
with  each  other.  Thus  carbon  and  oxygen  enter 
plauts  together  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid,  oxygen 
and  hydrogen  together  in  the  form  of  water,  hydro- 
gen and  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  ammonia.  Carbonic 
acid  absorbed  by  the  leaves  from  the  air  is  decom- 
posed within  the  plant,  under  the  influence  of  light, 
and  particularly  of  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  and 
its  carbon  enters  into  new  combinations  to  form 
vegetable  substances,  whilst  its  oxygen  is  exhaled 
again  into  the  atmosphere,  which  is  thus  maintained 
in  a  state  fit  for  the  support  both  of  vegetable  and 
animal  life  by  the  opposite  and  balanced  action  of 
animals  and  plants.  Of  the  elements  which  enter 
into  the  composition  of  vegetable  substances,  Carbon 
is  the  most  abundant ;  and,  along  with  it,  Oxygen, 
Hydrogen,  and  Nitrogen  constitute  the  chief  part 
of  every  plant.  Other  elements,  both  metallic  and 
non-metallic,  are  found  in  comparatively  small 
quantity,  although  some  of  them  are  very  generally 
present  in  plants,  as  Calcium,  Potassium,  Sodium, 
Sulphur,  Phosphorus,  Silicon,  Iron,  Aluminium, 
Magnesium,  Chlorine,  and  Iodine.  Among  the  ele- 
ments found  in  plants  are  also  to  be  enumerated 
Bromine,  Manganese,  and  Copper,  which  occur  only 
in  minute  quantites,  and  Copper  very  rarely. 

There  is  no  circulation  in  plants  like  that  of  the 
blood  in  animals,  nor  any  organ  at  all  analogous  to 
a  heart ;  although  there  is  a  constant  motion  or 
circulation  of  their  juices,  both  throughout  the  whole 
organism  and  within  individual  cells.  And  although 
the  term  respiration  has  been  often  employed  with 
reference  to  plants,  and  particularly  to  leaves,  yet 
there  is  not  only  no  action  analogous  to  that  of 
lungs,  but  no  oxygenation  of  the  juices  by  their 
being  brought  into  contact  with  the  air;  carbonic 
acid  and  ammonia — not  oxygen — being  imbibed 
from  it  for  nutrition.  And  there  is  nothing  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom  having  the  slightest  resemblance 
to  a  brain  or  a  nervous  system.  In  the  possession 
of  sexual  organs,  however,  there  is  a  wonderful 
agreement,  where  it  might  least  have  been  expected, 
between  plants — or  at  least  all  phanerogamous 
plants — and  animals.  As  to  this  and  other  import- 
ant points  concerning  the  life  of  plants,  see  Veget- 
able Physiology.  See  also  the  article  Flower, 
and  those  on  the  different  organs  of  which  the  flower 
is  made  up ;  the  articles  Fruit,  Seed,  Spore  ;  Cells, 
Cellular  Tissue,  Vascular  Tissue  ;  Metamor- 
phosis of  Organs  ;  Leaves,  Stem,  &c.  The  great 
divisions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  are  noticed  in 
the  article  Botany,  in  connection  with  the  subject 
of  classification,  and  in  separate  articles.  The 
Geographical  Distribution  of  Plants,  and  the 
Diseases  of  Plants,  are  noticed  under  these  heads. 

Besides  the  relations  of  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms  already  noticed  in  this  article,  in  their 
joint  and  balanced  action,  keeping  the  constitution 
of  the  atmosphere  such  as  is  fit  both  for  animal  and 
vegetable  life,  reference  may  be  here  made,  in  con- 
clusion, to  similar  relations  subsisting  in  jilants 
and  animals  as  to  temperature  and  as  to  their 
mutually  providing  food  for  one  another.  '  It 
would  almost  seem  as  if  plants  possessed  a  powrer  of 
producing  cold  analogous  to  that  exhibited  by 
animals  in  producing  heat,  and  of  this  beneficent 
arrangement  man  enjoys  the  benefit  in  the  luxurious 
coolness  of  the  fruit  which  nature  lavishes  on  the 
tropics'  (Sir  J.  E.  Tennent).  Flowers  indeed  pro- 
duce heat ;  but  the  juices  of  plants  are  colder  than 
the  soil  or  surrounding  atmosphere  during  the  time 
of  active  vegetation;  and  the  coolness  of  groves  is 
owing  not  only  to  shade  but  to  the  transpiration 
of  moisture  by  the  innumerable  leaves.  —  Inorganic 


PLANTAG  ENET-PLANT  AG  I N  E .  K 


substances  are  appropriated  by  plants,  as  food,  and 
converted  by  a  'high  and  mysterious '  chemistry 
into  organic  substances  of  many  kinds,  many  of  them 
suitable  food  for  animals,  which  feed  on 
substances  alone.  But  the  excrements  of  animals 
again  furnish  food  for  plants  ;  and  when  animals 
die,  their  bodies  undergo  a  series  of  changes  by 
decomposition  which  terminate  in  the  production 
of  tlic  substances  must  suitable  for  the  nourishment 
of  pi .-ints.  There  is,  moreover,  not  only  this  conver- 
sion of  tlic  same  matter  into  animal  and  vegetable 
substances  alternately  ;  but  there  is  also  a  continual 
transformation  of  matter  which  has  remained  inor- 
ganic throughout  long  geologic  periods  into  organic 
substances,  and  in  this  some  of  the  lowest  kin. Is  of 

Slants  are  particularly  employed,  as  lichens,  which 
ecompose  and  feed  upon  the  very  rocks  on  which 
they  grow  ;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  the  fossil 
remains  of  remote  periods,  and  all  the  products  of 
decomposition,  exhibit  matter  which  once  formed 
part  of  living  organisms  returned  to  an  inorgauic 
state. 

PLANTA'GENET,  the  surname  of  the  French 
family  of  Anjou,  which,  in  1151,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  England  on  the  extinction  of  the  Norman 
dynasty  in  the  male  line,  and  reigned  till  1485, 
•when  it  was  supplanted  by  the  family  of  Tudor 
(q.  v.).  The  name  P.  belonged  originally  to  the 
House  of  Anjou,  and  is  said  by  antiquarians  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  circumstance  of  the  first 
count  of  this  house  having  caused  himself  to  be 
scourged  with  branches  of  broom  [planta-geniata),  as 
a  penance  for  some  crime  he  had  committed.  On 
the  extinction  of  the  male  line  of  the  Norman 
dynasty  in  the  person  of  Henry  I.,  the  crown  of 
England  was  claimed  by  Stephen,  count  of  Blois, 
the  son  of  Henry's  sister  Adela,  or  Adeliza,  and  by 
Henry's  own  daughter  Matilda  ('  the  Empress 
Maud'),  then  the  wife  of  Geoffrey  P.,  Count  of 
Anjou,  for  her  son  Henry  Plantagenet.  Stephen, 
by  favour  of  the  nobles,  was  the  successful  compe- 
titor, on  the  condition  that  Henry  should  succeed 
him;  and  accordingly  on  Stephen's  death,  in  1154, 
the  son  of  Geoffrey  P.  ascended  the  throne  of 
England  as  Henry  II.  His  sons  Richard  I.  and 
John  succeeded  him,  and  the  descendants  of  the 
latter  in  the  direct  male  line — viz.,  Henry  III., 
Edward  I.,  Edward  II.,  Edward  III.,  and  (Edward 
III.'s  eldest  son,  the  Black  Prince,  having  died 
before  his  father,  leaving  an  only  son,  who  as)  Richard 
II. — succeeded  without  interruption.  The  eldest 
male  line  now  became  extinct,  and  it  was  neces- 
sary to  choose  the  rightful  heir  to  the  throne  from 
among  the  descendants  of  Edward  III.'s  other 
sons.  His  second  son  had  died  without  heirs,  but 
Lionel,  Duke  of  Clarence ;  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke 
of  Lancaster ;  and  Edmund  Langley,  Duke  of  York, 
his  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  sons  respectively,  were 
still  represented  by  legitimate  issue.  Of  these, 
Edmund  Mortimer,  Earl  of  March,  and  Anne  Mor- 
timer, the  wife  of  Richard.  Earl  of  Cambridge  (who 
was  the  eldest  son  and  heir  of  Edmund  Langley, 
Duke  of  York),  the  lineal  descendants  of  Lionel  of 
Clarence,  possessed  the  prior  claim  to  the  throne  ; 
but  Edmund  was  put  in  prison  by  Henry  IV.,  the 
eldest  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster, 
who  usurped  the  crown  in  1399,  and  transmitted  it 
to  his  lineal  descendants  Henry  V.  and  Henry  VI. 
By  this  time  Edmund  Mortimer  had  died  with- 
out heirs,  and  the  descendants  of  the  marriage  of 
his  sister  Anne  (the  heiress  of  Clarence)  with 
Richard,  Earl  of  Cambridge  (the  heir  of  York), 
uniting  the  claims  of  the  third  and  fifth  sons, 
had,  through  their  maternal  ancestress,  a  superior 
claim  to  the  throne  over  Henry  VI.  the  Lancas- 
trian monarch,  who  only  represented   the  fourth 


son  of  Edward  1 1 L  Richard  Duke  of  York,  the 
son  of  Richard  of  Cambridge  and  Anns  M< 

attempted  to  obtain  the  crown,  bni  lie  was  taken  and 
executed,  leaving  to  Ins  sons  tie-  task  of  a- 

the  claims  of  the  combined 

house  of  York  and  Clarence  to  the  throne,  in 
which  they  were  ably  assisted  by  Richard  Neville, 
Earl  of  'Warwick  ('the  King-maker').  The  result 
was  a  long  and  desolating  civil  war  (1455     1485) 

between  the  partisans  of  York  and  .  which 

is  known  in  history  as  the  'Wars  of  the 
(the  Lancastrians  having  chosen  for  their  emblem  a 
nil  and  the  Yorkists  a  white  rose),  in  wh'ch  morj 
than  100,000  persons  perished,  and  many  nobis 
families  were  either  extirpated  on  the  field  and  the 
scaffold,  or  completely  ruined.    During  this  di  i 

contest,  in  which  the  Yorkists  generally  had  the 
advantage,  Edward  IV.  (the  eldest  son  of  the  l»,ike 
of  York  who  had  been  executed),  his  son  Edward 
V.,  and  his  brother  Richard  III.  (q.  v.)  succe 
swayed  the  sceptre.  But  Richard's  cruel  and 
tyrannical  government  added  new  vigour  to  the 
reviving  Lancastrians,  and  Henry  Tudor  (see 
Henry  VII.),  the  representative  of  their  claims, 
defeated  the  Yorkist  tyrant  on  the  field  of  Los- 
worth  ;  and  then,  by  his  marriage  with  Elizabeth, 
the  eldest  daughter  of  Edward  IV.,  and  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  Yorkist  claims,  reunited  in  his 
family  the  conflicting  pretensions  to  the  throne, 
which  he  transmitted  in  peace  to  his  descendants. 
See  Tudor  ;  and  for  the  events  of  this  contest,  see 
Roses,  Wars  of  the. 

PLANTAGI'NE.E,  or  PLANTAGINA'CE.E,  a 
natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  mostly  her- 
baceous and  without  stems ;  the  leaves  forming 
rosettes,  flat  and  ribbed,  or  taper  and  fleshy ;  the 
flowers  generally  in  spikes,  and  generally  herma- 
phrodite ;  the  calyx  4-parted,  persistent ;  the 
corolla  hypogynous,  membranous,  persistent,  its 
limb  4-parted  ;  the  stamens  four,  inserted  into  the 


Greater  Plantain  [Ptantago  major). 

corolla,  with  long  filaments ;  the  ovary  free,  of  a 
single  carpel,  1— 4-celled ;  the  cells  containing  one, 
two,  or    many  ovules:    the  fruit,  a  membranous 

581 


PLANTAIN. 


capsule  with  a  lid.  The  testa  of  the  seeds  abounds 
in  mucilage,  which  is  easily  extracted  by  boiling 
water.  The  order  is  allied  to  Plumbagineee  and 
Primulacece.  There  are  about  120  known  species, 
diffused  over  all  parts  of  the  globe,  but  most 
abundant  in  temperate  and  cold  countries.  The 
most  important  genus  is  Plantago,  the  species  of 
which  often  receive  the  English  name  Plantain. 
Five  of  this  genus  are  found  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
the  chief  of  which  are  the  following :  the  Greater 
Plantain,  or  Waybread  (P.  major),  one  of  the 
most  common  of  British  plants ;  a  perennial,  with 
broad  ovate  stalked  leaves  and  long  cylindrical 
spikes,  growing  in  pastures,  waysides,  &c.  It  is  very 
widely  diffused  over  the  world.  Its  seeds  are  a 
favourite  food  of  birds,  and  the  gathering  of  the 
spikes  to  feed  cage-birds  is  familiar  to  every  one. 
The  leaves  are  applied  to  wounds  by  the  peasantry 
in  many  districts.  They  are  said  also  to  be  a  useful 
application  to  ulcers  and  indolent  scrofulous  tumours. 
— The  Ribwort  Plantain,  or  Eibgrass  (P.  lance- 
olata),  is  another  very  common  British  plant,  form- 
ing no  small  part  of  the  herbage  of  many  meadows 
and  pastures,  and  sometimes  sown  by  farmers, 
because  its  foliage  is  produced  early  in  the  season, 
and  is  then  acceptable  to  oxen,  sheep,  and  horses ; 
but  deemed  most  suitable  for  poor  soils,  as  its 
spreading  leaves  occupy  too  much  of  the  ground, 
and  choke  better  grasses  in  rich  land.  Its  leaves 
are  lanceolate,  and  taper  at  both  ends;  its  spikes 
are  short,  ovate  or  cylindrical,  and  placed  on  long 
angular  stalks.  Its  seed  is  acceptable  to  cage-birds. 
This  is  the  plant,  commonly  known  as  '  bullies,'  or 
'  sodgers,'  the  striking  off  the  heads  (or  spikes)  of 
which  is  such  a  favourite  amusement  of  children. 
— The  mucilage  of  the  seeds  of  Plantago  ispaghula 
and  of  P.  psyllium  is  much  used  in  India  in  catarrhs 
and  other  complaints ;  and  P.  psyllium — called 
Fleawort,  and  its  seeds  Fleaseed— is  cultivated  in 
France  for  the  sake  of  this  mucilage,  which  is  used 
by  paper-stainers  in  preference  to  that  obtained 
from  linseed,  and  is  also  extensively  used  by  muslin 
manufacturers  for  stiffening  their  goods.  The  plant 
has  a  branched  spreading  stem,  and  recurved  leaves. 

PLA'NTAIN  (Musa  Paradisaica),  a  most  import- 
ant food-plant  of  tropical  countries,  and  one  of  the 
largest  of  herbaceous  plants,  belongs  to  the  natural 
order  Musaceoz  (q.  v.),  and  is  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies,  where  numberless  varieties  of  it  have  been 
cultivated  for  thousands  of  years.  It  is  now  diffused 
over  all  the  tropical  and  subtropical  regions  of  the 
globe.  It  must  have  been  carried  to  America  soon 
after  or  during  the  days  of  Columbus,  for  its  fruit 
was  a  principal  article  of  food  there  in  the  first  half 
of  the  16th  c. ;  but  there  is  nothing  to  support  the 
conjecture  of  Humboldt  that  there  may  be  different 
epecies  cultivated  under  the  name  of  P.,  and  some  of 
them  natives  of  America.  The  P.  is  now,  however, 
cultivated  to  the  furthest  depths  of  the  primeval 
American  forests,  accompanies  the  Indians  in  their 
frequent  changes  of  residence,  forms  the  wealth 
of  many  occupiers  of  land  in  the  vicinity  of  great 
towns,  where  large  plantations  of  it  are  made,  and 
is  a  true  staff  of  life  to  the  population  of  all  colours 
and  classes  in  tropical  countries.  In  many  regions 
it  is  the  principal  article  of  food. 

In  the  genus  Musa  there  arise  from  the  midst  of 
the  leaves— or  apparently  from  the  top  of  the  stem, 
the  sheathing  bases  of  the  leaves  forming  a  tree-like 
false  stem — stalks  which  bear  great  spikes  of  flowers, 
each  enclosed  in  a  large  bract  or  spathe ;  the 
flowers,  and  afterwards  the  fruit,  are  arranged  in 
clusters  or  almost  in  whorls  on  the  stalk ;  the 
flowers  have  a  perianth  of  six  segments,  five  of 
which  cohere  as  a  tube  slit  at  the  back,  and  the 
sixth  is  small  and  concave ;  there  are  six  stamens, 

582 


one  or  more  of  them  imperfect ;  the  germen  is 
inferior,  3-celled,  w7ith  two  rows  of  ovules  in  each 
cell ;  the  fruit  is  fleshy,  and  has  many  seeds 
imbedded  in  its  pulp.  The  name  Musa  is  from  the 
Arabic  moz,  a  plantain  ;  the  P.  seems  to  be  described 
by  Pliny  under  the  name  pala,  a  name  probably 
derived  from  an  eastern  root,  from  which  also  comes 
the  name  plantain.  The  specific  name  Paradisaica 
alludes  either  to  a  fancy  that  the  P.  was  the 
forbidden  fruit  of  Eden,  or  to  a  legend  that  the 
aprons  which  our  first  parents  made  for  themselves 
were  of  P.  leaves. 

The  stem  of  the  P.  is  usually  15  or  20  feet  high, 
although  there  are  varieties  having  a  stem  of  only 
six  feet.  The  leaves  are  very  large,  the  blade 
being  sometimes  ten  feet  long  and  three  feet  broad, 
undivided,  of  a  beautiful  shining  green  ;  the  midrib 
strong  and  fleshy.  The  fruit  is  oblong,  varying  from 
its  usual  long  shape  to  an  almost  spherical  one, 
obscurely  angular,  eight  inches  to  a  foot  long  in  the 
varieties  commonly  known  by  the  name  P.,  of  which 
the  fruit  is  usually  cooked  or  prepared  in  some 
way  in  order  to  be  eaten,  and  very  often  forms  a 
substitute  for  bread ;  whilst  the  smaller-fruited 
varieties,  of  which  the  fruit  is  eaten  raw,  are 
generally  known  by  the  name  Bauana  (q.  v.)  ;  these 
names,  however,  being  somewhat  variously  used. 

The  P.  is  generally  propagated  by  suckers  ;  and 
a  sucker  attains  maturity  in  about  eight  months 
or  a  year  after  being  planted.  The  stem  is  cut 
down  after  fruiting,  but  the  plantation  does  not 
require  renewal  for  15  or  20  years.  Plantains 
ought  to  be  at  least  ten  feet  apart  in  plantations 
of  them,  or  six  feet  in  single  rows  around  f>elds  or 
gardens.  The  P.  has  been  sometimes  cultivated 
with  success  in  hothouses. 

With  the  exception  of  two  or  three  palms,  it 
would  not  be  easy  to  name,  in  the  whole  vegetable 
kingdom,  any  plant  which  is  applied  to  a  greater 
number  of  uses  than  the  plantain.  The  fruit  is 
sometimes  eaten  raw,  although  more  generally — 
except  that  of  the  banana — boiled  or  roasted,  and 
variously  prepared.  It  is  both  farinaceous  and 
saccharine.  In  most  of  the  varieties  it  has  a  sweetish 
taste ;  in  some  it  is  mealy  ;  and  in  some  it  is  sub- 
acid or  austere.  It  is  a3  much  used  before  being 
perfectly  ripe  as  when  it  is  so.  In  the  West  Indies 
the  P.  boiled  and  beaten  in  a  mortar  is  a  common 
food  of  the  negroes.  Plantains  baked  in  their 
skins,  or  fried  in  slices  with  butter  and  powdered 
over  with  sugar,  are  favourite  dishes  in  some  tropi- 
cal countries.  They  are  preserved  by  drying  in  the 
sun  or  in  ovens,  and  pressed  into  masses,  in  which 
state  they  keep  for  years,  and  furnish  a  wholesome 
article  of  food.  The  unripe  fruit,  peeled,  sliced, 
dried,  and  powdered,  is  called  P.  meal,  and  in 
Guiana  Conquin-tay ;  it  is  whitish  with  dark-red 
specks,  a  fragrance  like  orris-root,  and  a  taste  like 
wheat-flour;  and  is  made  into  excellent  and  nourish- 
ing dishes.  A  good  and  wholesome  starch  is 
obtained  from  the  P.  by  rasping  and  washing.— A 
decoction  of  the  fruit  is  a  common  beverage  ;  and  a 
kind  of  wine  is  obtained  from  it  by  fermentation. 
— The  top  of  the  stalk  is  a  good  boiled  vegetable. — 
The  leaves  are  much  used  for  packing,  and  many 
other  purposes ;  the  fibre  of  their  stalks  is  used 
for  textile  purposes  and  for  cordage ;  and  it  is 
probable  that  it  might  be  used  for  paper-making ;  but 
hitherto  the  leaves  and  stems  of  plantains  have  been 
generally  burned  or  left  to  rot. 

So  great  is  the  food  produce  of  the  P.,  that, 
according  to  Humboldt's  calculation,  it  m  to  that 
of  the  potato  as  44  to  1,  and  to  that  of  wheat  as 
133  to  1.     The  P.  requires  little  attention. 

The  name  P.  is  frequently  extended  to  the  whole 
genus    Musa.      Wild    species,    with    austere    fiuit. 


PL  A  NTA  IN-  EATER— PLANTS. 


are  found  in  many  parts  of  the  East.  One  ascends 
the  Himalaya*  to  an  elevation  of  65(H)  feet.  A 
species  found  in  the  South  Sea  [alanda  (.1/.  b 
tarn m)  is  remarkable  for  bearing  its  clusters  of 
fruit  erect,  not  pendent  like  the  other  species.  Its 
fruit  is  eatable,  as  is  that  of  M.  Oavendiehii  and  of 
M.  Chinensia,  species  or  varieties  smaller  than  the 
common  plantain. — The  Muaa  which  is  extensively 
cultivated  in  the  Philippine  Islands  for  its  fibre, 
Abaca  or  Manilla  Hemp,  is  very  similar  to  the 
common  P.,  but  has  a  green,  hard,  and  austere  fruit. 
It  is  generally  cut  when  about  a  year  and  a  half 
old,  before  dowering.  The  outer  layers  of  the  stem 
yield  the  coarsest  fibre ;  that  of  the  inner  is  so  tine 
that  a  garment  made  of  it  may  be  enclosed  in  the 
hollow  of  the  hand. — The  young  stems  of  M.  Ensete, 
the  Ensbte  of  Abyssinia,  are  used  in  that  country 
as  a  boded  esculent. 

PLANTAIN-EATER  {Musophaga),  a  genus  of 
birds  of  the  family  Musophagidas,  to  the  whole  of 
which  the  same  English  name  is  often  extended. 
The  Musophagida  are  tropical  birds,  African  and 
South  American,  of  the  order  Insessores,  and  tribe 
Conirodres,  allied  to  finches,  but  many  of  them 
large,  and  more  like  gallinaceous  birds  than  finches. 
They  are  birds  of  beautiful  plumage.  They  have 
strong  thick  bills,  more  or  less  curved  on  the  top, 
the  cutting  edges  jagged  or  finely  serrated,  so  as  to 
render  them  very  elhcient  instruments  for  cutting 
soft  vegetable  substances,  on  which  they  feed,  as  the 
plantain  and  other  fruits,  and  for  dividing  the  suc- 
culent stems  of  plants,  which  they  cut  off  close  to  the 
ground.  They  live  much  among  the  boughs  of  trees, 
and  are  active  and  wary  birds.  The  true  plantain- 
eaters  (Musophaga)  have  the  base  of  the  bill  extend- 
ing upon  the  forehead ;  the  Touracos  (Ccrythaix) 
have  a  smaller  bill,  and  the  head  crested. 

PLANTATION,  a  term  sometimes  applied  to 
places  where  timber  trees  have  been  planted.  In 
that  sense,  as  a  general  rule,  whoever  is  the  owner 
of  the  soil,  is  entitled  to  the  trees  which  are  planted 
in  such  soil.  When  land  is  let  by  lease  to  a  tenant, 
the  tenant  does  not  become  the  owner  of  the  trees, 
and  cannot  cut  them  down.  But  he  is  in  England 
and  Ireland  entitled  to  reasonable  estovers  ;  that  is, 
to  cut  sufficient  wood  to  repair  or  build  the  houses, 
or  make  implements  of  husbandry.  The  common  law 
of  England  was  very  defective  in  protecting  planta- 
tions, for  it  was  held  that,  as  the  trees  were  part  of 
the  realty,  or  soil,  and  nobody  could  steal  the  soil, 
hence  nobody  couid  be  punished  for  larceny  of  trees. 
But  this  defect  was  cured  by  statute.  Whoever 
cuts,  breaks,  roots  up,  or  otherwise  destroys  or 
damages,  with  intent  to  steal,  the  whole  or  any 
part  of  a  tree,  sapling,  or  shrub,  if  the  damage  is 
of  the  amount  of  one  shilling,  may  be  convicted 
summarily,  before  justices  of  the  peace,  and  fined 
£5 ;  for  a  second  offence,  he  may  be  committed  to 
the  house  of  correction  for  twelve  months  or  less  ; 
and  for  a  third  offence,  he  is  guilty  of  felony,  and 
niay  be  punished  as  for  larceny.  So,  whoever  steals 
or  damages  a  live  fence,  may  be  fined  by  justices 
a  sum  of  £5;  and  for  a  second  offence,  may  be  com- 
mitt<  d  to  the  house  of  correction  for  twelve  months. 
Moreover,  if  any  person  is  found  iu  possession  of  a 
piece  of  a  tree  or  live  fence,  and  do  not  give  a 
proper  account  of  his  coming  into  lawful  possession 
of  the  same,  he  may  be  fined  £2. — In  Scotland, 
various  acts  of  the  Scotch  parliament  were  directed 
against    offences    of    damaging    trees,    which    are 

Eunishable  as  malicious  mischief ;  the  penalty 
eing  £10  Scots  for  each  tree  less  than  ten  years  old, 
and  £20  Scots  for  each  older  tree.  Tenants  may  also 
be  fined  for  such  offences.  In  case  of  injuries  to 
fences,  old  Scotch  statutes  also  provide  a  punishment. 


Plantigrade  Foot 


PLANTATION  and  PLANTING  OF  TREES. 
See  Arbobiodxtubk 

PLANTIGRA'DA,  in  Cavier'a  Boological  system, 
a  tribe  of  Carnivora  (q.  v.),  characterised  by  placing 

the  whole  sole  of  the  foot 
on  the  ground  in  walking 
The  sole  is  generally  des- 
titute of  hair.  Both  fore 
and  hind  feet  are  five-toed 
in  all  the  plantigrada.  The 
P.  are  generally  more  or 
less  nocturnal  in  their 
mode  of  life,  and  their 
movements  are  slower  and 
their  gait  more  clumsy 
than  those  of  the  JJigili- 
grada.  They  are  also,  in  general,  less  carnivorous  ; 
many  of  them  feed  in  part  or  occasionally  on 
vegetable  food.  The  conformation  of  their  limbs 
and  feet  gives  them  a  power  of  standing 
their  hind-feet,  which  none  of  the  JJbjitigrada 
possess,  and  of  which  advantage  is  taken  in  tame 
bears  for  the  amusement  of  spectators. 

PLANTIN,  Christophe,  an  eminent  printer, 
was  born  at  St  Avertin,  near  Tours,  in  1514,  and 
set  up  a  printing-establishment  at  Antwerp  in  1550, 
which  soon  became  the  greatest  and  most  celebrated 
of  the  time.  He  had  often  twenty  presses  or  more 
in  active  operation.  Guicciardini  mentiou3  his 
printing-establishment  as  the  finest  ornament  of 
the  city  of  Antwerp,  and  as  one  of  the  wonders  of 
Europe,  and  the  learned  agreed  in  regarding  him  as 
the  first  printer  of  his  time,  although  he  was  the 
contemporary  of  Aldus  and  Estienne  (Stephens) ; 
but  this  is  true  only  as  regards  the  number  of  works 
which  issued  from  his  establishment,  and  the  beauty 
of  their  typography;  for  the  services  which  the 
others  have  rendered  to  classic  literature  are  far 
beyond  those  of  Plantin.  P.  was  nevertheless  him- 
self a  man  of  varied,  though  probably  not  very 
profound  learning.  He  superintended  the  publica- 
tion of  works  in  several  languages,  and  was  extremely 
careful  of  their  accuracy,  employing  abla  and  learned 
correctors  of  the  press,  whom  he  remunerated 
liberally,  and  publicly  offering  rewards  for  the 
discovery  of  errors.  The  most  noted  of  all  his 
publications  is  the  Biblia  Polyglotta  (8  vols.  1569— 
1572),  which  was  printed  under  the  personal  super- 
intendence of  Arias  Montanus,  the  court  chaplain 
of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  towards  which,  Philip 
gave  6000  ducats  for  the  purchase  of  paper.  But 
the  oldest  book  known  to  have  proceeded  from  the 
press  of  P.  is  the  Institution  d'une  Fille  de  Noble 
Maison,  traduite  de  Langue  Toscane  en  Francois,  by 
Jean  Beller  (Ant.  1555).  P.  died  at  Antwerp  in  1589. 
He  had  set  up  printing-establishments  in  Ley  den  and 
Paris,  and  these,  with  that  in  Antwerp,  were  carried 
on  by  the  husbands  of  his  three  daughters. 

PLANTS,  in  point  of  law,  when  put  in  a  garden 
or  other  ground  let  to  a  tenant,  belong  to  the  land- 
lord, and  not  to  the  tenant,  for  they  become  part  of 
the  soil.  Hence,  a  tenant  cannot  dig  them  up  and 
remove  them,  at  the  termination  of  his  lease.  This 
riwht  of  the  landlord,  however,  is  seldom  enforced 
with  much  strictness,  partly  because  the  teuant  may 
alter  and  remove  the  plants  at  discretion  during  his 
lease,  and  thus  can  evade  the  rule  of  law.  In  the 
case  of  nursery-grounds,  however,  the  above  rule 
does  not  apply,  as  between  landlord  and  tenant,  for 
the  plants  are  considered  the  stock-in-trade  of  the 
nurseryman,  who  puts  them  in  the  ground,  not 
with  a  view  to  let  them  grow  permanently,  but  as 
a  convenient  mode  of  keeping  them  for  sale.  Hence, 
at  the  termination  of   his   lease,   the  tenant   can 

remove  them  alL 

6S3 


PLANUDES-PLAT^EA. 


PLANU'DES,  Maximus.     See  Anthology. 

PLASEN'CIA,  an  ancient  and  much- decayed, 
but  most  picturesque  town  of  Spain,  in  Estremadura, 
43  miles  north-north-east  of  Caceres,  stands  on  a 
Bteep  hill,  with  beautiful  and  fertil  *  valleys,  extend- 
ing on  the  north-west  and  south-cast  sides.  It  is 
almost  wholly  girdled  by  the  clear  waters  of  the 
Jerte;  and  the  sm-rounding  scenery,  embracing 
city,  castle,  river,  rock,  and  mountain,  and  over- 
arched by  a  sunny  and  unclouded  sky,  is  remark- 
ably beautiful.  The  city  contains  the  picturesque 
remains  of  an  ancient  castle,  and  is  surrounded  by 
crumbling  walls,  surmounted  by  68  towers,  and 
pierced  by  six  gates.  Water  is  brought  to  the 
town  by  an  aqueduct  of  80  arches.  There  are 
seven  Gothic  churches,  an  episcopal  and  several 
other  palaces,  and  the  cathedral,  an  ornate  Gothic 
edifice,  begun  in  1498,  and  some  portions  of  which 
are  still  unfinished,  while  others  have  been  altered 
and  disfigured.  The  cathedral  contains  many  noble 
tombs,  with  effigies.  P.,  once  a  flourishing  and  im- 
portant city,  was  founded  in  1190.  It  now  carries 
on  some  minor  manufactures  of  cotton,  woollen, 
and  hempen  fabrics,  and  of  hats  and  leather.  Pop. 
about  6000. 

PLA'SMA,  a  silicious  mineral,  a  variety  of 
quartz  or  chalcedony,  of  a  bright-green  colour,  black 
when  polished,  and  seen  by  reflected  light,  but 
very  translucent  when  held  between  the  eye  and 
the  light.  It  is  very  nearly  allied  to  heliotrope  or 
bloodstone,  but  has  no  red  spots,  is  more  translu- 
cent, and  is  not  susceptible  of  so  brilliant  a  polish. 
It  is  never  found  crystallised.  It  is  a  rare  mineral, 
and  the  finest  specimens  are  brought  from  India  and 
China.  It  was  highly  prized  by  the  ancient  Romans, 
who  wrought  it  into  ornaments  of  various  kinds ; 
and  very  tine  engraved  specimens  have  been  found 
among  the  ruins  of  ancient  Pome.  The  ancients 
are  said  to  have  obtained  their  plasma  from  Mount 
Olympus,  in  Asia  Minor.  The  name  plasma  is 
supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  Greek  prason,  a 
leek,  the  r  having  passed  into  I. 

PLASTER  OF  PARIS.    See  Gypsum. 

PLASTERING,  the  art  of  covering  walls, 
partitions,  ceilings,  &?..,  with  a  composition  of  lime 
mixed  with  sand  and  hair.  It  is  usually  done  in 
three  coats.  The  first  coat  is  the  solid  foundation 
on  which  the  rest  is  placed ;  it  is  therefore  of  a  good 
thickness,  and  is  hatched  or  crossed  with  lines,  so 
as  to  give  a  bond  for  the  next  coat.  The  first  coat 
is  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly ;  then  the  second  coat 
is  floated  over  the  first,  and  rubbed  well  in  with  a 
flat  board,  about  12  inches  square,  so  as  to  bring  it  all 
to  a  fair  and  equal  surface  (in  Scotland  this  is  called 
the  'straightening') ;  and  before  the  second  coat  has 
thoroughly  dried,  the  third  or  finishing  coat  is 
applied  in  finer  materials,  and  in  a  more  liquid  state. 
In  the  case  of  ceiling  cornices,  mouldings,  &c, 
plaster  of  Paris  or  stucco  is  generally  used.  This 
sets  or  hardens  more  rapidly  than  kme,  and  has 
a  finer  and  whiter  surface. 

Ornaments  (called  enrichments)  are  generally 
composed  of  plaster  of  Paris,  and  cast  in  moulds. 
They  are  then  set  in  their  places  after  the  cornice 
has  been  made,  or  run. 

PLASTERS  are  a  class  of  medicinal  agents 
which  are  employed  externally  with  various  objects. 
They  are  solid  and  tenacious  compounds,  adhesive 
at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  body,  and 
owing  their  consistency — 1.  To  the  chemical  con- 
bination  of  oxide  of  lead,  with  one  or  more  fatty 
acids  ;  or  2,  to  a  due  admixture  of  wax,  or  fat,  and 
resin  ;  or  3,  to  the  chemical  action  of  the  component 
parts  of  the  plaster  on  each  other.  Strictly  speak- 
ing, the  term  Plaster  should  be  restricted  to  the 
584 


first  class  of  compounds  ;  viz.,  to  combination  of 
oxide  of  lead  with  fatty  acids.  In  the  British 
Pharmacopoeia,  there  are  directions  for  making 
12  plasters,  viz.,  ammoniac  and  mercury  plaster, 
Belladonna  plaster,  cantharides  plaster,  chalybeate 
plaster,  galbanum  plaster,  litharge  (or  lead)  plaster, 
mercurial  plaster,  opium  plaster,  pitch  plaster,  resin 
plaster,  soap  plaster,  and  warm  plaster.  The 
litharge  (or  lead)  plaster,  directly  or  indirectly, 
enters  into  the  composition  of  all  the  twelve  officinal 
plasters,  excepting  those  of  ammoniac  and  mercury, 
cantharides,  and  pitch.  Lead  Plaster,  which  ia 
usually  sold  under  the  name  of  Diachylon,  in  com- 
bination with  resin,  constitutes  the  ordinary  adhesive 
plaster.  The  best  plaster  of  this  kind  for  strapping 
is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  six  drachms  of  resin 
with  a  pound  of  lead  plaster.  The  cantharides 
plaster  and  the  ammoniac  and  mercury  plaster,  are 
examples  of  the  second  and  third  varieties. 

Plasters  are  generally  kept  in  rolls ;  and  when  they 
are  to  be  used,  they  are  melted  at  a  temperature 
of  not  more  than  212°,  and  spread  on  soft  leather. 
They  are  employed  to  answer  two  distinct  indica- 
tions, namely,  to  act  mechanically,  as  by  affording 
artificial  support  to  weak  muscular  structures,  by 
preventing  threatened  or  tedious  excoriations,  by 
protecting  parts  already  excoriated  from  the  action 
of  the  air,  &c. ;  and  to  act  medicinally  as  stimulant, 
discutient,  alterative,  anodyne,  &c. 

PLA'TA,  La.     See  Argentine  Republic. 

PLATA,  Rio  de  la,  a  wide  estuary  of  South 
America,  between  Uruguay  on  the  north  and  the 
Argentine  Confederation  on  the  south,  forms  the 
mouth  of  the  Parana  (q.  v.)  and  the  Uruguay  (q.  v.). 
It  is  ISO  miles  long,  29  miles  broad  at  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  130  miles  broad  at  its  mouth,  between 
Punta  Negra  and  Cape  San  Antonio.  At  its  mouth 
it  is,  on  an  average,  only  about  10  fathoms  deep  ; 
at  Monte  Video  it  is  only  3  fathoms  ;  aud  at  Buenos 
Ayres  about  16  feet  deep.  Some  conception  of  the 
vast  volume  of  water  which  this  estuary  carries  to 
the  Atlantic  may  be  had  when  it  is  remembered 
that  with  its  affluents  it  drains  an  area  of  1,250,000 
square  miles.  The  strong  and  irregular  currents, 
and  the  sudden  tempests  of  the  La  P.,  render  its 
navigation  extremely  dangerous.  It  is  estimated 
that  through  this  estuary  about  one-fourth  of  the 
produce  of  South  America  is  brought  to  market. 
For  the  navigation  of  its  affluents,  see  Paraguay, 
Parana,  and  Uruguay. 

PLAT^E'A,  or  PLAT^E^E,  a  city  in  the 
western  part  of  Bceotia,  on  the  borders  of  Attica, 
and  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Cithaaron.  It  was  about 
64  miles  from  Thebes.  In  480  B.  C,  it  was  destroyed 
by  the  Persians,  because  the  inhabitants  had  taken 
part  with  Athens  in  the  battle  of  Marathon ;  but  in 
the  following  year,  it  was  the  scene  of  the  glorious 
victory  won  by  the  Lacedaemonian  Greeks,  under 
Pausanias  and  Aristides,  over  the  Persian  hordes 
commanded  by  Mardonius — a  victory  that  finally 
delivered  Greece  from  the  threatened  yoke  of  the 
invader.  In  the  third  year  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war  (429  B.  c. ),  it  was  attacked  by  a  Theban- 
Lacedsemonian  force — for  the  Plataeans  were  firm 
friends  of  Athens — and  heroically  defended  itself 
for  more  than  two  years,  until  it  was  starved  into 
surrender.  The  little  garrison  of  about  200  men 
were  put  to  the  sword;  and  the  city  was  razed  to 
the  ground.  Such  of  the  Plataeans  as  escaped 
were  hospitably  received  at  Athens.  By  the  treaty 
of  Antalcidas  (387  B.C.),  their  children  were  allowed 
to  go  back  again,  and  rebuild  their  city,  after  an 
exile  of  40  years;  but  they  were  again  driven  out 
by  their  implacable  enemies,  the  Thebans ;  and  half 
a  century  elapsed  before  the  victory  of  Philip  of 


PLATALEA-PLATING. 


Mocodon  at  Chn?roneia  enabled  the  Plataeana  to 
finally  return  to  their  homes.  After  this,  the  city 
remained  inhabited,  probably  till  the  latest  days  of 
the  empire.     It  is  mentioned  in  the  8th   c.  a.d. 

Hum"  ruins  of  P.  are  still  visible  near  the  village  of 

Kokhla. 

PLATA'LEA    See  Spoonbill. 

PLAT-BAND,  in  Architecture,  a  flat  fascia  or 
band,  with  less  projection  than  breadth. 

PLATE,  in  Heraldry,  a  Iloundle  (q.  v.)  argent.  It 
is  represented  flat,  and  in  the  heraldry  of  Scotland 
is  known  as  a  Bezant  argent. 

PLATE-MARKS  are  legal  impressions  made  on 
articles  of  gold  or  silver  at  the  various  assay  oflioes, 
for  the  purpose  of  indicating  the  true  value  of  the 
metal  of  which  the  articles  are  made.  The  marks 
are  a  series  of  symbols,  which  are  embossed  in  a 
line  of  al>out  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length, 
and  usually  on  every  separate  piece  of  which  an 
article  is  composed.  These  symbols  are — 1.  The 
maker's  own  mark  or  initials.  2.  The  standard  or 
assay  mark  ;  viz.,  for  gold,  a  crown,  and  figures 
denotiug  the  number  of  carats  fine.  This  means 
that  pure  gold  is  reckoned  at  24  carats,  and  every 
part  of  alloy  added  reduces  that  standard  number 
(see  Carat)  ;  so  that  if  a  piece  of  gold-plate  or  jewel- 
lery is  marked  with  a  crown  and  IS,  it  indicates 
that  it  consists  of  18  parts  of  pure  gold,  and  6  parts 
of  some  other  metal  alloyed  with  it.  Gold  of  eight 
carats  is  now  legal,  but  as  it  is  marked  by  the 
assay  office,  there  can  be  no  deception,  if  the  public 
understand  the  plate-marks.  If  not,  they  may  pay 
for  pure  gold,  relying  upon  the  hall-mark,  when 
in  reality  they  only  receive  a  third  part  gold.  For 
Silver  —England,  a  lion  passant ;  Ireland,  a  harp 
Crowned ;  Edinburgh,  a  thistle ;  Glasgow,  a  lion 
rampaut.  3.  The  hall-mark  of  the  district  office — 
London,  a  leopard's  head  crowned ;  York,  three 
lions  and  a  cross  ;  Exeter,  a  castle  with  two  wings  ; 
Chester,  three  wheat-sheaves  or  a  dagger ;  New- 
castle, three  castles  ;  Birmingham,  an  anchor ; 
Sheffield,  a  crown ;  Edinburgh,  a  castle  and  Hon  ; 
Glasgow,  a  tree,  salmon,  and  ring ;  Dublin,  the 
figure  of  Hibernia.  4.  The  duty-mark,  indicating 
the  payment  of  duty,  viz.,  the  head  of  the  reigning 
sovereign.  5.  The  date-mark.  Each  office  has  its 
alphabetical  mark,  indicating  the  date  of  the  stamp. 
In  Loudon,  the  assay  year  commences  on  the  30th 
of  Ma}",  and  the  date  of  the  current  year  is  indi- 
cated by  one  of  the  first  twenty  letters  of  the 
alphabet  used  iu  regular  succession ;  thus,  the  Gold- 
smiths' Company  of  London  have  used  the  following 
marks : 

From  1716  to  1755,  Roman  Capital  Letters. 

ii  1756  «   1775,  Roman  Small  Letters. 

.  1776  „   1795,  Old  English  Letters. 

■  1706  ii   1815,  Roman  Capital  Letters  A  to  U. 

*  1316  ii   1835,  Small  Roman  Letters  a  to  u. 

k  1836  „  1S55,  Old  English  Letters  a  to  iS. 

ii  1856  ii  Small  Black  Letters  a  to 

rhus,  E  #53  «&  §  i  "would  represent  the  mark 
on  Elkington's  plate,  made  in  the  year  1864. 

PLATE-POWDER,  a  composition  used  for  clean- 
ing gold  and  silver  plate  and  plated  articles.  It  is 
also  called  Rouge-powder  Csee  Rouge).  It  is  made 
by  levigating  rouge  with  three  times  its  weight  of 
prepared  chalk,  until  they  are  thoroughly  mixed  into 
an  almost  impalpable  powder.  Sometimes  Putty- 
powder  (q.  v.)  is  used  instead  of  rouge,  and  a  little 
rose-pink  added  to  colour  it.  A  plate-powder  is  also 
sometimes  made  by. levigating  quicksilver  with  twelve 
times  its  weight  of  prepared  chnlk,  until  it  is  thoroughly 
incorporated,  and  forms  a  gray  powder.     It  puts  a 


remarkable  brilliancy  on  silver-plate,  hut  is  very  inju- 
rious to  it. 

PLATING  signifies  the  covering  of  an  inferior 
metal  with  one  of  the  precious  metals,  the  object 
being  to  gjve  the  appearance  of  silver  or  gold  to 

articles  chiefly   intrude. I    for   table   DSe.       At  present, 

the  articles  arc  generallj  made  of  German  suvei,  or 
some  of  the  similar  white-metal  alloys;  bnt  formerly, 
copper,  or  an  alloy  of  that  metal  with  brass,  win 
used;  the  disadvantage  of  which  was  that,  as  the 
coating  of  silver  wore  off,  the  red  colour  of  tl  s 
copper  became  disagreeably  apparent  through  the 
thin  covering  of  silver.     Gold  is  rarely  plated   on 

any  other   metal    than    silver,  except    for   purposes   of 
deception.       Previous   to  the  introduction   of  electro- 
plating,    the    method    generally    pursued    was    that 
which  has   acquired  the  name  of   Sheffleld-plating. 
from  the  large  extent  to  which  it  was  carried  on  in 
that  town.      It  consists   in    soldering   on  to   one  or 
both  sides   of  an   ingot   of   the  baser  metal,  a  thin 
plate  of  silver.      The  ingot  is  always  of   an  ohlong 
shape,     and     is    most    carefully     prepared    on    the 
surfaces   which    are   to    receive   the    silver,    so   that 
nothing   shall     prevent    the   complete   union    of    the 
two.      The    shape    and    relative    proportion    of    the 
ingot,     and     its 
plating  of  silver, 
are  seen  in  the 
figure :  aa  is  the 
silver     on     the 
upper  and  lower 
surfaces,  for  double-plated  goods  ;  6,  the  body  of 
the  ingot,  of   copper   or   white-metal   alloy.      The 
soldering   is    a   process    requiring   much    care   and 
nicety :    the    plates    of    silver    are    thinly    coated 
with    a    concentrated   solution   of    borax,   and   are 
then    applied    to    the    prepared    surfaces    of    the 
ingot,  to  which  they   are  firmly  bound  with  iron 
wire,  and  then  placed  in  the  plating-furnace,  and 
subjected  to   a  strong    heat.     This    furnace   is   so 
arranged  that  the  interior  can  be  constantly  watched, 
and  when  the  proper  temperature  is  attained,  the 
workman  knows  the  exact  instant  to  withdraw  it. 
The  act  of  soldering  is  almost  instantaneous,  and 
fusion  would  immediately  follow,  if  the  ingot  was 
not  quickly  withdrawn.     When  cooled,  the  wire  is 
taken  off.  and  the  ingot  is  taken   to   the   rolling- 
mill,  where  it  is  passed  backwards  and  forwards,  of 
course  with  the  silver  above  and  below,  until  it  is 
rolled   out  into   a   sheet  of    the    exact    thickness 
required.     However  thin   it   may    be   made,   it   is 
found  that  the  relative  thickness  between  the  ingot 
and  its  layers   of   silver  is  always  the  same.     As 
usual   in   all   cases    of    rolling   or  striking    metal, 
annealing  from  time  to  time  is  necessary,  to  remove 
the  brittleness  which  these  operations  cause. 

This  method  does  not  admit  of  the  manufacture 
of  any  portions  such  as  ornameutal  moulded 
borders,  &c.  ;  these  had  therefore  to  be  formed 
separately  of  copper,  and  were  coated  by  the 
process  called  Silvering  (q.  v.).  Now,  however,  't  is 
found  better  to  make  them  of  silver  rolled  thie,  ind 
fill  them  inside  with  lead,  to  give  them  solidity  ;  by 
this  plan  is  avoided  the  annoyance  of  the  si'ver 
rubbing  off,  and  exposing  the  copper.  Sheffield- 
plating  is  still  made  extensively,  but  the  manu- 
facture is  rapidly  declining  in  presence  of  the  newer 
art  of  electro-plating.     See  Galvanism. 

Within  a  very  recent  period,  and  since  the 
subject  of  electro-plating  was  treated  under  the 
article  Galvanism,  some  very  remarkable  appli- 
cations of  the  process  have  been  discovered  ;  for 
instancy  it  is  no  longer  confined  to  the  deposit 
of  silver  and  gold ;  aluminium,  silicium,  titanium, 
tungsten,  molybdenum,  tin,  cadmium,  lead,  bis- 
muth, palladium,  rhodium,  iridium,  and  tho  alloys 

6&S 


PLATINUM. 


orass  and  bronze  and  zinc,  are  all  now  deposited  undei 
patent  processes.  Of  all  these,  by  far  the  most  import- 
ant is  the  deposit  of  the  alloys,  and  a  very  large  trade 
has  sprang  up  in  manufactures  of  iron  coated  with 
brass  and  zinc.  The  importance  of  being  able  to  cover 
a  metal  so  cheap  yet  so  easily  corroded  as  cast  iron, 
with  so  ornamental  an  alloy  as  brass  or  bronze,  can 
hardly  be  overrated.  Many  extensive  and  satisfac- 
tory pieces  of  this  work  have  already  been  made. 

PLA'TINUM  (symb.  Pt,  equiv.  197 '4,  sp.  gr. 
21.5)  is  one  of  the  '  noble  metals,'  which  may  be 
obtained  in  more  forms  than  one.  It  is  only 
found  in  the  native  state,  usually  occurring  in  small 
glistening  gi-anules  of  a  steel-gray  colour,  which 
always  contains  an  admixture,  in  varying  proportions, 
of  several  metals,  most  of  which  are  rarely  found 
except  in  association  with  platinum.  Sometimes, 
however,  it  occurs  in  masses  of  the  size  of  a 
pigeon's  egg,  and  pieces  weighing  ten  or  even 
twenty  pounds  have  occasionally  been  found.  The 
following  table  shews  the  composition  of  crude 
platinum  ore  as  obtained  from  different  parts  of  the 
globe.  The  analyses  are  by  Messrs.  Deville  and  De- 
bray,  and  that  from  Oregon  by  C.  A.  Kurlbaum,  Jr. 


Colum- 
bus. 

Cali- 
fornia. 

Ore- 
gon. 

Spain. 

Aus- 
tralia. 

Russia. 

Platinum,     . 

80-00 

7985 

43-54 

4570 

59-80 

7750 

Iridium,  . 

1-55 

4-20 

060 

0-95 

2-20 

1-45 

Khodium,     . 

2-50 

0-65 

0-28 

2-65 

1-50 

2-80 

Palladium, 

1-00 

1-95 

0-49 

0-85 

1-50 

0-85 

Gold,    . 

1-50 

0-55 

1-32 

315 

2-40 

Copper,    . 

0-65 

0-75 

0-32 

105 

110 

2-15 

Iron,     . 

7-20 

4-45 

4-52 

6-80 

4-30 

9-60 

Osmide  of  Iridium, 

1-40 

4-95 

48-77 

2-85 

25-00 

2-35 

Sand,    . 

435 

2-60 

35-95 

1-20 

1-00 

Osmium  and  loss, 

005 

005 

0-80 

2-30 

Rhuthenium  is  also  almost  always  present,  and  in  tne 
above  analyses  is  probably  included  with  the  iridium, 
which  ii;  closely  resembles. 

There  are  two  modes  of  obtaining  platinum  in  the 
form  of  ingots  from  the  ore,  both  of  which  require 
notice.  The  method  which  has  been  universally 
employed,  till  within  the  last  ten  years,  was  that 
discovered  by  Wollaston,  the  leading  steps  of  which 
were  as  follows :  After  the  removal  of  the  metals 
associated  with  the  platinum,  by  the  successive  action 
of  nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids,  the  platinum  itself 
is  dissolved  in  aqua  regia,  from  which  it  is  precipi- 
tated by  a  solution  of  sal  ammoniac  in  the  form 
of  a  sparingly  soluble  double  salt,  the  chloro- 
platinate  of  ammonium,  represented  by  the  formula 
(NH4)2Pt*Cl6.  This  salt  is  washed  and  heated  to 
redness,  by  which  means  the  chlorine  and  ammonia 
are  expelled,  leaving  the  metal  in  the  form  of  a 
gray,  spongy,  soft  mass,  known  to  chemists  as 
spongy  platinum.  In  this  form,  it  is  very  finely 
powdered  under  water,  is  next  shaped  by  intense 
pressure  into  a  mass,  and  is  then  exposed  to  an 
intense  heat  in  a  wind-furnace,  the  ingot  being 
formed  by  hammering  it  upon  its  two  ends.  (If 
hammered  on  its  sides,  it  splits.)  This  heating 
and  forging  must  be  repeated  till  the  metal 
becomes  homogeneous  and  ductile. 

Deville  and  Debray  have  introduced  an  entirely 
new  method  for  the  extraction  of  platinum  from 
its  ores.  They  first  form  a  fusible  alloy  of  this 
metal  with  lead,  by  exposing  the  platinum  ore — 
2  cwt.  being  used  in  a  single  experiment,  with 
equal  weights  of  galena  and  litharge  gradually 
added,  and  a  little  glass  to  act  as  a  flux — to  full 
redness  in  a  reverberatory  furnace  lined  with  clay. 
The  sulphur  of  the  galena  is  oxidised  and  expelled, 
and  the  liquid  alloy  of  lead  and  platinum  is  allowed 
to  rest  for  some  time,  to  allow  the  osmide  of 
iridium,  which  is  not  affected  by  the  preceding 
operations,  to  sink  to  the  bottom.  The  upper 
685 


portions  of  the  alloy  are  then  decanted,  and  cast 
into  ingot-moulds,  which  are  submitted  to  cupella- 
tion ;  and  the  metallic  platinum  which  is  left  after 
the  cupellation  is  melted  and  refined  in  a  furnace 
of  lime — which  is  employed  in  consequence  of  its 
being  a  very  bad  conductor  of  heat — by  means  of 
the  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe.  The  platinum  obtained 
in  this  manner  is  nearly  pure,  and  very  ductile  and 
malleable.  For  details  regarding  this  process,  which 
has  been  patented  both  in  France  and  in  this  coun- 
try, the  reader  is  referred  to  the  memoir,  '  On  Pla- 
tinum and  the  Metals  which  accompany  it,'  in  the 
Annates  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique  for  August  1859. 

Platinum,  as  obtained  by  either  of  the  above 
processes,  exhibits  a  bluish- white  metallic  lustre ; 
it  is  exceedingly  malleable  and  ductile,  and  is  very 
infusible,  melting  only  before  the  oxyhydrogen 
blow-pipe,  or  in  a  very  powerful  blast-furnace,  such  ' 
as  that  used  by  Deville  and  Debray.  It  expands  less 
by  heat  than  any  other  metal,  and  it  is  usually 
regarded  as  the  heaviest  form  of  matter  yet  known  ; 
but,  according  to  Deville  and  Debray,  osmium  and 
iridium  are  about  equally  dense.  It  is  unaffected 
by  atmospheric  action,  and  does  not  undergo  oxida- 
tion in  the  air  at  even  the  highest  temperatures.  It 
is  not  acted  on  by  nitric,  hydrochloric,  sulphuric,  or 
hydrofluoric  acid,  or  in  short,  by  any  single  acid  ; 
but  in  aqua  regia  it  slowly  dissolves,  and  forms  a 
soluble  bichloride.  In  consequence  of  its  power  of 
resisting  the  action  of  acids,  it  is  of  great  service  in 
experimental  and  manufacturing  chemical  processes, 
platinum  spatulas,  capsules,  crucibles,  &c,  being 
employed  in  every  laboratory ;  while  platinum  stills, 
weighing  sometimes  as  much  as  one  thousand 
ounces,  are  frequently  used  for  concentrating  oil 
of  vitriol  Platinum  is,  however,  corroded  if  heated 
with  the  alkalies  or  alkaline  earths,  and  especially 
with  a  mixture  of  nitrate  of  potash  and  hydrated 
potash,  an  oxide  being  formed  which  combines  with 
the  alkaline  bases. 

The  form  of  the  metal  known  as  spongy  platinum. 
has  been  already  noticed.  The  metal  may,  how- 
ever, be  obtained  in  a  state  of  subdivision  much 
finer  than  that  in  which  it  is  left  on  heating  the 
double  chloride  of  platinum  and  ammonium — 
namely,  in  the  state  known  as  Platinum  Black.  In 
this  form  it  resembles  soot.  It  may  be  prepared  in 
various  ways,  of  which  one  of  the  simplest  is  to 
boil  a  solution  of  bichloride  of  platinum,  to  which 
an  excess  of  carbonate  of  soda  and  a  quantity  o-. 
sugar  have  been  added,  until  the  precipitate  formed 
after  a  little  time  becomes  pei-fectly  black,  and  the 
supernatant  liquid  colourless.  The  black  powder  is 
then  collected  on  a  filter,  washed,  and  dried  by  a 
gentle  heat.  In  its  finely  comminuted  state,  either 
as  spongy  platinum  or  platinum  black,  it  possesses 
a  remarkable  power  of  condensing  and  absorbing 
gases,  one  volume  of  platinum  black  being  able  to 
absorb  more  than  100  volumes  of  oxygen  The  ab- 
sorption appears  to  be  accompanied  by  a  conversion 
of  some  or  all  of  the  oxygen  into  the  modification 
known  as  Ozone  (q.  v.),  since  the  metal  becomes  capa- 
ble of  exerting  the  most  energetic  oxidising  action, 
even  at  ordinary  temperatures.  For  example,  it  can 
cause  the  combustion  of  a  jet  of  hydrogen,  can  oxi 
dise  sulphmxms  acid  into  sulphuric  acid,  ammonia  into 
nitric  acid,  and  alcohol  into  acetic  acid,  the  rise  of 
temperature  in  the  last  case  being  often  sufficiently 
great  to  cause  inflammation.  Platinum  in  the  com- 
pact form,  as  foil  or  wire,  possesses  similar  powers, 
but  in  a  far  lower  degree. 

Platinum  may  be  easily  alloyed  with  most  of  the 
metals,  the  alloys  being  in  general  much  moi-e 
fusible  than  pure  platinum.  Hence  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  heat  the  oxides  of  metals  of  easy 
reduction,  such   as  lead  and  bismuth,  in  platinum 


PLATO. 


crucibles,  as,  if  any  reduction  took  place,  the 
crucible  would  be  destroyed  by  the  fusion  of  tlic 
resulting  alloy.  An  olloy  of  platinum,  iridium,  and 
rhodium  is  found,  by  the  investigations  of  Deville 
Jim]  Debroy,  to  be  harder  and  capable  of  reaistiiig 
a  hi«rlier  temperature  than  the  pure  metal:  and 
hence  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  formation  of 
crucibles,  &c 

There  are  two  oiiden  of  platinum,  the  platinoua, 
PtjO.  and  the  platinic,  Pt*Oj,  neither  of  which  can  be 
formed  by  the  direct  union  of  tlic  elements.  Except- 
ing that  the  change  which  platinum  vessels  undergo 

when  containing  the  caustic  alkalies,  &C,  and  ex- 
posed to  a  red  heat,  Ls  due  to  the  formation  of  a  super- 
ficial layer  of  oxide  (probably  platinic),  these  com- 
pounds are  of  little  interest.  The  sulphide*  and 
chloride*  corn-pond  in  number  and  composition  to 
the  oxides.  Of  these  compounds,  the  tetrachloride 
(Pt^CU)  alone  requires  notice.  It  is  formed  by  dis- 
solving platinum  in  aqua  regia,  and  evaporating  the 
solution  to  dryness;  and  it  is  obtained  as  a  deliques- 
cent, reddish-brown  mass,  which  forms  an  orange- 
coloured  solution  in  water,  from  which,  on  evapora- 
tion, it  crystallizes  in  prisms.  It  is  also  freelv  soluble 
in  alcohol  and  ether.  A  solution  of  this  salt  is  much 
used  for  the  recognition  and  determination  of  potash 
and  ammonia. 

Platinum  has  long  been  used  in  the  form  of  cru- 
cibles in  the  analytical  laboratory,  but  has  recently 
been  employed  in  the  arts  on  a  large  scale.  Stills 
for  the  concentrating  sulphuric  acid  have  been 
made  capable  of  producing  eight  tons  per  day,  and 
valued  at  £2500.  Iridio-platinum  has  been  employed 
for  vents  for  Whitworth  guns. 

PLATO,  who,  along  with  Aristotle,  represents 
to  modern  Europe  the  whole  compass  of  Greek 
speculation,  was  born  at  Athens  in  the  year  429  B.C., 
shortly  after  the  commencement  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  and  the  same  year  in  which  Pericles  died. 
He  was  of  a  good  family — being  connected,  on 
the  mother's  side,  with  Solon  ;  and  on  the  father's 
side,  with  Codrus,  one  of  the  ancient  kings  of 
Athens.  He  received  a  good  education,  according 
to  the  common  practice  of  the  Greeks,  in  music, 
gymnastics,  and  literature.  His  rich  and  gorgeous 
imagination  is  said  at  first  to  have  essayed,  its 
powers  in  poetry ;  hut  when  about  20  years  of 
age,  having  become  acquainted  with  Socrates,  he 
threw  all  his  verses  into  the  fire,  and  consecrated 
his  great  intellect  to  philosophy.  When  he  was 
20  years  old,  the  political  troubles,  of  which  the 
death  of  Socrates  was  only  one  terrible  symptom, 
forced  him  to  leave  Athens  for  a  season,  and  he 
resided  at  Megara,  with  Euclid,  the  founder  of 
the  Megaric  sect.  The  disturbed  state  of  his 
native  country,  doubtless,  also  was  one  cause 
of  the  frequent  travels  which  he  is  reported  to 
have  made.  Of  these,  his  three  visits  to  Sicily, 
during  the  time  of  the  elder  and  younger  Dionysius, 
are  the  most  celebrated  and  the  best  authenticated. 
That  he  visited  Italy,  is  extremely  probable  ;  at  all 
events,  he  was  most  closely  connected,  with  Archytas 
and  the  Pythagorean  philosophers ;  though,  as 
Aristotle  (Metaph.  i.  6)  justly  remarks,  he  borrowed 
from  Heracleitus  as  well  as  from  Pythagoras,  and 
put  a  stamp  of  freshness  and  originality  on  all  that  he 
borrowed.  After  returning  from  his  first  visit  to 
Sicdy,  being  then  in  his  fortieth  year,  he  commenced 
teaching  philosophy  publicly,  in  the  Academeia,  a 
pleasant  garden  in  the  most  beautiful  suburb  of 
Athens,  and  there  gathered  around  him  a  large  school 
of  distinguished  followers,  who  main  ained  a  regular 
succession  after  his  death,  under  the  name  of  the 
Philosophers  of  the  Academy.  He  lived  to  the  age 
of  82  ;  was  never  married  ;  and.  must  have  possessed 
some  independent  property,  as  he  expresses  himself 


strongly  against  teaching  Shiloa  ,phy  for  fees,  and 
we  nowhere  read  of  Ins  having  held   any  public 

office  from  which  he  could  have  derived  emolument 
Such  are  the  few  reliable  facts  known  as  to  the  life 
of  Plato. 

The  principles  of  bis  philosophy  are  happily 
better  known;  for  all  his  great  works  have  been 
preserved,  and  have  always  been  extensively  read 
wherever  the  Greek  language  was.  known.  The  only 
danger  to  which  the  students  of  his  phi) 
have  been  exposed  is  the  confusion  of  the  doctrine* 
distinctly  taught  by  him  with  the  exaggi  ration 
of  these  as  afterwards  worked  out  by  the  Keo-Pla- 
tonists  of  Alexandria  ;  but  this  is  a  danger  which 
the  exact  critical  scholarship  of  modern  times  has 
put  out  of  the  way  for  all  persons  who  exercise 
common  precaution  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge. 
The  distinctive  character  of  the  Platonic  philosophy 
is  expressed  by  the  word  idealism,  as  opposed!  to 
realism,  materialism,  or  sensationalism,  using  these 
words  in  their  most  general  and  least  technical 
sense,  the  capacity7  of  forming  and  using  ideas  being 
taken  as  an  essential  virtue  or  quality  of  mind,  as 
contrasted  with  matter;  of  thought  as  contrasted 
with  sensation;  of  the  internal  forces  of  individuals 
and  of  the  universe,  as  contrasted  with  the  external 
forms  by  which  these  forces  are  manifested.  As 
such,  the  ideal  philosophy  stands  generally  opposed 
to  that  kind  of  mental  action  which  draws  its  stores 
principally  from  without,  and  is  not  strongly  deter- 
mined to  mould  the  materials  thus  received  by  any 
type  of  thought  or  hue  of  emotion  derived  from 
within.  In  other  words,  the  philosophy  of  P.  is 
essentially  a  poetical  and  an  artistical  philosophy  ; 
for  poetry,  painting,  and  music  all  grow  out  of 
idealism,  or  those  lofty  inborn  conceptions  by  which 
genius  is  distinguished  from  ta'.ent.  It  is  also, 
at  the  same  time,  a  scientific  philosophy,  for  the 
pitrest  science,  as  mathematics— on  which  P.  is 
well  known  to  have  placed  the  highest  value — is  a 
science  of  mere  ideas  or  forms  conditioned  by  the 
intellect  which  deduces  their  laws  ;  and,  above  all, 
it  is  essentially  a  moral  and  a  theological  philosophy, 
for  practice,  or  action,  is  the  highest  aim  of  man, 
and  morality  is  the  ideal  of  action  ;  and  God,  aa 
cause  of  all,  is  the  ideal  of  idea's,  the  supreme 
power,  virtue,  and  excellence  to  which  all  contem- 
plation recurs,  and  from  which  all  action  and 
original  energy  proceed.  The  distinctive  excellence 
of  the  Platonic  philosophy  is  identical  with  its 
distinctive  character,  and  consists  in  that  grand 
union  of  abstract  thought,  imaginative  decoration, 
emotional  purity,  and  noble  activity,  which  is  the 
model  of  a  complete  and  richly  endowed  humanity. 
The  poetical  element  in  P.,  so  wonderfully  com- 
bined with  the  analytical,  shews  itself  not  only 
in  those  gorgeous  myths  which  form  the  peroration 
of  some  of  his  profoundest  dialogues,  but  in  that 
very  dialogic  form  itself,  of  which  the  situation  is 
often  extremely  dramatic ;  though  this  form  of  phil- 
osophic discussion  perhaps  owes  its  existence  more 
to  the  lively  temper  and  out-of-door  habits  of  the 
Greeks,  than  to  the  special  dramatic  talent  of  Plato. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  defects  of  the  Platonic 
philosophy  arise  from  its  essential  one-sidedness,  as 
a  polemical  assertion  of  the  rights  of  thought  against 
the  claims  of  the  mere  sense,  of  the  stability  of  the 
eternal  type  against  the  constant  change  that  char- 
acterises the  ephemeral  form.  In  his  zeal  to  submit 
all  that  is  external  to  the  imperatorial  power  of 
internal  conception,  the  philosopher  of  ideas  is  apt 
to  forget  the  obstinate  and  unpliable  nature  of  that 
external  world  which  he  would  regulate,  and  after 
projecting  a  grand  new  scheme  of  society,  according 
to  what  app<"irs  a  perfect  model,  shews  like  the 
architect  who,   after  drawing  out  the  model   of  a 

S37 


PLATO. 


marble  temple,  finds  he  has  only  bricks  to  build 
it  with.  For  this  reason,  extremely  practical  men, 
and  those  who  are  compelled  to  reason  chiefly  by  an 
extensive  induction  from  external  *acts,  have  ever 
felt  an  instinctive  aversion  to  the  Platonic  phil- 
osophy ;  and  P.  himself,  by  some  of  the  strange 
and  startling  conclusions,  in  matters  of  social 
science,  to  which  his  ideal  philosophy  led,  has,  it 
must  be  confessed,  put  into  the  hands  of  his  adver- 
saries the  most  efficient  weapons  by  which  his  ideal 
system  may  be  combated. 

The  starting-point  of  the  Platonic  philosophy,  as, 
indeed,  it  must  be  of  all  philosophy,  properly  so 
called,  is  the  theory  of  knowledge.  This  is  set 
forth  in  the  Thecetetus,  the  Soplmtes,  and  the  Par- 
menides;  and  in  the  Oratylus,  the  foundations  are 
laid  for  a  science  of  language,  as  the  necessary 
product  of  a  creature  energising  by  ideas.  The 
Platonic  theory  of  knowledge,  as  developed  in  the 
Thecetetus,  will  be  most  readily  understood  by 
imagining  the  very  reverse  of  that  which  is  vulgarly 
attributed  to  Locke  ;  viz.,  by  drawing  a  strong  and 
well-marked  line  between  the  province  of  thought 
and  that  of  sensation  in  the  production  of  ideas, 
and  taking  care  that,  in  the  process  of  forming 
conceptions,  the  mind  shall  always  stand  out  as  the 
dominant  factor.  In  other  words,  the  hackneyed 
simile  of  the  sheet  of  blank  paper,  applied  to  the 
mind  by  extreme  sensational  philosophers,  must 
either  be  thrown  away  altogether  or  inverted  ;  the 
more  active  part  of  the  operation  must  always  be 
assigned  to  the  mind.  The  formation  of  knowledge, 
according  to  P.,  may  be  looked  on  as  the  gradual 
and  systematic  elimination  of  the  accidental  and 
fleeting  in  the  phenomenon  from  the  necessary 
and  permanent ;  and  the  process  by  which  the 
mind  performs  this  elimination— and  it  can  be  per- 
formed only  by  mind — is  called  Dialectics.  This 
word,  from  dialegomai,  originally  signifies  only 
conversational  discussion ;  thence,  that  discussion 
conducted  in  such  scientific  fashion  as  to  lead  to 
reliable  results,  i.  e.,  strictly  logical.  The  product 
of  dialectics  is  ideas,  and  these  ideas  being  the  eidd, 
forms  or  types  of  things  which  are  common  to  all 
the  individuals  of  a  species,  all  the  species  of  a 
genus,  all  the  genera  of  a  family,  and  all  the  families 
of  a  class,  generate  classification —that  is,  knowledge 
of  the  permanent  in  phenomena — and  definition, 
which  is  merely  the  articulate  verbal  expression 
of  this  permanency.  The  construction  of  the  con- 
fused results  of  observation  into  the  orderly  array 
of  clear  conceptions,  by  a  sort  of  cross-examination 
of  the  phenomena,  performed  by  minds  impassioned 
for  truth,  is  exhibited  as  the  great  characteristic  of 
the  teaching  of  Socrates,  in  the  Memorabilia  of 
Xenophon.  In  the  dialogues  of  P.,  the  same  purifi- 
cation of  the  reason,  so  to  speak,  from  the  clouds 
of  indistinct  sensuousness,  is  exhibited  on  a  higher 
platform,  and  with  more  comprehansive  results. 
For  between  Socrates  and  P.,  notwithstanding  a 
deep  internal  identity,  there  was  this  striking  differ- 
ence in  outward  attitude — that  the  one  used  logic 
as  a  practical  instrument  in  the  hands  of  a  great 
social  missionary  and  preacher  of  virtue  ;  while  the 
other  used  it  as  the  architect  of  a  great  intellectual 
system  of  the  universe,  first  and  chiefly  for  his  own 
time  and  his  own  place,  but,  as  the  event  has 
proved,  in  some  fashion  also  for  all  times  and  all 
places. 

We  should  err  greatly,  however,  if  we  looked  on 
P.  as  a  man  of  mere  speculation,  and  a  writer  of 
metaphysical  books,  like  certain  German  professors. 
Neither  P.  nor  any  of  the  great  Greeks  looked  on 
their  intellectual  exercises  and  recreations  as  an  end 
in  themselves.  With  them,  philosophy  did  not 
mean  mera  knowledge  or  mere  speculation,  but  it 
688 


meant  wisdom,  and  wisdom  meant  wise  action,  and 
wise  action  meant  virtue.  The  philosophy  of  P., 
therefore,  with  all  its  transcendental  flights,  of 
which  we  hear  so  much,  was  essentially  a  practical 
philosophy ;  all  his  discussions  on  the  theory  of 
knowledge  and  the  nature  of  ideas  are  undertaken 
mainly  that  a  system  of  eternal  divine  types,  as  the 
ouly  reliable  knowledge,  may  serve  as  a  foundation 
for  a  virtuous  life,  as  the  only  consistent  course 
of  action.  Virtue,  with  Socrates  and  P.,  is  only 
practical  reason.  As  in  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon, 
all  vice  is  folly,  so  in  the  philosophy  of  P.,  the 
imperial  virtue  is  phronesis — i.  e.,  'wisdom'  or 
practical  '  insight.'  The  other  two  great  Greek 
and  Platonic  virtues — sdphrosyne,  'moderation'  or 
'  soundmindedness,'  and  dikaiosyne,  '  justice,'  or  the 
assigning  to  every  act  and  every  function  its  proper 
place — are  equally  exemplifications  of  a  reasonable 
order  applied  to  action — such  an  order  as  alone  and 
everywhere  testifies  the  presence  of  mind.  The 
theory  of  morals  as  worked  out  from  such  principles 
is,  of  course,  as  certain  as  the  necessary  laws  of  the 
reason  which  it  expresses ;  and  accordingly,  the 
Platonic  morality,  like  the  Christian,  is  of  that 
high  order  which  admits  of  no  compromise 
with  ephemeral  prejudice  or  local  usage.  The 
contrast  between  the  low  moral  standard  of  local 
respectability  and  that  which  is  congruous  with 
the  universal  laws  of  pure  reason,  stands  out  as 
strikingly  in  Plato,  as  the  morality  of  the  Sermon 
on  the  Mount  in  the  Gospels  docs  against  the 
morality  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees.  Splendid 
passages  to  this  effect  occur  in  various  parts  of 
P.'s  writings,  particularly  in  the  RepvMic  and  the 
Gorgias.  In  perfect  harmony  with  the  Platonic 
theory  of  noble  action,  is  his  doctrine  with  regard 
to  pure  emotion  and  elevated  passion.  Love  with 
P.  is  a  transcendental  admiration  of  excellence — an 
admiration  of  which  the  soul  is  capable  by  its  own 
high  origination  and  the  germs  of  godlike  excellence, 
which  are  implanted  into  it  from  above.  The  philo- 
sophy of  love  is  set  forth  with  imaginative  grandeur 
in  the  Phcedrus,  and  with  rich  dramatic  variety  in 
the  Banquet,  of  which  dialogue  there  is  an  English 
translation  by  Shelley.  The  philosophy  of  beauty 
and  the  theory  of  pleasure  are  set  forth  with  great 
analytic  acuteness  in  the  Philebus.  With  P., 
the  foundation  of  beauty  is  a  reasonable  order, 
addressed  to  the  imagination  through  the  senses 
— i.  e.,  symmetry  in  form,  and  harmony  in  sounds, 
the  principles  of  which  are  as  certain  as  the  laws  of 
logic,  mathematics,  and  morals — all  equally  neces- 
sary products  of  eternal  intellect,  acting  by  the 
creation  and  by  the  comprehension  of  well-ordered 
forms,  and  well-harmonised  forces,  in  rich  and  various 
play  through  the  living  frame  of  the  universe  ;  and 
the  ultimate  ground  of  this  lofty  and  coherent 
doctrine  of  intellectual,  moral,  and  aesthetical 
harmonies  lies  with  P.,  where  alone  it  can  lie,  in 
the  unity  of  a  supreme,  reasonable,  self-existent 
intelligence,  whom  we  call  God,  the  fountain  of  all 
force,  and  the  creator  of  all  order  in  the  universe  j 
the  sum  of  whose  most  exalted  attributes,  and  the 
substantial  essence  of  whose  perfection  may,  as 
contrasted  with  our  finite  and  partial  aspects  of 
things,  be  expressed  by  the  simple  term  to  agathSn — 
the  Good.  From  this  supreme  and  all-excellent 
intelligence,  human  souls  are  offshoots,  emanations, 
or  sparks,  in  such  a  fashion,  that  they  partake  essen- 
tially of  the  essential  nature  of  the  source  from 
which  they  proceed,  and  accordingly  possess  unity 
as  their  most  characteristic  quality,  attest  their 
presence  everywhere  by  a  unifying  force  which 
acts  by  impressing  a  type  on  whatever  materials 
are  submitted  to  it,  and  is  filled  with  a  native  joy 
in   the  perception   of  such  types,  the   product  of 


PLATO -PL  ATOFF. 


the  same  divine  principle  of  unity,  wheresoever 
presented.  The  undivided  unity  and  unifying  force 
which  we  call  the  sou]  in  immortal,  being  from 
its  nature  altogether  unaffected  l>y  the  ohaj 
decay  ami  dissolution  to  which  the  complex  struc- 
ture of  the  material  human  body  is  exposed.    The 

doctrine  of  the  immortality  <'t"  the  soul  is  most  fully 
set  forth  in  the  Phado,  a  dialogue  which  oombinea 
with  the  abstract  philosophical  discussion,  a  graphic 
narrative  of  the  last  hours  of  Socrates,  which,  for 
simple  pathos  and  unaffected  dignity,  is  unsurpassed 
by  any  human  composition. 

The  most  complete  ami  systematic  exhibition  of 
the  opinions  of  P.  will  be  found  in  the  Republic,  or 
ideal  commonwealth,  of  which  an  excellent  English 
translation  has  heen  recently  made  by  Davies  and 
Vaugkan.  The  Republic  is  not,  as  the  title  would 
lead  U3  to  suppose,  a  political  work,  like  the  Politics 
of  Aristotle.  It  is,  as  Baron  Bunsen  well  remarked, 
not  so  much  a  state  as  a  church  with  which  this 
great  work  has  to  do ;  or  at  least,  both  a  state  and 
a  church  ;  and  the  church  is  the  superior  and  domi- 
nating element.  In  the  Republic,  accordingly,  we 
find  the  necessity  of  virtue  to  the  very  idea  of 
social  life  proved  in  the  first  book  ;  then  the  whole 
process  of  a  complete  moral  and  scientific  education 
is  set  forth  with  such  fulness  as  to  throw  the 
strictly  political  part  of  the  book,  including  the 
germs  of  what  is  now  called  political  economy,  very 
much  into  the  shade.  The  principles  and  govern- 
ment of  an  ideal  moral  organism,  of  which  the 
rulers  shall  be  types  of  fully  developed  and  per- 
fectly educated  men,  is  the  real  subject  of  the 
Republic,  which  accordingly  forms  a  remarkable 
contrast  to  the  inductive  results  of  the  thoroughly 
practical  work  of  Aristotle  on  the  same  subject. 
P.'s  commonwealth  is  a  theoretical  construction 
of  a  perfect  ideal  state  of  society ;  Aristotle's  is 
a  practical  discussion  on  the  best  form  of  political 
government  possible  under  existing  conditions. 
Of  the  value  of  P.'s  work,  both  suggestively  in  the 
world  of  politics,  and  dogmatically  in  the  region 
of  moral  and  religious  speculation,  there  can  be  no 
doubt ;  but  as  a  practical  treatise  on  politics,  it  is 
vitiated  throughout,  both  by  its  original  scheme,  and 
by  an  inherent  vice  in  the  author's  mind,  which  pre- 
vented him  from  recognising  the  force  of  the  actual 
in  that  degree  which  necessarily  belongs  to  such  a 
complex  art  as  human  government.  Of  this  fault, 
the  author  was  himself  sufficiently  conscious,  and 
has  accordingly,  in  another  large  political  treatise, 
the  Laws,  endeavoured,  for  practical  purposes,  to 
make  some  sort  of  compromise  between  the  trans- 
cendental scheme  of  his  Commonwealth  and  the  con- 
ditions of  existing  society.  But  however  he  might 
modify  individual  opinions,  there  was  a  one-sided- 
ness  about  P.'s  mind,  which  rendered  it  impossible 
for  him  to  struggle  successfully  with  the  diffi- 
culties of  complex  practical  politics.  He  was  too 
much  possessed  with  the  idea  of  order,  and,  more- 
over, had  planted  himself  with  too  manifest  a 
polemical  attitude  against  Athenian  democracy,  to 
give  due  weight  to  the  opposite  principle  of  free- 
dom, proved  by  experience  to  be  so  indispensable  to 
every  healthy  and  vigorous  political  development. 

Physical  science,  in  the  days  of  P.,  stood  on  no 
basis  sufficiently  sure  or  broad  to  authorise  a  philo- 
sophy of  the  material  universe  with  any  prospect 
of  success.  Nevertheless,  in  his  Timams,  the  great 
philosopher  of  ideas  has  attempted  this ;  and  it 
is  a  work  which,  however  valueless  in  the  face  of 
the  grand  results  of  modern  chemical  and  kinetical 
research,  will  ever  be  consulted  with  advantage,  as 
a  grand  constructive  summary  of  the  most  import- 
ant facts  and  theories  of  nature,  known  to  the 
Greeks,  before  the  accurate  observations  of  Aristotle, 


and  the  extended  mathematics  of  the  Alexandrian 
school.    The  greal  as  to  whal 

and  whence,  P.  oowheri  learly; 

but  the  general  tendency  of  ancient  thought  was 

towards   a  dualism,   v.  the    inde- 

pendent existence  of  a  not  very  tractable  element 
called  matter,  in  which  P.  seems  to  have  acqu  1. 

The  works  of  P.  were  extensively  studied  by  the 
Church  Fathers,  one  of  whom  joyfully  r 

it  teacher  of  the  Academy,  the  schoolmaster 
who,  in  the  fulness  of  time,  was  destini  d  to  educate 
the  heathen  for  Christ,  as  -Moses  did  the  Jews.  A 
lofty  passion  for  P.  likewise  seized  the  literary 
circle  of  the  Medici  at  the  period  of  the  revival  of 
letters  in  Italy.  Since  that  time,  the  tyrannous  sway 
of  Aristotle,  characteristic  of  the  middle  ages,  has 
always  been  kept  in  check  by  a  strong  band  of 
enthusiastic  Platonists  in  various  parts  of  Europe. 
Since  the  French  devolution  particularly,  the  study 
of  Plato  has  been  pursued  with  renewed  vigour  in 
Germany,  France,  and  England;  and  many  of  our 
distinguished  authors,  without  expressly  profess- 
ing Platonism — as  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  Mrs 
Browning,  Buskin,  &c  —  have  formed  a  strong 
and  a  growing  party  of  adherents,  who  could  find 
no  common  banner  under  which  they  could  at 
once  so  conveniently  and  so  honourably  muster  as 
that  of  Plato.  The  amount  of  learned  labour 
expended  on  the  text  of  Plato  during  the  present 
century,  has  been  in  proportion;  and  in  this  depart- 
ment the  names  of  Bekker,  Ast,  and  Stallbaum 
stand  pre-eminent.  Professor  Jowett  also,  in 
Oxford,  has  made  P.  his  standard  author  for  many 
years.  Mr  Grote,  the  historian  of  Greece,  published 
Plato  and  the  other  Companions  of  Socrates  in  1865. 
One  of  the  best  accounts  of  the  Platonic  philosophy 
in  the  English  language  will  be  found  in  Archer  But- 
ler's History  of  Greek  Philosophy^  vol.  ii.  See  also 
a  sketch  of  P.  by  Dr  Joseph  Thomas,  in  his  Universal 
Diet,  of  Biography,  Philada,,  1870. 

PLATOFF,  Matvei  Ivaxovitch,  Couxt,  the 
Hetman  of  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don,  and  a  Russian 
cavalry  general,  wras  born  on  the  banlis  of  the  Don, 
Gth  August  1757,  and  was  descended  from  an 
ancient  and  noble  family,  which  had  emigrated 
from  Greece.  Having  acquired  a  considerable  repu- 
tation for  wisdom  and  bravery,  he  was  appointed  by 
the  Czar  Alexander  I.  Hetman  of  the  Cossacks  ;  and 
subsequently,  as  a  lieutenant-general  in  the  Russian 
army,  and  afterwards  as  commander  of  the  Russian 
irregular  cavalry,  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
wars  both  with  France  and  Turkey.  After  the 
French  had  evacuated  Moscow,  and  retreated,  P. 
hung  upon  their  rear  with  the  utmost  pertinacity, 
wearying  them  out  by  incessant  attacks,  cutting  off 
straggling  parties,  capturing  their  convoys  of  pro- 
visions, and  keeping  them  in  a  state  of  continual 
terror  and  apprehension.  The  French  historians 
state  that  Bonaparte's  army  suffered  more  loss  from 
the  attacks  of  P.'s  Cossacks  than  from  privation  and 
exhaustion.  He  defeated  Lefebvre  at  Altenburg. 
After  the  rout  of  the  French  at  Leipzig,  he  inflicted 
great  loss  upon  them  in  their  retreat,  and  subse- 
quently gained  a  victory  over  them  at  Laon.  The 
inhabitants  of  Seine-et-Marne  will  long  remember 
him  by  the  devastations  and  pillage  committed  by 
his  undisciplined  bands.  He  was  enthusiastically 
welcomed  by  the  Parisians  (to  their  shame),  and 
also  by  the  English,  who  presented  him  with  a 
sword  of  honour  on  the  occasion  of  his  visit  to 
London  in  company  with  Marshal  Blucher.  The 
allied  monarchs  loaded  him  with  honours  and  deco- 
rations, and  the  czar  gave  him  the  title  of  Count. 
He  retired  to  his  own  country,  there  to  mourn  the 
death  of  his  only  son  who  had  been  kdled  in  the 
campaign  of  1812  and  died  near  Tcherkask  in  1818. 


PLATONIC  LOVE-PLAQTUS. 


No  other  Russian  general  ever  exercised  such  an 
influence  over  the  men  under  his  command,  and 
their  awe  of  him  was  not  greater  than  their 
affection ;  but  this  was  doubtless  owing  to  the 
inflexible  and  speedy  justice  which  he  administered 
to  them,  and  to  the  freedom  with  which  he  left 
them  to  rob  and  pillage. 

PLATO'NIC  LOVE,  the  name  given  to  an  affec- 
tion subsisting  between  two  persons  of  different  sex, 
which  is  presumed  to  be  unaccompanied  by  any 
sensuous  emotions,  and  to  be  based  on  moral  or 
intellectual  affinities.  The  expression  has  originated 
in  the  view  of  Plato,  who  held  that  the  common 
sexual  love  of  the  race,  harassed  and  afflicted  with 
fleshly  longings,  is  only  a  subordinate  form  of  that 
perfect  and  ideal  love  of  truth  which  the  soul  should 
cultivate.  Whether  such  a  sentiment  as  Platonic 
love  can  really  subsist  between  persons  of  different 
sex,  has  been  frequently  disputed;  but  without 
pronouncing  positively  on  a  point  so  delicate,  and 
depending  so  much  on  differences  in  our  spiritual 
organisation,  it  may  be  safely  affirmed,  that 
wherever  a  feeling— calling  itself  by  this  name — 
exists,  it  has  undoubtedly  a  tendency  to  develop 
into  something  more  definite  and  dangerous. 

PLATOO'N  (probably  from  the  French  peloton) 
was  a  term  formerly  used  to  designate  a  body  of 
troops  who  fired  together.  A  battalion  was  com- 
monly divided  into  16  platoons,  and  each  company 
into  two  platoons,  the  platoon  thus  corresponding 
to  the  present  subdivision.  The  word  is  obsolete 
in  this  its  original  sense  ;  but  it  survives  in  the 
expression  '  platoon  exercise,'  which  is  the  course  of 
motions  in  connection  with  handling,  loading,  and 
firing  the  musket  or  rifle. 

PLATTE.    See  Nebraska. 

PLA'TTEN-SEE.    See  Balaton. 

PLA'TTSBURG,  a  village  of  New  York,  U.S., 
on  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Champlain,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Saranac,  which  furnishes  water-power 
to  several  mills  and  factories.  It  has  a  custom- 
house, academy,  and  nine  churches.  In  Plattsburg 
Bay  was  fought  the  naval  battle  of  Champlain,  in 
which  the  British  flotilla,  under  Commodore 
Downie,  was  defeated  by  the  American  commodore 
M'Donough,  September  11,  1814;  while  the  land 
forces,  amounting  to  14,000  men,  under  Sir  George 
Prevost,  were  defeated  by  General  Macomb.  Pop.  in 
1860, 6680;   in  1870,  8414;    1875,  8804. 

PLATYPUS.     See  Duck-bill. 

PLATYSTO'MA  (Gr.  broad-mouth),  a  genus  of 
fishes  of  the  family  Siluridce,  having  a  very  flat 
(depressed)  snout,  and  a  very  large  mouth  with  six 
long  barbels ;  the  skin  quite  destitute  of  scales ; 
two  dorsal  fins;  the  eyes  lateral,  level  with  the 
nostrils.  The  species  are  numerous,  some  of  them 
attaining  a  large  size,  many  of  them  notable  for 
their  distinct  and  conspicuous  markings.  Several 
are  natives  of  the  rivers  of  the  north-east  of  South 
America ;  and  among  these  are  some  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  delicious  of  fresh-water  fishes,  as  P. 
tigrinum,  known  among  different  tribes  of  Indians 
by  various  names — Corutto,  Colite,  Oronni,  &c, 
which  has  an  elongated  body,  light  blue,  trans- 
versely streaked  with  black  and  white,  and  a 
spreading  forked  tail.  It  is  both  taken  by  baited 
hooks  and  shot  with  arrows  by  Indians,  as  are 
several  other  species,  some  of  which  are  found  as 
far  south  as  Buenos  Ayres. 

PLAU'EN,  an  important  manufacturing  town  of 
Saxony,  in  a  beautiful  valley  on  the  White  Elster, 
74  miles  south  of  Leipzig  by  railway.  It  was  the 
chief  town  of  the  Saxon  Voigtland  (q.  v.),  and  its 
castle  wps  at  one  time  the  residence  of  the  Voigt, 
090 


or  advocate,  but  is  now  used  as  the  seat  of  justice 
and  other  courts.  P.  contains  a  gymnasium,  a 
royal  palace,  and  numerous  educational  and  bene- 
volent institutions.  It  carries  on  exteusive  manu- 
factures of  muslin,  cambric,  and  jaconet  goods,  as 
well  as  embroidered  fabrics  and  cotton  goods.  In 
September  1S44,  150  buildings  were  destroyed  by 
fire,  and  after  that  event,  the  town  was  almost 
wholly  rebuilt.     Pop.  (1871)  23,355. 

PLAU'TUS,  M.  Accius,  or,  more  correctly,  T. 
Maccius,  the  great  comic  poet  of  Rome,  was  born 
about  254  B.C.  at  Sareina,  a  village  of  Umbria. 
We  have  no  knowledge  of  his  early  life  and  educa- 
tion ;  but  it  is  probable  that  he  came  to  Rome  while 
still  a  youth,  and  there  acquired  a  complete  mastery 
of  the  Latin  language  in  its  most  idiomatic  form,  as 
well  as  an  extensive  familiarity  with  Greek  liter- 
ature. It  is  uncertain  whether  he  ever  obtained 
the  Roman  franchise.  His  first  employment  was 
with  the  actors,  in  whose  service  he  saved  an  amount 
of  money  siifficient  to  enable  him  to  leave  Rome 
and  commence  business  on  his  own  account.  What 
the  nature  of  this  business  was,  or  where  he  carried 
it  on,  we  are  not  informed ;  we  know,  however,  that 
he  failed  in  it,  and  returned  to  Rome,  where  he 
had  to  earn  his  livelihood  in  the  service  of  a  baker, 
with  whom  he  was  engaged  in  turning  a  hand-mill. 
At  this  time — a  few  years  before  the  outbreak  of 
the  Second  Punic  War — he  was  probably  about  30 
years  of  age;  and  while  employed  in  hi.3  humble 
occupation,  he  composed  three  plays,  which  he  sold 
to  the  managers  of  the  public  games,  and  from  the 
proceeds  of  which  he  was  enabled  to  leave  the  mill, 
and  turn  his  hand  to  more  congenial  work.  The 
commencement  of  his  literary  career  may,  therefore, 
be  fixed  about  224  B.  c,  from  which  date  he  con- 
tinued to  produce  comedies  with  wonderful  fertility, 
till  184,  when  he  died  in  his  70th  year.  He 
was  at  first  contemporary  with  Livius  Andronicus 
and  Naevius ;  subsequently  with  Ennius  and 
Csecilius. 

Of  his  numerous  plays — 130  of  which  bore  his 
name  in  the  last  ceutury  of  the  republic— only  20 
have  come  down  to  us.  Many  of  them,  however, 
were  regarded  as  spurious  by  the  Roman  critics, 
among  whom  Varro  in  his  treatise  (Qucebtiones 
Plautince)  limits  the  genuine  comedies  of  the  poet 
to  21.  With  the  exception  of  the  21st,  these 
Varronian  comedies  are  the  same  as  those  we  now 
possess.  Their  titles,  arranged  (with  the  exception 
of  the  Bacchides)  in  alphabetical  order,  are  as  fol- 
lows :  1,  Amphitryo ;  2,  Asinaria;  3,  Aulularia;  4, 
Captivi;  5,  Curculio;  6,  Carina;  7,  Cistellaria ;  8, 
Epidicus ;  9,  Bacchides ;  10,  Mostellaria;  11,  Men- 
achmi;  12,  Miles;  13,  Mercator ;  14,  Pseiidolus ; 
15,  Pcenulus ;  16,  Persa;  17,  Rudens;  18,  Stichus ; 
19,  Trinummus ;  20,  Truculentus ;  21,  Vidularicu 
As  a  comic  writer,  Plautus  enjoyed  immense  popu- 
larity among  the  Romans,  and  held  possession  of 
the  stage  down  to  the  time  of  Diocletian.  The 
vivacity,  the  humour,  and  the  rapid  action  of  his 
plays,  as  well  as  his  skill  in  constructing  plots, 
commanded  the  admiration  of  the  educated  no  less 
than  of  the  unlettered  Romans  ;  while  the  fact  that 
he  was  a  national  poet  prepossessed  his  audiences 
in  his  favour.  Although  he  laid  the  Greek  comio 
drama  under  heavy  contributions,  and  '  adapted ' 
the  plots  of  Menander,  Diphilus,  and  Philemon 
with  all  the  license  of  a  modern  playwright,  he 
always  preserved  the  style  and  character  native  to 
the  Romans,  and  reproduced  the  life  and  intellectual 
tone  of  the  people  in  a  way  that  at  once  conciliated 
their  sympathies.  The  admiration  in  which  he  was 
held  by  his  contemporaries  descended  to  Cicero 
and  St  Jerome;  while  he  has  found  imitators  in 
Shakspeare,  Mohere,  Dryden,  Addison,  and  Leasing, 


PLAYFAIR— PLEBEIANS. 


and  translators  in  moat  European  countries.  Tlie 
only  complete  translation  of  his  works  into  English 
is  that  by  Thornton  and  Warner  (5  vols.,  17G7 
— 1774).  Unfortunately  the  text  of  his  plays,  as 
they  have  come  down  to  us,  is  in  such  a  very 
corrupt  state,  so  defective  from  lacunae,  and  so 
rilled  with  interpolations,  that  much  yet  remains  to 
be  done  by  the  grammarian  and  the  commentator 
before  they  can  be  read  with  full  appreciation  or 
comfort.  Of  complete  editions,  the  best  are  those 
of  Weise  and  Fleckeisen  ;  while  those  plays  edited 
by  Kits,  hi  are  treated  with  such  admirable  aeute- 
ness  and  learning  as  to  cause  regret  that  they  are 
yet  so  few. 

PLAYFAIR,  John,  a  Scottish  mathematician 
and  natural  philosopher,  was  born  at  Benvie  in 
Forfarshire,  March  10,  1748,  His  father,  who 
was  minister  of  the  united  parishes  of  Liff  and 
Benvie,  sent  him  to  the  university  of  St  Andrews 
at  the  age  of  14,  to  study  with  a  view  to  the 
ministry ;  and  here  P.  obtained  great  reputation 
as  a  diligent  and  successful  student,  especially 
in  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy;  so  much 
so,  that  while  a  student,  he  for  some  time  dis- 
charged the  duties  of  the  Natural  Philosophy  chair 
during  the  illness  of  the  professor.  In  1773,  he 
entered  the  ministry,  and  succeeded  his  father 
in  the  parish  of  Liff  and  Benvie.  During  his  leisure 
hours,  he  still  prosecuted  his  favourite  studies,  the 
fruits  of  these  labours  being  two  memoirs,  On  the 
Arithmetic  of  Impossible  Quantities,  and  Account  of 
the  Lithological  Survey  of  SchiJiallion,  which  were 
communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London. 
In  1782,  he  resigned  his  parochial  charge,  to  super- 
intend the  education  of  the  sons  of  Mr  Ferguson 
of  Baith ;  and  in  17S5,  he  became  joint-professor 
of  Mathematics  along  with  Adam  Ferguson  in 
the  university  of  Edinburgh ;  but  exchanged  his 
chair  for  that  of  Natural  Philosophy  in  1805.  He 
took  the  part  of  Mr  (afterwards  Sir  John)  Leslie 
(q.  v.),  his  successor  in  the  Mathematical  chair,  and 
published  a  pamphlet  full  of  biting  satire  against 
the  'new-sprung  zeal  for  orthodoxy.'  He  became 
a  strenuous  supporter  of  the  '  Huttonian  theory'  in 
geology,  and  after  publishing  his  Illustrations  of 
the  Huttonian  Theory  of  the  Earth  (Edin.  1802),  he 
made  many  journeys  for  the  sake  of  more  exten- 
sive observations,  particularly  in  1815,  when  he 
visited  France,  Switzerland,  and  Italy.  He  died 
at  Edinburgh,  19th  July  1819.  P.,  according  to 
Jeffrey  (Annual  Biography,  1820),  'possessed  in  the 
highest  degree  all  the  characteristics  both  of  a  fine 
and  a  powerfid  understanding ;  at  once  penetrating 
and  vigilant,  but  more  distinguished,  perhaps,  by 
the  caution  and  success  of  its  march,  than  by  the 
brilliancy  or  rapidity  of  its  movements.'  P.  was, 
during  the  later  part  of  his  life,  Secretary  to  the 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.  From  1804,  he  was  a 
frequent  contributor  to  the  Edinburgh  Review,  criti- 
cising the  works  of  Laplace,  Zach,  and  Kater,  and 
the  great  trigonometrical  surveys,  both  French  and 
English,  which  had  just  been  completed.  He  also 
wrote  the  articles  '  iEpinus '  and  '  Physical  Astro- 
nomy,' and  an  incomplete  '  Dissertatiou  on  the 
Progress  of  Mathematical  and  Physical  Science,'  for 
the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.  His  contributions  to 
the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh 
are  numerous  and  exceedingly  varied,  a  treatise  on 
1  Naval  Tactics '  even  appearing  among  them.  His 
separate  works  are  the  Elements  of  Geometry 
(Edin.  1795),  containing  the  first  six  books  of  Euclid, 
with  supplementary  articles  on  Trigonometry,  Solid 
Geometry,  and  the  Quadrature  of  the  Circle ;  and 
his  Outlines  of  Natural  Philosophy  (Edin.  1812  and 
1816),  being  the  heads  of  his  lectures  delivered  in 
the  university  on  that  subject.    A  third  volume  of 


the  Ovtllnet,  c pleting  the  work,  was  promised,  but 

never  appeared, 

PLEA  is  n  technical  term  iii  the  law  of  tne 
United  Kingdom  In  England,  it  has  a  very 
restricted  meaning,  being  confined  to  the  pleading 
of  a  defendant  to  an  action  at  common  law. 
It  has  a  similar,  though  still  more  restricted 
meaning  when  used  in  Chancery  proceedings.  In 
Scotland,  it  is  not  used  in  the  same  sense,  but 
denotes  the  short  legal  ground  on  which  a  party, 
whether  pursuer  or  defender,  bases  his  case  or 
pleading.  Hence  the  pleas  in  law  are  only  short 
propositions  of  law.  Pleas  are  subdivided  according 
to  their  subject-matter,  into  pleas  dilatory  and 
peremptory,  pleas  of  abatement,  pleas  to  the  juris- 
diction. Pleas  in  bar  are  the  same  as  peremptory 
pleas  ;  but  in  criminal  cases  in  England,  special 
pleas  in  bar  are  pleas  stating  some  ground  for  not 
proceeding  with  the  indictment,  such  as  a  plea  of 
former  acquittal,  or  autrefois  acquit ;  or  of  conviction, 
or  autrefois  convict;  or  a  plea  of  pardon. —  In 
Scotland,  a  '  plea  of  panel '  means  a  plea  of  guilty  or 
not  guilty.  Pleas  of  the  crown  was  an  expression 
anciently  used  to  denote  the  divisions  of  criminal 
offences  generally,  as  in  the  well-known  work  called 
Pleas  of  the  Crown,  by  Sir  Matthew  Hale,  and  other 
writers.  The  phrase  was  so  used  because  the 
sovereign  was  supposed  in  law  to  be  the  person 
injured  by  every  wrong  done  to  the  community, 
and  therefore  was  the  prosecutor  for  every  such 
offence. 

PLEADING,  as  a  Legal  term,  has  two  meanings 
— a  restricted  and  a  general  meaning.  In  the  former 
sense,  it  is  a  generic  term  to  denote  the  written 
formula  containing  the  subject-matter  of  a  litigant's 
demand,  or  claim,  or  of  his  defence  or  answei 
thereto.  In  its  general  sense,  it  denotes  that  system 
of  rules  on  which  the  particular  pleadings  of  liti- 
gants are  framed.  In  the  practice  of  English 
common  law,  the  pleadings  in  an  action  aro 
called  the  declaration,  plea,  replication,  rejoinder, 
surrejoinder,  rebutter,  surrebutter,  &c— the  first 
being  a  statement  of  the  plaintiff's  demand ;  the 
second,  the  defence  thereto,  and  so  on,  each  alter- 
nately answering  the  other,  until  the  parties  arrive 
at  a  stop,  called  an  issue,  which  means  a  preposition 
of  fact,  which  the  one  affirms,  and  the  other  denies. 
When  an  issue  is  arrived  at,  the  parties  can  go  no 
further ;  and  the  next  step  is  to  send  the  issue  before 
a  jury,  that  they  may  decide  it.  When  the  parties 
differ,  not  on  a  question  of  fact,  but  on  one  of  law, 
it  is  called  a  demurrer,  which  must  be  decided  by 
the  court.  In  the  practice  of  the  English  Court  of 
Chancery,  the  pleadings  are  called  by  other  names. 
The  suit  begins  either  by  a  bill  or  a  petition,  or  a 
summons  on  the  part  of  the  plaintiff,  and  the 
defendant's  pleading  is  called  the  answer.  In 
Scotland,  the  pleadings  of  the  parties  are  called  the 
summons  (including  the  condescendence),  the 
defences  or  answers,  the  revised  condescendence, 
the  revised  answers,  &c.  The  peculiar  technical 
rules  to  which  the  pleadings  of  parties  must  con- 
form, are  capable  of  being  understood  only  by 
lawyers. 

PLEBEI'ANS  (Lat.  plebs,  from  same  root  as  Lat. 
impleo,  to  fill ;  and  Gr.  plethos,  multitude),  the 
common  people  of  Borne ;  one  of  the  two  elements 
of  which  the  Roman  nation  consisted  Their  origin, 
as  a  separate  class,  is  to  be  traced  partly  to  natural, 
and  partly  to  artificial  causes.  The  foundation  of 
Rome,  probably  as  a  frontier-emporium  of  Latin 
traffic  (according  to  Mommsen's  suggestion),  would 
bring  about  the  place  a  number  of  inferior  employe's, 
clients,  or  hangers-on,  of  the  enterprising  com- 
mercial agriculturists,  who  laid  the  primitive  basis 

691 


PLEBISCITE— PLEIOCENE. 


of  the  material  and  moral  prosperity  of  the  city. 
These  hangers-on  were  the  original  plebeians,  or 
non -burgesses  of  Rome,  whose  numbers  were  con- 
stantly increased  by  the  subjugation  of  the  sur- 
rounding cities  and  states.  Thus,  tradition  states 
that,  on  the  capture  of  Alba,  while  the  most  distin- 
guished citizens  of  that  town  were  received  among 
the  Roman  patricians,  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, likewise  transferred  to  Rome,  were  kept  in 
submission  to  the  populus  or  patricians  of  Rome — 
in  other  words,  swelled  the  ranks  of  the  plebeians. 
Similar  transfers  of  some  of  the  inhabitants  of 
conquered  towns  are  assigned  to  the  reign  of  Ancus 
Martius.  The  order  of  plebeians  thus  gradually 
formed,  soon  exceeded  the  patricians  in  numbers, 
partly  inhabiting  Rome,  and  partly  the  adjoining 
country.  Though  citizens,  they  were  neither  com- 
prehended in  the  three  tribes,  nor  in  the  curiae,  nor 
in  the  patrician  genfes,  and  were  therefore  excluded 
from  the  comitia,  the  senate,  and  all  the  civil  and 
priestly  offices  of  the  state.  They  could  not  inter- 
marry with  the  patricians. 

The  first  step  (according  to  traditionary  belief) 
towards  breaking  down  the  barrier  between  the 
two  classes  was  the  admission,  under  Tarquinius 
Priscus,  of  some  of  the  more  considerable  plebeian 
families  into  the  three  tribes.  Servius  Tullius 
divided  the  part  of  the  city  and  the  adjacent  country 
which  was  inhabited  by  plebeians,  into  regions  or 
local  tribes,  assigning  land  to  those  plebeians  who 
were  yet  without  it.  The  plebeian  tribes  with 
tribunes  at  their  head,  formed  an  organisation 
similar  to  that  of  the  patricians.  The  same  king 
further  extended  the  rights  of  the  plebeians  by 
dividing  the  whole  body  of  citizens,  patrician  and 
plebeian,  into  five  classes,  according  to  their  wealth, 
and  forming  a  great  national  assembly  called  the 
Comitia  Centuriata,  in  which  the  plebeians  met  the 
patricians  on  a  footing  of  equality ;  but  the  patri- 
cians continued  to  be  alone  eligible  to  the  senate, 
the  highest  magistracy,  and  the  priestly  offices. 
These  newly-acquired  privileges  were  lost  in  the 
reign  of  Tarquinius  Superbus,  but  restored  on  the 
establishment  of  the  Republic.  Soon  afterwards, 
the  vacancies  which  had  occurred  in  the  senate 
during  the  reign  of  the  last  king,  were  filled  up  by 
the  most  distinguished  of  the  plebeian  equites,  and 
the  plebeians  acquired  a  variety  of  new  privileges  by 
the  laws  of  Valerius  Publicola.  The  encroachments 
on  those  privileges  on  the  part  of  the  patricians, 
began  the  long-continued  struggle  between  the  two 
orders,  which  eventually  led  to  the  plebeians  gaining 
access  to  all  the  civil  and  religious  offices,  acquiring 
for  their  decrees  (plebiscite)  the  force  of  law.  Under 
the  Hortensian  law  (286  B.C.),  the  two  hostile 
classes  were  at  last  amalgamated  in  one  general  body 
of  Roman  citizens  with  equal  rights.  Henceforth, 
the  term  populus  is  sometimes  applied  to  the 
plebeians  alone,  sometimes  to  the  whole  body  of 
citizens  assembled  in  the  Comitia  Centuriata  or 
Tribute,,  and  plebs  is  occasionally  used  in  a  loose 
way  for  the  midtitude  or  populace,  in  opposition  to 
the  senatorial  party.     See  Patrician. 

PLEBISCITE,  the  name  given,  in  the  political 
phraseology  of  modern  France,  to  a  decree  of  the 
nation  obtained  by  an  appeal  to  universal  suffrage. 
Thus,   Louis   Napoleon,   for   example,   was   chosen 

President,  and  subsequently  emperor,  by  a  plebiscite, 
'he  word  is  borrowed  from  the  Latin ;  but  the 
plebiscitum  of  the  Romans  properly  meant  only  a 
law  passed  at  the  Comitia  Tribute,  L  e.,  assembly 
of  the  plebs,  or  '  commons,'  as  distinguished  from  the 
populus,  or  the  '  nobles  ;'  and  although  it  was  ulti- 
mately obligatory  on  both  classes  of  the  community, 
it,  of  course,  could  only  refer  to  such  matters  as  it 
was  within  the  province  of  the  Comitia  Tribute  to 
M2 


legislate  upon,  and  could  not  fundamentally  alter  or 
destroy  the  constitution. 

PLECTOGNA'THI,  in  the  system  of  Cuvier, 
and  also  in  that  of  Miiller,  an  order  of  osseous 
fishes,  but  having  the  skeleton  less  perfectly 
ossified  than  osseous  fishes  generally  ;  the  skin 
furnished  with  ganoid  scales  or  spines ;  and  parti- 
cularly characterised  by  having  the  maxillary  and 
premaxillary  bones  anchylosed  or  soldered  together. 
The  gill-lid  and  rays  are  concealed  under  the 
thick  skin,  with  only  a  small  opening.  The  nbs 
are  very  short,  and  there  are  no  distinctly  deve- 
loped ventral  fins.  The  fishes  belonging  to  this 
order  are  not  many.  In  the  system  of  Cope  they 
are  regarded  as  a  low  type  of  the  Percoid  di 
vision. 

PLEDGE  is  the  depositing  of  a  chattel  or  mov- 
able with  a  creditor  in  security  of  a  debt,  and  is  a 
contract  between  the  parties  that  the  pledgee  shall 
keep  the  chattel  till  the  debt  is  paid.  In  England, 
when  A  pledges  property  with  B  for  a  debt,  and 
other  debts  are  incurred,  B  cannot  retain  the 
pledge  for  the  additional  debts  ;  but  in  Scotland, 
this  can  be  done.  When  chattels  are  pledged  in 
England  for  debt,  the  pledgee  may  sell  the  goods,  if 
the  debt  is  not  paid  at  the  time  agreed,  or  within 
a  reasonable  time  after  notice  given ;  but  in  Scotland 
this  can  only  be  done  by  getting  the  authority  of 
the  sheriff  and  a  warrant  to  sell  the  goods.  Owing 
to  the  frequent  occasions  of  poor  and  needy  persons 
to  pledge  their  goods  in  order  to  procure  advances 
of  money  for  temporary  purposes,  the  legislature 
has  enacted  a  code  of  special  laws  to  regulate  these 
contracts.     See  Pawnbroking. 

PLEI'ADES,  in  Greek  Mythology,  were,  accord- 
ing to  the  most  general  account,  the  seven  daughters 
of  Atlas  and  Pleione,  the  daughter  of  Oceanus.  Their 
history  is  differently  related  by  the  Greek  mytholo- 
gists :  according  to  some  authorities,  they  com- 
mitted suicide  from  grief,  either  at  the  death  of  their 
sisters,  the  Hyades,  or  at  the  fate  of  their  father, 
Atlas  (q.  v.)  ;  according  to  others,  they  were  com- 
panions of  Artemis  (Diana),  and  being  pursued  by 
Orion  (q.  v.),  were  rescued  from  him  by  the  gods  by 
being  translated  to  the  sky ;  all  authorities,  how- 
ever, agree  that,  after  their  death  or  translation, 
they  were  transformed  into  stars.  Only  six  of  these 
stars  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  the  ancients 
believed  that  the  seventh  hid  herself  from  shame 
that  she  alone  of  the  P.  had  married  a  mortal, 
while  her  six  sisters  were  the  spouses  of  different 
gods.  Their  names  are  Electra,  Maia,  Taygete, 
Alcyone,  Celseno,  Sterope  (the  invisible  one),  and 
Merope. 

In  Astronomy,  a  group  or  constellation  of  six  stars 
placed  on  the  shoulder  of  Taurus,  the  second  sign 
of  the  Zodiac,  and  forming,  with  the  pole-star  and 
the  twin  Castor  and  Pollux,  the  three  angular 
points  of  a  figure  which  is  nearly  an  equilateral 
triangle.  Many  believe,  from  the  uniform  agree- 
ment that  the  P.  were  '  seven '  in  number,  that  the 
constellation  at  an  early  period  contained  '  seven' 
stars,  but  that  one  has  since  disappeared ;  not  a 
very  uncommon  occurrence. 

PLEI'OCENE  (Gr.  more  recent),  the  name  given 
by  Sir  Charles  Lyell  to  a  section  of  the  Upper  Ter- 
tiaries,  because  the  organic  remains  found  in  it  con- 
tain between  60  and  70  per  cent,  of  living  species ;  a 
greater  proportion  than  exists  in  the  older  Miocene, 
but  not  so  great  as  that  found  in  the  succeeding  Pleis- 
tocene. 

In  North  America  they  are  principally  found  in  Ne- 
braska, Kansas,  Idaho,  and  California.  In  the  former 
region  they  are  of  fresh-water  origin,  and  mostly  of 
incoherent  materials  (Hayclen).    They  contain  uumer- 


PLEIOCENE— PLEISTOCENE. 


oust  remains  of  Vertebrata,  us  four  Bpecies  of  CanidsB, 
twoFelidaB,  three.raminatinghogB(JforycAytM,  Leidy), 
six  species  of  camels,  rhinoceros,  elephants,  and  ben 
species  of  horses  of  the  genera  Hlpparion,  ProtoMp- 
pux,  Merychippus,  and  Equns. 

In  Idaho  they  contain  numerous  species  of  fresh- 
water fishes  mid  mammalia,  the  Conner  Salmonidae 
<  Rhabdofario,  Cope),  Cypnnidse  {Anchylopsla  and 
Semotllus),  and  Cobitidae  (Diastichus,  Cope).  The 
mammalia  are  Eqaus  and  Mastodon,  The  result  of 
the  investigations  on  these  and  the  molluscs  confirms 
those  derived  from  the  other  beds  and  the  Miocene,  thai 
there  was  land  connection  \\  itli  Asia. 

The  beds  belonging  to  this  period  in  Britain  are  very 
local.  They  have  been  noticed  in  several  places  in  Eu- 
rope, but  have  been  chiefly  studied  in  Suffolk,  the  only 
locality  in  which  they  occur  iu  Britain.  Here  they 
cover  the  upper  beds  of  the  London  Clay  ;  and 
being  composed  of  shelly  sand,  they  have,  like 
similar  deposits,  been  used  for  fertilising  lands 
deficient  in  calcareous  matter,  and  have  received 
the  local  name  of  'Crag.'  They  are  divided  into  the 
(1)  Red  Crag,  50  feet;  (2)  Coralline  Crag,  5!)  feet. 

The  Led  Crag  consists  of  beds  of  quartzose  sands 
and  gravel  with  a  mixture  of  shells,  for  the  most 
part  rolled,  and  sometimes  broken  up  into  sand. 
The  whole  deposit,  with  the  contained  fossils,  baa 
a  deep  ferruginous  or  ochreous  colour.  It  seema 
to  have  been  formed  in  shallow  water,  the  currents 
of  which  have  given  it  a  very  variable  character, 
and  frequently  confused  the  stratification,  as  in  some 
modern  sandbanks.  The  fossils  have  a  somewhat 
boreal  character.  They  consist  chiefl}'  of  mollusca ; 
but  there  have  been  also  found  the  bones  and 
teeth  of  large  sharks,  skates,  and  other  fish,  and 
the  ear-bones  of  one  or  more  true  whales. 

The  Coralline  Crag  is  generally  calcareous  and 
marly,  consisting  of  a  mass  of  shells  and  polyzoa, 
separated  in  some  places  by  thin  layers  of  hard 
limestone,  and  coral-like  masses,  which  occupy  the 
position  in  which  they  lived.  It  is  easily  separated 
from  the  Red  Crag  by  its  white  colour.  It  has 
been  formed  at  a  greater  depth  and  in  more  tranquil 
water  than  the  newer  deposit.  The  fossils  have  a 
more  southern  facies  than  those  of  the  Red  Crag, 
and  indicate  that  they  lived  in  an  ocean  with  a  higher 
temperature.  Among  these  southern  forms  may 
be  mentioned  species  of  the  genera  Conus,  Oliva, 
Mitra,  Voluta,  aud  Pyrula.  The  calcareous  polyzoa 
are  abundant  and  very  beautiful ;  and  several  inter- 
esting forms  of  echini  have  been  described.  A  few 
fossils  of  the  same  species  as  those  occurring  in  the 
London  Clay  have  been  found  in  this  aud  the  Red 
Crag,  but  these  are  believed  to  have  been  washed 
out  of  the  iuferior  deposits. 

Mr  Searles  Wood  has  obtained  345  species  of 
testacea  from  the  Coralline  Crag,  and  2.30  from  the 
Red  Crag,  of  which  about  150  are  common  to  both ; 
about  70  per  cent,  of  the  newer  division  are  also 
recent,  and  about  60  per  cent,  of  the  older. 

Pleiocene  deposits  have  been  observed  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Antwerp  and  on  the  banks  of 
the  Scheldt,  from  which  200  species  of  shells  have 
bsea  obtained,  two-thirds  of  which  were  already 
known  from  Suffolk.  More  than  a  half  are  l-ecent 
epecies  found  in  the  northern  seas,  and  a  few  are 
still  living  in  the  Mediterranean.  Similar  deposits 
occur  in  Normandy.  The  low  hills  between  the 
Apennines  and  the  sea  on  each  side  of  Italy  are 
formed  to  a  considerable  extent  of  beds  belonging  to 
this  period  ;  and  the  marine  strata  of  the  seven  hills 
of  Rome  are  of  the  same  age.  Beds  of  a  brackish 
water  origin,  observed  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian 
Aral,  Azof,  and  Black  Seas,  have  been  referred  to 
this  period. 

PLEIOSAU'RUS    (Gr.  literally  'more  a  lizard,' 
350 


i.e.,  than  the  Plaiotatn  us  of  fossil  sea-ren- 

tilea  nearly  allied  to  the  Plesiosaurus,  but  having  a 
very  short  neck,  and  comparatively  a  larj  L 

The   jaws  also  are    furnished  witli    str- 

which  are  subtrihedral  in  cross  section,  with  one 

side   flattened,    and    bounded    by   prominent    lateral 

ridges  on  the  more  convex  sides.  Three  sped 

been  described.     They  are  peculiar  to  the  Oxford 

and  Kimmeridge  clays  of  the  Upper  Oolite  P< 

PLEI'STOCENE  (Gr.  most  recent),  or  N 
PLEIOCENE,    terms    introduced    by   Sir    I  i 

Lyell  to  designate  the  most  recent  Tertiary 
deposits,  the  organic  remains  of  which  belong 
almost  exclusively  to  existing  species.  Within 
the  last  few  years,  no  section  of  the  earth's  cruRt 
has  received  so  much  attention  as  the  strata 
included  under  this  name.  The  obscurity  arising 
from  great  antiquity  and  metamorphic  char 
deposits,  and  the  consequent  necessity  of  ca 
some  extent  on  the  imagination  in  investigation! 
into  the  older  strata,  have  always  thrown  a  peculiar 
charm  round  geology  ;  but  the  examination  of  the 
little  changed  newer  deposits,  containing  animals 
scarcely  differing  in  genera  from,  and  many  of  them 
the  same  even  in  species  as,  those  now  living,  being 
based  on  simple  observation,  has  been  overlooked, 
although  the  best  method  in  all  obscure  inquiries 
is  that  which  starts  from  the  known,  and  gra- 
dually proceeds  to  the  unknown.  The  Palaeozoic 
rocks  have  been  carefully  grouped  and  classified, 
and  the  fossils  described  and  figured ;  while  the 
order  and  contents  of  the  Pleistocene  deposits  are 
little  known.  Their  isolated  nature  to  some  extent 
accounts  for  this ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  as  they 
exhibit  the  changes  that  have  immediately  pre- 
ceded the  present  order  of  things,  and  so  give  us 
the  first  sure  footing  in  our  progress  downwards, 
they  deserve  the  most  careful  attention. 

Not  only  in  organic  contents,  but  in  the  physical 
conditions  mder  which  they  were  deposited,  the 
Pleistocene  strata  shew  that  the  earth,  as  regards 
its  general  temperature,  was,  at  the  time  of  their 
deposition,  in  a  condition  nearly  approaching  to  its 
present.  There  is  consequently  a  considerable  differ- 
ence in  the  deposits  and  fossils  of  this  period  in  the 
different  regions  of  the  world.  The  alluvial  pampas 
of  South  America  and  the  gravels  of  Australia  ex- 
hibit, by  their  structure  and  contents,  a  temperature 
of  some  warmth ;  while  corresponding  deposits  of 
Britain  and  the  continent  shew  a  state  of  cold  that 
is  scarcely  conceivable  at  so  recent  a  period.  The 
whole  of  Northern  Europe  must  have  been  under 
ice  like  the  interior  of  Greenland  at  the  present  day. 
Perhaps  the  best  classification  of  the  deposits  is 
one  based  on  the  relation  which  they  bear  to  the 
temperature  of  the  period  when  they  were  formed. 
The  oldest  Pleistocene  deposits  represent  a  time  of 
intense  cold.  They  were  formed  at  the  bottom  of 
a  sea  into  which  immense  glaciers  forced  their  way. 
The  fine  mud  in  which  the  organic  remaius  are 
buried  was  obtained  from  the  melting  glaciers.  All 
the  shells  belong  to  species  now  living  in  arctic  or 
boreal  seas.  The  Bridlington  beds,  near  Flam- 
borough  Head,  consisting  of  sand,  clay,  and  pebbles, 
with  numerous  marine  shells,  belong  to  this  period. 
Of  the  63  species  determined  by  Dr  Woodward,  one- 
half  are  at  present  hving  only  in  seas  north  of 
Britain.  The  clay  deposits  on  the  east  of  Scotland, 
at  Elie  and  Errol,  lately  described  by  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Brown,  contain  fossils  that  have  a  similar 
arctic  facies.  The  shells  of  the  Bridbngton,  Elie, 
and  Errol  deposits  differ  from  those  of  the  other 
Pleistocene  strata  in  being  much  more  arctic,  and 
they  consequently  shew  that  the  cold  had  reached 
its  climax  at  the  time  of  their  formation.  To  this 
period  most  probably  belongs  the  boulder-clay  of 

593 


PLEISTOCENE. 


the  south  of  England,  which  contains  erratics  from 
Scandinavia.  Both  the  clay  and  the  boulders  seem 
to  have  been  transported  to  their  present  position 
by  floating  icebergs. 

The  temperature,  however,  after  a  time  improved, 
reducing  the  extent  of  the  ice-covering,  and  driving 
the  arctic  fauna  northwards  from  our  shores.  In  the 
Norwich  Crag,  we  find  a  larger  proportion  of  southern 
species,  only  one-sixth  of  these  being  truly  arctic. 
This  deposit,  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Norwich, 
consists  of  beds  of  sand  and  gravel  which  contain 
fresh-water  and  marine  shells,  and  the  bones  of 
large  mammalia.  Contemporaneous  with  the  Nor- 
wich Crag  are  the  marine  deposits  of  the  Clyde,  at 
least  the  older  of  them,  for  though  the  fossils  of  all 
the  beds  have  hitherto  been  grouped  together,  they 
certainly  represent  two  periods  which  differ  from 
each  other  by  reason  of  the  increasing  temperature. 
While  these  beds  were  being  deposited  around  the 
chores,  the  ice  was  disappearing  from  the  land.  The 
glaciers  were  gradually  creeping  inwards,  leaving 
an  ever-increasing  margin  of  bare  land  between  the 
glaciers  and  the  sea,  which  they  covered  with  a 
eontinuoui  layer  of  mud  and  rubbed  stones — the 
materials  taken  up  in  their  progress  over  the  surface 
— and  so  forming  the  boulder-clay  of  Scotland  and 
the  north  of  England.  This  is  a  remarkable  deposit 
of  unstratified  mud,  the  character  and  colour  of 
which  are  influenced  by  the  rocks  on  which  it  rests, 
and  from  which  it  was  derived.  It  contains  numer- 
ous rounded  and  polished  blocks  of  stone  of  various 
sizes,  promiscuously  scattered  through  it,  the  whole 
seeming  to  be  the  result  of  an  irregular  pell-mell 
hurrying  forward  and  deposition  of  the  materials. 
It  has  been  always  a  puzzle  to  geologists  (see 
Boulder-clay)  ;  but  Mr  Geikie,  in  his  recently 
published  Memoir,  by  shewing  it  to  be  the  terminal 
moraine  formed  by  the  slowly  retreating  sheet  of 
glacier-ice,  has  given  an  explanation  which  meets 
all  the  singular  phenomena  connected  with  it.  Con- 
nected with  the  disappearance  of  glaciers,  are  the 
lateral  moraines  which  exist  on  many  hillsides ;  and 
perhaps  a  little  later,  the  long  ridges  of  gravel 
which  are  called  Karnes  in  Scotland,  and  Eskers  in 
Ireland.  The  loamy  deposits  of  the  valleys  of  the 
Rhine  and  the  Danube,  known  as  the  Loess,  were 
formed  at  this  time  by  the  fine  mud  from  the 
glaciers,  with  which  every  torrent  rushing  from  the 
icy  caverns  at  the  termination  of  a  glacier  is  charged, 
and  which  is  now  forming  a  similar  deposit  in  some 
places  on  the  coast  of  Greenland. 

When  the  glaciers  began  to  disappear,  mammalia 
again  occupied  the  land ;  their  remains,  we  have 
already  seen,  occur  in  the  Norwich  Crag.  They 
continued  to  increase  as  the  conditions  for  their 
existence  improved.  The  caves  of  the  British 
Islands  and  the  continent  were  inhabited  by  hyenas, 
bears,  and  other  wild  beasts,  which  have  left  their 
remains  buried  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  the 
caves.  The  raised  sea-beaches  of  this  period  contain 
the  shells  of  mollusca  now  living  in  the  neighbouring 
seas.  In  many  places  around  the  shores  of  Britain 
and  Ireland,  submarine  forests  are  met  with  dipping 
down  under  low  water,  and  exhibiting  the  stumps 
and  roots  of  trees,  in  the  position  of  growth,  belong- 
ing to  species  now  living  in  Britain.  Some  of  the 
older  peat-bogs  require  to  be  placed  also  among  the 
later  Pleistocene  deposits. 

The  classification,  then,  of  these  strata,  which  we 
propose,  from  the  light  thrown  on  them  by  recent 
observation,  may  be  put  into  the  following  tabular 
form.  The  subdivisions  are  the  names  of  recognised 
deposits,  and  though  arranged  in  tabular  series,  the 
order  is  not  one  of  strict  sequence,  representing  the 
superposition  of  the  different  beds  ;  they  are  all 
Tsry  local  deposits,  and  many  of  them,  though 
591 


Post-Glacial. 


Arctic. 


differing    in   character,   were  formed   contempora. 
neously. 

Peat-bogs. 
Submarine  Forests. 
Modern  Raided  Sea-beaches. 
Cave  Deposits. 
f  Loess. 

I  Karnes  and  Eskers. 
_,     .  ,  J  Lateral  .Moraines. 

Glacial.    .     -i  Buulder.cl,y. 

•  Newer  Clvde  Beds. 

Voider  Clyde  Beds. 

f  Elie,  Errol,  and  Tine  Clay  B»ds. 

(Bridlington  Beds. 


Many  speculations  have  been  made  as  to  tha 
causes  of  the  remarkable  change  of  temperature, 
from  the  comparatively  warm  period  of  the  Pleioceue 
deposits,  to  the  extreme  cold  of  the  early  Pleistocene 
strata,  and  the  subsequent  gradual  return  to  the 
warmer  temperature  of  the  present  period  The 
most  probable  is,  that  it  resulted  from  an  extensive 
depression  of  the  land  of  the  northern  hemisphere 
in  some  parts,  and  its  elevation  in  others  during 
the  period.  Deposits  of  glacial  shells  have  been 
found  more  than  1000  feet  above  the  sea-level  in 
Wales.  A  depression  much  less  than  this,  in  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  would  give  a  different  direction 
to  the  Gulf  Stream,  and  so  deprive  Western  Europe 
of  its  benignant  influences.  It  would  also  put  the 
immense  sandy  Sahara  under  water;  and  that  it 
has  been  so  at  a  comparatively  recent  period,  has 
been  clearly  established  by  the  discovery  lately  of 
existing  marine  shells  (including  Cardium  edule) 
over  an  extensive  district  of  t'.ie  desert.  Without 
the  Sahara,  the  south  of  Europe  would  have  no 
burning  dry  sirocco,  which  now  melts  the  glaciers 
of  the  Alps;  but  instead,  a  comparatively  cold 
sea-breeze,  laden  with  moisture,  which  would  to 
a  large  extent  feed  them.  These  and  similar  causes 
would  do  much,  if  they  were  not  in  themselves  suf- 
ficient, to  produce  the  extreme  cold  of  the  arctic 
period. 

North  America,  on  the  close  of  the  glacial  por- 
tion of  this  period,  received  a  part  of  its  fauna  from 
the  South.  The  caves  examined  by  Professor 
Cope,  in  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania,  have  disclosed 
remains  of  six  species  of  gigantic  sloths,  two  of 
tapirs,  many  peccaries,  capybara,  bears  of  South 
American  type,  etc.  With  these  were  porcupines, 
bison,  deer,  bear,  raccoon,  and  other  North  American 
genera,  with  horses,  lion,  squirrel,  arvicola,  etc.,  now 
more  widely  spread.  A  warmer  climate  prevailed  at 
this  period  in  South  America,  and  the  fossil  animals 
there  belong  to  types  still  peculiar  to  that  con- 
tinent, though  of  a  size  immensely  greater  than 
their  living  representatives.  The  Megatherium, 
Mylodon,  and  Megalonyx  were  the  gigantic  fore- 
runners of  the  living  sloth ;  and  the  small  armadUloes 
were  anticipated  by  the  Glyptodon.  The  llamas, 
opossums,  tapirs,  and  prehensile-tailed  monkeys  are 
the  diminutive  representatives  of  similar  forms  in 
the  Pleistocene  period.  The  peculiar  marsupial 
fauna  of  Australia  had  also  its  gigantic  fore  runners 
during  this  period.  The  skull  of  one  species 
(Diprotodon,  an  animal  between  the  kangaroo  and 
the  wombat),  now  in  the  British  Museum,  measures 
three  feet  in  length.  The  huge  wingless  Dinor  nis, 
and  its  allies  of  New  Zealand,  were  nearly  allied  to 
the  small  wingless  Apteryx,  now  living  in  that 
island. 

The  question  of  the  antiquity  of  man  is  intimately 
associated  with  the  Pleistocene  deposits.  Whatever 
be  the  age  of  the  beds  in  which  either  the  remains 
of  man  or  works  of  art  have  been  found,  it  is 
certain  that  none  of  them  pass  the  horizon  of  the 
boulder-clay.  It  is,  however,  equally  certain  that 
undoubted  evidences  of  his  existence  contempor- 
aneously with  the  mammoth  and  woolly  rhinoceros, 


PLENISHING— PLESIOSAURUS. 


with  the  cave-lion  and  hwvna,  have  been  found 
in  Britain;  and  setting  aside  the  various  French 
ami  Belgian  oaves  and  navel  deposits  about  which 
geologists  are,  with  good  cause,  so  divided,  there 
is  evidence  in  the  knives,  pins,  &e.,  manufactured 
from  the  bones  of  the  large  reindeer,  found  in  eaves 
at  Bruniouel  and  elsewhere,  that  man  hunted 
this  huge  extinct  animal.  Its  contemporaries, 
as  far  as  the  associated  remains  from  these  caves 
have  been  determined,  yet  survive:  these  were 
the  chamois,  ibex,  horse,  fox,  wolf,  hare,  raven, 
partridge,  and  salmon.  However  far,  when  measured 
by  years,  this  carries  back  the  first  appearance  of 
man  on  the  globe,  geologically  speaking,  the  time 
is  insignificant  as  compared  with  the  vast  lapse  of 
ages  represented  by  even  a  single  formation;  still 
it  represents  a  period  in  which  many  remarkable 
changes  have  taken  place,  both  in  the  climatal 
condition  of  Europe  and  in  its  animal  inhabitants. 

PLE'NISHING,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  denotes 
the  furniture  of  a  house  or  stocking  of  a  farm.  The 
term  is  now  seldom  used,  except  in  the  law  relating 
to  heirship  Movables  (q.  v.). 

PLEONASM  (Gr.  pleon,  more),  a  term  employed 
in  Rhetoric  to  denote  superfluity  of  expression. 

PLESIOSAU'RUS  (Gr.  near  to  a  lizard),  a 
remarkable  genus  of  fossil  sea-reptiles,  the  species 
of  which  are  found  in  the  Lias,  Oolite,  and  Creta- 
ceous measures.  Its  remains  are  so  abundant  and 
so  perfectly  preserved,  that  we  are  as  well  acquainted 
■with  skeletons  of  many  of  its  species  as  we  are  with 
those  of  any  living  animals.  These  represent  a 
strange  animal,  the  structure  of  which  Cuvier  con- 
sidered to  be  the  most  singular,  and  its  character 


Plesiosaurus. 

the  most  anomalous,  that  had  been  discovered  amid 
the  ruins  of  former  worlds.  In  the  words  of  Buck- 
land  :  '  To  the  head  of  a  lizard,  it  united  the  teeth 
of  a  crocodile,  a  neck  of  enormous  length,  resembling 
the  body  of  a  serpent,  a  trunk  and  tail  having  the 
proportions  of  an  ordinary  quadruped,  the  ribs  of  a 
"hameleon,  and  the  paddles  of  a  whale.' 

The  skull  is  small  and  depressed.  From  the 
nostrils  backwards,  it  is  quadrate ;  it  suddenly 
contracts  at  the  nostrils,  and  is  continued  into  a 
parallel-sided  apex,  which  is  sometimes  slightly 
swollen  at  the  point.  No  sclerotic  plates  have  been 
found  in  the  orbits.  The  rami  of  the  lower  jaw  are 
remarkably  expanded  at  their  anterior  anchylosed 
extremity.  No  intervening  vacuity  separates  the 
angular  and  surangular  pieces,  as  in  the  crocodiles, 
but  they  are  joined  throughout,  as  in  the  lizards. 
The  teeth  occupy  distinct  cavities  ;  they  are  sharp- 
pointed,  long,  slender,  circular  in  cross  section,  and 
with  tine  longitudinal  ridges  on  the  enamel.  The 
most  #*riking  peculiarity  of  the  vertebra?  is  the 
great  length  of  the  neck-portion,  which  is  composed 
of  from  20  to  40  vertebrae.  The  articidar  surfaces 
of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  are  either  flat  or 
slightly  convex  in  the   centre,  with  a   concavity 


round  the  periphery.  The  cervical  vertebrae  consist 
of  a  centrum,  neural  arch,  and  two  ribs,  which  Bit* 
into  two  pits  on  the  sides  of  the  centrum. 
In  the  dorsal  vertebrae,  the  ribs  are  articulated  to 
diapophyses  from  the  neural  arch  ;  and  in  thi 
(ley  gradually  descend  again  to  the  sides  of  the 
centrum.  The  tail  is  much  shorter  than  in  the 
ichthyosaur.  In  the  abdominal  region,  the  extre- 
mities of  each  pair  of  ribs  are  connected  belcw  by 
the  development  of  the  ha-mal  spine. 

The  two  pair  of  limbs  were  equal  in  size  and 
shape,  with  probably  a  single  exception.  The  bones 
of  the  hind-limbs  closely  correspond  in  number, 
arrangement,  and  form  with  those  of  the  fore-limbs, 
so  tiiat  the  descriptions  of  the  one  set  answer  to 
the  corresponding  bones  of  the  other.  The  humerus 
is  a  stout  and  moderately  long  bone,  curved  slightly 
backwards,  rounded  at  its  proximal  extremity,  and 
flattened  as  it  approaches  the  elbow  joints.  The 
radius  and  ulna  are  short  and  flat  bones — the 
former  straight,  the  latter  reniform,  with  the 
concavity  toward  the  radius.  The  carpus  consists 
of  six  to  eight  flat  round  bones  in  a  double  row. 
The  five  metacarpals  are  long,  slender,  and  slightly 
expanded  at  both  ends.  The  numerous  phalanges 
are  alike  in  form,  but  progressively  decrease  in  size. 
The  radial  digit  has  generally  three ;  the  second 
from  five  to  seven ;  the  third,  eight  or  nine  ;  the 
fourth,  eight ;  and  the  fifth,  five  or  six  phalanges. 
The  limbs  were  covered  with  integument,  so  as  to 
form  simple  undivided  paddles,  as  in  the  turtle. 

The  supposed  habits  of  the  plesiosaur  are  thus 
described  by  Conybeare  :  '  That  it  was  an  aquatic, 
is  evident  from  the  form  of  its  paddles  ;  that  it  was 
marine,  is  almost  equally  so,  from  the  remains  with 

which  it  is  univers- 
ally associated ;  that 
it  may  have  occa- 
sionally visited  the 
shore,  the  resem- 
blance of  its  extre- 
mities to  those  of 
the  turtle  may  lead 
us  to  conjecture  ;  its 
motion  must  have, 
however,  been  very 
awkward  on  land ; 
its  long  neck  must 
have  impeded  its 
progress  through  the 
water,  presenting  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  organisation  which  so 
admirably  fits  the  ichthyosaur  to  cut  through  the 
waves.  May  it  not,  therefore,  be  concluded— since, 
in  addition  to  these  circumstances,  its  respiration 
must  have  required  frequent  access  to  the  air — that 
it  swam  upon  or  near  the  surface,  arching  back  its 
long  neck  like  the  swan,  and  occasionally  darting  it 
down  at  the  fish  which  happened  to  float  within  its 
reach?  It  may  perhaps  have  lurked  in  shoal- water 
along  the  coast,  concealed  among  the  sea- weed, 
and,  raising  its  nostrds  to  the  surface  from  a  con- 
siderable depth,  may  have  found  a  secure  retreat 
from  the  assaults  of  dangerous  enemies ;  while  the 
length  and  flexibility  of  its  neck  may  have  com- 
pensated for  the  want  of  strength  in  its  jaws, 
and  its  incapacity  for  swift  motion  through 
the  water,  by  the  suddenness  and  agility  of  the 
attack  which  they  enabled  it  to  make  on  every 
animal  fitted  for  its  prey  which  came  within  its 
reach.' 

The  first  remains  of  this  animal  were  discovered 
at  Lyme  Regis  in  1822.  Since  then,  twenty-two 
species  have  been  described,  the  specific  differences 
chiefly  resting  on  peculiarities  in  the  form  and 
structure  of  the  vertebrae. 

695 


PLETHORA— PLEURISY. 


PLETHORA  (Gr.  'fulness'  or  'excess'),  desig- 
nates a  general  excess  of  blood  in  the  system.  It  may 
arise  either  from  too  much  blood  being  made,  or 
from  too  little  being  expended.  The  persons  who 
become  plethoric  are  usually  those  in  thorough 
health,  who  eat  heartily  and  digest  readily,  but  who 
do  not  take  sufficient  bodily  exercise,  and  do  not 
duly  attend  to  the  action  of  the  excreting  organs. 
With  them,  the  process  of  blood-making  is  always  on 
the  increase,  and  the  vessels  become 
more  .and  more  rilled,  as  is  seen  in  the 
red  face,  distended  veins,  and  full  pulse. 
The  heart  is  excited  and  over-worked, 
and  hence  palpitation,  shortness  of  breath, 
and  probably  a  sleepy  feeling,  may  arise ; 
but  these  symptoms,  instead  of  acting  as 
a  warning,  too  often  cause  the  aband- 
onment of  all  exercise,  by  which  the 
morbid  condition  is  aggravated.  The 
state  of  plethora  thus  gradually  induced 
may  be  extreme  without  any  functions 
materially  failing,  and  yet  the  subject  is 
on  the  verge  of  some  dangerous  malady, 
such  as  apoplexy,  or  structural  disease 
of  the  heart  or  great  vessels,  or  of  the 
lungs,  kidneys,  or  liver. 

Plethora  is  said  to  be  sthenic  when 
the    strength    and    irritability    of    the 
muscular  fibres  (especially  of  the  heart 
and    arteries)    are   fully   or   excessively 
developed.     This  form  commonly  affect3 
the   young    and    active,    and    those    of 
sanguineous  nature.     The  blood  is  rich 
in  red  cells  and  fibrine;    and  there  i3 
a   tendency   to    general   febrile    excite- 
ment, active  haemorrhages,  fluxes,  and 
inflammation.     A  natural  cure  is   thus 
often  effected  by  the  supervention  of  an 
attack  of  bleeding  from  the  nostrils  or 
from  piles,  or  of  mucous  or  bilious  diarrhoea.     The 
plethora   is  said  to  be  asthenic   (Gr.   a,   not ;    and 
sthenos,   strength)   when   there  is    a   deficiency  of 
contractility  and  tone  in  the  muscular  fibre.     In 
this  case,  the  heart  and  vessels,  instead  of  being 
excited  (as  in  sthenic  plethora)  by  the  augmented 
quantity  of  blood,  are  oppressed  by  its  load,  and 
cannot    duly    expel    their    accumulated    contents. 
The  face  is  purple  instead  of  red ;  the  extremities 
cold,   and    the    excreting    organs    sluggish.      This 
form  affects   persons   weakened   by  age,    excesses, 
or  previous  disease.      It  tends  to  produce  conges- 
tions and  passive  haemorrhages,  fluxes,  and  dropsies ; 
and,    if    continued,    structural    changes,    such    as 
dilatation   of    the    heart,    enlarged  liver,    varicose 
veins,  &c. 

In  sthenic  plethora,  blood-letting  is  the  first 
remedy,  and  this,  Avith  the  continued  use  of  aperient 
medicine  and  a  sparing  diet,  is  often  sufficient  to 
complete  the  cure.  If  these  means  fail,  recourse 
must  be  had  to  antimonials,  salines,  digitalis,  and 
sometimes  mercury  or  colchicum.  In  the  asthenic 
form,  Dr  Williams  (to  whose  article  on  '  Plethora,' 
in  his  Principles  of  Medicine,  we  refer  our  readers 
for  further  details)  observes  that  '  the  continued  use 
of  alterative  aperients  and  diuretics,  such  as  mild 
mercurials,  with  rhubarb,  aloes,  or  senna,  salines 
and  taraxacum,  nitric  acid,  iodide  of  potassium,  &c, 
may  prepare  the  way  for  various  tonics,  such  as 
calumba,  bark,  and  iron.'  He  also  recommends  the 
use  of  the  Cheltenham,  Leamington,  and  Lland- 
rindod  waters  ;  first  the  saline,  which  are  aperient 
and  diuretic  ;  and  afterwards  the  chalybeate,  which, 
although  tonic,  usually  contain  enough  of  saline 
matter  to  keep  the  secretions  free.  Food  may  be 
taken  more  freely  than  in  the  sthenic  form  ;  and  in 
both  varieties,  as  much  exercise  in  the  open  air 
606 


should  be  taken  as  can  be  borne  without  causing 
exhaustion. 

PLEU'RiE.  Each  lung  is  invested  externally 
by  a  very  delicate  serous  membrane  termed  the 
pleura,  which,  after  enclosing  the  whole  organ, 
except  at  its  root,  where  the  great  vessels  enter  it, 
is  reflected  upon  the  inner  surface  of  the  thorax  or 
chest.  That  portion  of  the  pleura  which  iy  in 
contact  with  the  surface  of  the  lung  is  called  the 


A  transverse  Section  of  the  Thorax,  shewing  the  reflections  of  the 

Pleura,  and  the  relative  position  of  the  Viscera,  &c 

(From  Gray's  Anatomy  ) 

1,  The  visceral  and,  2,  the  parietal  layer  of  the  pleura,  on  the  right  Bide  J 

3,  3,  the  ribs;   4,  5,  section  of  th"  right  and  left  lungs;   6,   the  heart; 

7,  the  pulmonary  artery,  dividing  into  the  right  and  lift  branches  ;  8,  8', 

the  right  and  left  pulmonary  veins;  9,  9',  the  ascennirg  and  descending 

aoria,  the  intervening  arvh  being  cut  away;  111,  10'.  the  ri:ht  and   left 

bronchi;  11,  the  ce3ophagus  ;  12,  body  of  dorsal  vertebra;  13,  the  sternum. 

pleura  pidmonalis,  or  visceral  layer ;  whilst  that 
which  lines  the  interior  of  the  chest  is  called  the 
pleura  costalis,  or  parietal  layer ;  while  the  space 
intervening  between  these  two  layers  is  called  the 
cavity  of  the  pleura.  Each  pleura,  as  will  be  at 
once  seen  by  a  reference  to  the  figure,  is  a  closed 
sac,  and  quite  independent  of  the  other.  The 
interspace  between  the  pleurae  on  the  right  and 
left  side,  is  termed  the  mediastinum,  and  contains 
all  the  viscera  of  the  thorax  excepting  the  lungs. 
The  inner  surface  of  each  pleura  is  smooth,  glisten- 
ing, and  moistened  by  a  serous  fluid ;  the  outer 
surface  is  closely  adherent  to  the  surface  of  the 
lung,  to  the  roots  of  the  pulmonary  vessels  as  they 
enter  the  lung,  to  the  upper  surface  of  the 
diaphragm,  and  to  the  walls  of  the  chest.  The 
lobes  of  the  lungs  are  separated  from  one  another 
by  involutions  or  in-foldings  of  the  visceral  layer ; 
two  such  involutions — one  on  either  side — are 
shewn  in  the  figure.  The  use  of  these  serous  sacs 
is  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  Peritoneum  (q.  v.)  ; 
each  pleura  retains  the  lung  and,  to  a  certain 
extent,  the  greater  vessels  in  position,  while  it  at 
the  same  time  facilitates,  within  certain  limits,  the 
movements  of  those  parts  which  are  essential  to 
the  due  performance  of  the  act  of  respiration. 

PLEU'RISY,  or  inflammation  of  the  investing 
membrane  of  the  lung,  is  one  of  the  most  serious 
diseases  of  the  chest.  It  is  very  often,  but  by  no 
means  invariably  associated  with  inflammation  of 
the  substance  of  the  lung,  commonly  known  aa 
Pneumonia  (q.  v.).  Pleurisy  without  pneumonia 
is  much  more  common  than  pneumonia  without 
pleurisy.  When  both  are  present,  but  pneumonia 
preponderates,  the  correct  term  ^or  the  affection  is 
pleuro-pneumonia,  although  it  is  frequently  spoken 
of  simply   as   pneumonia,   probably  in   consequence 


PLEURISY-PLEURODYNIA. 


of  the  remedies  being  applied  mainly  to  it,  as 
the  more  important  of  tho  two  elements  is  the 
compound  malady. 

pleura  being  a  Beroua  membrane,  its  inflam- 
mation is  attended  with  the  same  i  events 
as  have  been  already  described  in  our  remarks  on 
the  two  allied  diseases,  Pericarditis  and  Peritonitis. 
The  inflammation  is  of  the  adhesive  kind,  and  is 
accompanied  by  pain,  and  by  the  effusion  of  Berum, 
of  fibrinous  exudation  (the  eoaguiabU  lymph  of  the 
older  writers),  or  of  pus,  into  the  pleural  eavity.  In 
consequence  of    the    anatomical    relations    of   the 

fileura— one  part  of  tli  •  membrane  (the  parietal) 
ining  the  firm  walls  of  the  chest,  while  the  other 
fiart  (the  visceral)  envelops  the  soft  and  compi 
ung ;  and  these  opposed  surfaces  being  freely 
movable  on  one  another — it  follows  that  very 
different  effects  may  be  produced  by  its  inflamma- 
tion. For  example,  the  visceral  layer  may  be  glued 
to  the  parietal  layer,  so  as  to  prevent  all  gliding 
movement  between  them,  and  to  obliterate  the 
pleural  cavity  (similarly  to  what  often  happens  in 
Pericarditis,  q.  v.)  ;  or  the  two  surfaces  which  are 
naturally  in  coutact,  may  be  abnormally  separated 
by  an  infusion  of  serum  between  them ;  or  fn  rm  a 
combination  of  these  results,  the  opposite  surfaces 
of  the  pleurae  may  be  abnormally  united  at  some 
points,  and  abnormally  separated  at  others. 

The  general  symptoms  of  pleurisy  are  rigors, 
pain  in  the  side,  fever,  difficulty  and  rapidity  of 
breathing,  cough,  and  an  impossibility  of  assuming 
certain  positions  ;  and  of  these,  the  most  marked  is 
the  pain  or  stitch  in  the  side,  the  Point  de  cole  of  the 
French  writers.  From  the  prominence  of  this  pain, 
•which  occupies  a  single  spot,  and  is  of  a  sharp, 
stabbing  character,  the  Latin  writers  term  pleurisy 
Morbus  lateris.  This  spot  is  usually  about  the 
centre  of  the  mamma  of  the  affected  side,  or  just 
below  it ;  but  why  the  pain  should  be  usually 
restricted  to  that  one  small  spot,  when  the  inflam- 
mation pervades  a  considerable  extent  of  surface,  is 
a  question  that  has  never  received  any  satisfactory 
answer.  The  paiu  is,  however,  occasionally  felt  in 
other  parts — as  in  the  shoulders,  in  the  hollow  of 
the  armpit,  beneath  the  collar-bone,  along  the 
breast-bone,  &c.  Cruveilhier  observes  that  the  pain 
sometimes  affects  the  loins,  and  simulates  lumbago  ; 
while  Andral  and  Dr  Watson  have  directed  atten- 
tion to  the  fact,  that  the  pain  often  affects  the 
hypochoudrium,  and  may  be  readily  mistaken  for  a 
symptom  of  peritonitis,  or  (if  occurring  on  the  right 
side)  of  hepatitis.  The  pain  is  increased  by  per- 
cussion, by  pressure  between  the  ribs,  by  a  deep 
inspiration,  by  cough,  &c.  ;  and  the  patient  is  often 
observed  to  suppress  a  natural  desire  to  cough,  or 
never  to  draw  more  than  a  short  and  imperfect 
inspiration.  The  cough  is  not  invariably  present, 
although  it  is  an  ordinary  symptom.  It  is  small, 
suppressed  as  far  as  possible  by  the  patient,  and  is 
either  dry,  or  accompanied  by  the  expectoration  of 
Blight  catarrh.  If  much  frothy  mucus  is  brought  up, 
it  is  a  sign  that  Bronchitis  (q.  v. )  is  also  present,  and 
the  appearance  of  rust-coloured  sputa  indicates  the 
co-existence  of  pneumonia.  Although  the  above 
named  symptoms,  especially  when  most  of  them 
occur  together,  afford  almost  certain  evidence  of 
the  existence  of  pleurisy,  yet  to  the  physician  the 
physical  signs  are  still  more  valuable,  especially  those 
furnished  by  percussion  and  auscultation. 

Pleurisy  far  more  commonly  arises  from  exposure 
to  cold  than  from  any  other  cause,  especially  if  a 
poisoned  condition  of  the  blood,  predisposing  to 
inflammation  of  the  serous  membrane,  is  present; 
but  it  may  be  occasioned  by  mechanical  violence 
(as  by  a  penetrating  wound  of  the  thorax  by  the 
splintered  ends  of  a  broken  rib,   &c),   or  by  the 


accidental  extension  of  disease  from  adjacent  part* 
The  disea  e  may  terminate  in  resolution  and  com- 
plete  recovery;  or  in  adhesion,  whioh  often  only 
causes  slight  embarrassment  of  breathing:   or  it 

may  end  with  BUOh  a  retraction  of  one  side  of  the 

chest  as  to  render  the  corresponding  lung  almost 

or    totally    useless:   or  it  may   cause    death 
directly    by    actual    suffocation,    if    the    effusion    is 
very  copious,  and  is  not  removed  by  tapping;  or 
indirectly,   by  exhaustion.    It  is  seldom,  however, 
that  simple  pleurisy  proves  fatal. 

In  acute  pleurisy,  occurring  in  a  robust  ami  pre- 
viously healthy  subject,  free  blood-letting  Bhould 
be  at  once  resorted  to.  If  there  is  a  sharp  stitch  io 
the  side,  and  the  respiration  is  short,  quick,  and 
restrained,  the  patient  should  be  bled,  in  tho 
upright  position,  from  a  large  orifice  in  the  vein, 
until  the  paiu  is  relieved,  and  he  can  draw  a  full 
breath  without  discomfort,  or  until  he  is  about  to 
faint ;  and  if  the  pain  and  difficult  breathing  should 
return,  and  the  pulse  continue  firm  and  hard,  either 
the  venesection  must  be  repeated,  or  leeches  must 
be  freely  applied  to  the  painful  side.  The  bowels 
should  be  freely  evacuated,  after  which  calomel 
should  be  given,  guarded  with  a  little  opium,  to  the 
extent  of  producing  slight  mercurialisation,  with  thr 
view  of  cheeking  the  effusion  of  fluid.  The  more 
rapidly  the  system  can  be  thus  affected,  the  better, 
and  hence  it  has  been  recommended  (by  Dr  Walsh) 
that  during  the  first  six  hours  a  grain  and  a  half  of 
calomel,  combined  with  a  sixth  of  a  grain  of  opium 
(or  niore,  if  the  pain  continues  acute),  should  be 
given  every  half-hour;  while  mercurial  ointment 
is  rubbed  into  the  skin  of  the  affected  side,  near 
the  arm-pit,  every  fourth  hour.  Care  must  be 
taken  that  neither  decided  salivation  nor  narcotism 
is  induced  ;  and  as  soon  as  there  is  any  evidence 
from  the  breath,  or  from  the  appearance  of  the 
gums,  that  the  mercurial  action  has  been  established, 
the  further  administration  of  the  calomel  and  the 
ointment  must  be  suspended.  After  the  pain  and 
fever  have  ceased,  we  must  facilitate  the  absorption 
of  the  fluid  by  diuretics.  A  pill  composed  of  half 
a  grain  of  digitalis,  a  grain  of  squills,  and  three 
grains  of  blue  pill  taken  twice  a  day,  usually 
acts  efficiently;  and  the  compound  tincture  of  iodine 
of  the  London  [not  the  British)  Pharmacopoeia,  in 
doses  of  twenty  minims,  taken,  largely  diluted,  three 
times  a  day,  has  been  strongly  recommended. 

There  has  been  considerable  discussion  of  late  years 
as  to  how  far  the  operation  of  tapping  the  chest,  and 
letting  out  the  fluid,  is  justifiable  in  this  disease. 
The  best  authorities  are  of  opinion  that  in  simple 
pleurisy  it  ought  never  to  be  performed  unless  (1) 
the  life  of  the  patient  is  in  immediate  danger  from 
the  continued  pressure  of  the  fluid  in  the  sac ;  (2) 
unless  all  other  means  of  getting  rid  of  the  fluid 
having  failed,  the  patient  is  evidently  losing 
strength  daily  ;  and  (3)  unless  there  is  good  reason 
to  believe  that  the  fluid  consists  of  pus,  in  which 
case  it  should  be  let  out.  In  all  cases  in  which  the 
operation  is  contemplated,  a  grooved  needle  should 
be  introduced  into  the  pleura.  By  this  means,  we 
not  only  ascertain  the  actual  presence  of  fluid,  but 
we  discover  its  nature.  If  it  be  serous,  it  will  flow 
readdy  along  the  groove,  and  trickle  down  the 
patient's  side  ;  if  i;  be  purulent  and  thick,  a  drop 
or  two  will  probably  be  visible  at  the  external 
orifice,  and  when  the  needle  is  withdrawn,  its  groove 
will  be  found  to  contain  pus.  The  puncture  thus 
made  is  quite  harmless,  and  inflicts  very  little  pain 

PLEURISY  ROOT.    See  Butterfly  Weei>. 

PLEURODYNIA  is  a  rheumatic  affection  of  the 
intercostal  muscles,  and  i3  characterised  by  acute 
pain  in  the  side  upon  taking  a  full  breath  or  coughing 

697 


PLEURONECTID.E-PLICA  POLONICA. 


and  by  great  tenderness  on  pressure.  If  it  happens 
to  be  attended  by  slight  febrile  excitement,  or  by  a 
cough,  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  it  from  pleurisy, 
except  by  attending  to  the  physical  signs  which 
characterise  the  latter  disease.  Cruveilhier  main- 
tains that  '  pleurodynia  is  nothing  more  than  adhe- 
sive pleurisy  ;'  and  in  many  cases  of  assumed  pleuro- 
dynia, there  is  little  doubt  that  the  pain  is  due  to 
old  adhesions.  The  disease  generally  yields  to  local 
measures,  such  as  blistering,  or  counter-irritation  in 
a  milder  form  by  rubefacient  liniments.  A  mixture 
of  soap-liniment  and  chloroform  rubbed  over  the 
affected  part  two  or  three  times  a  day,  often  gives 
relief.  In  the  more  persistent  case3,  leeches  may 
be  applied  with  benefit. 

PLEURONE'CTIDiE,  a  family  of  fishes  included 
in  Cuvier's  order  Malacopferyrjii,  but  belonging  to 
the  order  Anacanthini  of  Midler's  system  (see 
Malacopterygii),  and  remarkable  for  a  character 
to  which  there  is  nothing  similar  in  any  other 
vertebrate  animals,  a  wpnt  of  symmetry  in  the  head, 
aud  for  swimming  not  with  the  back  uppermost, 
like  other  fishes,  but  with  one  side  uppermost. 
The  peculiar  structure  of  the  head  adapts  it  to 
this  mode  of  swimming,  both  eyes  being  on  that 
side  which  is  uppermost.  Some  of  the  bones  of 
the  head  are  distorted  to  a  very  considerable 
degree,  but  there  is  no  want  of  symmetry  in 
those  of  the  body.  The  sides  of  the  mouth  are 
unequal.  The  body  is  extremely  compressed, 
whence  the  P.  are  popularly  termed  Flat  Fish,  the 
back  and  belly  being  mere  edges  fringed  by  the 
dorsal  and  anal  fins.  The  pectoral  fins  are  gener- 
ally unequal,  also  the  ventral  fins,  those  of  the 
lower  side  being  smaller  than  those  of  the  upper. 
The  upper  side  is  often  brown,  or  of  some  darkish 
colour,  and  variously  marked  ;  the  lower  side 
whitish.  The  colour  of  the  upper  side  generally 
corresponds  so  much  with  that  of  the  bottom, 
close  to  which  these  fishes  swim,  that  they  readily 
escape  observation  ;  and  on  this  they  seem  chiefly 
to  depend  for  safety,  although,  when  hard  pressed, 
they  raise  themselves  in  a  vertical  position,  and 
suddenly  throw  themselves  upward  and  forward 
to  some  distance,  but  then  resume  their  ordinary 
posture,  and  as  close  to  the  bottom  as  possible. 
Their  ordinary  swimming  is  by  a  kind  of  undulating 
movement.  They  swim  with  great  activity.  They 
have  no  air-bladder.  They  abound  chiefly  where 
the  bottom  is  smooth,  either  muddy  or  sandy.  All 
of  them  are  sea-fishes,  but  some  are  very  common 
in  brackish  water,  ascend  rivers,  and  can  be  kept 
in  fresh- water  ponds.  Many  of  them  are  in  great 
esteem  for  the  table.  The  turbot,  halibut,  brill, 
plaice,  and  flounder  are  examples  of  this  family. 

PLEU'RO-PNEUMO'NIA,  in  an  epizootic  form, 
first  appeared  amongst  the  horned  cattle  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  in  1841.  From  time  imme- 
morial it  had,  however,  been  known  in  the  great 
cattle-breeding  plains  of  Central  and  Northern 
Earope.  It  consists  in  a  sub-acute  inflammation  of 
the  structure  of  the  lungs  and  their  investing 
membrane,  shews  a  great  tendency  to  early  exuda- 
tion, aud  is  accompanied  by  low  fever.  It  is  con- 
tagious, but,  like  many  other  contagious  disorders, 
it  occasionally  occurs  independently  of  contagion, 
and  is  fostered  by  overcrowding,  exposure  to  cold 
and  wet,  damp,  dirty  hovels,  and  other  such  causes, 
which  depress  the  vital  powers.  The  symptoms 
come  on  insidiously,  appetite  and  rumination  are 
irregular,  there  is  fever,  dulness,  a  short,  half- 
involuntary  cough,  with  quickened  breathing  and 
pulse.  In  cows,  the  yield  of  milk  is  early  dimi- 
nished. After  three  or  four  days,  large  portions 
el  the  lungs  become  tilled  with  the  products  of 
698 


inflammation,  hence  the  laboured  breathing,  quick 
indistinct  pulse,  wasting,  and  fatal  weakness. 
Death  generally  occurs  in  from  ten  to  twenty  days. 
When  pleuro-pneumonia  first  appeared  in  this 
country,  it  was  greatly  more  fatal  than  it  has  since 
become,  and  fully  four-tifths  of  the  cattle  attacked 
died ;  with  prompt  and  ratioual  treatment,  more 
than  one-half  of  the  affected  cases  now  recover. 
But  as  a  favourable  result  is  uncertain,  and  much 
flesh  is  lost  even  during  a  slight  attack,  it  is  still 
advisable,  when  pleuro-pneumonia  breaks  out  in  a 
herd,  to  consign  to  the  shambles  any  of  the  cattle 
in  good  condition  that  have  mixed  with  those 
diseased.  The  best  treatment  consists  in  avoiding 
bleeding  and  all  reducing  remedies,  supporting  the 
strength,  and  keeping  up  the  action  of  the  skin, 
bowels,  and  kidneys,  in  order  that  the  poisonous 
products  of  the  disease  may  be  rapidly  got  rid  of. 
For  this  end,  the  patient  should  be  provided  with 
a  cool  comfortable  house,  clothing  to  the  body, 
bandages  to  the  legs,  a  daily  dose  of  two  ounces 
each  of  nitre  and  commoD  salt  given  in  treacle  and 
water.  When  the  bowels  are  costive,  gentle  laxa- 
tives are  required.  By  the  second  or  third  day, 
counter-irritants  may  be  applied  to  one  or  both 
sides,  which  should  first  be  bathed  with  hot  water 
and  thin  mustard  paste,  or  a  mixture  of  cantharidea 
and  euphorbium  ointments  well  rubbed  in.  By  the 
third  or  fourth  day,  or  earlier,  if  there  is  weakness, 
arrested  secretion,  and  coldness  of  the  skin,  give 
several  times  daily  some  stimulant,  such  as  a  quart 
of  warm  ale,  with  an  ounce  or  two  of  ginger  or 
other  stomachic,  some  good  whisky-toddy,  three- 
ounce  doses  of  sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  or  of  spirit  of 
ammonia.  Whilst  the  disease  continues,  and  even 
during  early  convalescence,  all  food  requiring  rumi- 
nation must  be  interdicted,  and  mashes,  flour  and 
treacle,  bruised  grain,  or  any  light  digestible  articles 
substituted  for  the  ordinary  hay,  straw,  or  roots. 
As  pleuro-pneumonia  is  in  many  cases  propagated 
by  contagion,  the  sick  should  be  separated  from 
the  sound  stock;  and  any  premises  they  have 
occupied  carefully  cleansed  by  whitewashing,  and 
the  use  of  M'Dougall's,  Condy's,  or  other  effectual 
disinfectants.  When  pleuro-pneumonia  prevails  in 
a  neighbourhood,  all  fresh  purchases  should  be 
placed  in  quarantine,  and  kept  perfectly  away  from 
the  home-stock  for  at  least  three  weeks.  Attention 
to  this  simple  precaution  has  preserved  many 
farmers  from  pleuro-pneumonia,  even  while  it  has 
raged  all  around  them. 

PLEXI'METER.    See  Percussion. 

PLEYEL,  Ignaz,  a  musical  composer  of  some 
note,  born  in  1757  at  Rupperstahl,  near  Vienna. 
He  studied  music  under  Vanhall  aud  Haydn,  and 
made  in  early  life  an  extensive  tour  in  Italy,  to  hear 
the  works  of  the  best  composers.  In  1783,  he  was 
made  Capellmeister  of  Strasburg  Cathedral,  and 
during  the  succeeding  ten  years,  composed  most  of 
the  works  on  which  his  popularity  rests.  In  1791, 
he  visited  London,  and  composed  there  three  sym- 
phonies. Two  years  afterwards,  during  the  frenzy 
of  the  French  Revolution,  he  fell  under  suspicion, 
and  in  proof  of  his  acquiescence  in  the  new  order 
of  things,  had  to  compose  a  musical  drama  for  the 
anniversary  of  the  10th  of  August;  which  saved 
his  life.  After  a  long  career  in  Paris  as  a  publisher 
of  music  and  pianoforte  manufacturer,  he  retired 
to  an  estate  which  he  had  purchased  near  Paris, 
and  died  in  1831.  His  compositions,  consisting  of 
quartetts,  concertantes,  and  sonatas,  are  full  of 
agreeable  melodies,  sometimes  light  and  trivial, 
but  occasionally  vigorous. 

PLI'CA  POLO'NICA  is  the  name  givni  to  a 
disease  of    the  scalp,   in  which  the    hairs   become 


PLINTH-PUN  Y. 


matted  together,  by  an  adhesive  and  often  foetid 
secretion,  and  which  is  especially  prevalent  in 
Poland,  although  it  occasionally  OCCUTB  in  other 
countries.  The  hair  is  found,  OD  microscopic  inves- 
tigation, to  be  infested  with  a  fungus  of  the  genus 
Trichophyton.  The  only  treatment  that  is  beneficial 
is  the  removal  of  the  hair,  and  strict  attention  to 
cleanliness ;  hut  as  it  is  popularly  .believed  in 
Poland  that  this  affection  affords  a  security  from 
all  other  sickness  and  misfortune,  it  is  often  diffi- 
cult to  persuade  patients  to  have  recourse  to  these 
means.  For  an  account  of  the  parasitic  fungus  that 
attacks  the  hair  in  this  disease,  and  of  the  changes 
of  structure  which  it  induces,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  Kllchenmeister'a  Manual  of  Parasites,  voL  ii. 

pp.  i  ts — ir>2. 

PLINTH,  the  square  member  at  the  bottom  of 
the  base  of  a  column.  Also  the  plain  projecting 
band  forming  a  base  of  a  wall. 

PLINY  (0.  Pltnfus  Secundus),  often  called 
Pliny  the  Elder,  and  author  of  the  celebrated 
Historia  Xnfuralh,  was  born  in  the  north  of  Italy, 
either  at  Novum  Comum  (Como)  or  Verona,  23  a.d. 
Whether  it  was  his  birthplace  or  not,  the  former 
town  was  certainly  his  family's  place  of  residence, 
since  he  had  estates  in  its  neighbourhood ;  his 
nephew,  the  Younger  Pliny,  was  born  there,  and 
inscriptions  relating  to  members  of  his  family  have 
been  found  near  it.  While  still  young,  he  was  sent 
to  Rome,  where  his  ample  means  and  high  connec- 
tions secured  him  the  best  education.  At  the  age 
of  23,  he  entered  the  army,  and  served  in  Germany, 
as  commander  of  a  troop  of  cavalry,  under  L. 
Pomponiu3  Secundus,  of  whom,  in  later  life,  he 
wi-ote  a  memoir.  He  travelled  over  nearly  all  the 
frontier  of  that  extensive  province,  visited  the  Cauci 
and  the  sources  of  the  Danube,  composed  during  the 
intervals  of  military  duty  his  treatise  De,  Jacula- 
tione  Equestri,  and  commenced  a  history  (afterwards 
completed  in  twenty  books)  of  the  Germanic  wars. 
On  his  return  to  Home  in  52  with  Pomponius,  he 
entered  on  the  stud}'  of  jurisprudence  ;  but  his 
practice  as  a  pleader  proved  him  to  have  no  great 
capacity  for  the  legal  profession  ;  and  accordingly, 
he  retired  to  his  native  place,  where  he  spent  the 
greater  part  of  the  reign  of  Nero  in  miscellaneous 
authorship.  It  was  during  this  period  that  he  wrote 
his  Studiosus,  a  treatise  in  three  books  on  the  train- 
ing of  a  young  orator  from  the  nursery  to  his 
entrance  on  public  life,  and  apparently  intended  to 
guide  the  education  of  his  nephew ;  also  his  gram- 
matical work,  Dubius  Sermo,  in  eight  books. 
Shortly  before  Nero's  death,  we  find  him  a  procu- 
rator in  Spain,  where,  in  71,  he  heard  of  his  brother- 
in-lawr's  decease,  and  of  his  being  intousted  with  the 
guardianship  of  his  nephew,  Pliny  the  Younger, 
■whom  he  adopted  on  his  return  to  Rome  before  73. 
Vespasian,  the  reigning  emperor,  whom  he  had 
known  while  serving  in  Germany,  received  him  as 
one  of  his  most  intimate  friends  ;  and  it  was  at  this 
period  that  he  completed,  in  thirty-one  books,  and 
Drought  down  to  his  own  time,  the  Roman  history 
of  Aufidius  Bassos.  His  mode  of  study  at  this  time 
was  a  model  of  systematic  assiduity.  When  living 
in  the  busy  world  of  Rome,  he  would  begin  his 
studies  by  candle-light  in  autumn  at  a  late  hour  of 
the  night,  and  in  winter  at  one  or  two  in  the 
morning.  Before  daybreak,  he  wrould  call  on  the 
emperor,  for  whom  he  would  proceed  to  execute 
various  commissions  ;  this  done,  he  would  return 
home,  and  resume  his  studies.  A  slender  meal 
would  follow  ;  after  which  he  would,  in  summer 
weather,  lie  in  the  sunshine,  and  take  notes  or 
extracts  from  the  books  which  were  read  to  him. 
The  practice   of  jotting  down  important  facts  or 


observations  was  habitual  with  him,  and  he  wai 
Often  heard  to  say  that  there  was  no  hook,  however 
bad,  from  which  sonic  good   culd  not    be  got     A 

cold  bath,  followed  by  a  light  meal  and  a  short 

sleep,    occupied     another    interval,    after     w  I . : . ■  1 1    he 

would  study  till  the  earn,  or  dinner-time,  liven 
at  this  meal,  some  book  was  read  to  bom,  on 
which   he  would  make  comments.     When  in  his 

country  residence,  he  studied  nearly  all  the  time, 
except  when  in  the  bath  ;  and  even  then,  while  his 
attendants  were  performing  the  duties  incident  to 
that  luxury,  he  would  he  listening  to  some  one 
who  read  to  him,  or  he  would  be  dictating  to  his 
amanuensis.  When  on  a  journey,  again,  he  was 
never  without  a  secretary  at  his  elbow,  provided 
with  a  book  and  tablets.  By  this  mode  of  life,  he 
collected  an  immense  mass  of  materials,  from  which 
he  compiled  his  great  Historia  Naturalix,  published 
about  77.  No  fewer  than  100  volumina  of  notes  were 
found  at  his  death,  two  years  afterwards.  The 
great  eruption  which,  in  79,  submerged  Hercu- 
laneum  and  Pompeii  was  at  its  height  when  he  was 
stationed  off  Misenum,  in  command  of  the  Roman 
rleet.  Eager  to  examine  the  phenomenon  more 
closely,  he  landed  at  Stabiae,  where  he  was  suffocated 
by  the  vapours  caused  by  the  eruption.  He  was,  as 
his  nephew  tells  us,  corpulent  and  asthmatic,  and 
sunk  the  more  readily.  None  of  his  attendants 
shared  his  fate. 

Of  all  his  works,  only  his  Historia  Naluralis  has 
come  down  to  us.  It  comprehends  a  greater 
variety  of  subjects  than  we  now  regard  as  included 
under  that  title.  Astronomy,  meteorology,  geo- 
graphy, mineralogy,  zoology,  botany,  everything,  in 
short,  which  is  a  natural  or  non-artificial  product, 
finds  a  place  in  P.'s  Natural  History.  Even  to  this 
elastic  interpretation  of  the  term,  he  by  no  means 
rigidly  adheres;  the  work  being  interspersed  with 
digressions  on  such  subjects  as  human  institutions 
and  inventions,  and  the  history  of  the  fine  arts.  It 
is  divided  into  37  books — the  first  of  them  being  a 
dedicatory  epistle  to  Titus,  with  a  table  of  contents 
of  the  remaining  books,  and  embraces,  as  we  are  told 
in  the  preface,  20,000  matters  of  importance,  extracted 
from  about  2000  volumes.  Its  scientific  merit  is 
not  great.  There  is  little  attempt  at  philosophical 
arrangement ;  the  observations  are  nearly  all  taken 
at  second-hand,  and  shew  small  discrimination  io 
separating  the  true  from  the  false,  or  the  probable 
from  the  marvellous.  His  meaning  is  often  obscure, 
from  his  writing  of  things  with  which  he  was 
personally  unacquainted,  and  from  his  having  missed 
the  true  sense  of  the  authors  whom  he  cites  or 
translates.  But  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  work 
is  a  great  monument  of  industry  and  research — 
most  praiseworthy  as  having  been  constructed  and 
completed  amid  the  labour  of  other  onerous  under- 
takings, and  amid  the  distractions  of  a  life  engaged 
in  active  official  employment ;  and  most  valuable 
as  supplying  us  with  details  on  a  great  variety  of 
subjects,  as  to  which  we  have  no  other  means  of 
information.  The  best  critical  edition  of  the  text  is 
that  of  Sillig  (Leips.  5  vols.  1831-  183(5).  The 
best  commentary  is  that  of  Panckoucke,  which 
embodies,  along  with  a  French  translation,  tne 
notes  of  Cuvier  and  other  distinguished  French 
savants.  Pliny's  work  has  been  translated  into 
almost  all  European  languages. 

PLINY  (C.  Plinius  C^ecilius  Secundus),  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  and  son  of  C.  Csecilius,  frequently 
called  Pliny  the  Younger,  was  born  at  Novum 
Comum,  61  A.  D.  He  was  still  young  when  he  lost 
his  father,  and  was  adopted  by  his  uncle,  under 
whose  care,  and  that  of  his  mother,  Plinia,  and  Ins 
tutor,  Virginius  Rufus,  his  education  was  prosecuted. 
Passionately  devoted  to  literature,  he  wrote  a  Greek 

690 


PLOCARIA— PLOTINUS.. 


tragedy  at  the  age  of  13;  studied  eloquence  under 
Quintilian;  ami  became  so  famous  for  his  literary 
accomplishments,  that  he  acquired  the  reputation 
of  being  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  the  age. 
His  oratorical  powers  were  also  considerable;  in  bis 
19th  year,  he  began  to  speak  in  the  forum;  and 
his  services  as  an  advocate  before  the  court  of  the 
Centuiuviri  and  the  Roman  senate  were  in  frequent 
request.  He  held  numerous  official  appointments; 
served,  while  a  young  man,  as  trilmnus  mUitum  in 
Syria,  where  he  listened  to  the  teaching  of  Euphrates 
the  Stoic,  and  Artemidorus;  was  afterwards  qucestor 
Ccesaria;  was  prsetor  about  93,  and  consul  in  100, 
when  lie  wrote  his  Panecjyricus,  an  adulatory 
eulogium  of  the  Emperor  Trajan,  and  containing 
little  information  as  to  the  author  and  his  times. 
He  was  appointed,  in  103,  propraetor  of  the  province 
Pontica,  an  office  which  he  vacated  in  less  than  t«o 
years;  and  he  also  discharged  the  function  of  curator 
of  the  banks  and  channel  of  the  Tiber.  He  was  twice 
married,  his  second  wife  being  Calpurnia,  grand- 
daughter of  Calpurnius  Fabatus,  and  considerably 
younger  than  her  husband,  by  whom  she  was  much 
beloved  for  her  accomplishments  and  amiability.  He 
bad  no  issue  by  either  marriage. 

Our  knowledge  of  P.  the  Younger  is  mainly 
derived  from  his  letters  or  Epistolce,  of  which  there 
are  ten  books.  He  collected  them  himself,  and 
probablyr  wrote  many  of  them  with  a  view  to  publi- 
cation. They  hold  a  high  place  in  epistolary 
literature,  and  give  us  many  interesting  glimpses' 
into  the  life  of  their  author  and  his  contemporaries. 
P.  hnnself  appears  in  them  to  considerable  advan- 
tage, as  a  genial  and  philanthropic  man,  enamoured 
of  literary  studies,  and  fond  of  improving  liis  estates 
by  architectural  ornament.  His  ample  fortune  was 
liberally  bestowed ;  and  his  slaves  always  found  in 
him  an  indulgent  master.  Inrirm  health  impaired 
throughout  life  his  constitution,  which  was  naturally 
weak ;  but  of  the  time  or  cause  of  his  death,  we 
know  nothing.  Of  the  facts  contained  in  his  letters, 
however,  the  most  interesting  to  us  are  those  relat- 
ing to  the  punishment  of  the  Christians.  Death 
appears  to  have  been  the  penalty  attached  even  to 
the  confession  of  being  a  Christian ;  although  the 
adherents  of  the  faith  admitted  no  other  acts,  on 
examination,  than  those  of  meeting  on  a  fixed  day 
before  dawn,  when  a  hymn  to  Christ  was  sung,  and 
taking  an  oath  to  avoid  theft,  adultery,  breach  of 
faith,  and  denial  of  a  deposit.  Nothing  more 
unfavourable  to  them  than  this  could  be  extorted  by 
P.  from  two  female  slaves,  reputed  to  be  deaconesses, 
whom  he  put  to  the  torture.  P.  having  asked. 
Trajan  how  he  was  to  stop  the  spreading  supersti- 
tion, the  emperor  replied  that  no  general  rule  could 
be  laid  down ;  that  he  ought  not  to  institute  a 
search  after  persons  supposed  to  be  Christians  ;  but 
if  any  were  brought  before  him,  and  the  charge  was 
proved,  such  were  to  be  punished,  if  still  impenitent. 
The  best  edition  of  P.'s  Panegyricus  and  Epistolce 
together,  is  that  of  Schaefer ;  of  the  Epistolce  alone, 
that  of  Gierig. 

PLOCA'RIA,  a  genus  of  Algce,  of  the  order  or 
suborder  C'eramiacere,  having  a  cartilaginous  frond, 
composed  of  large  cells,  as  if  jointed,  and  dividing 
into  slender,  tufted,  and  densely  aggregated  branches. 
P.  helminthochorton  is  the  Corsican  Moss  of  the 
apothecaries'  shops,  once  of  some  reputation  as  a 
vermifuge,  but  now  little  used,  and  believed  to  be 
of  little  efficacy.  It  is  a  small  plant,  with  a  filiform 
entangled  frond,  and  grows  on  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean.  It  has  a  strong  marine  odour  and 
a  salt  taste.  It  consists  in  great  part  of  a  vegetable 
jelly  or  mucilage,  which  renders  it  nutritious,  and 
contains  much  chloride  of  sodium,  sulphate  of 
lime,  and  carbonate  of  lime.  As  sold  in  the  shops, 
coo 


it  is  always  much  mixed  with  other  algae. — P 
tenor,  is  a  small  plant  with  filiform,  branched, 
and  somewhat  gelatinous  frond,  much  used  by 
the  Chinese  as  a  glue.  It  is  also  used  in  China 
as  an  article  of  food. — P.  Candida  is  used  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  as  an  article  of  food  in  the  East. 
It  is  popularly  called  Ceylon  Moss.  The  frond 
is  whitish  and  much  branched,  the  branches  long 
and  somewhat  clustered.  It  is  exported  to  China 
from  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  forming 
a  portion  of  the  cargo  of  almost  every  junk.  The 
Chinese  make  it  into  a  jelly  with  sugar,  and  use  it 
as  a  sweetmeat.  It  consists  in  great  part  cf  a 
vegetable  jelly,  with  a  considerable  quantity  of 
starch.  It  has  been  introduced  into  Biitain  aa  a 
light  and  nourishing  food  for  children  and  invalids, 
and  is  found  particularly  suitable  in  cases  of 
irritation  of  the  mucous  surfaces. 

PLOCE'US.    See  Weaver  Bird. 

PLOCK  (Russ.  Plotzk),  a  town  of  Poland,  capi- 
tal of  the  government  of  the  same  name,  occupies 
an  elevation  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Vistula, 
78  miles  west-north-west  of  Warsaw.  Its  principal 
buildings  are  the  cathedral,  built  in  961,  the  bishop's 
palace,  theatre,  &c.  Agriculture,  and  the  export  of 
grain  to  Danzig  and  other  ports,  are  the  chief 
employments.     Pop.  about  25,000. 

PLOCK  (Russ.  Plotzk),  a  government  in  the 
north  of  Poland,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Prussia, 
and  on  the  south-west  by  Warsaw.  Area,  3995 
square  miles;  pop.  442,626,  80  per  cent,  of  whom 
are  Poles.  Hills  occur  in  the  north  and  on  the 
banks  of  the  Narew  and  Vistula,  which  with  the 
Bug  are  the  chief  rivers.  One-third  of  the  surface  is 
covered  with  forests,  and  there  are  many  marshes 
and  lakes.  The  inhabitants  are  engaged  chiefly  in 
agriculture,  and  in  cattle  and  sheep  breeding. 

PLONGEE,  in  Artillery  and  Fortification,  means 
a  slope  towards  the  front.  Thus,  in  speaking  of  the 
course  of  a  shell  through  the  air,  its  plongee  is  from 
the  point  of  greatest  altitude  to  the  point  at  which 
it  strikes  the  earth.  So,  in  fortification,  the  plongee 
is  the  top  of  the  parapet  sloping  gently  towards  the 
front.  This  slope  is  ordinarily  1  in  6 ;  but  a 
deviation  is  permissible  of  from  1  in  9  to  1  in  4 : 
the  sharper  the  slope,  however,  the  more  liable  is 
the  crest  of  the  parapet  to  be  destroyed  by  an 
enemy's  fire.  Moreover,  as  flat  a  plongee  as  possible 
is  desirable,  that  sandbags  may,  when  required, 
be  laid  upon  it  to  form  a  cover  for  riflemen.  See 
Fortification,  fig.  7. 

PLOTI'NUS,  the  most  original  and  important 
philosopher  of  the  Neo-Platonic  School,  was  born  at 
Lycopolis  in  Egypt  205  A.r>. ;  but  such  was  his  utter 
indifference  to  things  human,  '  being  ashamed  almost 
to  live  in  a  body,'  that  he  never  would  divulge  even 
his  parentage.  He  would  never  allow  his  birthday 
to  be  celebrated,  although  he  gave  feasts  on  those 
of  Socrates  and  Plato ;  nor  would  he  ever  permit  a 
painter  or  sculptor  to  perpetuate  his  features,  or,  as 
he  called  it,  to  produce  the  image  of  an  image— the 
body  beiug  to  him  only  a  faint  image  of  existence. 
He  deemed  it  tedious  enough  already  to  have  to 
drag  about  this  image  whithersoever  he  went  in 
this  life.  His  body  was  altogether  contemptible  in 
his  eyes  ;  he  would  see  no  physician  in  his  illness, 
and  was  very  sparing  in  the  use  of  food,  refraining 
from  meat,  often  even  from  bread.  Strangely 
enough,  his  desire  for  the  study  of  philosophy  did 
not  arise  within  him  before  his  28th  year,  when  he 
repaired  to  Alexandria,  and  there,  after  having  sat  at 
the  feet  of  the  great  masters  for  sotrn  time  without 
feeling  satisfied  with  their  teachings,  he  at  last 
became  acquainted  with  Ammonius  Saccas,  and  in 
him  found  the  desired  teacher.     For  ten  years  he 


PLOTINUS— PLOUGH,  PLOUGHING. 


zealously  attended  his  lectures,  and  although  he 
had  agreed,  with  two  of  his  fellow-students,  never 
to  make  known  aught  of  Ammonius's  teachings  to 
the  world,  he  yet  became  the  chief  representative 
and  author  of  that  school,  less  as  a  pupil  than  as 
an  independent  thinker,  who  taking  his  stand  upon 
its  theorems,  developed  them  to  their  full  extent.  In 
242  he  joined  Grordianus'a  expedition  to  Persia,  in 
order  to  devote  himself  to  the  philosophy  of  India 
and  Persia;  l>ut  the  emperor  being  murdered 
in  Mesopotamia,  he  had  to  repair  hurriedly  to 
Antioch,  whence,  in  244,  he  went  to  Home.  His 
lectures  here  were  attended  not  only  by  crowds  of 
eager  youths,  but  men  and  women  of  the  highest 
circles  nocked  to  hear  him.  Not  only  Platonic 
wisdom,  in  Neo-Platonia  garb,  but  asceticism  and 
the  charm  of  a  purely  contemplative  life,  were  the 
themes  on  which  he,  in  ever-new  variations,  and  with 
an  extraordinary  depth  and  brilliancy,  held  forth  ; 
and  such  was  the  impression  his  earnestness  made 
upon  his  hearers,  that  several  of  them  really  gave 
up  their  fortune  to  the  poor,  set  their  slaves  free, 
and  devoted  themselves  to  a  life  of  study  and  ascetic 
piety.  Dying  parents  intrusted  their  children  and 
money  to  him,  well  knowing  that  an  honester  guar- 
dian, and  one  more  anxious  for  his  charges,  could 
not  be  found.  It  is  hardly  surprising  to  find  that 
his  contemporaries  coupled  with  his  rare  virtues  the 
gift  of  working  miracles.  Sixty  years  old,  he  thought 
of  realising  Plato's  dream,  by  founding  an  aristo- 
cratical  and  communistic  commonwealth  like  the 
latter's  '  Republic;'  and  the  Emperor  Gallienus  was 
ready  to  grant  the  site  of  two  cities  in  Campania 
for  his  '  Platonopolis  ; '  but  his  courtiers  prevented 
the  fulfilment  of  this  promise.  P.  died  from  a 
complication  of  diseases,  in  270,  at  Puteoli,  66  years 
of  age. 

Although  he  began  to  write  very  late  in  life,  he 
yet  left. 54  books  of  very  different  size  and  contents. 
His  MS.  being  very  carelessly  written,  he  asked 
his  pupil  Porphyry  to  revise  and  correct  it  for 
him.  The  latter  also  divided  it  into  six  principal 
divisions,  each  subdivided  again  into  nine  books 
or  E 'linearis.  The  most  important  parts  are  those 
which  treat  of  Beauty,  Fate,  Immortality  of  Soul, 
the  Good  or  One,  the  Three  Original  Substances, 
of  Free  Will,  against  Gnostics,  of  Providence,  of 
the  Genesis  of  Ideas,  of  the  Influence  of  the  Stars, 
of  the  Supreme  Good,  &c.  The  language  is  very 
unequal  in  the  different  portions,  according  to  the 
mood  and  circumstances  to  which  they  individually 
owe  their  existence ;  but  it  always  is  original, 
compact,  and  graphic  in  the  extreme. 

P.'s  system  was  based  chiefly  on  Plato's  theorem 
of  the  Ideas ;  only  that  while  Plato  assumed  the 
Ideas  to  be  the  link  between  the  visible  and  the 
invisible,  or  between  the  Supreme  Deity  and  the 
world,  P.  held  the  doctrine  of  Emanation,  that  is, 
the  constant  transmission  of  powers  from  the 
Absolute  to  the  Creation,  through  several  agencies, 
the  first  of  which  is  •  Pure  Intelligence,'  whence 
flows  the  '  Soul  of  the  World,'  whence,  again, 
the  souls  of  '  men '  and  '  animals,'  and  finally 
'matter'  itself.  (For  a  fuller  account  of  this 
part  of  P.'s  system  in  its  historical  connection, 
see  Neo-Platonists.)  Men  thus  belong  to  two 
worlds,  that  of  the  senses  and  that  of  Pure  Intelli- 
gence. It  depends  upon  ourselves,  however,  to  which 
of  the  two  worlds  we  direct  our  thoughts  most  and 
belong  to  finally.  The  ordinary  virtues,  as  justice, 
moderation,  valour,  and  the  like,  are  only  the 
beginning  and  very  first  preparation  to  our  elevation 
into  the  spiritual  realm ;  purification,  or  the  exercise 
of  purifying  virtues,  is  a  further  step,  to  which  we 
attain  partly  through  mathematics  and  dialectic ; 
And  the  abandonment  of  all  earthly  interests  for 


those  of  intellectual  meditation,  is  the  nearest 
approach  to  the  goal.  The  higher  our  soul  rises  in 
this  sphere  of  intellect,  the  d  inks  into  the 

ocean  of  the  good  and  the  pure,  until  at  last  its 
union  with  God  is  complete,  and  it  is  no  longer 
thought  but  vision  and  ecstasies  which  p 
it  These  are  a  few  snatches  of  P.'s  philoso- 
phical rhapsodies,  to  which  may  be  further  added 
his  mysterious  belief  in  a  kind  of  metempsychosis, 
by  which  souls,  not  sufficiently  purified  during  life, 
return  after  death,  and  inhabit  according  to  then 
bent,  men,  animals,  and  even  plants,  lie  farther 
held  views  of  his  own  respecting  gods  and  di 
whom  he  divided  into  different  classes,  according 
to  their  degrees;  and  professed  faith  in  Mautic, 
astrology,  and  magic,  the  conviction  of  the  truth 
of  which  sciences  he  derived  from  his  theory  of 
the  harmony  in  the  intellectual  world,  reflected 
by  the  material  world.  Yet  it  is  clear  from  his 
dicta  on  these  subjects  that  he  did  not  believe 
in  these  so-called  sciences  in  the  gross  sense  of 
the  herd,  but  that  he  had  a  vague  knowledge 
of  those  mysterious  laws  of  attraction  and  repul- 
sion which  go  through  nature.  P.'s  philosophy, 
which,  as  it  were,  tried  to  combine  all  the  systems 
of  Anaxagoras,  Parmeuides,  the  Pythagoreans,  Plato, 
and  Socrates,  and  the  Stoa  into  one,  was  the  last 
and  boldest  attempt  of  the  ancient  Greek  world  to 
explain  the  mystery  of  the  creation  and  of  existence. 
Its  influence  upon  modern  philosophy  is  remarkable. 
From  Spinoza  to  Schelling,  the  reminiscences  of  P., 
irrespective  of  the  drift  of  particular  parts  of  their 
systems,  recur  constantly. 

P.'s  works  were  well-nigh  forgotten,  when  Mar- 
silius  Ficinus  first  published  a  Latin  paraphrase  of 
them  (Florence,  1492),  which  was  followed  by  the 
Ed.  Pr.  of  the  original  (Basel,  15S0  and  1615). 
The  first  critical  edition,  however,  is  due  to  Creuzer 
(Oxford,  1S35,  4to,  3  vols.).  Parts  of  his  works 
were  translated  into  German  by  Engelhard  (Erlan- 
gen,  1S20,  &c.) ;  and  into  English  by  T.  Taylor 
(1794  and  1817).  The  whole  of  the  Enneads  has 
been  translated  into  French  by  Bouillet  (Paris,  1S61, 
8vo.  3  vols.). 

PLO'TUS.    See  Darter. 

PLOUGH,  PLOUGHING.  The  first  in  order 
and  importance  of  agricultural  operations  is  the 
breaking  up  of  the  sod,  and  this  is  accomplished, 
in  all  countries  where  agriculture  is  in  an 
advanced  state,  by  inverting  the  upper  stratum 
of  earth  upon  which  the  plants  grow.  Such  a  mode 
not  only  effectually  accomplishes  the  required 
object,  but  buries  and  destroys  all  weeds,  leaving 
the  surface  clean  and  unencumbered.  The  inversion 
of  the  upper  stratum  is  effected  by  turning  over 
successive  sods  or  slices,  of  the  length  of  the  field, 
and  of  varying  thickness  and  depth,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  soil ;  and  the  implement  employed 
for  this  purpose  is  the  plough.  The  general  form 
of  the  plough  is  known  to  every  one,  and  to  the 
unobservant  eye,  it  appears  to  be  a  very  simple 
and  even  primitive  tool ;  nevertheless,  much  mechan- 
ical skill  and  ingenuity  have  been  expended  in 
perfectly  adapting  it  to  its  work.  It  is  a  com- 
bination of  instruments  (fig.  1)  fastened  to  a  beam, 
GBL ;  the  coulter,  K,  is  an  iron  knife-blade,  for 
cutting  the  sod  vertically ;  the  share,  CFD,  which 
is  merely  a  socket  fitted  on  and  not  fastened  to  the 
body  of  the  plough,  has  a  sharp  point,  C,  and  a  pro- 
jecting horizontal  edge,  (JO,  on  its  right-hand  side,  its 
part  of  the  work  being  to  separate  the  under-surface 
of  the  sod  from  the  subsoil ;  by  means  of  the  mould- 
board,  H,  the  slice,  now  wholly  sei>arated  from  the 
firm  ground,  is  raised  up  and  turned  over  by  the 
forward  motion  of  the  plough;    and  the  stilts,  at 

601 


PLOUGH,  PLOUGHING. 


handles,  one  of  which,  BL,  is  a  continuation  of  the 
beam,  the  other,  M,  being  fastened  partly  to  the 
former  by  rods,  and  partly  to  the  lower  portion  of 


the  framework  (fig.  2,  which  also  shews  the  point 
of  the  plough  with  the  share  removed),  are  for 
tho  purpose  of  guiding  the  imxjlement.     The  front 


Fig.  2. 

part  of  the  beam  is  formed  with  an  upward  curve ; 
at  its  extremity,  is  placed  the  bridle,  N,  to  which 
the  horses  are  attached  by  means  of  swing-trees 
and  chains  or  traces,  and  the  object  of  which  is  to 
enable  the  workman  to  elevate  or  depress  the  line  of 
draught,  or  move  it  to  the  right  hand  or  the  left, 
as  may  be  found  necessary.  The  left  sides  of 
the  coulter,  share,  and  framework  ADEB,  should 
evidently  be  in  the  same  vertical  plane.  The 
form  of  the  mould-board  is  of  the  utmost  import- 
ance, and  has  chiefly  attracted  the  attention  of 
agricultural  machinists  since  the  time  when 
improvements  on  the  plough  were  first  pro- 
jected. Its  office  being  to  raise  and  turn  the  sod, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  surface  should  slope  upwards 
and  outwards  from  the  front,  so  as  to  apply  a 
pressure  in  both  directions,  and,  accordingly,  the 
Burface  is  so  shaped  that  from  the  point  of  the  share, 
where  it  is  horizontal,  it  gradually  curves  ujwards, 
till,  at  the  extremity,  P,  it  inclines  over  away 
from  the  body  of  the  plough.  The  gradual  change 
produced  on  the  position  of  the  furrow-slice  is 
seen  in  fig.  3,  where  ABCD  on  the  left-hand  side, 


rwreeaats  the  slice  untouched  by  the  plough, 
Ax)  being  the  line  of  section  by  the  coidter ; 
DC  by  the  share ;  BC,  the  open  side  from  which 
the  previous  furrow  (E)  to  the  right-hand  side 
has  been  separated ;  and  the  four  successive 
rectangles,  ABCD  to  the  right,  illustrate  the 
successive  changes  of  position  of  the  furrow  as  the 
mould-board  is  pushed  forward  under  and  on  its 
left  side,  till  it  is  finally  left,  as  represented  in 
AB(  ID  on  the  right  hand ;  E,  F,  G  are  furrows 
which  have  previously  been  laid  in  their  proper 
position.  The  advantages  of  laying  the  fuirows  in 
the  position  shewn  are  these  :  in  the  first  place,  the 
weedy  side  of  each  furrow  being  closely  applied  to 
the  previous  furrow,  and  kept  pressed  against  it  by 
602 


its  own  weight,  the  weeds  are  completely  buried ; 
secondly,  the  ridged  surface  thus  presented,  affords 
the  means  of  covering  the  seed  by  harrowing;  and 
lastly,  the  openings  below  increase  the  amount  of 
surface  accessible  to  air,  and  drain  off  superfluous 
water.  The  plough  is  wholly  formed  of  iron  ;  the 
share  and  the  framework  of  malleable,  and  the  mould- 
board  of  cast  iron ;  while  the  coidter  is  frequently 
welded  witn  eteel  on  the  right-hand  side,  the  better 
to  resist  attrition.  Tn  most  of  the  English  (as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  (scotch)  ploughs,  wheels  are 
attached  at  or  near  the  front  end  of  the  beam,  a 
contrivance  which  renders  the  Implement  mora 
steady  in  its  motion,  more  easily  managed,  and 
capable  of  doing  better  work  in  the  hands  of  ao 
inferior  workman ;  but  it  is  generally  believed,  in 
Scotland  at  least,  that  the  plough  without  wheels, 
or  swing-plough,  as  it  is  technical^  termed,  is  greatly 
more  efficient  in  the  hands  of  a  thoroughly  skilled 
ploughman.  The  usual  dimensions  of  the  furrow- 
slice  in  lea  or  hay-stubble  are  8  or  9  inches  in 
breadth  by  6  in  depth  ;  and  in  land  for  green  crop, 
10  inches  in  breadth,  and  7  or  8  in  depth ;  though 
shallower  ploughing  is  not  unfrequently  adopted, 
especially  on  thin  soils. 

Other  kinds  of  ploughs  are  used  for  special  pur- 
poses, such  as  trench-ploughs,  which  are  made  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  common  plough,  but  larger 
and  stronger,  so  as  to  bring  up  a  portion  of  the 
subsoil  to  the  surface  ;  subsoil  ploughs,  which  have 
no  mould-board,  and  merely  stir  and  break  up  the 
subsod,  thus  facilitating  drainage ;  double  mould- 
board  ploughs,  which  are  merely  common  ploughs 
with  a  mould-board  on  each  side,  and  are  employed 
for  water-furrowing,  or  for  earthing  up  potatoes,  &c. 
Of  each  of  these  ploughs,  there  are  many  varieties, 
each  maker  having  generally  some  pecidiar  views 
regarding  the  form  and  proportion  of  some  parts  or 
the  whole  of  the  instrument,  and  this  is  specially 
the  case  at  the  present  time,  when  competition 
between  makers  has  become  so  active.  For  those 
who  wish  to  study  minutely  the  best  form  of  plough, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  considt  works  on  agriculture 
and  agricultural  implements.  There  is,  however, 
one  very  peculiar  form  of  plough  much  used  in 
various  parts  of  England,  which  deserves  more 
particular  notice;  this  is  the  turn-wrest  plough. 
Its  chief  peculiai'ity  is,  that  instead  of  one,  it  has 
two  mould-boards,  one  on  each  side,  and  these  are 
alternately  brought  into  operation,  so  that  the 
furrow  is  always  turned  over  in  the  same  direction. 
The  mould-boards  are  firmly  fastened  together  in 
front,  and  kept  at  a  constant  distance  from  each 
other  behind,  by  means  of  struts,  while  the  handles  are 
movable  with  reference  to  them;  the  mould-board 
which  is  intended  to  be  used  beiug  pushed  away  from, 
and  the  other  (which  for  the  time  does  the  same 
work  as  the  vertical  surface  ADEB  in  fig.  1)  brought 
nearer  to  the  line  of  the  beam  ;  of  course,  when  the 
next  furrow  is  ploughed,  the  mould-boards  exchange 
adjustments.     This  form  of  plough  is  very  useful  in 


ploughing  along  a  hillside,  as  by  it  all  the  furrows 
can  be  turned  over  towards  the  bill,  thus  preventing 
the   natural   tendency   of    the    soal   to   work   itseli 


PLOUGH,  PLOUGHING. 


downwards,  leaving  the  upper  portions  bare.  The 
form  (fig.  4)  here  given  is  the  rudest  and  least 
desirable  form  of  the  turn-wrest ;  it  is  that  which 
is  used  in  Kent,  and  there  much  esteemed. 

The  operation  of  ploughing  we  can  only  notice 
briefly.  The  usual  breadth  of  a  ridge  beini;  taken 
as  is  feet,  the  ploughman  sets  up  a  line  of  poles 
alon^  the  middle  of  the  first  ridge,  to  guide 
him  in  a  straight  line.  Along  this  line  marked 
with  polos  he  drives  his  plough,  throwing  out  a 
furrow,  and  after  reaching  the  headland,*  turns  his 
horses,  and  returning  on  the  same  track,  throws  out 
a  furrow  on  the  opposite  side.     He  then  enters  his 

Slough  on  the  left  side  of  the  double  furrow,  at  a 
istance  of  S  to  10  inches,  according  to  circum- 
stances, and  throws  back  the  furrow  previously 
thrown  out  on  that  side;  returning  by  the  other 
Bide,  and  doing  the  same  with  the  other  thrown- 
out  furrow.  This  process  is  termed  Jeering.  He 
has  now  two  furrows  turned  up  and  leaning 
■gainst  each  other,  and  he  then  proceeds  to  add 
furrow  to  furrow  on  each  side  alternately  of  the 
first  pair,  till  a  whole  ridge  is  completed  ;  or  he 
may  (which  is  the  preferable  plan)  plough  the  inner 
half  of  the  Hist  ridge  and  the  first  half  of  the  second 
ridge.  This  process  is  termed  gatliering ;  and  a 
repetition  of  it  on  the  same  land,  twice-gathering  ; 
but  this  is  only  practised  on  strong  wet  land. 
Cleaving  is  the  opposite  to  gathering, 
the  furrows  in  the  former  case  form- 
ing the  centre  of  the  ridge  of  the 
latter,  and  the  position  of  all  the 
furrows  being  reversed-  Casting  or 
coupling  ridges  is  now  by  far  the 
most  common  method  of  ploughing, 
and  consists  in  the  formation  of 
ridges  of  ,"6  feet,  or  twice  the  usual 
width,  the  first  feering  being  made 
close  along  the  side  of  the  field,  and 
the  next  at  a  distance  of  the  width 
of  two  ridges,  and  so  on. 

The  first  essential  property  of  every 
plough  is,  that  it  shall  throw  the 
furrow  cleanly  off  the  mould-board ; 
the  next,  that  it  shall  lay  it  in  that 
position  which  best  exposes  the  soil 
to  the  action  of  the  air,  hence  care  must  be  taken 
that  the  niould-board  be  neither  too  long  nor  too 
short,  as  in  the  former  case  it  plasters  up  the  surface 
of  the  furrow,  and  in  the  latter  destroys  its  form. 

The  plough  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  imple- 
ments, and  is  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  at  a 


instances  consisted  of  little  more  than  a  pointed 
stick,  which  was  forced  into  the  ground  as  it  was 
drawn  forward.  In  fact,  the  earliest  ploughs  were 
neither  more  nor  less  than  varieties  of  the  Hot 
(q.  v.),  worked  by  pressing  the  point  into  the  I 

instead  of  by  percus- 
sion. The  earliest 
form  of  the  Greek 
plough,  the  autoguon 
(tig.  5,  a),  is  an  example 
of  this  ;  it  was  merely 
the  trunk  of  a  small 
tree,  which  had  two 
branches  opposite  to 
each  other,  one  branch 
forming  the  share  and 
the  other  the  handle, 
while  the  trunk 
formed  the  pole  or 
beam.  The  more  im- 
proved form,  the 
pekton,  in  use  among 
the    Greeks,  was   not 

substantially  different  from  the  modem  form  in 
use  in  Mysia  (fig.  5).  The  ancient  Egyptian 
plough  in  one  of  its  early  stages  is  represented  in 
fig.  6,  and,  like  the  two  forms  above  described, 
is  devoid  of  all   apparatus   enabling  the  labourer 


Fig.ft 


Fig.  5. 
1,    the  Mysian    ploush  ;    2,  its    pole,  where    the    oxen    are 
attached;    3,   shares   of   various   forms j     4,    the   tail    or 
handle;  5,  the  yoke;  a,  early  Greek  p'ou^h. 

very  early  period,  iron  shares  being  also  incidentally 
noticed  more  than  seven  centuries  B.C.  The  ancient 
Egyptian  plough  was  wholly  of  wood,  and  in  some 

*  The  headlands  or  head  ridses  are  two  ridges,  one 
along  the  top,  and  one  along  the  bottom  of  the  field, 
which  are  not  ploughed  till  the  rest  of  the  field  has  been 
completed. 


Slodern  Syrian  Plough. 


to  guide  it,  all  that  he  can  do  being  to  press  (oy 
his  weight  applied  to  the  handle)  the  share  into 
the  earth.  The  Egyptians,  however,  gradually 
improved  the  form,  till  it  assumed  the  appearance 
of  a  hollow  wedge  formed  by  the  two  handles 
joined  at  the  bottom,  and  with  the  beam  fastened 
between  the  handles  a  little  above  their  point 
of  junction.  The  share  was  the  point  of  the 
wedge,  and  the  handles  were  placed  almost 
upright  ;  this  is  in  all  essential  particulars 
the  '  araire '  still  used  in  many  rural  districts  of 
France,  and  also  corresponds  very  closely  to  the 
modern  Syrian  plough  (fig.  7).  The  Romans,  an 
essentially  practical  nation,  largely  improved  on  the 
plough,  adding  to  it  the  coulter  and  mould-board, 
and  occasionally  attaching  wheels  to  the  beam  to 
prevent  the  share  from  going  too  deep  into  the 
earth  (fig.  8).  A  later  and  more  improved  form,  in 
which  the  handles  were  made  to  incline  backwards 
and  the  coulter  was  placed  so  far  back  as  to  be 
directly  above  the  share,  is  still  in  use  in  the  north 
of  Italy.  The  ploughs  used  in  the  present  day  in 
most  other  parts  of  the  continent  are  equally  rude 
and  inefficient  with  the  French  and  Italian  imple- 
ments. The  plough  was  almost  unknown  among 
the  American  aborigines,  though  Prescott  describes 
a  mode  of  ploughing  practised  among  the  Peruvians, 
which  consisted  in  the  dragging  forward  of  a  sharp- 
pointed  stake  by  six  or  eight  men,  its  sharp  point, 
which  was  in  front,  being  kept  down  in  the  ground 

603 


PLOUGH,  PLOUGHING. 


by  the  pressure  of  the  foot  of  another  man  who 
directed  it.  Britain  and  America,  and  their  colonies, 
are  the  only  countries  in  which  the  plough  has  been 


Fig.  8. 

brought  to  a  state  worthy  of  being  considered 
effective,  and  even  in  Britain  the  most  important 
amendments  on  it  are  not  two  centuries  old.  Eng- 
land took  the  lead  in  improvement  by  rendering  the 
form  more  neat  and  effective,  and  by  attaching 
wheels  to  aid  in  keeping  the  plough  in  a  proper 
upright  position.  In  Scotland,  for  some  time  after 
this,  the  plough  was  extremely  rude  and  cumbrous, 
and  usually  drawn  by  8  oxen  ;  but  in  the  middle 
of  the  18th  c,  some  Dutch  ploughs  were  imported, 
and  being  found  more  effective,  an  impetus  was  thus 
given  to  attempts  at  improvement.  James  Small, 
who  may  justly  be  regarded  as  the  real  inventor 
of  the  Scotch  or  swing-plough,  made  great  and 
important  changes  in  the  form  and  efficiency  of 
the  coulter,  share,  and  mould-board,  producing  an 
implement  at  once  lighter  and  vastly  more  efficient. 
All  the  swing-ploughs  of  successive  makers  are 
founded  upon  the  basis  of  Small's  plough.  Wilkie 
of  Uddingston  (Lanarkshire)  formed  it  wholly  of 
iron,  and  his  modification  has  been  universally 
adopted  in  the  modern  ploughs.  Among  the  various 
improvers  of  this  form  of  cultivator  may  be  men- 
tioned, besides  Wilkie  of  Uddingston,  Gray  of  the 
same  place,  Clarke  of  Stirling,  Cunningham,  Bar- 
rowman,  Ponton,  Sellars,  &c.  In  England,  swing- 
ploughs  are  occasionally  met  with,  but  the  wheel- 
plough  is  the  one  generally  used ;  like  its  Scotch 
neighbour  it  had  many  defects,  which  have  been 
gradually  remedied,  chiefly  by  Bansomes  of  Ips- 
wich (the  patentee  in  1785  of  the  cast-iron  share), 
Howard  of  Bedford,  Hornsby  of  Grantham  (Lin- 
colnshire), and  Busby  of  Bedale,  the  last  of  whom 
gained  a  medal  for  his  mould-boards  at  the  Great 
Exhibition  of  1851.  The  English  and  Scotch 
ploughs  differ  from  each  other  in  many  important 
particulars,  especially  in  the  form  of  the  mould- 
boards  and  in  the  adjustment  of  the  coulter,  the 
first  being  chiefly  adapted  for  shallow,  and  the 
latter  for  deep,  ploughing.  In  the  Cotswold  district, 
a  plough  constructed  of  wood,  and  with  a  wooden 
mould- board  (the  Beverstone  Plough),  is  in  general 
use,  and  is  found  sufficiently  well  adapted  for  the 
shallow  ploughing  there  practised.  For  further 
information  concerning  the  plough  and  the  mode  of 
using  it,  see  Morton's  Cyclopaedia  of  Agriculture 
(1S56),  Stephens'  Book  of  the  Farm,  Book  of  Farm 
Implements,  by  Henry  Stephens  and  R.  Scott  Burn, 
and  other  works. 

Steam-ploughing. — Although  it  is  not  yet  ten 
years  since  cultivation  of  the  land  by  steam 
came  into  successful  operation,  it  is  about  two 
centuries  and  a  half  since  it  was  foreseen  to  be 
possible.  So  loug  ago  as  1618,  David  Ramsey 
and  Thomas  Wildgosse  took  out  letters-patent  for 
engines  and  machinery  to  plough  the  ground  with- 
out the  aid  of  oxen  or  horses;  and  nin/»  years 
604 


afterwards,  other  ingenious  men  obtained  letters- 
patent  for  machines  to  effect  a  similar  purpose.  It 
is  the  opinion  of  Mr  Woodcrof  t  of  the  Patent  Office, 
who  compiled  the  Abridgments  of  the  Specifications 
Relating  to  Steam-culture,  that  steam  was  the  motive 
power  intended  to  be  employed;  but  as  the  first 
patent  was  taken  out  nearly  40  years  before  the 
Marquis  of  Worcester  described  the  steam-engine 
in  his  Century  of  Inventions,  tbe  grounds  for  such 
an  opinion  do  not  seem  quite  satisfactory.  In  1769, 
however,  after  the  steam-engine  had  been  applied 
to  other  purposes,  there  was  lodged  in  the  Patent 
Office  a  specification  for  a  new  machine  or  engine, 
to  plough,  harrow,  and  do  every  other  branch  of 
husbandry,  without  the  aid  of  horses.  The  patentee 
was  Francis  Moore ;  and  so  confident  was  he  of  the 
merits  of  his  plan,  that  he  sold  all  his  own  horses, 
and  persuaded  his  friends  to  do  the  same  ;  '  because 
the  price  of  that  noble  and  useful  animal  will  be 
so  affected  by  the  new  invention,  that  its  value  will 
not  be  one-fourth  of  what  it  is  at  present.'  Moore, 
however,  was  much  too  sanguine ;  his  method  of 
cultivating  the  land  without  the  aid  of  animal 
power  failed,  as  those  of  others  before  him  had  done. 

The  next  invention  that  it  is  here  necessary  to 
mention  was  one  by  Major  Pratt,  patented  in  1810. 
His  plan  was  to  have  two  engines,  one  on  each 
headland,  drawing,  by  means  of  an  endless  rope,  an 
implement  between  them.  In  order  to  save  the 
labour  and  loss  of  time  in  turning  the  plough  at  the 
ends,  he  attached  two  ploughs,  back  to  back,  making 
them  work  upon  a  fulcrum  in  the  centre  of  a  frame, 
so  that  one  could  be  raised  out  of  the  ground  when 
the  other  was  working.  This  was  the  first  adoption 
of  the  balance-principle,  now  employed  iu  most 
implements  used  in  steam-cultivation.  Major 
Pratt's  apparatus,  like  those  of  his  predecessors, 
never  came  into  practical  operation. 

In  the  interval  between  1810  and  1832,  when 
Mr  Heathcoat,  M.P.,  a  Tiverton  lace-merchant, 
patented  the  first  steam  -  ploughing  machinery 
that  ever  wrought  successfully  in  the  field,  there 
were  many  inventions,  but  these  being  of  little 
utility,  need  not  be  particularised.  Mr  Heath- 
coat's  machinery  was  principally  intended  for  drain- 
ing and  breaking  up  soft  or  swampy  land.  It 
consisted  of  a  locomotive  steam-engine,  with  a 
broad,  endless,  flexible  floor  or  railway  attached 
to  the  wheels,  so  as  to  prevent  them  from  sinking 
in  the  boggy  soil.  Opposite  to  this  engine,  an 
auxiliary  carriage  was  placed,  and  between  the  two 
the  plough  was  drawn  backwards  and  forwards 
by  an  endless  chain  or  band — engine  and  carriage 
moving  along  as  the  work  proceeded.  In  1836,  this 
plough  worked  with  tolerable  success  in  Bed  Moss 
in  Lancashire,  and  in  1837  it  was  tried  near 
Dumfries,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Highland  and 
Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland  ;  but  here  its  per- 
formance, though  in  some  degree  satisfactory,  was 
not  sufficiently  so  to  warrant  the  judges  in  awarding 
to  it  the  prize  of  £500,  which  had  been  offered  for 
the  first  successful  application  of  steam-power  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil  by  the  Society.  The  appar- 
atus was  very  cumbersome  and  expensive  to  woik, 
the  engine  being  25  horse-power,  and  the  number  of 
men  and  boys  employed  in  the  operation  no  less 
than  ten.  The  amount  of  work  done  was  at  the 
rate  of  Sf  acres  per  day.  Mr  Heathcoat  abandoned 
the  machine  after  having  spent  about  £12,000  on  it. 

After  Mr  Heathcoat,  the  inventors  specially 
worthy  of  mention  are  Alexander  M'Bae,  who, 
arranging  his  motive-power  in  the  same  manner  as 
Major  Pratt,  made  the  important  addition  of  a 
barrel  to  the  plough-frame  upon-  which  the  slack- 
rope  was  to  be  wound  up ;  Mr  Hannam  of  Burcote, 
who,  in  1849,  designed  an  apparatus  to  be  driven 


PLOUGH,  PLOUGHING. 


by  an  ordinary  portable  engine,  to  he  stationed  at 
the  corner  of  the  field,  which  was  surrounded  with 
wire-ropes  in  the  same  way  as  will  be  afterwards 
described  in  Howard's  method  ;  and  Mr  Tulloh 
Osbom,  who,  in  181(>,  patented  a  plan  for  two 
engines  running  opposite  each  other  on  the  head- 
lands, having  two  drums  fixed  to  them,  one  for  the 
winding  of  the  tight,  and  the  other  for  letting  out 
the  slack,  gear.  This  apparatus  was  tried  by  the 
Marquis  of  Tweeddale  for  some  time  at  Yester  ;  but 
it  was  found,  in  consequence  of  the  grcrt  power 
required,  and  other  defects  in  detail,  to  be  very 
expensive,  and  was  ultimately  given  up.  To  the 
Marquis  of  Tweeddale,  therefore,  belongs  the  honour 
of  being  the  pioneer  of  steam-cultivation  in  Scot- 
Ian  d. 

In  1S55,  the  Messrs  Fisken  of  Stamfordham, 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  took  out  a  patent  for  a  much 
more  perfect  apparatus  for  cultivating  the  laud  by 
steam  than  any  that  had  previously  appeared.     The 

1  >ower  was  transmitted  by  a  stationary  engine  to  a 
tempen  rope  (the  Messrs  Fisken  being  anxious  to 
dispense  with  wire-ropes),  which  was  worked  at  a 
high  velocity,  and,  passing  round  pulleys  on  two 
self-moving  anchors,  turned  a  drum  upon  the 
plough,  whose  revolution  imparted  motion  to  the 
implement  upon  which  it  was  fixed.  The  important 
features  in  this  system  were  the  self-propelling 
anchors,  the  arrangement  of  the  ploughs  on  the 
balance-principle,  and  the  mode  of  steerage.  This 
plough  was  exhibited  at  the  annual  show  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  in  the  year 
the  patent  was  taken  out,  and  excited  great  interest, 
but  failed  to  obtain  any  award.  Three  years  before 
this,  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scot- 
land had  thought  so  hopefully  of  the  idea,  that  a 
grant  was  voted  out  of  its  funds  to  assist  the  author 
in  maturing  his  project. 

In  1854,  Mr  Fowler  exhibited  his  patent  steam- 
draining  apparatus  at  the  Lincoln  meeting  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  ;  and  from 
this  time  may  be  dated  the  practical  history  of 
cultivation  of  the  land  by  steam  ;  for  the  idea  that 
such  an  apparatus  could  be  wrought  advantageously 
in  other  field-operations  entered  the  mind  of  a 
practical    farmer,    Mr    Smith    of    Woolstpn,    near 


Bletchley ;  ana  under  the  direction  of  Mr  Fowler, 
he  got  constructed  an  apparatus,  which,  with  modi* 
□cations,  he  has  been  working  successfully  ever 
since. 

The  inventions  since  that  time  need  not  be 
enumerated.  It  may  be  stated  generally  that  they 
have  included  plans  for  engines  travelling  over  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  drawing  ploughs  or  other 
cultivating  implements  along  with  them  ;  i 
working  on  tramways,  and  drawing  implements 
after  them;  engines  moving  along  opposite  head- 
lands, and  working  implements  between  them  by 
means  of  wire-ropes,  and  stationary  engines  driving 
implements  also  by  means  of  wire  ropes.  The  first 
two  principles  have  been  abandoned — the  one  on 
account  of  the  great  consumption  of  fuel,  and  the 
large  amount  of  wear  and  tear  occasioned  to  move 
the  engine  over  uneven  and  soft  ground  ;  and  the 
other,  on  account  of  the  expense  necessary  to  lay 
down  rails  over  a  farm.  The  only  two  systems  in 
practical  operation  are  what  are  called  the  direct 
and  round-about — the  former  where  the  pull  of 
the  implement  is  directly  to  and  from  the  engine ; 
and  the  latter  where  the  implement  is  drawn  at 
right  angles. 

These  methods  are  best  known  as  Fowler's  and 
Howard's,  though,  perhaps,  Smith  should  be  credited 
with  the  round-about  sys-tem,  but  Howard's  name 
is  now  much  more  generally  given  to  it. 

Fowler's  system  we  hope  to  make  intelligible  by 
the  aid  of  cuts.  The  principal  elements  are  an  engine, 
an  anchor,  a  wire-rope,  and  a  balance-plough.  In 
commencing  operations,  the  engine  is  placed  at  the 
end  of  one  of  the  headlands  of  the  field,  and  directly 
opposite  it  on  the  other  headland  is  placed  the 
anchor.  Beneath  the  engine  there  is  a  large  sheave 
or  drum,  five  feet  in  diameter,  the  groove  of  which 
drum  is  composed  of  a  series  of  small  leaf-like  pieces 
of  chilled  cast-iron,  each  moving  independently  upon 
its  own  axis.  The  object  of  these  is  to  prevent  the 
rope  from  slipping  (which  it  is  apt  to  do  in  a  plain 
groove  under  great  strain),  and  this  they  do  in  a  very 
ingenious  manner,  by  closing  on  the  rope  as  soon 
as  it  takes  the  bend — that  is,  as  soon  as  the  rope 
presses  upon  them — and  they  in  the  same  manner 
open  and  release  it  immediately  on  the  pressure 


Fig.  9. — Fowler's  Steam-engine. 


being  removed,  or,  in  other  words,  as  soon  as  the  rope 
resumes  the  straight  on  the  other  side  of  the  sheave. 
The  position  and  nature  of  thin  drum  on  the  engine 
will  be  understood  by  the  accompanying  cut.     The 


anchor,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  engraving  (fig.  10),  is 
a  massive  square  framework  of  wood,  mounted  on  six 
sharp  disc  wheels,  each  about  two  feet  in  diameter, 
which  cut  deep  into  the  ground,  and  on  the  lightest 

60S 


PLOUGH,  PLOUGHING. 


land  they  take  suoh  hold  as  effectually  to  resist  the 
puD  of  the  rope  which  is  passed  round  the  sheave 


the  power  being   communicated  from   the   engine 
through    the     medium    of    the    ploughing  -  rope 


beneath.     The   anchor  has   a   self-acting  motion —  I  which  enables  it  to  move  along  the  headland,  and 


Fig.  10.— The  Anchor. 


keep  opposite  to  the  engine.  The  plough  (fig.  11) 
is  a  framework  of  iron,  balanced  upon  two  large 
wheels.  To  each  side  of  this  framework  there  are 
attached  four  plough-bodies  and  coulters,  so  that 
four  furrows  are  cut  at  one  '  bout,'  and  the  headland 
on  which  the  anchor  is  stationed  being  reached,  the 
end  of  the  beam  that  was  out  of  the  ground  is 
depressed  (the  other,  of  course,  being  raised),  and 
the  four  plough-bodies  that  were  out  of  the  ground, 
»iid    which  point    in  the    opposite   direction,   are 


inserted  in  the  soil,  and  turn  up  the  furrows  on  the 
way  back  to  the  engine.  By  altering  the  position 
of  the  plough-bodies  along  the  frame-work,  a  broad 
or  a  narrow  furrow  cau  be  cut  at  pleasure.  In 
ordinaiy  working,  an  acre  an  hour  is  accomplished. 
The  wire-rope,  by  which  the  plough  is  dragged 
through  the  land,  passes  round  the  sheaves  on  the 
anchor  and  the  engine,  the  ends  are  attached 
to  two  drums  upon  the  plough ;  and  by  a  nk:9 
mechanical  arrangement,  the  ploughman  who  rides 


Fig.  11.— Fowler's  Plough. 


upon  the  implement  is  enabled  to  wind  lip,  or  let 
out  slack  if  necessary,  without  loss  of  time.  The 
wire-rope  is  made  in  lengths,  which  are  easily  dis- 
joined, in  order  that  it  may  be  adjusted  to  irregu- 
larly shaped  fields,  or  rather  to  fields  that  are 
not  exact  squares  or  parallelograms ;  for  Fowler's 
method  is  not  well  adapted  to  such  irregularities  as 
prevent  the  engine  and  anchor  being  opposite  each 
other.     The  rope  is  borne  off  the  ground— a  very 


necessary  precaution,  without  which  the  wear  ana 
tear  would  be  alike  annoying  and  expensive — by 
a  number  of  pulleys,  or  '  rope-porters '  as  they  are 
called,  mounted  on  frames.  The  outside  ones,  that 
is,  those  farthest  from  the  work,  are  moved  along 
by  the  action  of  the  rope  ;  those  in  front  of  the 
plough  are  removed  by  boys,  and  placed  behind  the 
implement  as  it  proceeds.  The  modus  operandi 
will  be  patent  at  a  glance,  from  the  annexed  plan  of 


Fig.  12. — Fowler's  Anchor,  Engine,  and  Plough  at  work. 


working  (fig.  12).  To  manage  this  apparatus  three 
men  and  two  boys  are  required — namely,  a  man  at 
the  engine,  another  on  the  plough,  a  third  at  the 
anchor,  and  the  lads  to  look  after  the  rope-porters. 
The  water  and  coals  needed  for  the  engine  must  be 
bought  by  other  men. 
aoa 


The  plough-bodies  can  be  removed  from  the  frama, 
and  in  their  place  '  digging- breasts '  be  attached,  by 
means  of  which  the  land  is  thrown  up  in  a  some- 
what similar  manner  to  that  in  which  it  is  turned 
over  by  the  spade.  The  price  "of  the  ploughing 
and  cultivating  apparatus   is  as  follows :    14-hois* 


PLOUGH,  PLOUGHING. 


pouer  double-cylinder  angina,  with  srlf-moving  and 

ravening  gear,  with  tank,  steerage,  20-inoh  wheels, 
clip-drum,  150  yards  headland  rope,  snatch-block, 
spuds,  tools,  and  tool-box,  complete  for  steam-culti- 
vation, £614;  self-moving  anchor,  with  six  discs, 
lifting  jack,  headland  ropes,  and  all  tools  complete, 
£55;  four-furrow  balance-plough,  fitted  with  slack 
gear,  digging  and  scarifying  breasts,  £07  ;  800  yards 
best  steel  rope,  lifted  with  eyes  and  joints,  £S4  ; 
10  large,  and  10  small,  rope  porters,  £25.  Total, 
£875.  Of  course,  in  the  case  of  an  engine  of  less 
horse-power  being  required,  the  price  is  propor- 
tionately lower.  At  the  Newcastle  show  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society,  in  July  1S64,  Mr  Fowler 
introduced  two  engines  of  7-korse  power,  working 
simultaneously  on  opposing  headlands.  The  expedi- 
tion with  which  these  engines  were  set  down  to 
and  completed  their  work  was  a  matter  of  admira- 
tion to  all  present,  and  the  subject  of  special  remark 
by  the  judges.  These  gentlemen  say:  'The  engines 
worked  smoothly  ;  and  so  far  as  we  could  ascertain, 
appeared  to  bear  an  equal  share  of  work  in  cither 
direction.'  They  got  up  steam  in  nearly  half  an 
hour  less  time  than  the  14-horse  engine,  and  working 
with  them,  much  less  time  was  required  to  arrange 
the  tackle.  '  The  engines  were  masters  of  their 
work  ;    and    acting   in  combination,    appeared    to 


possess    more    power    than    the    large    engine    and 

anchor The    advantages    of     this    h\ stein 

appear  to  be,  that  horses  are  not  required  to  move 
tackle  ;  that  there  is  a  saving  of  time  in  setting 
down,  taking  up,  and  removing  from  field  to  field 
[no unimportant  consideration];  and  that  the  two 
small  engines  are  both  available  for  ordinary  farm- 
work,  such  as  thrashing,  driving,  barn-work,  &c' 
The  cost  of  the  two  enmnes,  with  their  apparatus,  Li 

£1000.  The  number  of  hands  employed  is  the  s;ime 
as  at  the  large  anchor  and  engine  ;  but  as  a  skilled 
labourer  is  necessary  where  only  an  unskilled 
labourer  is  needed  in  the  latter  case,  the  cost 
per  day  is  2s.  more  ;  working  the  large  engine  and 
anchor,  including  the  cartage  of  water  and  oil,  is 
estimated  at  lGs.  per  day;  tlie  two  engines  at  ISa. 
Fowler  has  been  most  successful  in  carrying  off  the 
prizes  at  all  the  competitions  of  steam-ploughs, 
having  received  in  this  way,  since  1856,  nearly 
£3200,  besides  gold  medals. 

Howard's  system  consists  in  a  stationary  engine 
driving  a  windlass,  having  two  winding  drums,  with 
direct  and  reverse  action,  placed  in  front  of  it,  round 
which  is  coiled  about  1600  yards  of  wire-rope.  By 
a  simple  lever  movement,  the  man  can  drop  the 
winding  drums  out  of  gear  in  an  instant,  a  contriv- 
ance which  enables  him  to  attend  to  the   proper 


Fig.  13. — Howard's  General  Plan. 


coiling  of  the  rope,  and  also  to  arrest,  in  case  of  i 
accident,  the  plough  in  a  moment,  without  stopping  I 
the  engine.     The  engine  is  usually  placed  at  the  | 
corner    of   the   plot   to   be  ploughed,   the    rope   is 
carried  round  the  field  on  rope-porters,  and  fixed 
at  the  corners  by  light  anchors.     A  snatch-block 
placed  in  front  of  the  windlass  prevents  the  slack- 


rope  running  out  too  fast,  and  trailing  on  the 
ground.  The  plan  of  working  given  clearly  illus- 
trates the  arrangement  (rig.  13).  The  plough,  as  will 
be  seen  from  fig.  14,  is  composed  of  two  strong  iron 
frames  balanced  upon  four  wheels,  and  crossing  each 
other  at  their  inner  ends,  thereby  decreasing  the 
length  of  the  plough,  and,  as  a  matter  of  course,  the 


Fig.  14. — Howard's  Plough. 

breadth  of  the  headland.  The  frames  are  raised  I  tendency  to  weigh  or  raise  out  of  the  ground  the  set 
and  lowered  in  such  a  manner  that  the  set  of  in  work.  The  frames  are  made  for  two,  three,  or 
ploughs  out  of  work  is  ind^ndent  of,  and  has  no  I  four  furrows,  and  '  diggers '  or  scarifiers   can  be 


PLOTJGHGATE  OF  LAND— PLOVER. 


attached  the  same  as  in  Fowler's.  It  should  be 
mentioned  that  the  Messrs  Howard  prefer  the 
cultivator,  that  is,  a  machine  to  smash  up  the  land 
rather  than  the  plough,  and  the  plough  is  not 
included  in  the  cost  given  below.  In  this  method 
the  plough  is  not  pulled  direct  between  engine  and 
anchors,  but  at  right  angles  to  the  engine— between 
one  anchor  and  another,  the  anchors  being  removed 
inwards  by  manual  power,  and  nearer  the  engine 
every  time  the  field  is  traversed  by  the  plough. 
With  this  system  there  are  five  men  and  two  boys 
required;  viz.,  a  man  at  the  engine,  another  at  the 
windlass,  a  third  on  the  plough,  two  at  the  anchors, 
and  the  boys  to  look  after  the  rope-porters.  The 
cost  of  this  apparatus— which,  exclusive  of  engine, 
consists  of  the  patent  windlass,  1600  yards  of  patent 
steel  wire-rope,  universal  joint,  for  connecting  the 
windlass  with  engine,  patent  double-action  steam- 
cultivator,  with  five  tines,  patent  double  snatch- 
block,  with  arrangement  for  slack-rope,  anchors, 
single  snatch-blocks,  rope-porters,  &c. — is  £250 ; 
and  a  10-horse  portable  engine  is  £295  ;  making  the 
whole  £545.  The  cost  of  working  this  apparatus, 
including  water-cart,  and  boy,  and  oil,  is  20s.  6c/. 
per  day. 

In  Coleman's  system,  the  drums  upon  which  the 
rope  is  wound  are  attached  to  the  sides  of  the 
engine,  and  give  out  and  take  on  rope  alternately. 
The  engine  moves  along  the  headland ;  and  the 
anchor,  upon  which  there  is  very  little  strain,  and 
which  is,  therefore,  a  very  light,  portable  article,  is 
shifted  opposite  to  it  by  a  man  as  the  work  is  per- 
formed ;  direct  action  being  obtained  here,  as  in  the 
case  of  Fowler's.  The  peculiarity  of  the  plan  con- 
sists in  having  two  implements  instead  of  one  at 
work,  the  implements  being  grubbers,  which  smash 
up  the  ground — a  practice  now  adopted  by  some 
farmers  in  England,  in  preference  to  turning  the  sod 
over  with  the  plough.  On  commencing  operations 
on  this  plan,  the  field  is  divided  into  two  equal 
parts.  The  cultivators  or  grubbers  work  only  one 
way — towards  the  engine.  They  are  attached  by 
the  front  to  each  end  of  a  strong  wire-rope,  while  a 
smaller  wire- rope  is  fastened  to  their  rear.  The  one 
cultivator  is  placed  at  the  far  side  of  the  field, 
where  its  teeth  or 'tines'  are  inserted  in  the  ground; 
and  it  is  pulled  towards  the  centre  of  the  field, 
tearing  up  the  soil  as  it  comes,  the  other  meanwhile 
going  out  empty  to  meet  it.  When  the  latter 
reaches  the  middle  of  the  field,  the  action  of  the 
engine  is  reversed,  and  it  is  dragged  back  to  the 
engine,  cultivating  the  land  as  it  travels,  while  the 
other  goes  back  to  the  headland  empty.  The  pull 
out  empty  and  working  in  is,  of  course,  continued 
untd  the  whole  land  has  been  tilled. 

The  other  systems  before  the  public  are  in  prin- 
ciple the  same  as  those  described,  though  they  are 
variously  modified  in  detail. 

With  regard  to  the  merits  ef  each,  it  may  be 
stated  as  the  general  opinion  that  Fowler's  is  the 
best  for  large  fields.  Moving  along  the  headland, 
and  propelling  its  anchor  along  with  it,  this  apparatus 
could  cultivate  a  field  of  from  350  to  400  yards  in 
breadth,  and  of  any  length,  without  requiring  to  be 
shifted.  Its  direct  action  also  secures  that  there  is 
as  little  waste  of  power  as  possible.  The  advan- 
tages of  saving  time  and  conserving  force,  which 
these  two  features  secure,  can  hardly  be  over- 
rated. 

Howard's  system  seems  to  be  regarded  as  most 
desirable  where  fields  are  small  and  irregularly 
shaped,  as  the  rope  can  be  so  disposed  as  to  enable 
the  cultivating  implement  to  reach  almost  any 
angle.  The  engine  may  be  so  placed  that  40  or  50 
acres  may  be  cultivated  without  moving  it ;  but 
the  anchors,  pulleys,  rope-porters,  &c,  must  be 
60S 


shifted  after  the  completion  of  every  ten  or  twelve 
acres,  and  thus  a  considerable  time  is  lost.  There 
must  also  be  some  little  waste  of  force  in  dragging 
so  much  rope  and  the  implement  at  right  angles 
to  the  engine.  By  this  method,  however,  a  trifling 
saving  of  water-carriage  could  be  effected  as  com- 
pared with  Fowler's,  by  having  tanks  at  the  engine- 
stations. 

With  Coleman's  method,  there  is  a  little  time 
saved  at  the  ends  in  comparison  with  the  other  two, 
and  there  is  also  some  economy  in  the  purchase  of 
the  rope  ;  but  then  there  is  loss  of  power  in  pulling 
an  empty  implement  half  through  the  Held,  and  a 
necessary  wear  and  tear  of  rope  in  dispensing  with 
rope-porters,  and  allowing  the  wire  to  trail  upon 
the  ground. 

By  all  the  apparatus,  however,  tillage  is  much  more 
perfectly  and  even  cheaply  performed  than  by  horse- 
labour.  As  a  rule,  about  three-fourths  of  an  acre 
to  an  hour  can  be  cultivated  with  either  Fowler  or 
Howard's  apparatus.  Where  soil  and  climate  are 
so  variable  as  they  are  in  Great  Britain,  it  would 
serve  no  good  purpose,  but  would  be  rather  mis- 
leading, to  name  a  price  per  acre  at  which  steam- 
ploughing  can  be  effected ;  but  the  following  general 
statements  in  its  favour  may  safely  be  made.  That 
the  use  of  the  steam-plough  or  cultivator  enables  the 
farmer  to  perform  his  tillage  operations  at  the  best 
season  of  the  year,  and  to  free  his  land  more  quickly 
and  effectually  from  weeds.  Tenacious  soils  are 
rendered  more  friable  and  porous,  and  good  drainage 
promoted  by  the  efficient  manner  in  which  the 
subsoil  can  be  stirred  by  the  aid  of  steam.  The 
steam-cultivator,  plough,  or  harrows,  may  be  fre- 
quently worked  to  advantage  in  an  unfavourable 
season,  when  it  woidd  be  impossible  to  work  with 
horses.  And  not  only  a  considerable  diminution  in 
the  number  of  horses  employed  can  be  effected,  but 
the  horses,  which  are  still  necessary,  can  be  kept  at 
less  expense.  Consequently  cultivation  by  steam- 
power,  besides  being  more  excellent,  is  actually 
cheaper,  monetarily  considered,  than  that  done  by 
horses. 

There  are  at  present  about  800  or  900  steam- 
plougrhs  at  work  in  Great  Britain,  and  the  demand 
for  them  is  yearly  increasing.  Mr  Fowler  is  now 
turning  out  of  his  Leeds'  establishment  about  six 
engines  with  their  appurtenances  per  week  ;  and  the 
Messrs  Howard  have  also  large  demands.  Many 
are  exported  to  the  continent,  to  the  West  Indies, 
to  Egypt,  and  the  East  Indies. 

PLOU'GHGATE   OF  LAND,  in  the   Law  of 

Scotland,  is  an  expression  denoting  a  quantity  of 
land  of  the  extent  of  100  acres  Scots.  No  person  is 
qualified  to  kill  game  in  Scotland  who  has  not  a 
ploughgate  of  land,  and  this  is  still  the  law. 
Paterson's  Game-laws  of  United  Kingdom,  p.  158. 

PLOVER  (Charadrius),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Charadriada  (q.  v.),  having  a  straight  com- 
pressed bill;  the  upper  mandible  alone  slightly 
inflated  and  slightly  bent  at  the  point ;  the  nasal 
groove  extending  about  two-thirds  of  the  length  of 
the  bill,  the  nostrils  longitudinally  cleft  near  the 
base ;  the  legs  not  very  long,  naked  a  little  above 
the  tarsal  joint ;  no  hinder  toe ;  the  wings  rather 
long  and  pointed,  the  first  quill-feather  the  longest. 
The  species  are  numerous,  and  are  found  in  every 
quarter  of  the  globe;  many  of  them  are  birds  of 
passage.  They  chiefly  frequent  low  moist  grounds, 
where  they  congregate  in  large  flocks,  and  feed  on 
worms,  molluscs,  insects,  &c. ;  but  some  of  them 
visit  mountainous  regions  in  the  breeding-season. 
They  fly  with  great  strength  and  rapidity,  and  run 
with  much  swiftness.  The  flesh  and  eggs  of  many 
of  them  are  esteemed  delicacies.    One  of  the  British 


PLOVER— PLUM. 


species  is  the  Dotterel  (q.  v.).  Another  is  the 
GOLDKN  P.,  V  11. low  P.,  or  GREEN  P.  [C.  pktvktUt), 
a  rather  larger  bird,  oi  a  blackish  colour,  speckled 

with  yellow  ai  the  tips  and  edgM  of  the  feathers  ; 
the  throat,  breast,  ami  belly  black  in  summer, 
whitish    in    winter.      The   Gohlen   P.   is  a  bird  of 

EISSAge,  visiting  in  summer  the  northern  parts  of 
iirope,  t  of  Asia,  ami  of  North  America; 

and  migrating  to  the  south  in  winter.  It  is  known 
in  almost  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  is  common  in  many 
parts  of  Britain,  breeding  in  the  northern  parts. 
Criat  numbers  frequent  the  sandy  pastures  and 
shores  of  the  Hebrides  and  of  the  Orkney  and 
Shetland  Islands.  It  makes  an  artless  nest,  little 
more  than  a  Blight  di  |  i   the  ground,  and 

lays  four  eggs.  The  parent  birds  shew  great  anxiety 
for  the  protection  of  their  young,  and  use  various 
stratagems  to  divert  the  attention  of  an  enemy. 
The  Golden  P.  exhibits  great  restlessness  on  the 
approach  of  wet  and  stormy  weather,  whence  its 
specific  name  phivialis. — The  Kinged  P.  (C.  hiati- 
cula),  a  much  smaller  bird,  not  so  large  as  a  song 


1,  Ringed  Plover ;  2,  Gray  Plover ;  3,  Golden  Plover. 

thrush,  is  found  at  almost  all  seasons  on  the  shores 
of  the  British  Islands,  frequenting  sandy  and  shingly 
flats,  from  which  the  sea  retires  at  ebb-tide.  It 
is  often  to  be  seen  also  on  the  banks  of  larfje  rivers, 
and  not  unfrequently  of  lakes  and  ponds.  It  is 
found  in  most  of  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  in  Iceland  and  Greenland.  It  is  grayish- 
brown  above,  whitish  beneath,  with  a  collar  of 
white  round  the  neck,  and  below  it  a  black — in 
winter,  a  brown— collar ;  the  head  marked  with 
black  and  white  ;  a  white  bar  on  the  wing.  Very 
similar,  but  smaller,  is  the  Kentish  P.  (C.  Canti- 
anus) ;  and  also  similar  and  of  similar  habits  is  the 
smallest  of  the  British  species,  the  Little  Kinged 
P.  (O.  minor).  Both  of  these  are  rare  in  Britain. — 
Korth  America  has  a  number  of  species  of  P.,  one 
of  which,  the  American  Golden  P.  (O.  Virginiacus), 
very  closely  resembles  the  Golden  P.  of  Europe  ;  and 
another,  the  Kildeer  P.  (C.  vociferus),  abundant 
on  the  great  western  prairies,  and  not  unfrequent 
in  the  Atlantic  states,  utters,  when  approached  by 
man,  a  querulous  or  plaintive  cry,  like  the  lap- 
wing.— The  name  P.  is  often  extended  to  species 
of  Charadriadce  belonging  to  other  genera,  as 
Squatarola,  in  which  the  nasal  grooves  are  short, 
the  tip  of  the  bill  is  tumid,  and  there  is  a  rudimen- 
tary hind-toe.  To  this  genus  belongs  the  Gray  P. 
[S,  cinerea)  of  America,  a  species  rather  larger  than 
the  Golden  P.,  and  chieflv  known  as  a  winter 
351 


visitant.     Its  geographic  distribution  extends  over 
most  of  the  northern  parts  of  the  world. 

PLUM  (Primus),  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  of 
the     natural    order    RotOCteB,    BOborder  " 

(q.  v.)  or  Drupaetm;  the  species  of  which  have  the 
stone  of  the  fruit  sharp-pointed  at  each  end, 
with  a  longitudinal  furrow  passing  all  round, 
and  a  smooth  surface  ;  the  fruit  covered  with 
a  tine  bloom,  and  the  young  leaves  rolled  up. 
The  Common  P.,  the  Bullace,  and  the  Sloe,  are 
generally  reckoned  by  botanists  as  distinct  species, 
but  with  much  doubt  if  they  are  really  d 
as  the  P.  passes  into  the  Bullace.  and  the  Bullace 
into  the  Sloe  by  insensible  gradations  ;  although 
there  is  so  wide  a  difference  in  general  appearance, 
size  of  leaves,  and  size  as  well  as  quality  of  fruit, 
between  the  best  cultivated  plums  and  the  sloe, 
that  it  is  not  without  an  effort  we  can  imagine 
them  to  have  sprung  from  a  common  stock  The 
Common  P.  (P.  domestica)  appears  in  a  wild  state 
in  woods  and  hedges  in  many  parts  of  England  and 
on  the  continent  of  Europe;  probably,  however, 
often  derived  from  the  seeds  of  cultivated  trees. 
It  is  commonly  described  as  destitute  of  spines, 
and  as  further  differing  from  the  bullace  in  having 
the  under-side  of  the  leaves  smooth  except  when 
they  are  very  young  ;  but  if  these  characters  a*e 
adopted,  many  of  the  cultivated  plums  must  be 
referred  to  the  bullace  (P.  insltitia)  as  their  original; 
nor  does  the  ovate  fruit  afford  a  more  certain 
character,  some  of  the  finest  garden  plums  being 
globose  or  nearly  so,  like  the  bullace.  Ihe  varieties 
called  Damson  (q.  v.)  are  particularly  like  the 
bullace,  except  in  the  form  of  the  fruit.  Cultivated 
plums  vary  greatly  in  the  size,  form,  colour,  and 
flavour  of  the  fruit.  The  fruit  of  some  varieties, 
as  the  White  Magnumbonum,  is  two  inches  long; 
while  damsons  of  the  same  shape  are  not  quite  one 
inch,  and  a  single  fruit  of  the  one  is  equal  to  at 
least  eight  or  ten  of  the  other.  The  best  varieties 
of  P.  are  among  the  most  delicious  dessert  fruits; 
amoDg  these,  the  Green  Gage  (Bane  Claude  of  the 
French)  is  one  of  the  most  esteemed  both  in  Britain 
and  on  the  continent  of  Europe ;  and  is  unsurpassed 
both  in  sweetness  and  flavour.  The  inferior  varieties 
are  used  in  pies,  conserves,  and  sweetmeats.  Some 
of  them  are  very  austere.  In  moderate  quantity, 
plums  are  wholesome  enough ;  but  excess  in  the 
use  of  them  is  very  apt  to  produce  colic,  diarrhoea, 
and  cholera.  The  danger  is  greater,  if  they  are 
eaten  before  being  perfectly  ripe.  A  very  pleasant 
wine  is  made  from  plums ;  and  in  some  parts  of 
Europe  a  strong  spirit  is  distilled  from  them  after 
fermentation ;  but  for  this  purpose  they  are  mixed 
in  the  south  of  France,  with  honey  and  flour,  and 
in  Hungary  with  apples.— The  dried  fruit,  variously 
known  as  Dined  Plums,  or  French  Plums,  and 
Prunes  (q.v.),  is  much  used  for  the  dessert;  and 
the  somewhat  austere  fruit  of  the  St  Julien  Plum, 
cultivated  in  the  south  of  France,  becomes,  when 
dried,  the  medicinal  prune,  used  as  a  mild  laxative. 
The  drying  of  plums  is  effected  very  slowly  in 
ovens,  by  a" heat  which  is  gradually  increased.  The 
process  requires  great  care.  The  prunes  called 
Brignoles  are  the  produce  of  a  variety  grown  prin- 
cipally near  the  little  town  of  Brignole  in  Provence. 
The  P.  has  been  in  cultivation  from  ancient  times, 
and  the  first  fine  varieties  were  probably  intro- 
duced into  Europe  from  the  East.  The  liner 
varieties  are  propagated  chiefly  by  budding  on 
stocks  of  the  coarser  kinds,  which  are  procured 
either  from  seed  or  as  suckers  from  the  roots  of 
P. -trees.  The  coarser  varieties  are  propagated 
by  suckers,  without  budding.  A  free  loamy  soil 
is  best  for  plums.  They  are  grown  a3  stan- 
dard, espalier,  or  wall  trees.     As  standards,  some 


PLUM— PLUMULARIA. 


t>f  the  varieties  attain  a  height  of  more  than  20  feet, 
with  a  moderately  spreading  head.  The  fruit  is  mostly 
produced  on  spurs ;  but  some  of  the  finest  fruit  on  the 
shoots  of  the  former  year.  Among  the  varieties  of  P. 
are  some  which  ripen  their  fruit  early,  and  others 
which  ripen  late  in  the  season.  The  cultivated  varie- 
ties are  very  numerous,  many  of  which,  most  esteemed 
in  the  United  States,  are  of  American  origin,  such  as 
the  Washington,  Hulings1  Superb,  Bleccker's  Gage, 
Jefferson,  McLaughlin,  Prince's  Yellow  Gage,  &c. — 
The  CASHMERE  P.  (P.  JBokharensis),  cultivated  in 
Cashmere  and  Bokhara,  is  regarded  as  a  distinct  spe- 
cie-*— The  Cherry  P.,  or  Myrocalan  P.  (P.  cerar- 
si/Vro),  is  a  bush  very  similar  to  the  sloe,  with  pendu- 
lous globular  red  fruit.  It  is  a  native  of  North  Amer- 
ica.— The  Chickasaw  P.  (P.  CMcasa)  is  found  in 
Kentucky  and  Illinois,  &c. — The  Beach  P.  (P.  mart- 
lima)  is  a  shrub  indigenous  to  sandy  soils  on  the  sea- 
coast  of  N.  America  from  N.  Jersey  to  Carolina.  It  has 
a  dark  purple  agreeable  fruit,  about  the  size  of  a  pigeon's 
egg. — Black  Thorn  (P.  s]ji?iosa)  occurs  on  roadsides 
and  waste  places  in  New  England,  Pennsylvania,  &c. 

The  Cocoa  P.  or  Icaco  of  the  West  Indies  is  the 
fruit  of  Chrysobalanus  icaco,  a  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Rosacea',  suborder  Chri/sobalanece.  The  fruit 
resembles  a  P.,  has  a  sweet  although  slightly 
austere  taste,  and  is  eaten  both  raw  and  preserved. 
— The  fruit  of  Parinarium  excelmm,  another  of  the 
Chrysobalanece,  is  called  Gray  Plum  at  Sierra  Leone. 

PLUM,  Date.    See  Date  Plum. 

PLUMAGE  OF  BIRDS.  See  Birds  and 
Feathers. 

PLUMATE'LLA,  a  genus  of  zoophytes  (Pohjzoa), 
having  the  polypidom  fixed,  membranaceous,  con- 
ferva-like, and  branched ;  the  polypes  issuing  from 


Plumatella  Repens. 
(Fi^n.  Johnston's  British  Zoophytes.) 

the  extremities  of  the  branches,  with  a  crescent- 
6hapecl  di»c  surrounded  by  a  single  series  of  many 
tentacles.  The  species  are  found  in  fresh  water, 
attached  to  stones,  &c.  P.  repens  is  a  common 
British  species,  sometimes  spreading  over  a  square 
foot,  and  having  branches  three  inches  long, 
which  adhere  to  some  surface  throughout  almost 
their  whole  length.  The  tentacles  are  beautifully 
feathered  with  cilia  on  two  opposite  sides. 

PLUMBAGI'NE^],  or  PLUMBAGINA'CE^E,  a 
natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  herbaceous  or 
half- shrubby ;  with  leaves  somewhat  sheathing  at 
the  base,  and  often  clustered  ;  flowers  in  panicles 
or  in  heads ;  calyx  tubular,  persistent,  plaited ; 
corolla  very  thin,  of  one  or  five  petals ;  stamens 
five  ;  ovary  superior,  1 -celled,  with  a  solitary  ovule; 
•tyles  generally  five  ;  fruit  a  Utricle  (q.  v.).  There 
are  about  160  known  species,  chiefly  found  on  the 
Bea-shorea  and  in  the  salt  marshes  of  temperate 
610 


regions.  Some  are  found  also  in  elevated  regions,  in 
all  zones.  Many  have  flowers  of  great  beauty,  and 
are  therefore  favourites  in  gardens.  Some  are  occa- 
sionally used  in  medicine  as  tonics  and  astringents ; 
others,  being  exceedingly  acrid,  as  vesicants,  particu- 
larly species  of  Plumbayo.  Thrift,  or  Sea-pink  (q.  v.), 
is  the  most  familiar  British  example  of  the  order. 

PLUMB A'GO.    See  Black  Lead. 

PLUMED  MOTH,  the  popular  name  of  a  group 
of  '  Nocturnal  Lepidoptera,'  known  to  entomologists 
as  Fissipennce  and  Pterophorites ;  remarkable  for 
having  at  least  a  pair  of  the  wings,  and  often  all  the 
wings,  longitudinally  cleft  into  two  or  more — some- 
times six — divisions,  which  are  beautifully  fringed 
at  the  edges.  The  wings  are  similar  to  those  of 
other  moths  in  their  nervures,  but  the  membrane 


Plumed  Moth. 

which  usually  connects  the  nervures  is  interrupted. 
The  Plumed  Moths  are  extremely  beautiful,  but 
often  pass  unobserved  in  consequence  of  their  small 
size.  Some  of  them  have  the  power  of  folding  up 
the  wing  like  a  fan.  Although  they  are  ranked 
among  the  Nocturnal  Lepidoptera,  some  of  them  fly 
about  during  the  brightest  part  of  the  day. 

PLUMMET,  a  weight  of  lead  hung  on  a  string, 
and  attached  to  a  frame,  for  the  purpose  of  shewing 
the  vertical  line. 

PLUMULA'RIA,  a  genus  of  zoophytes  {An- 
thozoa)  ;  plant-like,  rooted,  simple,  or  branched ; 
with  feathery  shoots  and  offsets  ;  and  having  hydra- 
like polypes  in  small  cells  arranged  on  one  side  of 


Plumularia  Falcata  (natural  size) : 

a,  the  ovarian  vesicle  and  four  of  the  polype-cells  of  P.  faiofcta, 
magnified.     (From  Johnston's  British  Zoophytes.) 

the  shoot  or  branch,  usually  in  the  axil  of  a  horny 
spine.  The  species  are  numerous,  Inhabitants  of  the 
sea,  some  of  them  very  common  on  the  Britisn  coasts, 


PLUMULE-PLUTARCH. 


attached  to  stones,  shells,  sea-wccds,  fee.  They  are 
very  beautiful  objeots,  even  as  seen  by  the  naked 
eye,  and  still  more  when  examined  by  the  micro* 
scope;  combining  great  delicacy  with  the  utmost 
elegance.  The  polypes  in  a  single  1'.  .are  often 
i  tingly  numerous;  those  of  P.  feUcata,  a  very 
Common  Ibitish  species,  often  to  he  found  at  low- 
water  mark,  have  been  calculated  as  S0,000  or 
100,000  in  number. 

PLU'MULE.     See  Seed. 

PLU'R  ALISM,  in  Canon  Law,  means  the  posses- 
sion by  the  same  person  of  two  or  more  ecclesias- 
tical offices,  whether  of  dignity  or  of  emolument. 
Pluralism  has  been  held  unlawful  from  the  earliest 
times,  and  is  forbidden  hy  many  ancient  councils, 
as  Chalcedon,  c.  x.  (451  A.D.),  '2d  Nictea,  c.  xv.  (787 
a.  d.).  This  prohibition,  however,  was  not  regarded 
as  absolute  and  admitting  no  possible  exception; 
the  natural  ground  of  the  prohibition  being  the 
impossibility,  in  ordinary  cases,  of  the  same  indi- 
vidual adequately  discharging  the  duties  of  more 
than  one  office.  It  has  been  held,  therefore,  that  in 
cases  in  which  this  impossibility  does  not  really 
exist,  the  union  of  two  or  more  offices  in  the  hands 
of  one  person  might,  speaking  absolutely,  be  per- 
mitted without  infringing  the  divine  law.  Canonists 
therefore  distinguish  'compatible'  and  'incom- 
patible '  beneiices  or  dignities.  Two  benefices  may 
be  incompatible  in  three  ways — (1)  if  each  requires 
residence  (ratione  residential) ;  (2)  if  the  duties  of 
both  fall  to  be  discharged  at  one  and  the  same 
time  (ratione  servitii) ;  or  (3),  if  the  revenue  of  either 
fully  suffices  for  the  becoming  maintenance  of  the 
incumbent  (ratione  sustenlationis).  In  other  cases, 
benefices  or  dignities  are  considered  compatible,  and 
with  the  due  dispensation,  may  be  held  by  the  same 

[>erson.  The  rules  by  which  dispensations  from  the 
aw  of  residence  are  to  be  regidated,  as  well  as  the 
penalties  for  its  violation,  whether  on  the  part  of 
the  patron  or  on  that  of  the  recipient,  have  formed 
the  subject  of  frequent  legislation,  as  in  the  3d 
and  the  4th  councils  of  the  Lateran,  in  the  decre- 
tals of  Innocent  III.  and  many  other  popes,  and 
especially  in  those  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  In 
general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  canon  law  regards 
as  incompatible  (1)  two  benefices  each  having  the 
cure  of  souls  ;  (2)  two  '  dignities  ; '  (3)  a  '  dignity ' 
and  a  cure  of  souls ;  (4)  a  cure  of  souls  and  a  simple 
benefice  requiring  residence.  In  other  cases  than 
these,  the  pope  is  held  to  have  the  power  of  dis- 

Eensing.  There  is  no  department  of  discipline, 
owever,  in  which  the  tendency  to  relaxation  has 
been  greater  or  more  persistent ;  and  one  of  the 
gravest  of  the  abuses  of  the  church  was  the  preva- 
lence of  pluralism  of  '  incompatible '  benefices,  even 
of  bishoprics  ;  and  although  a  constant  effort  was 
made  to  prevent  this  abuse,  the  evasions  of  the  law 
were  not  only  frequent,  but  even  screened  from 
punishment.  In  later  times,  the  evd  has  in  great 
measure  disappeared  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
The  English  law,  before  the  Reformation,  in  the 
main  coincided  with  the  canon  law ;  and  the  legis- 
lation of  Henry  VIII.  preserved  the  same  general 
spirit,  only  substituting  the  dispensing  power  of 
the  crown  for  that  of  the  pope. 

By  13  and  14  Vict.  c.  98,  it  is  provided  that  no 
incumbent  of  a  benefice  shall  take  and  hold  together 
with  it  another  benefice,  unless  the  churches  are 
within  three  miles  of  one  another  by  the  nearest 
road,  and  the  annual  value  of  one  of  them  does  not 
exceed  £100.  Nor  can  two  benefices  be  held 
together  if  the  population  of  one  exceeds  3000,  and 
that  of  the  other  exceeds  500.  The  word  benefice  in 
this  sense  includes  any  perpetual  curacy,  endowed 
public  chapel,  parochial  chapelry,  or  district  chapelry. 


Rut  a  dispensation  or  license  can  be  obtained  from 
die  archbishop,  so  us  to  allow  two  benefices  t"  be 
held  together;  and  if  the  archbishop  refuse  his 
licence,  the  party  may  appeal  to  the  1'rivy  Council 
A  special  provision  is  also  contained  whereby  the 
head  ruler  of  any  ball  in  the  onivi 

of  Oxford  or  Cambridge,  or  warden  of  Durham 
University,  is  prohibited  from  tftfr'ng  any  cathedra] 
preferment  or  any  other  benefice,  If  any  spiritual 
person  holding  a  benefice  shall  accept  another 
benefice  contrary  to  the  statute,  the  first  benefice 
shall  ipso  facto  become  void.  At  the  same  time, 
provision  is  made  by  statutes  for  uniting  b  a 

where  the  aggregate  population  does  not  exceed 
1500,  and  tin-  aggregate  yearly  value  does  not 
exceed  £500. — In  Ireland,  no  faculty  or  dispensation 
can  be  granted  to  any  spiritual  person  to  fill  two 
or  more  benefices. — In  Scotland,  it  is  contrary  to  an 
old  Scotch  statute  for  a  minister  of  the  Established 
Church  to  hold  two  or  more  charges ;  but  the 
question  has  arisen  almost  exclusively  with  refer- 
ence to  clergymen  appointed  professors  before  or 
after  an  appointment  to  a  country  charge,  in  which 
case  a  resignation  is  necessary  of  one  of  the  offices 
within  a  certain  time  after  the  appointment ;  but 
this  disqualification  does  not  apply  to  city  charges. 

PLUSH  (Fr.  peluche),  a  variety  of  woven  cloth, 
having  a  long  shaggy  pile  on  the  upper  surface. 
Although  woven  like  velvet,  it  differs  from  it  in 
the  greater  length  of  the  pile,  and  in  its  not  being 
clipped  or  shorn  to  a  uniform  length.  Formerly,  it 
was  made  of  a  double  warp,  one  thread  being  usually 
double  worsted  yarn,  the  other,  intended  to  form 
the  pile,  of  goat's  hair,  and  the  weft  of  worsted  ; 
occasionally,  only  worsted  was  used.  Now,  it  is 
made  very  "extensively  of  silk  and  cotton,  the  silk 
taking  the  place  of  the  goat's  hair  to  form  the  pile. 
This  silk  plush  is  the  material  now  almost  univer- 
sally used  for  making  gentlemen's  hats,  instead  of 
beaver-hair,  as  formerly.  It  is  also  worked  in 
coloured  silks,  for  many  articles  of  ladies'  attire. 
See  Weaving. 

PLU'TARCH  (Ploutarchos),  the  biographer  and 
moralist,  was  born  at  Chaeroneia  in  Bceotia.  We  can 
only  approximate  to  the  year  of  his  birth.  He  tell3 
us  himself  that  he  was  a  student  of  philosophy  at 
Delphi,  under  Ammonius,  when  Nero  was  making 
his  progress  through  Greece  in  66  A.  D. ;  and  we 
may  safely  infer,  therefore,  that  in  that  year  he  was 
beyond  the  age  of  puberty.  He  lived  for  some 
years  in  Rome,  and  in  other  towns  of  Italy,  where 
he  seems  to  have  been  much  occupied  with  public 
business,  and  with  giving  lessons  in  philosophy— a 
circumstance  to  which  he  attributes  his  having 
failed  to  learn  the  Latin  language  in  Italy,  and  his 
having  to  postpone  his  studies  in  Roman  literature 
till  late  in  life.  During  the  reign  of  Domitian,  he  was 
delivering  lectures  on  philosophy  at  Rome ;  but  we 
have  not^sufficient  evidence  for  the  statement,  that 
he  was  preceptor  to  Trajan,  or  that  that  emperor 
raised  him  to  consular  rank.  The  later  years  of  his 
life  he  spent  at  Clueroneia,  where  he  discharged  the 
duties  of  archon  and  priest  of  Apollo.  He  lived 
down  to  106,  the  eighth  year  of  the  reign  of  Trajan; 
but.  how  much  longer  is  not  known.  He  was  mar- 
ried to  an  amiable  wife  of  the  name  of  Timoxena,  by 
whom  he  had  several  sons,  who  reached  manhood, 
and  left  descendants.  . 

The  work  by  which  P.  is  best  known  is  his  Par- 
allel Lives  of  forty-six  Greeks  and  Romans.  These 
are  arranged  in  pairs,  each  pair  forming  one  book 
(biblion),  consisting  of  the  life  of  a  Greek  and  a 
Roman,  and  followed  by  a  comparison  between  the 
two  men.  In  a  few  cases,  the  comparison  is  omitted 
or   lost.     The  heroes  of  these  biographies  are  the 

611 


PLUTEUS-PLYMOUTH. 


following :  1.  Theseus  and  Romulus ;  2.  Lycurgus 
and  Nutna ;  3.  Solon  and  Valerius  Publicola ;  4. 
Themistocles  and  Camillus ;  5.  Pericles  and  Q. 
Fabius  Maximus  ;  6.  Alcibiades  and  Coriolanus ;  7. 
Timoleon  and  vEniilius  Paulus ;  8.  Pelopidas  and 
Marcellus ;  9.  Aristides  and  Cato  the  Elder ;  10. 
Philopcernen  and  Flamininus ;  11.  Pyrrkus  and 
Marius;  12.  Lysander  and  Sulla;  13.  Cimon  and 
Lucullus ;  14.  Nicias  and  Crassus ;  15.  Eumenes 
and  Sertorius ;  16.  Agesilaus  and  Pompeiua ;  17. 
Alexander  and  Caasar;  18.  Phocion  and  Cato  the 
Younger;  19.  Agis  and Cleomeues,  and  Tiberius  and 
Caius  Gracchus ;  20.  Demosthenes  and  Cicero ;  21. 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes  and  M.  Antonius ;  22.  Dion 
and  M.  Junius  Brutus.  In  addition  to  these  are 
placed  in  the  editions  after  the  4Gth  Parallel  Lives, 
the  biographies  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  Aratus, 
Galba,  and  Otho.  P.  has  no  equal  in  ancient,  and 
few  in  modern  times,  as  a  writer  of  '  Lives.'  His 
power  lies  in  his  felicitous  grasp  of  the  character  as 
a  whole,  and  his  skill  in  keeping  minor  details  in 
subordination.  It  is  not  till  the  reader  has  seen 
the  portrait  in  its  completeness  that  his  attention 
is  attracted  to  accessory  points.  '  There  are  biogra- 
phers (says  an  admirable  writer  in  the  Quarterly 
JZeview)  who  deal  with  the  hero,  and  biographers 
who  deal  with  the  man.  But  Plutarch  is  the  repre- 
sentative of  ideal  biography,  for  he  delineates  both 
in  one.'  Yet  with  all  their  artistic  harmony,  his  lives 
abound  with  anecdotes  and  bon-mots  in  such  profu- 
sion, that  they  form  one  of  our  chief  authorities  for 
the  table-talk  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Their 
popularity  in  ancient,  medieval,  and  modern  times, 
with  readers  of  every  rank  and  age,  is  something 
extraordinary,  and  they  have  in  consequence  exerted 
a  very  powerful  and  a  very  salutary  influence  on 
the  art  of  biography,  as  subsequently  practised  The 
other  writings  of  P.,  more  than  GO  in  number,  are 
included  under  the  general  title  of  Moralia,  or 
Ethical  Works.  Several  of  these  are  not  purely 
ethical  in  their  tenor ;  while  many  of  them  are 
probably  not  by  him,  or  if  they  are,  do  him  small 
credit.  Even  in  the  best  of  the  Moralia,  there  is  no 
philosophical  system  to  be  found ;  their  merits  are 
not  speculative,  but  practical ;  and  their  value  con- 
sists mainly  in  their  good  sense,  in  the  justness  of 
their  views  on  the  ordinary  affairs  of  human  life  ; 
and  in  the  benevolence  of  tone  diffused  throughout 
them.  The  best  text  of  the  Lives  is  that  of  Imma- 
nuel  Bekker ;  the  best  translation  in  English  is  that 
of  Dryden  and  others,  as  re-edited  by  Clough.  The 
best  edition  of  the  Moralia  is  by  Wyttenbach 
(Oxford,  1795—1800)  ;  and  of  the  entire  works,  the 
editions  of  Reiske  (Leip.  1774—1782)  and  Hutten 
(Tubingen,  1791—1805). 

PLU'TEUS,  in  Classical  Architecture,  a  wall 
filling  up  the  space  betsveen  two  columns.  Also  the 
space  between  two  orders,  placed  over  one  another, 
as  in  the  amphitheatres,  &c. 

PLU'TO  (Gr.  Plouton,  from  Ploideo,  to  be  rich), 
originally  only  a  surname  of  Hades,  as  the  giver 
or  possessor  of  riches,  is,  in  the  Mythology  of 
Greece,  the  third  son  of  Kronos  and  P^hea,  and  the 
brother  of  Zeus  and  Poseidon.  On  the  tripartite 
division  of  the  universe,  he  obtained  the  sovereignty 
of  the  under-world — the  realm  of  darkness  and 
ghostly  shades,  where  he  sits  enthroned  as  a 
'  subterranean  Zeus ' — to  use  the  expression  of 
Homer,  and  rules  the  spirits  of  the  dead  His 
dwelling-place,  however,  is  not  far  from  the  surface 
of  the  earth.  P.  is  inexorable  in  disposition,  not 
to  be  moved  either  by  prayers  or  flatteries.  He  is 
borne  on  a  car,  drawn  by  four  black  steeds,  whom 
he  guides  with  golden  reins.  His  helmet  makes 
him  invisible,  whence,  according  to  some  scholars, 
612 


his  name  of  Hades  (from  a,  priv.,  and  idein,  to  see) ; 
although  others,  with  at  least  equal  probability, 
derive  Hades  from  hado  or  cJiado,  to  receive  or 
embrace,  and  translate  the  word  the  '  all-receiver.' 
In  Homer,  Hades  never  means  a  place,  but  alway* 
a  person.  Moreover,  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  th« 
poet  does  not  divide  the  realm  of  the  shades  into 
two  separate  regions.  All  the  souls  of  the  dead 
— good  and  bad  alike — mingle  together.  Subse- 
quently, however,  when  the  ethical  conception  of 
future  retribution  became  more  widely  developed, 
the  kingdom  of  the  dead  was  divided  into  Elysium 
(q.  v.),  the  abode  of  the  good,  and  Tartarus  (q.  v.), 
the  place  of  the  wicked.  This  change  also  exer- 
cised an  important  influence  on  the  conception  of 
Pluto.  The  ruler  of  the  under-world  not  only 
acquired  additional  power  and  majesty,  but  the 
very  idea  of  his  character  was  essentially  modified. 
He  was  now  regarded  as  a  beneficent  deity,  who 
held  the  keys  of  the  earth  in  his  hand,  and  pos- 
sessed its  metallic  treasures  (whence  his  new  name 
Pluto  or  Plutus),  and  who  blessed  the  year  with 
fruits,  for  out  of  the  darkness  underground  come  all 
the  riches  and  swelling  fulness  of  the  soil.  Hence, 
in  later  times,  mortals  prayed  to  him  before  pro- 
ceeding to  dig  for  the  wealth  hidden  in  the  bowels 
of  the  earth. 

P.  married  Persephone  (Proserpina),  the  daughter 
of  Demeter  (Ceres),  after  carrying  her  off  from  the 
plains  of  Eima.  He  assisted  his  brothers — according 
to  the  mythological  story — in  their  war  against  the 
Titans,  and  received  from  the  Cyclops,  as  a  reward 
for  delivering  them  from  Tartarus,  the  helmet  that 
makes  him  invisible,  which  he  lent  to  Hermes 
(Mercury)  in  the  aforesaid  war,  to  Perseus  in  his 
combat  with  the  Gorgons,  and  which  ultimately 
came  to  Meriones.  The  Eiinnyes  and  Charon  obey 
his  behests.  He  sits  in  judgment  on  every  open 
and  secret  act,  and  is  assisted  by  three  subordinate 
judges,  iEacus,  Minos,  and  Rhadamanthus.  The 
worship  of  P.  was  widely  spread  both  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  Temples  were  erected  to  his 
honour  at  Athens,  Elis,  and  Olympia.  Among  trees 
and  flowers,  the  cypress,  boxwood,  narcissus,  and 
maidenhair  were  sacred  to  him;  bulls  and  goats 
were  also  sacrificed  to  him  amid  the  shadows  of 
night,  and  his  priests  had  their  brows  garlanded 
with  cypress  wreaths.  In  works  of  art,  he  resembles 
his  brothers  Zeus  and  Poseidon ;  only  his  hair  hangs 
down  somewhat  wildly  and  fiercely  over  his  brow, 
and  his  appearance,  though  majestic,  as  becomes 
so  mighty  a  god,  has  something  gloomy  and  terrible 
about  it.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  he,  as 
well  as  Pan  (q.  v.),  helped  to  trick  out  the  con- 
ception of  the  devil  prevalent  during  the  middle 
ages,  and  not  yet  extinct.  If  it  was  from  Pan  that 
the  devil  derived  those  physical  characteristics 
alluded  to  in  the  famous  Address  to  the  Dell  by  the 
poet  Burns  : 

O  thou,  whatever  title  suit  thee, 
Auld  Hornie,  Satan,  Nick,  or  Clootie, 

it  is  no  less  certain  that  it  is  to  P.  he  owes  his 
position  as  '  king  of  Hell,'  '  his  Blackness,'  and 
many  of  the  insignia  of  his  infernal  royalty. 

PLUTONIC  ROCKS,  the  name  given  by  Lyell 
to  the  Granitic  Rocks,  from  the  supposition  that 
they  were  formed  at  considerable  depth  in  the 
earth,  and  were  cooled  and  crystallised  slowly  under 
great  pressure.  They  were  so  designated  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  Volcanic  Rocks,  which,  though 
they  have  risen  up  from  below,  have  cooled  ironi  a 
melted  state  more  rapidly  upon  or  near  the  surface. 
See  Granite. 

PLY'MOUTH,  an  English  seaport  and  market 
town,  and  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough 


PLYMOUTH-PLYMOUTH  BRETHREN. 


in  the  south-west  of  Devonshire,  24G  miles  west- 
south-west  <>f  London.  It  stands  in  the  bight  of 
Plymouth  Souml  (i[.  v.)  between  the  estuaries  of 

the  Plym  and  Tatnar.  To  the  west  of  it  is  Stone- 
house  (q. v.),  a  township  and  ooaat-gnard  station, 
and  .still  further  west  is  Devonport  (q.  v.),  tie 
naval  and  military  station.  The  two  former  places, 
however,  having  become  united  by  continuous  lines 
of  houses,  have  lost  their  individuality,  and  are 
(with  Devonport,  which  is  walled,  fortified,  and 
surrounded  by  a  moat)  now  generally  considered  as 
one  great  town.  Of  this  great  centre  of  fashion, 
trade,  and  naval  and  military  preparation,  P.  proper, 
which  covers  an  area  of  one  square  mile,  may 
be  called  the  city,  and  Devonport  the  west-end; 
while  Stonehouse  is  an  intermediate  district,  con- 
taining chiefly  factories,  barracks,  victualling  yards, 
hospitals,  and  other  institutions.  P.  proper  ex- 
tends from  Mill  Day  on  the  west  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Plym  on  the  east  Its  site  is  somewhat  ragged 
and  uneven ;  an  eminence  forming  the  suburbs 
runs  along  its  north  side,  and  another  eminence, 
partly  occupied  by  the  citadel,  fronts  the  Sound. 
The  chief  buildings  are  the  Royal  Hotel,  compris- 
ing an  immense  inn,  assembly-rooms,  a  theatre,  and 
the  Athenaeum,  all  partially  destroyed  by  tire  in 
1862,  and  rebuilt  in  1803  ;  public  library,  containing 
in  its  Oottonian  collection  300  sketches  by  the  old 
Italian  masters  ;  St  Andrew's  Church,  the  tower  of 
Which  dates  from  1490;  and  Charles  Church  (1646 
■ — 1658),  dedicated,  with  fervent  loyalty,  at  the 
Restoration,  to  '  St  Charles  the  Martyr.'  There 
are  also  several  important  educational  establish- 
ments, some  of  which  are  endowed,  as  well  as  many 
charitable  institutions.  Mill  Bay  and  Sutton  Pool 
are  two  small  inlets  of  the  Sound,  in  which  lie 
all  the  merchant-vessels  bound  for  P.  proper. 
Between  these  inlets,  and  running  along  the  shore, 
is  the  eminence  or  high  plateau  of  land,  called 
the  Hoe.  From  this  ridge,  whence  the  approach 
of  the  Spanish  Armada  is  said  to  have  been 
first  descried,  magnificent  shore  and  sea  views 
may  be  obtained.  Its  eastern  end  is  occupied 
by  the  citadel,  a  fortress  mounting  150  guns, 
which  commands  the  entrance  of  the  Cutwater  (the 
lower  estuary  of  the  Plym),  and  of  Sutton  PooL 
Mill  Bay,  on  the  west,  is  so  deep  that  vessels  of 
3U0O  tons  can  lie  at  the  pier  at  low-water.  Here 
are  the  important  Great  Western  Docks,  covering 
an  area  of  fourteen  acres,  and  having  a  depth  of 
22  feet,  constructed  about  the  years  1S55 — 1S58. 
Close  to  these  docks,  and  connected  with  them  by  a 
tram-line,  are  the  termini  of  the  South  Devon, 
Tavistock,  and  Cornwall  railways.  In  1872,  5755 
vessels,  of  933,184  tons,  entered  and  cleared  the 
port.  Commerce  is  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent 
with  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  West  Indies,  and 
the  Mediterranean;  the  coasting  trade  is  also  im- 
portant, and  the  fisheries  are  productive.  Pop.  (1871) 
70.091. 

P.,  described  by  Leland  as  being,  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  II., '  a  mene  thing,  an  inhabitation  of  fishars,' 
was  called  by  the  Saxons  Tameorworth  (town  on 
the  Tamar) ;  after  the  Conquest  it  was  called  Sutton 
(South  Town) ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  reign  of  Henry 
VI.  that  it  received  the  name  of  Plymouth  (mouth 
of  the  Plym).  During  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries  it  was  frequently  attacked  and  set  on  fire 
by  the  French,  and  in  1512  an  act  was  passed 
for  the  strengthening  of  its  defences,  which 
since  then  have  greatly  increased,  until  now  the 
whole  shores  of  the  Sound  are  well  defended  by 
cannon,  and  a  cordon  of  inland  forts  has  been 
constructed  at  immense  cost,  surrounding  the 
Three  Towns  at  a  distance  of  from  two   to   three 


PLYMOUTH,   a  town  iii  Massachusetts,   U.  S., 
on  Plymouth  Bay,  -".7  miles  south-easl   of    Boston. 

famous  in  the  history  of  New  England  as  the 
landing-place  of  the  'Pilgrim  Fathers'  from  the 
MayflotOi  r,  December  1 1,  1620,  <  >.  S.  Plymouth  Rock 
is  a  granite  boulder  at  the  water's  edge  on  which 
they  landed.  Iii  Pilgrim  Hull  ;n  ■  museum  are 
preserved  many  relics  of  the  flrsl  settlement  of  the 
country,  among  which  are  Governor  Carver's  chair 
and  the  sword  of  Miles  Standish.  The  villi  M 
n  good  harbour  and  flourishing  trade.  Pop.  in 
ivrrl  -,  in  1870,  8239  ;   in  1880,  7094. 

PLYMOUTH  BRETHREN,  a  religious  sect 
which  sprang  into  existence  about  IS.'iD — 1835  in 
Plymouth,  Dublin,  and  other  places  in  the  British 
islands,  and  which  has  extended  itself  consider* 
ably  throughout  the  British  dominions  and  in  some 
parts  of  the  contiuent  of  Europe,  particularly 
among  the  Protestants  of  France,  Switzerland,  and 
Italy,  and  also  in  the  United  States  of  America.  It 
seems  to  have  originated  m  a  reaction  ag 
exclusive  High  Church  principles,  as  maintained 
in  the  Church  of  England,  with  everything  of  a 
kindred  nature  in  other  churches,  and  against  a 
dead  formalism  associated  with  '  unevangelical ' 
doctrine.  Many  of  the  first  members  of  the  new 
religious  communities  formed  in  Plymouth  and 
elsewhere  were  retired  Anglo-Indian  officers,  men 
of  unquestionable  zeal  and  piety ;  and  these  com- 
munities began  to  appear  almost  simultaneously 
in  a  number  of  places.  Their  origin  is,  however, 
very  much  to  be  ascribed  to  the  labours  and  influ- 
ence of  Mr  Darby,  from  whom  the  P.  B.  on  the 
continent  of  Europe  are  very  generally  known  as 
Darbyites.  Mr  Darby  was  a  barrister,  moviug  in 
the  highest  circles  of  society  ;  and  under  deeply 
religious  impressions,  became  a  clergyman  of  the 
Church  of  England,  and  lived  for  some  time  in  a 
mud-hovel  in  the  county  Wicklow,  devoting  himself 
to  his  work  ;  but  afterwards  left  the  Church  of 
England  from  conscientious  scruples,  and  became  an 
evangelist  unconnected  with  any  church.  In  this 
character,  he  laboured  both  in  England  and  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  preaching  in  French,  English, 
and  German.  He  also  gave  utterance  to  his  opinions 
in  numerous  pamphlets,  and  in  a  quarterly  period- 
ical called  The  Christian  Witness,  which  for  a 
.number  of  years  was  the  '  organ  '  of  the  Plymouth 
Brethren.  He  continues  to  visit  from  time  to  time 
the  communities  or  meetings  of  Plymouth  Brethren. 
His  tenets,  and  those  of  the  P.  B.  in  general,  are 
strictly  Calvinistic  :  original  sin  and  predestination, 
the  efficacy  of  Christ's  sacrifice,  the  merit  of  his 
obedience,  the  power  of  his  intercession,  the  gracious 
operations  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  regeneration  and 
sanctitication,  are  prominent  points.  Millenarian 
views  are  also  generally  entertained  by  the  P.  B. ; 
and  they  usually  practise  the  baptism  of  adults 
without  regard  to  previous  infant  baptism.  They 
acknowledge  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
and  administer  it  to  one  another  in  their  meetings, 
usually  on  every  Sunday,  or  '  first  day  of  the  week;' 
iu  this,  as  in  everything  else,  refusing  to  acknow- 
ledge any  special  ministers.  They  utterly  reject 
confirmation.  Their  most  distinctive  peculiarity, 
when  contrasted  with  other  Calvinistic  churches,  is 
their  complete  rejection  of  ecclesiastical  organisa- 
tion. They  suppose  the  whole  Christian  body  in  the 
world  to  have  declined  from  truth  and  duty,  like 
Israel  of  old,  and  therefore  to  have  been  '  corpor- 
ately  rejected  of  God,'  and  believe  the  true  church 
to  consist  of  themselves  and  of  other  chosen  ones  in 
the  various  Christian  churches.  They  refuse  to 
recognise  any  form  of  church  government,  or  any 
office  of  the  ministry;  they  insist  much  on  the 
equal  right  of  every  male  member  of  the  church  to 

613 


PLYMOUTH  SOUND— PNEUMATIC  DISPATCH. 


'prophesy'  or  preach;  and  in  their  meetings,  after 
each  hymn  or  prayer,  there  is  usually  a  pause,  that 
any  one,  moved  by  the  Spirit,  may  undertake  this 
office.  They  exclude  persons  known  to  have  been 
guilty  of  gross  sins  from  participation  with  them 
in  the  Lord's  Supper,  until  proof  is  afforded  of 
repentance.  The  P.  B.  reject  every  distinctive 
appellation  but  that  of  Christians  ;  although  a 
special  denomination  is  found  necessary  to  designate 
thorn  ;  and,  in  fact,  no  one  not  holding  their  views 
could  remain  associated  with  them.  A  great  schism 
took  place  among  them  in  consequence  of  doctrines 
preached  at  Plymouth  and  Bristol  concerning  the 
Luman  nature  of  Christ ;  Mr  Darby  vigorously 
opposing  what  he  deemed  a  dangerous  error,  and  he 
and  his  adherents  utterly  separating  from  the 
fellowship  of  those  who  maintained  or  even  refused 
to  condemn  it.  One  of  the  most  noted  (if  not 
notable)  converts  to  the  principles  of  the  sect  was 
the  revivalist  Guinness,  who  was  baptised  in  1860 
by  another  Plymouth  brother,  Lord  Congleton. 

On  the  continent  of  Europe,  the  P.  B.  have  in 
many  places  given  great  trouble  to  the  Protestant 
churches,  by  their  opposition  to  all  ecclesiastical 
order  or  organisation.  See  Mrs  H.  Grattau 
Guhmess's  Answer  to  the  Question:  Who  are  the 
Plymouth  Brethren?  (Philadelphia,  1861). 

PLYMOUTH  SOUND,  &  well-known  road- 
stead  on  the  south-west  of  Devonshire,  import- 
ant as  a  naval  station,  has  considerable  claims 
to  the  distinction  of  being  called,  as  it  frequently 
has  been,  the  most  beautiful  estuary  on  the 
English  coast.  Its  position  at  the  entrance  of  the 
English  Channel  is  much  in  its  favour.  It  is  two 
and  a  half  miles  wide,  and  extends  inland  for  three 
miles.  It  penetrates  into  the  country  by  means  of 
the  harbours  of  Hamoaze  and  Catwater,  the  estuaries 
of  the  Tamar  and  Plym  respectively.  On  its  west 
side  is  Cawsand  Bay.  The  shores,  which  present 
mauy  beautiful  views,  rise  in  hills  of  from  100  to 
400  feet,  and  are  dotted  over  with  woods  and  with 
villages,  and  bound  by  coasts  which  are  generally 
rocky  and  abrupt.  Mount  Edgecombe  Park,  the 
beautiful  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Mount  Edgecombe,  occu- 
pies the  west  shore  of  the  sound.  At  the  mouth 
of  the  Tamar  is  the  small  island  of  St  Nicholas,  or 
Drake's  Island,  a  pyramidal  rock  strongly  fortified. 
The  Sound  is  open  to  the  south-west,  from  which 
direction  strong  winds  frequently  blow,  and  violent 
surges  are  thrown  in  from  the  Atlantic.  In  order 
to  protect  the  shipping  in  the  harbour,  a  massive 
stone  breakwater,  1700  yards  in  length,  was  con- 
structed at  a  cost  of  about  £1,500,000,  and  completed 
in  1841.  See  Breakwater.  On  a  sunken  rock  just 
inside  the  breakwater  and  at  its  centre,  a  strong 
stone  fort  has  been  erected ;  and  an  extensive  series 
of  stone  batteries  have  been  erected  at  Bovisand  and 
Picklecombe  on  the  mainland,  on  either  side  of  the 
entrance  to  the  harbour.  Fourteen  miles  south-south- 
west of   Plymouth  is  Eddystone  Light-house.      See 

ErDYSTONE. 

PNEUMA'TIC  DISPATCH.  This  name  is 
given  to  a  mode  of  sending  parcels  and  mail-bags 
through  a  tube  by  atmospheric  pressure,  or  by  a 
partial  vacuum.  Early  in  the  present  cen- 
v.iry,  Mr  Medhurst  conceived  the  idea  of  some 
such  contrivance.  He  published  two  pamphlets, 
one  under  the  name  of  A  New  Method  of 
Conveying  Letters  and  Goods  by  Air;  and  the 
other,  A  New  System  of  Inland  Conveyance  for 
Goods  and  Passengers.  He  proposed  to  construct 
air-tight  tunnels,  with  carnages  moving  through 
them  on  rails ;  and  these  carriages  were  to  be  pro- 
pelled by  compressed  air  from  behind,  or  else  by 
suction,  in  virtue  of  a  vacuum  formed  in  front  of 
614 


them.  He  also  planned,  as  an  alternative,  how 
there  might  be  a  parcels'  carriage  within  the 
tunnel  or  tube,  and  a  passenger  carriage  running 
along  the  top  of  the  tube :  the  two  being  con- 
nected by  an  upright  bar  passing  through  a  valved 
slit  in  the  tube.  Medhurst  was  laughed  at  by  his 
contemporaries  as  a  visionary ;  but  his  speculations 
were  called  to  mind  in  later  years,  and  led  to  the 
attempts  noticed  under  Atmospheric  Railway. 

In  1861,  was  announced  a  Pneumatic  Dispatch 
project,  based  on  a  reconsideration  of  the  causes  of 
failure  in  the  earlier  schemes.  The  conveyance  of 
passengers  and  of  bulky  goods  was  not  here  contem- 
plated ;  parcels  and  mail-bags  were  the  articles  held 
chiefly  in  view.  To  test  the  theory,  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  of  iron  tube  was  experimentally  laid  down  near 
Battersea,  with  a  fair  average  of  gradients  and 
curves  purposely  given  to  it.  The  tube  was  about 
30  inches  in  diameter,  and  it  was  found  easy  to 
propel  a  train  through  the  tube,  consisting  of  two 
iron  carriages  of  7  cwt.  each,  at  the  rate  of  30  miles 
an  hour. 

After  many  financial  discouragements,  a  Pneumatic 
Dispatch  Company  obtained  capital  in  1862,  and  be- 
gan operations  in  1863.  The  experimental  tube  was 
removed  to  London,  and  laid  down  beneath  the  road- 
way of  Seymour  Street,  Euston  Square,  from  the  Eus- 
ton  station  of  the  London  and  North-western  Railway 
to  the  N.  W.  district  post-office  in  Eversholt  Street — a 
distance  of  one-third  of  a  mile.  Mail-bags  being  suc- 
cessfully transmitted  in  this  way,  the  company  com- 
menced in  1864  the  construction  of  a  tube  on  a  larger 
scale,  and  this  has  since  been  completed.  The  tube  is 
laid  down  from  Euston  Square  to  St  Martin's-le- 
Grand,  by  way  of  Tottenham  Court  Road,  Holborn, 
and  Newgate  Street — a  distance  of  2f  miles.  The 
tube  is  of  large  size,  nearly  4^  feet  in  diameter,  laid 
down  at  as  small  a  depth  beneath  the  carriage-way  of 
the  several  streets  as  the  water  and  gas  pipes  will  per- 
mit. It  is  chiefly  of  cast-iron,  but  some  portions  on 
a  sharp  curve  are  of  brick ;  there  is  a  large  engine- 
house  on  the  south  side  of  Holborn,  near  Lincoln's  Inn 
Fields,  to  supply  all  the  power  for  working  the  whole 
tube  in  both  directions.  Rarefied  air  in  one  half  of 
the  tube  will  draw  a  train  of  iron  carriages,  laden  with 
parcels  and  mail-bags,  from  Euston  Station  to  Hol- 
born ;  and  compressed  air  will  drive  them  through  the 
other  length  of  tube  from  Holborn  to  the  General 
Post-office — there  being  suction  in  the  one  case,  and 
pressure  in  the  other.  A  reverse  action  will  bring 
trains  in  the  other  direction.  The  necessary 
amount  of  rarefaction  in  the  one  case  and  of  com- 
pression in  the  other  will  be  determined  by  experi- 
ment; but  both  will  be  produced  by  means  of  a 
revolving  fan  of  peculiar  construction  and  large  di- 
mensions, worked  by  a  powerful  steam-engine  at 
the  Holborn  Station.  The  sectional  area  of  the  tube 
being  very  much  greater  than  that  of  the  experi- 
mental tube  tried  in  Seymour  Street,  carriages  of 
much  greater  length,  width,  height,  and  strength  can 
be  accommodated,  and  more  of  them  in  one  train — 
provided  the  steam-power  be  sufficient.  If  the  plan 
succeeds,  other  tubes  will  be  laid  down  from  Holborn 
I  to  Charing  Cross,  and  in  other  directions,  to  connect 
the  General  Post-office  with  the  district  offices,  and 
with  the  chief  railway  termini.  With  regard  to 
'  parcels,  provisional  agreements  have  been  made 
'  with  Messrs  Pickford  and  other  carriers  for  extend- 
ing the  tube  to  certain  great  depots  in  the  city,  and 
for  carrying  railway  parcels  to  and  fro  between 
I  those  depots  and  the  railway  termini.  If  the 
1  anticipations  are  borne  out,  there  will  be  great 
saving  of  time  in  the  delivery  of  letters  and  parcels, 
land  a  material  lessening  of  the  number  of  parcels 
and  mail-vans  and  carts  in  the  over-crowded  streets 
of  the  metropolis.     The  work  will  be  silently  going 


PNEUMATIC  TROUGH— PNEUMATICS. 


on  underground,  in^it  -ul  of  visibly  and  noisily  occu- 
pying the  roadways. 

The  problem  of  paatenger  conveyance  within  a  pneu- 
matic tube  was  shewn  to  be  practicable  b\  Mr  Ram- 
ini'll,  in  an  experiment  tried  at  the  Crystal  Palace  in 
1864;  but  nothing  further  has  been  done  in  the  mat- 
ter. Mere  Buccess  baa  attended  the  Introduction  of  a 
system  for  transmitting  small  rolls  <>r  paper  through 
tubes  of  a  few  inches  diameter  by  pneumatic  pressure. 
Mr  Siemens  introduced  it  at  Berlin;  it  was  next  tried 
with  success  al  Paris;  Mr  Latimer  Clark  constructed 
similar  apparatus  in  London,  and  the  plan  is  in  regu- 
lar use  by  tlic  postal  authorities  in  the  telegraph  de- 
partment of  the  new  buildings  connected  with  the 
Genera]  Post-office  in  St  Martin's-le-Grand.  Small 
tubes  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter  are  arranged  for 
the  reception  of  telegram  forms  or  papers  made  np 
into  n  roll  and  put  into  a  felt  cylinder.  The  purpose 
is  to  economise  time  and  expense  in  conducting  the 
government  postal  telegraph  business  by  blowing  along 
the  telegram  forms  at  the  rate  of  30  miles  an  hour 
instead  of  sending  them  by  street  conveyance.  Two 
parallel  tubes  have  been  laid  down  beneath  the  pave- 
ments of  the  streets  from  the  General  Post-office  to 
Temple  Car,  to  Charing  Cross,  to  the  Stock  Exchange, 
and  to  other  parts  of  London.  One  tube  in  each  pair 
may  he  called  the  down  line,  the  other  the  up ;  the  two 
are  placed  in  connection  at  each  end,  and  one  steam- 
engine  works  them  both.  The  felt  cylinder  very  nearly 
fills  up  the  tube,  but  still  moves  easily  along  it ;  this 
movement  is  brought  about,  either  by  the  formation  of 
a  partial  vacuum  in  front  of  the  cylinder,  or  by  com- 
pressing the  air  behind  it;  and  the  steam-power  is  so 
applied  as  to  produce  either  or  both  of  these  results, 
according  as  convenience  may  suggest.  An  ingenious 
plan  is  adopted  for  accommodating  one  or  more  inter- 
mediate offices,  just  as  local  stations  are  accommodated 
between  the  two  termini  of  a  railway.  The  cylinder 
or  carrier  travels  from  end  to  end  of  the  tube,  unless 
a  block  or  check  action  is  purposely  put  in  force  at  an 
intermediate  station;  and  the  mode  of  effecting  this  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  Mr  Siemens'  inventions 
relating  to  the  subject.  Two  pieces  of  pipe,  the  re- 
ceiver and  the  transmitter,  are  made  exactly  alike, 
and  are  so  pivoted  together  that  either  may  be  adjusted 
into  a  cavity  cut  in  the  tube,  and  made  temporarily  to 
form  part  of  it.  The  carrier,  we  will  suppose,  is  in- 
tended to  stop  at  the  intermediate  stations  to  admit  of 
the  removal  of  some  telegram  papers  and  the  intro- 
duction of  others.  A  click  is  heard,  the  carrier  strikes 
against  an  obstruction  in  the  receiver;  the  cavity  is 
opened;  the  exchange  of  papers  is  made;  the  carrier 
is  re-introduced,  but  into  the  transmitter  instead  of  the 
receiver ;  the  cavity  is  closed  again ;  and  the  carrier 
resumes  its  journey.  All  this  is  the  work  of  a  few 
seconds  merely.  If  the  intermediate  station  has  noth- 
ing to  send  and  nothing  to  receive,  the  transmitter 
alone  is  used,  and  the  carrier  travels  on  without  stop- 
ping. The  up-tube  and  the  down-tube  have  each  its 
apparatus  of  receiver  and  transmitter.  The  felt  cylin- 
der and  its  contents  being  very  light,  a  slight  rarefac- 
tion of  the  air  in  front  of  it,  or  condensation  of  the 
air  behind  it,  is  sufficient  to  produce  a  speed  equal  to 
20  or  30  miles  an  hour.  Practically,  there  is  a  current 
of  air  maintained  circulating  through  the  two  tubes  and 
their  terminal  connections ;  wherever  a  carrier  is  placed 
in  this  current,  it  is  blown  along;  and  there  may  be  two 
or  more  carriers  travelling  at  the  same  time. 

PNEUMATIC  TROUGH,  is  a  piece  of  che- 
mical apparatus  originally  devised  by  Priestley, 
and  now  in  daily  requisition  in  every  laboratory. 
By  its  means,  gases  can  be  collected  in  vessels  for 
experiments  or  examination,  and.  can  be  decanted 
from  oue  jar  to  another  with  as  much  ease  as  if  we 
were  dealing  with  liquids.  The  pneumatic  trough 
consists  of  a  vessel  of  water,  prov  ided  with  a  ledge 


or  shelf  at  the  depth  of  two  or  three  inches  from 
the  top.   The  jara  in  which  the  gaa  ia  to  be  collected 

arc  tilled  with  water,  and  placed  with  their  mouths 

downward  upon  tin:  shell,  which  is  kept  a  little 
under  water,  so  aa  to  prevent  the  entrance  < .f  air 
into  the  jars.  When  the  edge  of  the  jar  is  brought 
over  the  extremity  of  the  tube  carrying  the  gaa,  the 
bubbles  of  gas  rise  through  the  water,  collect  in  the 

upper  part  of  the  jar,  and  displace  the  liquid.    As 

s i  as  a  jar  is  tilled,  it  may  be   removed  by  sliding 

under  its  open  mouth,  while  still  under  water,  a 
plate  or  tray  containing  enough  of  water  to  cover 
;e  of  the  jar  ;  and  oxygen  and  many  other 
gases  may  be  thus  preserved  for  hours.  Another 
jar  full  of  water  is  substituted  for  the  removed  jar. 
The  trough  is  best  constructed  of  japanned  copper, 
and  may  be  made  of  any  size  corresponding  to  that 
of  the  jars ;  and  in  the  shelf  a  groovo  should  be 
made  about  half  an  inch  in  width,  and  the  same  in 
depth,  to  admit  the  extremity  of  the  gas-delivering 
tube  beneath  the  jar. 

PNEUMATICS  (Gr.  pneuma,  spirit  or  breath, 
air)  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  mechanical 
properties  of  aeriform  fluids,  such  as  their  weight, 
pressure,  elasticity,  motion,  &c.  The  great  repre- 
sentative of  the  aeriform  fluids  is  the  atmosphere. 
The  atmosphere  is  very  frequently  called  '  air,'  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  others,  which  are  known 
as  'gases.'  The  fact  of  air  having  weight,  and 
generally  exercising  pressure  and  resistance,  was 
unsuspected  by  most  of  the  ancients,  though  they 
were  aware  of  the  latter  property  in  particular  cases, 
from  seeing  and  feeling  the  effects  of  the  v?  ml  ;  but 
the  idea  that  air  in  a  state  of  rest  exert,'  pressure 
ou  a  body  immersed  in  it,  never  seems  to  have 
occurred  to  them.  Aristotle,  however,  asserted 
that  air  had  weight,  and  so  did  several  sif>sequent 
philosophers ;  but  the  truth  of  this  opinion  was  not 
established  till  the  time  of  Torricelli  (q.  \),  who 
not  only  shewed  that  it  had  weight  and.  exerted 
pressure,  but  also  found  the  amount  of  this  weight 
or  pressure.  See  Atmosphere.  Pascal  (q.  v.)  com- 
pleted the  investigation,  and  invented  the  Barometer 
(q.  v.).  The  experiments  of  these  philos-  >phera 
proved  that  what  is  called  'suction'  is  ik thing 
more  than  an  effect  of  the  pressure  of  the  air  on 
one  side  of  a  body,  unbalanced  by  an  equal  pressure 
of  air  on  the  opposite  side  of  it.  To  this  pro- 
perty of  air  we  owe  the  working  of  the  va  ious 
kinds  of  Pumps  (q.  v.),  the  Barometer  (q.  v.), 
the  siphon,  cupping-glass,  &c.  But  the  rreat 
distinguishing  feature  of  aeriform  bodies  ia  the 
repulsive  force  which  their  molecules  exercise  over 
each  other,  and  the  consequent  expansion  of  these 
bodies  when  pressure  is  removed,  or  compression, 
when  pressure  is  increased.  The  investigation 
of  the  expansibility  and  compressibility  of  ?ir 
was  carried  on  by  means  of  the  Air-pump  (q.  v.), 
an  invention  of  Guericke  (q.  v.),  and  soon  resulted 
in  the  discovery  of  a  law  by  Boyle  (about  1G50), 
and  Mariotte  (1676),  called  Mariotte's  Law  (q.  v.), 
which  affirms,  that  '  at  a  given  temperature  the 
volume  of  a  gas  is  inversely  as  the  pressure/ 
See  Gases.  The  second  great  law  of  tent  ion  and 
pressure  is  that  of  Daltou  and  Gay-Lussa :  (1801), 
which  states,  that  'when  the  tension  remains 
the  same,  the  density  of  a  gas  varies  inversely  as 
the  temperature'— that  is  to  say,  when  the  tempe- 
rature is  increased  by  equal  increments,  the  bulk  is 
increased  by  equal  increments.  The  motion  of  gases 
is  subject  to  the  same  laws  with  that  of  liquids,  the 
laws  which  regulate  the  motion  of  liquids  depending 
for  their  efficacy  not  on  the  liquidity,  but  on  the 
fluidity  (see  Fluid)  of  these  bodies.  The  flow  of 
gases  in  tubes  seems  to  be  retarded  by  friction 
against  the  sides,  in  the  same  way  as  that  ofwatci 


PNEUMOGASTRIC  NERVE— PNEUMONIA. 


is,  and  the  diminished  efflux  at  an  orifice  shews 
that  the  vena  contract  a  exists  for  gases  as  well  as 
(or  liquids.  Abundance  of  examples  and  further 
explanations  of  the  properties  of  air  will  be  found 
under  such  heads  as  Atmosphere,  Balloon,  Baro- 
meter. Diving-bell,  Magdeburg  Hemispheres,  &c. 

PNEUMOGA'STRIC  NERVE,  or  Par  Vagum, 
derives  the  first  of  its  names  from  its  supplying 
the  lungs  and  stomach  with  nervous  filaments, 
and  the  second  from  the  wandering  course  which  it 
pursues.  It  emerges  from  the  medulla  oblongata  by 
eight  or  ten  filaments,  which  unite  and  form  a  flat 
cord,  that  escapes  from  the  cavity  of  the  cranium 
(in  association  with  the  glossopharyngeal  and  spinal 
accessory  nerve)  by  the  jugular  foramen.  In  this 
foramen,  it  forms  a  well-marked  ganglionic  swelling, 
while  another  is  observed  immediately  after  its  exit 
from  the  skull.  The  nerve  runs  straight  down  the 
neck  between  and  in  the  same  sheath  as  the  internal 
jugular  vein  and  the  carotid  artery.  Below  the 
root  of  the  neck,  its  course  is  different  on  the  two 
sides  ;  the  right  nerve  running  along  the  back  of  the 
cesophagus,  is  distributed  to  the  posterior  surface  of 
the  stomach,  and  finally  merges  into  the  solar 
plexus;  while  the  left  nerve  runs  along  the  front  of 
the  cesophagus  to  the  stomach,  sending  branches 
chief! y  over  its  anterior  surface. 

Prom  anatomical  considerations,  based  on  the 
distribution  of  this  nerve,  and  from  the  results 
of  experiments  on  animals,  it  may  be  concluded 
that  this  is  a  mixed  nerve,  containing  filaments 
both  of  sensation  and  motion.  The  pulmonary 
branches  exercise  a  most  important  influence  upon 
the  respiratory  acts,  for  when  the  pnenmogastrics 
on  both  sides  have  been  divided  above  the  giving  off 
of  the  pulmonary  branches,  the  most  severe  dyspnoea 
comes  on,  the  number  of  respirations  is  much 
diminished,  and  the  animal  breathes  as  if  it  were 
asthmatic;  after  a  short  time,  the  lungs  become 
congested  and  dropsical,  and  the  bronchial  tubes 
filled  with  a  frothy  serous  fluid ;  and  if  the  cut  ends 
of  the  nerves  are  kept  apart,  the  animal  never 
survives  above  three  days.  The  gastric  branches 
influence  the  movements  of  the  stomach,  while  their 
destruction  does  not  materially  affect  the  secretion 
of  the  gastric  juice  or  the  process  of  chylification. 
Loss  of  voice  and  difficulty  of  breathing  have  been 
frequently  traced  to  the  pressure  of  an  aneurism  or 
other  tumour  on  the  recurrent  or  inferior  laryngeal. 
Hooping-cough  is  ascribed  by  many  high  authorities 
to  an  affection  of  the  pneumogastric  nerve ;  and 
the  violent  spasmodic  cough  which  accompanies 
enlarged  bronchial  glands,  is  probably  due  to  the 
irritation  of  its  pulmonary  branches.  The  sympathy 
which  exists  between  the  digestive  and  the  respira- 
tory and  circidating  organs,  is  explained  by  the 
anatomical  relations  of  this  nerve.  For  example, 
both  asthma  and  palpitation  of  the  heart  are  often 
to  be  traced  to  some  deranged  state  of  digestion. 
Vomiting  may  be  excited  by  irritation  ot  the 
central  or  the  distal  extremities  of  the  nerve.  In 
disease  of  the  brain,  the  vomiting,  which  is  often 
an  early  symptom,  is  caused  by  irritation  of  the 
central  extremity ;  and  in  sea-sickness,  it  is  that 
extremity  also  which  is  irritated  by  the  disturbed 
etate  of  the  circulation  in  the  cranium ;  while  by 
introducing  emetic  substances  into  the  stomach, 
the  vomiting  is  produced  by  the  irritation  of  the 
peripheral  (or  distal)  filaments. 

PNEUMO'NIA,  or  Inflammation  of  the  Sub- 
stance of  the  Lungs,  is  a  disease  which  is  divided 
by  pathologists  into  three  distinct  stages,  corres- 
ponding to  different  degrees  or  periods  of  inflamma- 
tory action.  The  first  stage  is  that  of  engorgement, 
la  which  the  lung  or  a  portion  of  it  is  gorged 

C16 


with  blood,  is  of  a  darker  colour  externally,  and 
crepitates    (or  crackles)    less   under   pressure  than 
healthy  lung   does  ;    the   air  that   ought   to    exist 
in  the  pulmonary  cells   being  in  a  great  measure 
replaced  by  fluid.    On  cutting  the  engorged  portion, 
the  section  is  seen  to  be  redder  than  natural,  and 
to  yield   a  great  quantity  of  reddish  and  frothy 
serum.     The  most  engorged  portions  will  generally 
float  in   water,   although    they   are    heavier   than 
healthy  lung.     If  the  inflammation  continues,  new 
characters   appear.      The   affected   portion   of    the 
lung  ceases  to  crepitate  under  pressure,  and  sinks 
when  placed  in  water,  in  consequence  of  its  now 
containing  no  air.      The  spongy  character  of  the 
lung  is  gone.     It  is  now  solid,  and  the  cut  surface 
so  closely  resembles  that  of   liver,  that  the  term 
hepatization,  first  suggested  by  Laennec,  is  gener- 
ally applied  to  this  stage.     On  examining  with  the 
microscope  a  torn  fragment  of  the  hepatised  lung, 
it  will  be  seen  to  be  composed  of  small  red  granu- 
lations   pressing    upon    one    another,     which    are 
doubtless  the  air-cells  clogged   up,  thickened,  and 
made  red  by  the  inflammation.     In  the  third  and 
most  advanced  stage,  the  pulmonary  tissue  remains, 
as  in  the  last  stage,  dense,  solid,  and  iinj>ervious  to 
air;  but  its  section,  in  place  of  being  red,  is  now 
of  a  reddish-yellow,  or  straw,   or  drab,  or  stone 
colour,  or  is  of  a  grayish  tint ;  and  the  little  granu- 
lations which  were  red  in  the  second  stage,  are  now 
whitish  or  gray,  from  the  presence  of  pus  or  matter, 
which   permeates   through   the   pulmonary    tissue, 
rendering  it  very  soft  and  friable.     To  this  stage, 
which   is   in   reality   one   of    diffused  suppuration, 
Laennec    applied  the  terms  gray   hepatization,   or 
purulent  infiltration.      Besides  revealing  to  us  the 
above  information  regarding  the  changes  which  the 
pulmonary  textures  undergo  in  the  three  stages  of 
this    disease,    morbid    anatomy    teaches    us    that 
inflammation  does  not  attack  all  parts  of  the  lung 
on  both  sides  indiscriminately.     It  is  much  more 
common  on  the  right  side  of  the  body  than  the 
left.     Of  210  cases  collected  by  Andral,  121  were 
on  the  right  lung  alone,  and  5S  on  the  left  side 
alone ;  while  in  25  it  was  double  (i.  e.,  occurred  in 
both  lungs),  and  in  six  the  seat  was  uncertain;  so 
that  pneumonia  is  more  than  twice  as  common  on 
the  right  side  as  on  the  left,  and  only  occurs  on 
both  sides  together  as  often  as  once  in  eight  times. 
According     to     Grisolle,    however,    whose    Traiti 
Pratique  de  la  Pneumonic  is  the  standard  work  on 
this  disease,  the  relative  frequency  with  which  the 
right  lung  is  affected  is  rather  less  than  two  to  one 
(11  :  6).    Moreover,  pneumonia  is  considerably  more 
common  in  the  lower  than  in  the  upper  lobes  of 
the  lung — a  point  of  great  importance  in  diagnosis. 
Of  88  cases  observed  by  Andral,  the  inflammation 
was  found  to  affect  the  lower  lobe  47  times;  the 
upper  lobe,  30;    and  the  whole  lung  at  once,  11. 
Inflammation  of  the  bronchial  tubes  so  constantly 
accompanies  inflammation  of  the  tissues  of  the  lung, 
that    although    bronchitis     often     exists    without 
pneumonia,  pneumonia  never  occurs  without  bron- 
chitis.    Moreover,  a  certain  amount  of  pleurisy  or 
inflammation  of  the   investing   membrane,  accom- 
panies pneumonia  in  a  very  large  majority  of  cases. 

The  alterations  which  take  place  in  the  tissue  of 
the  lung  give  rise  to  important  modifications  of  the 
ordinary  sounds  yielded  by  auscultation  and  percus- 
sion ;  the  discrimination  of  which,  however,  beloDg 
to  the  physician. 

The  following  are  the  general  symptoms,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  physical  signs,  of  pneumonia. 
The  disease  generally  commences  with  inflamma- 
tory fever  ;  and  pain  in  the  side,  due  to  pleurisy  in 
most  cases,  soon  supervenes.  The  breathing  ia 
always  more  or  less  affected,  especially  when  tb#» 


PO -POACHING. 


upper  lobe  ia  inflamed.      According  to  Professor 
Gairdner,  the  dyspnoea  of  pure  pneumonia  is  a  mere 
ation  of  the  respiration,  without  any  of  the 
heaving  <>r  straining  respiration  obsenred  in  bron- 
chitis, or  in  cases  where  the  two  diseases  are  com- 
bined.    Delirium  is  a  very  frequent,  and  always  a 
daugerous  symptom,  indicating  that  the  due  arteri- 
alisation  of  the  blood  is  much  interfered  with,  and 
that  the   impure   circulating   fluid   is  affecting  the 
brain.     The  cough  is  usually  dry  at  first,  but  in  a 
few  hours  it  is  accompanied  by  the  expectoration 
of  sputa  of  so  characteristic  a  nature  as  to  afford 
almost   certain    evidence   of    the   presence    of   the 
disease.    On  the  second  or  third  day,  the  expector- 
ation, which  previously  consisted  merely  of  a  little 
bronchial  mucus,  consists  of  transparent  and  tawny, 
or  rust-coloured  sputa,  which  unite  in  the  vessel  con- 
taining them  into  one  gelatinous  mass.     The  colour 
is  owing  to  the  complete  blending  of  the  blood  and 
mucus,  and  in  proportion   to   the   quantity  of  the 
former,  the  sputa  is  more  or  less  deeply  tinned.     So  , 
long  as  the  expectorated  matter  Mows  readily  along 
the  side  of  the  vessel   when  it  is  tilted,  there  is  ' 
reason    to    believe,  unless    physical    signs   tell   us  ] 
otherwise,  that   the   inflammation    is    still    in   the 
first   stage ;    but    when   the  sputa    are    so  viscid 
that    the    vessel    may  be   inverted    and    strongly ; 
shaken    without    their    being    detached,    there    is 
reason  to   fear  that   the    pneumonia  has   reached  t 
the    second    stage.       If    improvement    now    com- 
mences, the  sputa  become  less  tenacious,  less  rust-  | 
coloured,   and  gradually  like  the  expectoration  of 
common  catarrh.     But  if  the  disease  advances,  the  ! 
rust-coloured  sputa,  although  in  less  quantity,  may 
go  on  to  the  end  ;  or  there  may  be  no  expectoration, 
either  on  account  of  its  own  tenacity,  or  of  the 
patient's  want  of  power  to  eject  it,  in  which  case 
the  air-passages  get  gradually  tilled,  and  death  from 
suffocation  occurs ;  or  there  may  be  the  expecto- 
ration of  a  fluid  of  the  consistence  of  gum- water,  and 
of  a  brownish-red  colour  (resembling  prune-juice), 
which,  according  to  Andral,  affords  strong  evidence 
that  the  disease  is  in  its  third  stage ;    or,  lastly, 
pure  pus  may  be  excreted  during  the  third  stage. 

In  its  first  and  second  stages,  this  disease  is  toler- 
ably amenable  to  treatment.  Whether,  when  the 
lung  has  reached  the  third  stage,  it  is  still  suscep- 
tible of  repair,  we  cannot  tell,  because  we  have  no 
certain  sign  of  the  commencement  or  establishment 
of  this  third  stage  during  life,  although  we  may 
guess  that  it  is  established,  if  the  face  has  become 
very  pale  and  corpse-like ;  if  there  is  the  prune- 
juice  or  purulent  expectoration  ;  and  if  the  disease 
has  lasted  for  a  sufficient  time  to  have  advanced 
so  far,  although  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  state, 
with  any  approach  to  accuracy,  what  the  necessary 
time  is.  The  average  duration  of  pneumonia  may 
be  placed  at  ten  days  or  a  fortnight. 

Of  the  causes  of  this  disease,  very  little  need 
be  said.  Sometimes  no  cause  can  be  traced.  Very 
often  it  is  the  consequence  of  exposure  to  cold, 
especially  when  the  body  was  previously  heated 
by  exercise  ;  but  why  such  exposure  should  in  one 
person  cause  pneumonia,  in  a  second,  pleurisy,  in 
a  third,  pericarditis,  and  in  a  fourth,  peritonitis, 
we  cannot  tell. 

The  following  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  treatment 
to  be  adopted,  provided  the  patient  was  previously 
strong  and  healthy.  In  the  first  stage,  free  vene- 
section, tartarised  antimony  (one-third  of  a  grain 
to  half  a  wine-glassful  of  water  every  hour,  and  the 
dose  to  be  increased  to  a  grain  or  more  hourly,  if 
there  is  no  purging  or  vomiting,  which  may  often 
be  prevented  by  the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of 
laudanum  to  each  dose),  and  antiphlogistic  regimen, 
generally  are  of  service.    Under  this  system  there 


are  often  signs  of  improvement  in  five  or  six  hours, 
although  sometimes  there  is  no  change  for  the 
better  till  twenty-four  hours  or  more  lrive  elapsed. 
When  the  disease  has  reached  the  second  ata_'>-,  in 
preference  to  continuing  the  antimony,  we  should 
as  speedily  as  possible  •_      I  under 

the  influence  of  mercury,  in  the  mode  recommended 
in  the  articles  Pekicakdhis  and  PsRJTOXTEBL  If 
there  is  great  depression  of  the  vital  powers,  as  indi- 
cated by  a  feeble  and  irregular  pulse,  and  the  other 
ordinary  signs  of  sinking,  it  will  be  requisite  t<r 
administer  stimulants,  such  as  wine  and  carbonate 
of  ammonia,  and  to  feed  the  patient  on  beef-tea. 

There  are  few  diseases  in  which  it  is  of  greater 
importance  to  watch  the  patient  during  convales- 
cence than  in  pneumonia.  The  convalescence  is 
often  rather  apparent  than  real,  and  as  Dr  Wateoa 
truly  observes  :  *  A  patient  can  never  be  pronounced 
perfectly  secure  so  long  as  any  trace  of  crepitation 
remains  in  the  affected  lung,  and  this  may  often 
continue  long ;  nay,  it  not  unfrequently  ceases 
only  on  the  supervention  of  another  more  surely 
fatal  though  less  rapid  disorder — viz.,  tubercular 
consumption.' 

PO  (anc.  Eridanvs  and  Padus),  the  largest  river 
of  Italy,  rises  in  two  springs  on  the  north  and  south 
sides  of  Monte  Viso,  one  of  the  Cottian  Alps,  close 
to  the  French  frontier,  and  in  lat.  about  44  ^  40'  N. 
It  flows  eastward  for  upwards  of  20  miles,  when, 
arriving  before  Saluzzo,  it  emerges  from  its  rocky 
defiles,  and  enters  upon  the  plain.  Prom  Saluzzo, 
it  flows  north-north-east  past  Turin  ;  and  arriving 
at  the  town  of  Chivasso,  it  changes  its  course 
toward  the  east,  in  which  direction  it  flows  to  its 
embouchure  in  the  Adriatic.  Upwards  of  50  miles 
above  its  mouth,  it  begins  to  form  its  delta,  the 
principal  branches  being  the  Po  delta  Maestra,  on 
the  north,  and  the  Po  di  Primaro,  on  the  south. 
The    unhealthy  marsh   of    the    Vtuli  di  ehio 

extends  immediately  north  of  the  Primaro  brunch. 
The  Po  receives  from  the  left,  the  Dora  Ripaira, 
Dora  Baltea,  Sesia,  Ticino.  Adda,  Oglio,  and  Mincio; 
from  the  right,  the  Tanaro,  Formida,  Trebbin,  Taro, 
Parma,  Enza,  Secchia,  and  Panaro.  At  Turin,  the 
Po  is  about  700  feet  broad  ;  at  Pa  via,  1000  feet ;  at 
Cremona,  1000  feet  ;  and  below  Polesella,  after 
throwiug  off  the  Po  di  Primaro  branch  to  the  south, 
its  breadth  is  about  S00  feet.  It  has  an  entire 
length  of  450  miles,  is  navigable  for  small  barges 
60  mUes  from  its  source,  and  drains  an  area  of 
nearly  40,000  square  miles. 

POA.    See  Meadow  Grass. 

POACHING,  though  not  strictly  a  legal  term, 
has  so  long  been  appropriated  in  popular  parlance 
to  describe  a  well-known  legal  otience,  that  it  is 
now  usually  adopted  in  legal  works.  It  means  the 
unlawfully  trespassing  on  another's  lauds  for  the